The Politics of Protest - Edl · The Politics of Protest 1960–1980. ... Societies change over...

802 CHAPTER 12 Becoming a World Power802

The Politics of Protest

1960–1980

. The Big Ideas ,SECTION 1: The Student Movement and the Counterculture

Societies change over time. During the 1960s, many of the country’s young people raised their voices in protest against numerous aspects of American society.

SECTION 2: The Feminist MovementSocial and economic crises lead to new roles for government. During the 1960s and 1970s,

a large number of American women organized to push for greater rights and opportunities in society.

SECTION 3: New Approaches to Civil RightsThe quest for equality is eternal. Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, minority groups developed new

ways to improve their status in the United States.

SECTION 4: Saving the EarthSocieties change over time. During the 1960s and 1970s, environmental issues became a significant

concern for many Americans.

The American Vision: Modern Times Video The Chapter 18 video, “Behind the Scenes with César,” profiles the role that César Chávez played in the United FarmWorkers organization.

1963• Betty Friedan’s The

Feminine Mystiquepublished

1962• China and Soviet Union

have diplomaticdisagreements

1964• China becomes

world’s fifthnuclear power

1966• Indira Gandhi

becomes primeminister of India

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▼

▲

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1970• First Earth Day

observed

1968• Soviet Union halts

democratic uprisingin Czechoslovakia

1962• Rachel Carson’s Silent

Spring published

1960 1965 1970

Eisenhower1953–1961

▲ ▲L. Johnson

1963–1969Nixon

1969–1974

1966• National Organization for

Women (NOW) organized

▲Kennedy

1961–1963

1969• Woodstock

music festivalheld in NewYork

(l to r)White House Historical Association, Art Resource, White House Historical Association, Collection of Bettye Lane/Picture Research Consultants, White House Historical Association, Ken Regan,Camera 5 Arthur Schatz/TimePix/Getty Images

803

Labor leader César Chávez meeting with farmworkers

HISTORY

Chapter OverviewVisit the American Vision:Modern Times Web site at

andclick on Chapter Overviews—Chapter 18 to preview chapterinformation.

tav.mt.glencoe.com1972• Britain imposes

direct rule onNorthern Ireland

1975• End of the Portuguese

empires in Africa

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▼ ▼ ▼

1972• Use of pesticide DDT banned

1973• Supreme Court issues

Roe v. Wade ruling

• AIM and government clash atWounded Knee, South Dakota

1979• Nuclear accident at

Three Mile Island

1979• Ayatollah Khomeini leads

Islamic overthrow of Iran

1975 1980

Ford1974–1977

Carter1977–1981

(t)AP/Wide World Photos, (b)White House Historical Association

http://tav.mt.glencoe.com

804 CHAPTER 18 The Politics of Protest

Effective readers evaluate information as they read. They drawconclusions and form opinions about events, ideas, and people in

history. For example, at times readers may disagree with the decisionmade by a historical figure or approve of the actions of a group of people.It is important for you to form opinions about what you read. It is alsoimportant that you are able to support your opinions. This will help youunderstand the text better.

As you read, imagine what might make a person or group of peoplebehave in a particular way. Ask yourself questions about their motives, as well as whether you need more information. Notice when you reactstrongly to something you read, whether it is positive or negative. Why do you feel that way?

Read the following passage about a girl joining herschool’s swim team in 1971 and write a sentence ortwo about your reaction to the reading.

In 1971, [Kathy] Striebel, a high school junior in St. Paul, Minnesota, wanted to compete for herschool’s swim team, but the school did not allowgirls to join. Kathy’s mother, Charlotte, . . . filed agrievance with the city’s human rights department,and officials required the school to allow Kathy to swim.

Shortly after joining the team, Kathy beat outone of the boys and earned a spot at a meet. As she stood on the block waiting to swim, theopposing coach declared that she was ineligible tocompete because the meet was outside St. Paul. . . .“They pulled that little girl right off the block,”Charlotte Striebel recalled angrily. (page 817)

How did you react to this story? What do you believe is the author’sopinion, and why do you think so? Do you think your evaluation of the pas-sage influenced the way you feel about what the passage says?

While you read the text under “Fighting for Greater Opportunity” on pages825–827 of your textbook, write down your opinions on the issues you learnabout. Make sure you include reasons for your opinions.


Evaluating

EVALUATINGConsider your own backgroundknowledge and experienceswhen evaluating—what do youalready know about this topic?

CHAPTER 18 The Politics of Protest 805805

Historical Interpretation You should recognize that there can be causal and other connections between particular historical events and larger social, economic, and politicaltrends and developments.

Historical Connections

When two events are related and connected in time, we often think that oneevent caused the other. Of course there can be other relationships between

events. Have you ever flipped a light switch and had all of the power in yourhouse shut off? If you tripped a breaker and caused the power to shut off, youraction caused the power outage. You would call the relationship between thesetwo events causal. Perhaps, though, a power line worker stopped the flow ofpower in your neighborhood to repair a transformer just as you turned the switch.In this case, it was a coincidence that the events occurred at the same time. Such a relationship is considered a correlation, and the events are called correlational.

Read the following passages about protest movements.

College life empowered young people with a newfound sense of freedom and inde-pendence. It also allowed them to meet and bond with others who shared their feelingsabout society and fears about the future. It was on college campuses across the nationwhere the protest movements would rage the loudest. (page 808)

Women had also gained a better understanding of their inequalities in society fromtheir experiences in the civil rights and antiwar movements. Often they were restricted tomenial tasks and rarely had a say in any policy decisions. From the broader perspective,the women’s movement was part of the 1960s quest for rights. (page 815)

Based on these passages, do you think the protests during the Vietnam War caused the women’s movement? Did they only share a correlation because theyoccurred at the same time? Did these protests show a historical trend towardsgreater civic involvement by ordinary people?

As you read through the chapter, identify the protest movements that developed andthe shape they took. Then try to determinewhether the movements were correlationalor causal. If causal, state which movementscaused other movements to develop.

Analysis Skill Standard HI1

Guide to Reading

ConnectionIn the previous chapter, you learnedabout the Vietnam War. In this section,you will learn how the student move-ment and the counterculture developedand influenced American society.

• The youth protest movement of the1960s included Students for aDemocratic Society (SDS) and the FreeSpeech Movement. (p. 807)

• During the 1960s some young peoplerebelled against the values of the oldergeneration. (p. 809)

• Mainstream culture gradually acceptedsome of the ideas and styles of theyouth movement. (p. 811)

Content Vocabularycounterculture, commune

Academic Vocabularyvalidate, rational, derive

People and Terms to IdentifyPort Huron Statement, Tom Hayden,Haight-Ashbury district, Jimi Hendrix

Reading Objectives• Explain the origins of the nation’s

youth movement.

• Define the goals of serious members of the counterculture.

Reading StrategyTaking Notes As you read about thestudent movement and culture of the1960s, use the major headings of thesection to create an outline similar to the one below.

Preview of Events

The Student Movementand the Counterculture

The Student Movement and the CountercultureI. The Growth of the Youth Movement

A.B.C.

II.A.B.

1962Students for a Democratic Societydeliver Port Huron Statement

✦1970✦1961 ✦1967

1964Free Speech Movement begins; the Beatles embark on their first U.S. tour

August, 1969400,000 young people gatherat Woodstock music festival

✦1964

. The Big Idea ,Societies change over time. During the 1960s, many young people grew con-cerned about the nation’s future and became active in social causes. More youngpeople enrolled in colleges, and on college campuses several groups formed thataimed at bringing attention to what they saw as political and social injustices. Thecounterculture movement attempted to break away from traditional society. Somepeople embraced new spiritual movements and religions. While the counterculturemovement did not last long, it did have a lasting impact on society. Mainstream soci-ety gradually accepted some aspects of the counterculture, such as its fashion, art,music, and dance.

The following are the mainHistory–Social Science Standardscovered in this section.

11.3 Students analyze the role religion played in the founding ofAmerica, its lasting moral, social andpolitical impacts, and issues regardingreligious liberty.

11.3.4 Discuss the expanding religiouspluralism in the United States andCalifornia that resulted from large-scaleimmigration in the twentieth century.

11.9.4 List the effects of foreign policy on domestic policies and vice versa (e.g.,protests during the war in Vietnam, the“nuclear freeze” movement).


The Growth of the Youth Movement

The youth protest movement of the 1960sincluded Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) andthe Free Speech Movement.

Reading Connection Do you belong to or know of anygroups that work to improve society? Read on to learn how theyouth of the 1960s protested the social injustices of their time.

The 1960s was one of the most tumultuous andchaotic decades in United States history. The decadealso gave birth to a conspicuous youth movement,which challenged the American political and socialsystem and conventional middle-class values.Perhaps no other time in the nation’s history wit-nessed such protest.

On December 2, 1964, Mario Savio, a 20-year-oldphilosophy student at the University of California atBerkeley, stood before a supportive crowd at theschool’s administration building. The massive “sit in”demonstration was the climax of a month long battlebetween school officials and students over unpopularcampus policies. Facing the crowd, Savio urged themto continue pressuring school officials. In his speechhe called the university a cold and heartless“machine” that deserved to be shut down.

“There’s a time when the operation of the machinebecomes so odious, makes you so sick at heart, thatyou . . . can’t even tacitly take part,” he declared. “Andyou’ve got to put your bodies upon the gears andupon the wheels . . . you’ve got to make it stop. Andyou’ve got to indicate to the people who run it, to thepeople who own it, that unless you’re free themachine will be prevented from working at all.”

—quoted in Decade of Shocks

The 1960s was a decade of protests and move-ments to change society. It was the 1950s, however,that gave rise to this time of change.

The Roots of the Movement The roots of the1960s youth movement stretched back to the 1950s. Inthe decade after World War II, the nation’s economyboomed, and much of the country enjoyed a time of


Mario Savio

➤

peace and prosperity. Prosperity did not extend to all,however, and some, especially the artists and writersof the “beat” movement, had openly criticizedAmerican society. They believed it valued conformityover independence and financial gain over spiritualand social advancement. Meanwhile, such events asthe growing nuclear arms race between the UnitedStates and the Soviet Union made many more of thenation’s youth uneasy about their future. Writer ToddGitlin, who was a senior at the Bronx High School ofScience in 1959, recalls the warning that the editors ofhis student yearbook delivered.

“In today’s atomic age . . . the flames of war wouldwrite finis not only to our civilization, but to our veryexistence. Mankind may find itself unable to riseagain should it be consumed in a nuclear pyre of itsown making. In the years to come, members of thisclass will bear an ever-increasing responsibility forthe preservation of the heritage given us.”

—from The Sixties

Concern about the future led many young peopleto become more active in social causes, from the civilrights movement to President Kennedy’s PeaceCorps. The emergence of the youth movement grewout of the huge numbers of people of the postwar“baby boom” generation. By 1970, 58.4 percent of theAmerican population was 34 years old or younger.(By comparison, those 34 or younger in 2000 repre-sented an estimated 48.9 percent.)

AP/Wide World Photos

The early 1960s saw another phenomenon thatfueled the youth movement—the rapid increase inenrollment at colleges throughout the nation. Theeconomic boom of the 1950s led to a boom in highereducation, since more families could afford to sendtheir children to college. Between 1960 and 1966,enrollment in 4-year institutions rose from 3.1 millionto almost 5 million students. College life empoweredyoung people with a newfound sense of freedom andindependence. It also allowed them to meet andbond with others who shared their feelings aboutsociety and fears about the future. It was on collegecampuses across the nation where the protest move-ments would rage the loudest.

Students for a Democratic Society Someyouths were concerned most about the injustices theysaw in the country’s political and social system. Intheir view, a few wealthy elites controlled politics,and wealth itself was unfairly divided. These youngpeople formed what came to be known as the NewLeft. (The “new” left differed from the “old” left ofthe 1930s, which had advocated socialism and com-munism.) A prominent organization of this groupwas the Students for a Democratic Society (SDS). Itdefined its views in a 1962 declaration known as the

Port Huron Statement. Written largely by TomHayden, editor of the University of Michigan’s stu-dent newspaper, the declaration called for an end toapathy and urged citizens to stop accepting a countryrun by big corporations and big government.

SDS groups focused on protesting the VietnamWar, but they also addressed such issues as poverty,campus regulations, nuclear power, and racism. In1968, for example, SDS leaders assisted in an eight-day occupation of several buildings at ColumbiaUniversity in New York City to protest the adminis-tration’s plan to build a new gym in an area thatserved as a neighborhood park near Harlem.

The Free Speech Movement Another group ofprotesters who captured the nation’s attention weremembers of the Free Speech Movement, led by MarioSavio and others at the University of California atBerkeley. The issue that sparked the movement wasthe university’s decision in the fall of 1964 to restrictstudents’ rights to distribute literature and to recruitvolunteers for political causes on campus. The pro-testers, however, quickly targeted more general cam-pus matters and drew in more and more supporters.

Like many college students, those at Berkeley weredisgruntled with the practices at their university.

Officials divided hugeclasses into sections taughtby graduate students, whilemany professors claimedthey were too busy withresearch to meet with stu-dents. Faceless administra-tors made rules that were notalways easy to obey andimposed punishments forviolations. Isolated in thisimpersonal environment,many Berkeley studentsfound a purpose in the FreeSpeech Movement.

The struggle betweenschool administrators and students peaked on December2, 1964, with the sit-in andSavio’s famous speech at theadministration building. Earlythe next morning, CaliforniaGovernor Pat Brown sent in 600 police officers tobreak up the demonstration.Police arrested more than700 protesters.

Youth Movement The Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) worked to address many of the problems theysaw in the 1960s. Made up primarily of college students, the group was suspicious of the motives of adults.Where did the SDS begin its reform crusade?

History

808 CHAPTER 18 The Politics of ProtestAP/Wide World Photo, (inset)Picture Research Consultants

The arrests set off a new and evenlarger protest movement. Within a fewdays, thousands of Berkeley studentsparticipated in a campus-wide strike,stopping classes for two days. Much ofthe faculty also voiced its support for theFree Speech Movement. In the face of thisgrowing opposition, the administrationgave in to the students’ demands shortlybefore the Christmas recess.

The following week, the SupremeCourt validated the students’ FirstAmendment rights to freedom of speechand assembly on campus. In a unanimousvote, the Court upheld the section of theCivil Rights Act assuring these rights inplaces offering public accommodations,which, by definition, included collegecampuses. The Berkeley revolt was one ofthe earliest outbursts in a decade of campus turmoil.The tactics the protesters used there—abandoningclasses and occupying buildings—would serve as amodel for college demonstrators across the country.

Synthesizing What were three rea-sons for the growth of the youth movement of the 1960s?

The Counterculture

During the 1960s some young peoplerebelled against the values of the older generation.

Reading Connection Do you know of any groups thatrebel against the older generation today? Read on to learnabout the utopias of the 1960s.

While a number of young Americans in the 1960ssought to challenge the system, others wanted toleave it and build their own society. Throughout thedecade, thousands of mostly white youths turnedaway from their middle- and upper-class existenceand created a new lifestyle—one that promoted thevirtues of flamboyant dress, rock music, drug use,and free and independent living. With their alterna-tive ways of life, these young men and womenformed what became known as the countercultureand were commonly called “hippies.”

Hippie Culture Originally, hippie culture repre-sented a rebellion against the dominant culture in theUnited States. This included a rejection of Western civ-ilization, of rationality, order, and the traditional val-

Reading Check

ues of the middle class. At its core, the countercultureheld up a utopian ideal: the ideal of a society that wasfreer, closer to nature, and full of love, empathy, toler-ance, and cooperation. Much of this was in reaction tothe 1950s American stereotype of the man in the grayflannel suit who led a constricted and colorless life.

When the movement grew larger, many of thenewcomers did not always understand these originalideas of the counterculture. For them, what matteredwere the outward signs that defined the move-ment—long hair, Native American headbands, cow-boy boots, long dresses, shabby jeans, and the use ofdrugs such as marijuana and LSD. Drug use, espe-cially, came to be associated with the hippie culture.

Many hippies desired to literally drop out of soci-ety by leaving home and living together with otheryouths in communes—group living arrangements inwhich members shared everything and workedtogether. A number of hippies established com-munes in small and rural communities, while otherslived together in parks or crowded apartments in thenation’s large cities. One of the most popular hippiedestinations became San Francisco’s Haight-Ashbury district. By the mid 1960s, thousands ofhippies had flocked there.

New Religious Movements In their rejection ofmaterialism, many members of the counterculture


The Counterculture Commonly known as “hippies,” members of the coun-terculture separated themselves from society in the 1960s by trying to createtheir own culture of love and tolerance. What western city was a focal pointof the hippie culture?

History

Lisa Law/The Image Works

embraced spirituality. This included a broad range ofbeliefs, from astrology and magic to Eastern religionsand new forms of Christianity.

Many of the religious groups centered aroundauthoritarian leaders. In these groups, the leaderdominated others and controlled their lives, some-times to the point of arranging marriages betweenmembers. Religion became the central experience inthe believer’s life. The authoritarian figure was a sortof parent figure, and believers formed an extendedfamily that took the place of the family into which amember had been born. This could lead to painfulconflicts. Some parents accused religious sects ofusing mind-control methods; some attempted torecapture and “deprogram” their children.

Two new religious groups that attracted consider-able attention beginning in the 1960s were theUnification Church and the Hare Krishna move-ment. Both were offshoots of established religions,and both came from abroad. Members of theUnification Church were popularly known as“Moonies,” after their Korean-born founder, the

Reverend Sun Myung Moon. He claimed to havehad a vision in which Jesus told Moon that he wasthe next messiah and was charged with restoring theKingdom of God on Earth. The Hare Krishnas tracedtheir spiritual lineage to a Hindu sect that began inIndia in the 1400s and worshiped the god Krishna. Indress, diet, worship, and general style of living, HareKrishnas tried to emulate these Hindu practitionersof another time and place.

The Counterculture Declines After a few years,the counterculture movement began to deteriorate.Some hippie communities in the cities soon turnedinto seedy and dangerous places where muggingsand other criminal activity became all too frequent.The glamour and excitement of drug use soonwaned, especially as more and more young peoplebecame addicted or died from overdoses. In addi-tion, a number of the people involved in the move-ment had gotten older and moved on in life. Uponwitnessing the decline of Haight-Ashbury, onewriter dismissed the one-time booming urban


MOMENTinHISTORYMOMENTinHISTORYWOODSTOCK NATIONIn August 1969, more than400,000 young peopledescended on a 600-acre farm in upstate New York forwhat was billed as “three days of peace and music.”Organizers of the WoodstockMusic and Art Fair were over-whelmed by the turnout.Massive traffic jams, supplyshortages, inadequate first aidand sanitation facilities, andtorrential rainfall did notdampen the joyous spirit of the crowd. People shared theirfood and blankets, bathed inthe rain, and listened to anamazing collection of some of the greatest musicians of the 1960s.

Tom Miner/The Image Works

commune as “the desperateattempt of a handful of pathet-ically unequipped children tocreate a community out of asocial vacuum.” In the end,most of the young men andwomen of the countercul-ture, unable to establish anideal community and sup-port themselves, returned tomainstream society.

Summarizing What were thecore ideals of members of thecounterculture?

Impact of the Counterculture

Mainstream culture gradually accepted someof the ideas and styles of the youth movement.

Reading Connection Do young people today try tomake a political statement by the way they dress or by the artforms they enjoy? Read on to learn how the 1960s youth cul-ture affected the wider culture.

In the long run, the counterculture did changeAmerican life in some ways. Over time, mainstreamAmerica accepted many of these changes.

Fashion The counterculture generation, as oneobserver of the 1960s noted, dressed in costumesrather than in occupational or class uniforms. Thecolorful, beaded, braided, patched, and fringed gar-ments that both men and women wore turned thefashion industry upside down. The internationalfashion world took its cues from young men andwomen on the street. As a result, men’s clothingbecame more colorful, and women’s clothing becamemore comfortable.

Protesters often expressed themselves with theirclothing. The counterculture adopted military sur-plus attire not only because it was inexpensive, butalso because it expressed rejection of materialist val-ues and blurred the lines of social class. For thesame reasons, clothing of another age was recycled,and worn-out clothing was repaired with patches.Ethnic clothing was popular for similar reasons.Beads and fringes imitated Native American cos-tumes, while tie-dyed shirts borrowed techniquesfrom India and Africa.

Reading Check

Perhaps the most potent symbol of the era washair. A popular 1967 musical about the period wastitled, fittingly, Hair. Long hair on a young man wasthe ultimate symbol of defiance. Slogans appeared,such as “Make America beautiful—give a hippie ahaircut.” School officials debated the acceptablelength of a student’s hair—could it curl over the col-lar or not? Once the initial shock wore off, however,longer hair on men and more individual clothing forboth genders became generally accepted. What wasonce clothing of defiance was now mainstream.

Art During the 1960s, one art critic observed, the dis-tinctions between traditional art and popular art, orpop art, dissolved. Pop art derived its subject matterfrom elements of popular culture, such as photo-graphs, comic books, advertisements, and brandname products. Artist Andy Warhol, for example,used images of famous people, such as MarilynMonroe and Elizabeth Taylor, and repeated them overand over. Warhol also reproduced items such as cansof soup, making the pictures as realistic as possible.Roy Lichtenstein used frames from comic strips as hisinspirations. He employed the bold primary colors ofred, yellow, and black, and put words like blam andpow into his paintings in comic book fashion.

Pop artists expected these symbols of popular cul-ture to carry some of the same meaning as they did intheir original form. The artists sometimes referred tothemselves as only the “agents” of the art and said itwas up to the observer to give meaning to the workand thus become part of it.

Music and Dance Counterculture musicianshoped that their music, rock ’n’ roll, would be themeans of toppling the establishment and reforming


Pop Art Artists like Roy Lichtenstein mocked certain aspects of American life by using common examples ofcommercial art, such as comics and advertisements. What statement is this piece of art making?

History Through Art

Tate Gallery, London/Art Resource, N.Y.

society. This did not happen because rock music wasabsorbed into the mainstream, where it broughtmaterial success worth billions of dollars to perform-ers, promoters, and record companies.

One of the most famous rock groups, the Beatles,took the country by storm in 1964. “Beatlemania”swept the country, inspiring hundreds of other rock ’n’roll groups both in Great Britain and the United States.

Many of the new groups combined rock ’n’ rollrhythms with lyrics that expressed the fears andhopes of the new generation and the widening riftbetween them and their parents. Bob Dylan provided

these lyrics, as did the Beatles and many other musi-cians, while spirited performers like Janis Joplinmade the songs come alive.

The use of electrically amplified instruments alsodrastically changed the sound and feel of the newmusic. One master of this new sound was JimiHendrix, a guitarist from Seattle. Hendrix lived over-seas and achieved stardom only after returning to theUnited States with the influx of musicians from GreatBritain. His innovative guitar playing continues toinfluence musicians today.

At festivals such as Woodstock, in upstate NewYork in August 1969, and Altamont, California, laterthat year, hundreds of thousands of people gottogether to celebrate the new music. Though the fast-paced, energetic beat of rock ‘n’ roll was made fordancing, the style of dancing had changed dramati-cally. Each person danced without a partner, sur-rounded by others who also danced alone—a perfectmetaphor for the counterculture, which stressed indi-viduality within the group.

Headline-grabbing events such as Woodstockmade it difficult for the nation to ignore the youthmovement. By this time, however, other groups insociety were also raising their voices in protest. Forexample, many women began renewing theirgenerations-old efforts for equality, hoping to expandupon the successes gained during the early 1900s.

Evaluating What lasting impact didthe counterculture have on the nation?

Reading Check


Checking for Understanding1. Vocabulary Define: validate, counter-

culture, rational, commune, derive.2. People and Terms Identify: Port Huron

Statement, Tom Hayden, Haight-Ashbury district, Jimi Hendrix.

3. Summarize two legacies of the counter-culture movement.

Reviewing Big Ideas4. Explaining How did the U.S. Supreme

Court validate the actions of the mem-bers of the Free Speech Movement?

Critical Thinking5. Contrasting How were hippies differ-

ent from members of the New Left?6. Analyzing Why did the counterculture

movement decline?7. Organizing Use a graphic organizer

similar to the one below to list thecauses of the youth movement.

Analyzing Visuals8. Analyzing Photographs Look closely

at the photograph of a group of hippiesand their bus on page 809. How doesthe bus itself represent values of thecounterculture?

Writing About History9. Descriptive Writing Imagine you are a

journalist in the 1960s. Write an articlein which you visit an art gallery anddescribe the popular art you see.

CA 11WA2.1e

Jimi Hendrix performing at Woodstock➤

Youth Movement

Causes

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Guide to Reading

ConnectionIn the previous section, you learnedabout the effects of the student andcounterculture movements on society. In this section, you will discover howmany women organized for greaterrights during the 1960s and 1970s.

• The women’s movement became frag-mented after women won the right tovote. (p. 814)

• Women began to seek changes insociety through legislative action andorganizations. (p. 815)

• The women’s movement experiencedsuccess and failures in the fight forequality. (p. 816)

Content Vocabularyfeminism, Title IX

Academic Vocabularygender, integral, bias

People and Terms to IdentifyEqual Pay Act, Equal EmploymentOpportunity Commission, Betty Friedan,National Organization for Women, PhyllisSchlafly

Reading Objectives• Describe the workplace concerns that

fueled the growth of the women’smovement.

• Identify major achievements of thewomen’s movement.

Reading StrategyCategorizing As you read about thewomen’s movement, use a graphicorganizer similar to the one below tocompare the ideas of the two organiza-tions that formed when the women’smovement split.

Preview of Events

The Feminist Movement

CHAPTER 18 The Politics of Protest 813CHAPTER 18 The Politics of Protest 813

✦1970 ✦1984✦1977

1963Betty Friedan’s The FeminineMystique published

1966Women activistsform NOW

1973Roe v. Wade decisionensures abortion rights

1982Equal RightsAmendment fails

✦1963

Organization Ideas

. The Big Idea ,Social and economic crises lead to new roles for government. By the1960s, many women had become increasingly dissatisfied with society’s percep-tion of women in the workplace. Some began to join organizations aimed atimproving their role in society. Many of these organizations sought changethrough new legislation. The women’s movement forced the government to takeaction on issues such as education, but it was divided over the Equal RightsAmendment. While the amendment eventually failed, the women’s movement didbring about profound changes in American society.


11.10.7 Analyze the women’s rightsmovement from the era of ElizabethStanton and Susan Anthony and thepassage of the Nineteenth Amendmentto the movement launched in the 1960s,including differing perspectives on theroles of women.

11.11.3 Describe the changing roles ofwomen in society as reflected in the entryof more women into the labor force andthe changing family structure.

11.11.7 Explain how the federal, state, andlocal governments have responded to demo-graphic and social changes such as populationshifts to the suburbs, racial concentrations in the cities, Frostbelt-to-Sunbelt migration,international migration, decline of family farms,increases in out-of-wedlock births, and drug abuse.

A Weakened Women’s Movement

The women’s movement became fragmentedafter women won the right to vote.

Reading Connection Where are women still fighting forpolitical rights? Read on to discover how the Americanwomen’s movement divided after women won the right to vote.

In 1960 the housewife-oriented magazine Redbookasked readers to send examples of “Why YoungMothers Feel Trapped.” Some 24,000 womenresponded. One of them was Herma Snider, a house-wife and mother of three in Nevada. Snider wrote that as a high school and college student, she haddreamed of a career in journalism. After getting mar-ried and having three children, that dream died.

“Cemented to my house by three young children,”she wrote, “there were days in which I saw no adulthuman being except the milkman as he made hisdeliveries and spoke to no one from the time my hus-band left in the morning until he returned at night.”She added, “Each night as I tucked my sons into bed, Ithanked God that they would grow up to be men, thatthey would able to teach, write, heal, advise, travel, ordo anything else they chose.”

Desperate for greater fulfillment in her life, Snidereventually took a job as a part-time hotel clerk. Aboutthis decision, she said:

“My cashier’s job is not the glamorous career Ionce dreamed of. And I know that it can be said thatmy solution is not a solution at all, merely an escape.But it seems to me that when the demands of childrenand household threaten to suffocate you, an escape isa solution.”

—quoted in The Female Experience: An American Documentary

Feminism, the belief that men and women shouldbe equal politically, economically, and socially, hadbeen a weak and often embattled force since theadoption of the Nineteenth Amendment guarantee-ing women’s voting rights in 1920. Soon after theamendment’s passage, the women’s movement splitinto two camps. One group, the League of WomenVoters, tended to promote laws to protect women

and children, such as limiting the hours they couldwork. The National Woman’s Party (NWP), on theother hand, opposed protective legislation forwomen. The NWP believed it reinforced workplacediscrimination. In 1923 the NWP persuaded mem-bers of Congress to introduce the first Equal RightsAmendment aimed at forbidding federal, state, andlocal laws from discriminating on the basis of gender.Since the women’s movement was divided, however,Congress could afford to ignore the amendment.

The onset of World War II provided women withgreater opportunity, at least temporarily. With manymen enlisted in the army, women became an integralpart of the nation’s workforce. When the war ended,however, many women lost their jobs to the return-ing men.

Despite having to return to their domestic work,many women gradually reentered the labor market.By 1960 they made up almost 40 percent of thenation’s workforce. Yet many people continued tobelieve that women, even college-educated women,could better serve society by remaining in the hometo influence the next generation of men.

Examining How did World War IIaffect women?

Reading Check


A 1960s-era women’s magazine

➤

Red Book Magazine, August 30,1960

The Women’s MovementReawakens

Women began to seek changes in societythrough legislative action and organizations.

Reading Connection Are there organizations today that continue to fight for equal rights? Read on to learn about abook that helped define the reawakened women’s movement.

By the early 1960s, many women were increas-ingly resentful of a world where newspaper adsseparated jobs by gender, clubs refused them mem-berships, banks denied them credit, and, worst of all,they often were paid less for the same work.Generally, women found themselves shut out ofhigher-paying and prestigious professions such aslaw, medicine, and finance. Although about 40 per-cent of American women were in the workforce inthe 1960s, three-fourths of them worked in lowerpaying and routine clerical, sales, or factory jobs, oras cleaning women and hospital attendants. As morewomen entered the workforce, the protest againstinequities grew louder.

Women had also gained a better understanding oftheir inequality in society from their experiences inthe civil rights and antiwar movements. Often theywere restricted to menial tasks and rarely had a sayin any policy decisions. From the broader perspec-tive, the women’s movement was part of the 1960squest for rights.

Fighting for Workplace Rights Two forces helpedbring the women’s movement to life again. One wasthe mass protest of ordinary women. The second wasa government initiative: the President’s Commissionon the Status of Women, established by PresidentKennedy and headed by Eleanor Roosevelt. The com-mission’s report highlighted the problems of womenin the workplace and helped create networks of femi-nist activists, who lobbied Congress for women’s leg-islation. In 1963, with the support of labor, they wonpassage of the Equal Pay Act, which in most cases out-lawed paying men more than women for the same job.

Congress gave women another boost by includingthem in the 1964 Civil Rights Act, a measure origi-nally designed to fight racial bias. Title VII of the actoutlawed job discrimination by private employersnot only on the basis of race, color, religion, andnational origin, but also of gender. This measurebecame decisive legal basis for advances made by thewomen’s movement.

The Civil Rights Act created a new federal agencycharged with administering the new law. The EqualEmployment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)was officially operating in July 1965. Governmentadministrators projected that in its first year, theEEOC would receive approximately 2,000 charges ofunlawful employment practices. Instead, theCommission actually received almost 9,000 separatecharges in its first year of operation.

The Feminine Mystique Many date the women’smovement from the publication of Betty Friedan’sThe Feminine Mystique in 1963. Friedan had traveledaround the country interviewing the women whohad graduated with her from Smith College in 1942.She found that while most of these women reportedhaving everything they could want in life, they stillfelt unfulfilled. Friedan described these feelings inher book:

“The problem lay buried, unspoken, for manyyears in the minds of American women. . . . Each sub-urban wife struggled with it alone. As she made thebeds, shopped for groceries . . . chauffeured CubScouts and Brownies . . . she was afraid to ask even ofherself the silent question—‘Is this all?’”

—from The Feminine Mystique


Perfect Home, Perfect Wife This image of a proud wife in her spotlesskitchen reflects some of the traditional ideas of the 1950s and 1960s. What didthe women’s movement criticize about these ideas?

History

CORBIS/Bettmann

Friedan’s book became a best-seller. Many womensoon began reaching out to one another, pouring outtheir anger and sadness in what came to be known asconsciousness-raising sessions. While they talkedinformally about their unhappiness, they were build-ing the base for a nationwide movement.

The Time Is NOW In June 1966, Friedan returnedto a thought that she and others had been consider-ing, the need for women to form a national organiza-tion. On the back of a napkin, she scribbled down herintentions “to take the actions needed to bringwomen into the mainstream of American society,now . . . in fully equal partnership with men.”Friedan and others then set out to form the NationalOrganization for Women (NOW).

NOW soon leapt off the napkin and into the head-lines. In October 1966, a group of about 300 womenand men held the founding conference of NOW. “Thetime has come,” its founders declared, “to confrontwith concrete action the conditions which now pre-vent women from enjoying the equality of opportu-nity and freedom of choice which is their right asindividual Americans and as human beings.”

The new organization began by demandinggreater educational opportunities for women. Thegroup also focused much of its energy on aidingwomen in the workplace. NOW leaders denounced

the exclusion of women from certain professions andfrom politics. They lashed out against the practice ofpaying women less than men for equal work, a practicethey claimed the Equal Pay Act had not eliminated.

The efforts to pass the Equal Rights Amendmentpushed the organization’s membership over 200,000.By July 1972, the movement even had a magazine of its own, Ms., which kept readers informed onwomen’s issues. The editor of the new magazine wasGloria Steinem, an author and public figure who wasone of the movement’s leading figures.

Identifying What two forceshelped bring the women’s movement to life again?

Successes and Failures

The women’s movement experienced successand failures in the fight for equality.

Reading Connection What one issue would you workto improve for women? Read on to find out about the improve-ments made in the 1960s and 1970s.

During the late 1960s and early 1970s, the women’smovement fought to enforce Title VII of the CivilRights Act, lobbied to repeal laws against abortion,

Reading Check


The Feminine Mystique Betty Friedan’s best-selling book(below) exposed a sense of dissatisfaction that many womenexperienced but were reluctant to speak about openly. Whatpolitical organization stemmed from women’s growingsense of unfulfillment?

History

Schlesinger Library, Radcliffe College, (inset)Collection of Bettye Lane/Picture Research Consultants

and worked for legislation against gender discrimi-nation in employment, housing, and education.Along the way, the movement experienced success aswell as failure.

Striving for Equality in Education One of themovement’s notable achievements was in education.Kathy Striebel’s story highlighted the discriminationfemale students often faced in the early 1970s. In1971, Striebel, a high school junior in St. Paul,Minnesota, wanted to compete for her school’s swimteam, but the school did not allow girls to join.Kathy’s mother, Charlotte, was a member of the localNOW chapter. Through it, she learned that St. Paulhad recently passed an ordinance prohibiting genderdiscrimination in education. She filed a grievancewith the city’s human rights department, and offi-cials required the school to allow Kathy to swim.

Shortly after joining the team, Kathy beat out oneof the boys and earned a spot at a meet. As she stoodon the block waiting to swim, the opposing coachdeclared that she was ineligible to compete becausethe meet was outside St. Paul and thus beyond thejurisdiction of its laws. “They pulled that little girlright off the block,” Charlotte Striebel recalled angrily.

Recognizing the problem, leaders of the move-ment pushed lawmakers to enact federal legislationbanning gender discrimination in education. In 1972

Congress responded by passing a law known collec-tively as the Educational Amendments. One section,Title IX, prohibited federally funded schools fromdiscriminating against girls and young women innearly all aspects of its operations, from admissionsto athletics. Many schools implemented this new lawslowly or not at all, but women now had federal lawon their side.

Roe v. Wade One of the most important goals formany women activists was the repeal of laws againstabortion. Until 1973, the right to regulate abortionwas reserved to the states. This was in keeping withthe original plan of the Constitution, which reservedall police power—the power to control people andproperty in the interest of safety, health, welfare, andmorals—to the state. Early in the country’s history,some abortion was permitted in the early stages ofpregnancy, but after the middle of the 1800s, whenstates adopted statutory law, abortion was prohibitedexcept to save the life of the mother. Women whochose to have an abortion faced criminal prosecution.

In the late 1960s, some states began adopting moreliberal abortion laws. For example, several statesallowed abortion if carrying a baby to term mightendanger the woman’s mental health or if she was avictim of rape or incest. The big change came withthe 1973 Supreme Court decision in Roe v. Wade. The


i n H i s t o r y

Shirley Chisholm1924–2005

Shirley Chisholm once remarked, ”Ofmy two ‘handicaps,’ being female putmore obstacles in my path than beingblack.” Her attempts to overcome theseobstacles propelled the Brooklyn, NewYork, native into the national spotlight andprovided encouragement for other womenand African Americans attempting to over-come discrimination.

Chisholm first gained national promi-nence when she defeated two other candi-dates for Congress from New York’s 12thDistrict in 1968. Upon her swearing in, shebecame the first African American womanto serve in the United States Congress.

In Congress Chisholm became an ardentdefender of several causes. An opponent ofthe seniority system, she protested the

ways that party leaders assigned Housemembers to committees and was instru-mental in changing them. Chisholm was anearly opponent of arms sales to SouthAfrica’s racist regime. She also worked oneducation issues and to increase day care programs, and she cosponsored a bill toguarantee an annual income to families.

In 1972 Chisholm ran for the Democraticnomination for president. She campaignedextensively and entered primaries in 12states, winning 28 delegates and receiving152 first ballot votes at the convention.

She returned to Congress after the con-vention and continued her crusade to helpwomen and minorities for several moreterms. She declined to run for re-electionin 1982, citing the difficulties of campaign-ing for liberal issues in an increasingly con-servative political atmosphere.

Supreme Court ruled that state governments couldnot regulate abortion during the first three months ofpregnancy, a time that was interpreted as beingwithin a woman’s constitutional right to privacy.During the second three months of pregnancy, statescould regulate abortions on the basis of the health ofthe mother. States could ban abortion in the finalthree months except in cases of a medical emergency.

Those in favor of protecting abortion rightscheered Roe v. Wade as a victory, but the issue was farfrom settled. The decision gave rise to the right-to-lifemovement, whose members consider abortionmorally wrong and advocate its total ban. After theRoe v. Wade ruling, the two sides began an impas-sioned battle that continues today. ; (For more informa-tion on Roe v. Wade, see page 1006.)

The Equal Rights Amendment In 1972 Congresspassed the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA). Tobecome part of the Constitution, this amendment toprotect women against discrimination had to be rati-fied by 38 states. Many states did so—35 by 1979—butthere was significant opposition to the amendment aswell. Some people feared the ERA would take awaysome traditional rights, such as the right to alimony indivorce cases or the right to have single-gender col-leges. Another fear was that women would be sub-jected to the military draft. One outspoken opponentwas Phyllis Schlafly, who organized the Stop-ERAcampaign. She became active in politics after earninga master’s degree from Harvard in 1945 and later alaw degree. Schlafly testified before 30 state legisla-tures against the ERA, which finally failed in 1982.


Opposing Viewpoints The Equal Rights Amendment had strong support, but it also hadstrong opposition, led by Phyllis Schlafly. How many states ratified the ERA?

History

CORBIS/Bettmann

The Impact of the Women’s Movement Despitethe failure of the ERA, the women’s movement wouldultimately bring about profound changes in society.Since the 1970s, many more women have pursuedcollege degrees and careers outside of the home thandid so in previous decades. Since the women’s move-ment began, two-career families are much more com-mon than they were in the 1950s and 1960s, althougha need for greater family income due to the increasedcost of living may also be a factor. Mothers workingoutside the home are more accepted and more com-mon than they were in the 1950s and 1960s. Employersbegan to offer employees options to help make workmore compatible with family life, including flexiblehours, on-site child care, and job-sharing.

Even though the women’s movement helpedchange social attitudes toward women, an incomegap between men and women still exists. A majorreason for the income gap is that most workingwomen still hold lower-paying jobs such as banktellers, administrative assistants, cashiers, school-teachers, and nurses. Also, many women choose toleave or reduce their hours at work to bear and carefor their children. This choice to combine careers andmore traditional roles is one that fewer men make. Itis in professional jobs that women have made themost dramatic gains since the 1970s. By the end of the1900s, women made up roughly one-fourth of thenation’s doctors and lawyers. By 2000 they com-prised over 40 percent of the nation’s graduatesreceiving degrees in these fields.

Summarizing What successes andfailures did the women’s movement experience during the late1960s and early 1970s?

Reading Check


Checking for Understanding1. Vocabulary Define: feminism, gender,

integral, bias, Title IX.2. People and Terms Identify: Equal Pay

Act, Equal Employment OpportunityCommission, Betty Friedan, NationalOrganization for Women, PhyllisSchlafly.

3. Summarize Shirley Chisholm’s politicalcontributions.

Reviewing Big Ideas4. Describing How have women’s rights

improved since the 1960s?

Critical Thinking5. Synthesizing What two events weak-

ened the women’s movement?6. Organizing Use a graphic organizer

similar to the one below to list themajor achievements of the women’smovement.

Analyzing Visuals7. Analyzing Photographs Study the

photo on page 815 of a housewife inher kitchen. Think about depictions ofhousewives in modern television ormagazine advertisements you haveseen. How would you compare thephoto on page 815 with today’s images?

Writing About History8. Persuasive Writing Take on the role

of a supporter or opponent of the ERA.Write a letter to the editor of your localnewspaper to persuade people to sup-port your position. CA 11WA2.3a

Achievements

Women in the Workplace Since the 1970s, the number of womenworking outside the home has increased. Here, a woman and man work side-by-side. Why might an income gap exist between men and women?

History


tav.mt.glencoe.com


Getty Images


John is practical in the extreme. Hehas no patience with faith, an intensehorror of superstition, and he scoffsopenly at any talk of things not to befelt and seen and put down in figures.

John is a physician, and perhaps—(Iwould not say it to a living soul, ofcourse, but this is dead paper and agreat relief to my mind)—perhaps thatis one reason I do not get well faster.

You see he does not believe I amsick!

And what can one do?If a physician of high standing,

and one’s own husband, assuresfriends and relatives that there isreally nothing the matter with onebut temporary nervous depression—a slight hysterical tendency—what isone to do?

My brother is also a physician, andalso of high standing, and he says thesame thing.

So I take phosphates or phospites—whichever it is, and tonics, andjourneys, and air, and exercise, andam absolutely forbidden to “work”until I am well again.

Personally, I disagree with theirideas.

Personally, I believe that congenialwork, with excitement and change,would do me good.

But what is one to do?

I did write for a while in spite ofthem; but it does exhaust me a gooddeal—having to be so sly about it, orelse meet with heavy opposition.

I sometimes fancy that my condi-tion if I had less opposition and moresociety and stimulus—but John saysthe very worst thing I can do is tothink about my condition, and I con-fess it always makes me feel bad. . . .

I get unreasonably angry with Johnsometimes. I'm sure I never used to beso sensitive. I think it is due to thisnervous condition.

But John says if I feel so, I shallneglect proper self-control; so I takepains to control myself—before him,at least, and that makes me very tired.

I don’t like our room a bit.

from The Yellow Wallpaperby Charlotte Perkins Gilman

In the following excerpt, the narrator of the story, writing in a secret journal, isdescribing her “illness” and how her husband John and others feel about it.


Charlotte Perkins Gilman wasa prominent American socialcritic and feminist writer in thelate 1800s and early 1900s. In hermost famous work, The YellowWallpaper (1899), she presentsthe story of a woman diagnosedwith hysteria, for which a doctorhas prescribed total rest. Cut offfrom any intellectual activity, thewoman is slowly driven mad byher “cure.”

In this work, Gilman speaksout against a common belief ofthe time—that women weregenerally unfit for scholarship.The story, obscure for almost50 years, has become a staple ofmany college literary courses.

Read to DiscoverHow does the narrator feelabout her “illness”? How doesher opinion differ from that ofher physician and her family?

Reader’s Dictionaryscoff: make fun of

phosphates: a carbonateddrink, often used as medi-cine in the 1800s and early1900s

congenial: agreeable; pleasant

flamboyant: elaborately colorful

Narrator from the film version of TheYellow Wallpaper

➤

(l)Brown Brothers, (r)Idaho State Historical Society

I wanted one downstairs that opened on the piazzaand had roses all over the window, and such prettyold-fashioned chintz hangings! but John would nothear of it.

He said there was only one window and no roomfor two beds, and no near room for him if he tookanother.

He is very care-ful and loving,and hardly lets mestir without spe-cial direction.

I have a sched-ule prescriptionfor each hour inthe day; he takesall care from me,and so I feel baselyungrateful not tovalue it more.

He said we camehere solely on myaccount, that I wasto have perfect restand all the air Icould get. “Yourexercise dependson your strength,my dear,” said he,“and your foodsomewhat on yourappetite; but air youcan absorb all thetime.” So we tookthe nursery at thetop of the house.

It is a big, airy room, the whole floor nearly,with windows that look all ways, and air and sun-shine galore. It was nursery first and then playroomand gymnasium, I should judge; for the windowsare barred for little children, and there are rings andthings in the walls.

The paint and paper look as if a boys’ school hadused it. It is stripped off—the paper—in greatpatches all around the head of my bed, about as faras I can reach, and in a great place on the other sideof the room low down. I never saw a worse paper inmy life.

One of those sprawling flamboyant patterns com-mitting every artistic sin.

It is dull enough to confuse the eye in following,pronounced enough to constantly irritate and pro-voke study, and when you follow the lame uncertaincurves for a little distance they suddenly commit sui-cide—plunge off at outrageous angles, destroy them-selves in unheard of contradictions.

The color isrepellent, almostrevolting; a smoul-dering unclean yellow, strangelyfaded by the slow-turning sunlight.

It is a dull yetlurid orange insome places, asickly sulphur tintin others.

No wonder thechildren hated it! Ishould hate itmyself if I had tolive in this roomlong.

There comesJohn, and I mustput this away,—he hates to haveme write a word.

We have beenhere two weeks,and I haven’t feltlike writing before,since that first day.

I am sitting bythe window now, up in this atrocious nursery, andthere is nothing to hinder my writing as much as Iplease, save lack of strength.

John is away all day, and even some nights whenhis cases are serious.

I am glad my case is not serious! But these nervous troubles are dreadfully

depressing. John does not know how much I really suffer.

He knows there is no reason to suffer, and that satisfies him.

Of course it is only nervousness. It does weigh onme so not to do my duty in any way!

I meant to be such a help to John, such a real rest


Refuge, by Isidro Nonell➤

Archivo Iconografico, S.A./CORBIS

and comfort, and here I am a comparative burdenalready! . . .

I suppose John never was nervous in his life. Helaughs at me so about this wall-paper!

At first he meant to repaper the room, but after-wards he said that I was letting it get the better of me,and that nothing was worse for a nervous patientthan to give way to such fancies.

He said that after the wall-paper was changed itwould be the heavy bedstead, and then the barredwindows, and then that gate at the head of the stairs,and so on.

“You know the place is doing you good,” he said,“and really, dear, I don’t care to renovate the housejust for a three months’ rental.”

“Then do let us go downstairs,” I said, “there aresuch pretty rooms there.”

Then he took me in his arms and called me ablessed little goose, and said he would go down tothe cellar, if I wished, and have it whitewashed intothe bargain.

But he is right enough about the beds and win-dows and things.

It is an airy and comfortable room as any one needwish, and, of course, I would not be so silly as tomake him uncomfortable just for a whim.

I’m really getting quite fond of the big room, allbut that horrid paper. . . .

Well, the Fourth of July is over! The people aregone and I am tired out. John thought it might do megood to see a little company, so we just had motherand Nellie and the children down for a week.

Of course I didn’t do a thing. Jennie sees to every-thing now.

But it tired me all the same. John says if I don’t pick up faster he shall send me

to Weir Mitchell in the fall. But I don’t want to go there at all. I had a friend

who was in his hands once, and she says he is justlike John and my brother, only more so!

Besides, it is such an undertaking to go so far. I don’t feel as if it was worth while to turn my

hand over for anything, and I’m getting dreadfullyfretful and querulous.

I cry at nothing, and cry most of the time. Of course I don’t when John is here, or anybody

else, but when I am alone. And I am alone a good deal just now. . . .I’m getting really fond of the room in spite of the

wall-paper. Perhaps because of the wall-paper.It dwells in my mind so!


Analyzing Literature

1. What is the main idea in this passage? How

does it support the author’s point?

2. Does the narrator think this remedy will help

her? Why or why not? What clues can you find

about how the narrator feels about her illness?

Interdisciplinary ActivityScience Using the Internet and other resources,

research some ways that diseases and illnesses

were treated in the 1800s and 1900s. Do we still

use these treatments today? Create a chart show-

ing the progression of treatment for some of the

illnesses you researched.

CA 11RC2.4

Woman in a psychiatric hospital➤

Jerry Cooke/CORBIS

Reading Lolita in Tehran (Autobiography)by Azar Nafisi

After the revolution in Iran limits the freedom of women, a group of intellectual collegestudents secretly meet with a former professor to discuss great literature of the twentiethcentury. Living in the oppressive world of the Ayatollah Khomeini’s regime where womenare considered insignificant, the literature discussions become essential for this group inmaintaining their value as women and individuals.

For other literature selections that relate to the growing awareness of women’s issues, you mightconsider the following book suggestions.

The Awakening (Fiction)by Kate Chopin

First published in 1899, this novel marks the beginning of feminist literature. Unhappywith her own marriage, Edna Pontellier discovers her desire for more fulfillment thanher comfortable but unchallenging role as mother and wife can provide.

A Doll’s House (Drama)by Henrik Ibsen

Nora Hellmer slowly awakens to the realization that she has been ruled by either herfather or her husband her whole life. When she tries to finance a vacation for her husband, she finds her independence.

Reviving Ophelia: Saving the Selves of Adolescent Girls (Nonfiction)by Mary Pipher, Ph.D.

After treating adolescent girls for 20 years, Dr. Pipher explains how the media and culture contribute to the serious problems of depression, eating disorders, and othermental disorders that plague young women at this time of life.

CHAPTER 18 The Politics of Protest 823Doug Martin

Guide to Reading

ConnectionIn the previous section, you learnedabout the women’s movement. In thissection, you will discover how minoritygroups worked to improve their status.

• Minorities in America continued fight-ing for reform and increased civil rights.(p. 825)

• Hispanic Americans worked to improvetheir rights by organizing a farm work-ers’ union and calling for bilingualeducation. (p. 828)

• The American Indian Movement (AIM)used protests and legal battles to winvictories in the quest for civil rights andequal opportunities. (p. 829)

Content Vocabularyaffirmative action, busing, bilingualism

Academic Vocabularyfederal, contract, guarantee

People and Terms to IdentifyAllan Bakke, Jesse Jackson, CongressionalBlack Caucus, César Chávez, La RazaUnida, American Indian Movement

Reading Objectives• Describe the goal of affirmative action

policies.• Analyze the rise of Hispanic and Native

American protests.

Reading StrategySequencing As you read about the civilrights movement’s new approaches,complete a time line similar to the onebelow to record new groups and theiractions.

Preview of Events

New Approaches to Civil Rights


1966 1971

1969

1968

1966Hispanic Americans form UnitedFarm Workers of America

✦1965

1968Kerner Commission reportson racism in the United States

1969Hispanic leaders formLa Raza Unida

1973Native Americans and governmentclash in South Dakota

✦1973✦1969

11.10.5 Discuss the diffusion of the civil rights move-ment of African Americans from the churches of therural South and the urban North, including theresistance to racial desegregation in Little Rock andBirmingham, and how the advances influenced theagendas, strategies, and effectiveness of the quests

of American Indians, Asian Americans, and HispanicAmericans for civil rights and equal opportunities.

11.11.1 Discuss the reasons for the nation’s changingimmigration policy, with emphasis on how theImmigration Act of 1965 and successor acts havetransformed American society.

. The Big Idea ,The quest for equality is eternal. During this time of protest, many minoritygroups began fighting for increased civil rights. Some of these groups, such asHispanic Americans and Native Americans, began to organize on a large scale forthe first time. African Americans also continued their fight for civil equality byfocusing on jobs and educational improvements. New African American, AsianAmerican, and Pacific Islander political leaders emerged. These leaders helpedpush for greater awareness and legislation to improve civil equality.


11.6.5 Trace the advances andretreats of organized labor, from the

creation of the American Federation of Labor and the Congress of Industrial

Organizations to current issues of a post-industrial multinational economy, includ-

ing the United Farm Workers in California.

11.9.7 Examine relations between theUnited States and Mexico in the twentieth

century, including key economic, political,immigration, and environmental issues.

11.10.2 Examine and analyze the key events,policies, and court cases in the evolution of

civil rights, including Dred Scott v. Sanford,Plessy v. Ferguson, Brown v. Board of Education,

Regents of the University of California v. Bakke,and California Proposition 209.

11.10.4 Examine the roles of civil rights advo-cates (e.g., A. Philip Randolph, Martin Luther King,

Jr., Malcom X, Thurgood Marshall, James Farmer,Rosa Parks), including the significance of Martin

Luther King, Jr.’s “Letter from Birmingham Jail” and“I Have a Dream” speech.

Fighting for Greater Opportunity

Minorities in America continued fighting forreform and increased civil rights.

Reading Connection Have you ever taken the bus toschool? Read on to learn about busing and the efforts toachieve educational improvements for minorities.

During this time of heightened protest in theUnited States, Native Americans began raising theirvoices for reform and change.

In 1968 Vernon and Clyde Bellecourt, along withother Native Americans in Minneapolis, were strug-gling to earn a living. The Bellecourts decided to take a stand against their conditions. Spurred by the 1960sprotest movements and by reawakened pride in theirculture, the brothers helped organize the AmericanIndian Movement (AIM). AIM’s goal was to combatdiscrimination and brutality by the local police. Vernonrecalled how AIM worked:

“They got a small grant from the Urban League ofMinneapolis to put two-way radios in their cars and toget tape recorders and cameras. They would listen tothe police calls, and when they heard . . . that policewere being dispatched to a certain community or bar,they’d show up with cameras and take pictures of thepolice using more than normal restraint on people. . . .AIM would show up and have attorneys ready. Oftenthey would beat the police back to the station. Theywould have a bondsman there, and they’d start filinglawsuits against the police department.”

—quoted in Native American Testimony

Other groups also began protesting for reform and improved living conditions. During the 1960sand early 1970s, Hispanic Americans organized toimprove their status in society. In the wake of theassassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., AfricanAmericans continued their fight for greater civilrights, now focusing more on access to jobs.

Affirmative Action By the end of the 1960s, manyAfrican American leaders expressed a growing senseof frustration. Although most legal forms of racialdiscrimination had been dismantled, many African

Americans felt there had been little improvement in their daily lives. In the eyes of leading civil rights activists, the problems facing most AfricanAmericans lay in their lack of access to good jobs andadequate schooling. As a result, leaders of the civilrights movement began to focus their energies onthese problems.

As part of their effort, civil rights leaders looked toan initiative known as affirmative action. Enforcedthrough executive orders and federal policies,affirmative action called for companies and institu-tions doing business with the federal government toactively recruit African American employees with thehope that this would lead to improved social andeconomic status. Officials later expanded affirmativeaction to include other minority groups and women.

Supporters of the policy argued that because sofew companies hired from these groups in the past,they had had little chance to develop necessary jobskills. If businesses opened their doors wider tominorities, more of them could begin building bet-ter lives.

In one example of affirmative action’s impact,Atlanta witnessed a significant increase in minorityjob opportunities shortly after Maynard Jacksonbecame its first African American mayor in 1973.When Jackson took office, less than one percent of allcity contracts went to African Americans, even thoughthey made up about half of Atlanta’s population.Jackson used the expansion of the city’s airport toredress this imbalance by opening the bidding processfor airport contracts more widely to minority firms.Through his efforts, small companies and minorityfirms took on 25 percent of all airport constructionwork, earning them some $125 million in contracts.


Vernon Bellecourt

➤

AP/Wide World Photos

Challenges to Affirmative Action Affirmativeaction programs did not go unchallenged. Criticsviewed them as a form of “reverse discrimination.”They claimed that qualified white workers were keptfrom jobs, promotions, and a place in schools becausea certain number of such positions had been set asidefor minorities or women.

One of the more notable challenges to affirmativeaction came in 1974, after officials at the University ofCalifornia Medical School at Davis turned down theadmission of a white applicant named Allan Bakkefor a second time. When Bakke learned that slots hadbeen set aside for minorities, he sued the school.Bakke argued that by admitting minority applicants,some of whom had scored lower than Bakke on theirexams, the school had discriminated against him dueto his race.

In 1978, in University of California Regents v. Bakke,the Supreme Court, in a 5 to 4 ruling, declared thatthe university had indeed violated Bakke’s rights. Onthe other hand, it ruled that schools could use racialcriteria as part of their admissions process so long asthey did not use “fixed quotas.” While Bakke was nota strong and definitive ruling, the Court had never-theless supported affirmative action programs asconstitutional. ; (See page 1006 for more information onUniversity of California Regents v. Bakke.)

The debate over affirmative action continuedthrough the 1980s, and by the mid-1990s, opponentshad begun organizing politically to end affirma-

tive action programs. In 1995 the University ofCalifornia’s Board of Regents voted to end the use ofrace in its admissions policy. The push to end the uni-versity’s affirmative action program was led by WardConnerly, an African American board member andbusiness owner. Connerly strongly believed thataffirmative action treated people unequally.

Connerly went on to lead the campaign forProposition 209, an amendment to California’s con-stitution that banned the state from giving preferen-tial treatment on the basis of race, gender, ethnicity,or national origin. After Californians voted in favorof Proposition 209 in 1996, citizens in other statesincreased their efforts to ban affirmative action pro-grams. The debate continues to the present.

Equal Access to Education By the early 1970s,African American leaders also had begun to pushharder for educational improvements. In the 1954 caseof Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, theSupreme Court had ordered an end to segregatedpublic schools. In the 1960s, however, many schoolsremained segregated as local communities movedslowly to comply with the Court. Since children nor-mally went to neighborhood public schools, segrega-tion in schooling reflected the race segregation ofneighborhoods. White schools were usually far supe-rior to African American schools, as Ruth Baston of theNAACP noted in 1965 after visiting Boston schools:

“When we would go to white schools, we’d seethese lovely classrooms with a small number of chil-dren in each class. The teachers were permanent.We’d see wonderful materials. When we’d go to ourschools, we’d see overcrowded classrooms, children

sitting out in the corridors. And so then wedecided that where there were a large numberof white students, that’s where the care went.That’s where the books went. That’s where themoney went.”

—quoted in Freedom Bound

To ensure desegregated schools, localgovernments resorted to a policy known asbusing, transporting children to schoolsoutside their neighborhoods to achievegreater racial balance. The Supreme Courtupheld the constitutionality of busing in the 1971 case, Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education. ; (See page1007 for more information on Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education.)


Equal Opportunity Allan Bakke graduated from medical school after theSupreme Court overturned the University of California’s use of specific racialquotas. How did the Bakke case affect affirmative action?

History

Many whites responded to busing by taking theirchildren out of public schools. Nearly 20,000 whitestudents left Boston’s public system for parochial andprivate schools. By late 1976, African Americans,Hispanics, and other minorities made up the major-ity of Boston’s public school students. This “whiteflight” also occurred in other cities.

New Political Leaders In their struggle for equalopportunity, African Americans found new politicalleaders in people such as Jesse Jackson. In 1971Jackson founded People United to Save Humanity, orPUSH, a group aimed at registering voters, develop-ing African American businesses, and broadeningeducational opportunities. In 1984 and 1988, Jacksonsought the Democratic presidential nomination.Although both attempts were unsuccessful, Jacksondid win over millions of voters.

African Americans and Asian Americans andPacific Islanders also became more influential inCongress. In 1957, Dalip Singh from California was elected to Congress. Both Daniel K. Inouye andSpark Matsunaga were elected to Congress in 1962 to represent Hawaii. Two years later, in 1964, Patsy Takemoto Mink of Hawaii became the firstAsian-American woman elected to Congress. In 1971,

African American members of Congress reorganizedan existing organization into the CongressionalBlack Caucus in order to more clearly represent theconcerns of African Americans.

Another leader who emerged was LouisFarrakhan of the Nation of Islam. In 1994, he helpedorganize the Million Man March, a gathering ofAfrican American men in Washington, D.C. to pro-mote self-reliance and community responsibility.

With increasing political influence, Asian andPacific Americans also began to organize to achieveracial equality and social justice. The first notableaction of the Asian American Movement occurred in1968 at the Third World Strike at San Francisco StateCollege. This month long strike became the longeststudent-led strike in United States history. Manyminority groups and organizations gathered toprotest for racial equality. In 1977, Asian PacificAmericans received recognition from the governmentwhen congress passed a resolution declaring the first10 days of May as Asian/Pacific Heritage Week.President Jimmy Carter approved this resolution in1978, designating this week as an annual celebration.

Examining What were the goals ofaffirmative action policies?

Reading Check


New African American Leadership Andrew Young and Jesse Jackson both worked with Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., in the civil rightsmovement. Young went on to become the first African American ambassador to the United Nations, while Jackson has become a promi-nent member of the Democratic Party. What group of African American members of Congress became influential in the 1970s?

History

Jacques M. Chenet/CORBIS

Hispanic Americans Organize

Hispanic Americans worked to improve theirrights by organizing a farm workers’ union and callingfor bilingual education.

Reading Connection Have you studied a foreign lan-guage? What was the experience like? Read on to discover how Hispanic Americans fought for education in Spanish aswell as English.

Hispanic Americans also worked for greater rightsin this period. In 1960 about 3 million Hispanics livedin the United States. This number increased rapidlyafter the passage of the Immigration Act of 1965.

Hispanics came to the United States from coun-tries such as Cuba and Mexico to flee repressivepolitical regimes or to find jobs and better lives. Thelargest group was Mexican Americans, many ofwhom arrived during and after World War II to workon huge farms in the South and West.

Many Hispanics arrived illegally, sometimescrossing the U.S.-Mexican border with the help of“coyotes,” often unscrupulous guides who chargedhuge sums of money for their services. Because theylacked legal protection, they were often exploited

by employers, working under poor conditions forlittle pay.

César Chávez and the UFW One notable HispanicAmerican campaign was the effort to win rights forfarmworkers. Most Mexican American farm laborersearned little pay, received few benefits, and had no jobsecurity. In the early 1960s, César Chávez and DoloresHuerta organized two groups that fought for farm-workers. In 1965 the groups cooperated in a strikeagainst California growers to demand union recogni-tion, increased wages, and better benefits.

When employers resisted, Chávez enlisted collegestudents, churches, and civil rights groups to organ-ize a national boycott of table grapes, one ofCalifornia’s largest agricultural products. An esti-mated 17 million citizens stopped buying them, andindustry profits tumbled.

Under the sponsorship of the American Federationof Labor and Congress of Industrial Organization(AFL-CIO), in 1966 Chávez and Huerta merged theirtwo organizations into one—the United FarmWorkers (UFW). The union’s combined strengthensured that the boycott would continue. The boycottended in 1970, when the grape growers finally agreedto a contract to raise wages and improve workingconditions.


i n H i s t o r y

Dolores Huerta1930–

Dolores Huerta began her career asan elementary school teacher, but shesoon left, believing that she could domore good for Mexican Americans out-side the classroom. “I couldn’t standseeing kids come to class hungry andneeding shoes,” she said. “I thought Icould do more by organizing farm-workers than by trying to teach theirhungry children.”

In the early 1950s, Huerta helped found the Stockton, California,chapter of the Community Service Organization (CSO). This grass-roots group led voter registration drives, pushed for improvedpublic services, and fought for legislation on behalf of low-incomeworkers.

It was through her work with the CSO that Huerta met CésarChávez. Together, they organized farmworkers into a union andfought for better wages and working conditions.

José Angel Gutiérrez1944–

As a young social activist, José AngelGutiérrez set out to organize MexicanAmericans from Crystal City, Texas, into apolitical force. In 1970 his newly foundedpolitical party, La Raza Unida, partici-pated in local elections. Over the nextfew years, Mexican Americans gainedcontrol of Crystal City’s school systemand government.

As La Raza Unida gained a more national following, Gutiérrezbecame a prominent figure. He eventually stepped away from thepolitical scene, serving first as a judge and then as a college profes-sor. Gutiérrez found it difficult to stay away from politics, however,and in 1993, he ran unsuccessfully for a U.S. Senate seat. After that,he established his own legal center. Looking upon Gutiérrez’scareer, one historian said, “He represents the new breed ofChicano professionals produced by the colleges and universities,but he is still a Chicano with the old dream of revolution.”

(l)Arthur Schatz/TimePix/Getty Images, (r)Al Ransom/TimePix/Getty Images

Growing Political Activism The League ofUnited Latin American Citizens, or LULAC, foundedin Corpus Christi, Texas, in 1929, had long workedfor Mexican American rights in the court system, inhiring, and in education. In 1954 LULAC brought thelandmark case of Hernandez v. the State of Texas to theSupreme Court, winning the right of MexicanAmericans to serve on juries.

Hispanic Americans became more politicallyactive during the 1960s and 1970s. In 1969 José AngelGutiérrez organized a new political party in Texascalled La Raza Unida, or “the United People.” Thegroup mobilized Mexican American voters to pushfor job training programs and greater access to finan-cial institutions.

One issue both Hispanic students and politicalleaders promoted was bilingualism, the practice ofteaching immigrant students in their own languagewhile they also learned English. Many Hispanicsargued they would be at a competitive disadvantagewith native English speakers unless they had school-ing in their native language. Congress supportedtheir arguments, passing the Bilingual Education Actin 1968. This directed school districts to set up classesfor immigrants in their own language.

In recent years there has been some movementaway from bilingualism in states with large Hispanicpopulations. Some educators argue that total immer-sion in English is the soundest road to educationalsuccess. Some American voters opposed bilingualeducation, believing it makes it more difficult for achild to adjust to American culture and that it wascostly besides. The U.S. Supreme Court, however,upheld bilingualism in 1974.

Explaining How did HispanicAmericans increase their economic opportunities in the 1960s?

Native Americans Raise Their Voices

The American Indian Movement (AIM) usedprotests and legal battles to win victories in the questfor civil rights and equal opportunities.

Reading Connection Do you remember earlier effortsto assist Native Americans? Read on to learn about events in the1960s that brought some political gains to Native Americans.

Native Americans in 1970 were one of the nation’ssmallest minority groups, constituting less than onepercent of the U.S. population. Few minority groups,

Reading Check

however, had more justifi-able grievances than thedescendants of America’soriginal inhabitants. NativeAmericans were at a disad-vantage in income, educa-tion, and healthcare. Theaverage annual familyincome of Native Americanswas $1,000 less than that ofAfrican Americans. TheNative American unemploy-ment rate was 10 times thenational rate. Joblessness wasparticularly high on reservation lands, where nearlyhalf of all Native Americans lived. Most urban NativeAmericans suffered from discrimination and from lim-ited education and training. The bleakest statistic of allshowed that life expectancy among Native Americanswas almost seven years below the national average. Toimprove conditions, many Native Americans beganorganizing in the late 1960s and 1970s.

A Protest Movement Emerges In 1961 morethan 400 members of 67 Native American groupsgathered in Chicago to discuss ways to address theirnumerous problems. They issued a manifesto,known as the Declaration of Indian Purpose, callingfor policies to create greater economic opportunitieson reservations.


Student WebActivity Visit theAmerican Vision:Modern Times Web siteatand click on StudentWeb Activities—Chapter 18 for anactivity on protestmovements.

HISTORY

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Source: Statistical Abstract of the United States.

Popu

latio

n (in

mill

ions

)

1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

35MexicanPuerto Rican

65.9% 9.6%

CubanAll other

4.3%20.0%

302520151050

Year

U.S. Hispanic Population GrowthSince 1980

1. Interpreting Graphs The U.S. Hispanic popula-tion is made up of which main groups?

2. Drawing Conclusions Why have HispanicAmericans experienced growing political influ-ence in recent years?


Unlike other groups demanding more assimilationinto mainstream society, many Native Americanswanted greater independence from it. They hoped topreserve their culture and heritage by not assimilat-ing completely with American culture. NativeAmericans took a step toward this goal in 1968 whenCongress passed the Indian Civil Rights Act. It guar-anteed reservation residents the protections of theBill of Rights, but it also recognized the legitimacy oflocal reservation law.

Some Native Americans thought the reforms thegovernment had introduced were too modest. Intheir view, the many years of effort to gain morerights did not provide enough gains. As a response,they formed more militant groups. Typically, suchgroups employed a more combative style. One ofthese groups, the American Indian Movement (AIM),was organized in 1968 to fight high unemployment,inadequate housing, and racial discrimination. Thegroup also focused on treaty rights and worked toregain tribal lands. In 1969, as a symbolic protest,

AIM occupied the abandoned federal prison onAlcatraz Island in San Francisco Bay for 19 months,claiming ownership “by right of discovery.”

A more famous and violent protest occurredalmost two years later at Wounded Knee, SouthDakota, where federal troops had killed around 150Sioux in 1890. In February 1973, AIM membersseized and occupied the town of Wounded Knee for70 days. They demanded radical changes in theadministration of reservations and that the govern-ment honor its long-forgotten treaty obligations toNative Americans. A brief clash between the occu-piers and the FBI killed two Native Americans andwounded several on both sides. Shortly thereafter,the siege came to an end.

Native Americans Make Notable Gains TheNative American movement fell short of achieving allits goals, but it did win some notable victories. In 1975Congress passed the Indian Self-Determination andEducational Assistance Act, which increased funds for


Wounded Knee Armed Native Americans stand guard during the occupationof Wounded Knee, South Dakota. Many of the Native American activists rejectedan offer from the federal government allowing them to leave before the govern-ment took action. What did the activists hope to gain by occupying the town?

History

Bettmann/CORBIS

Native American education and expanded local con-trol in administering federal programs. More NativeAmericans also moved into policy-making positionsat the Bureau of Indian Affairs, and the agency pushedfor more Native American self determination.

Through the federal court system, Native Amer-icans also won a number of the land and water rightsthey sought. The Pueblo of Taos, New Mexico,regained property rights to Blue Lake, a place sacredto their religion. In 1980, a federal court settled a claimof the Passamaquoddy and the Penobscot groups.The government paid the groups $81.5 million torelinquish their claim on land in the state of Maine.The two groups purchased 300,000 acres with themoney and invested much of the remainder. Othercourt decisions gave Native American groups author-ity to impose taxes on businesses on their reservationsand to perform other sovereign functions.

Since Native Americans first began to organize,many reservations have dramatically improved theireconomic conditions by actively developing busi-nesses, such as electric plants, resorts, cattle ranches,and oil and gas wells. More recently, gambling casi-nos have become a successful enterprise. Because ofrulings on sovereignty, Native Americans in someareas are allowed to operate gaming establishmentsunder their own laws even though state laws pre-vent others from doing so. In these ways, NativeAmericans have tried to regain control of their eco-nomic future, just as other American minorities didin the 1960s and 1970s.

Analyzing What conditions ledNative Americans to organize in the 1960s?

Reading Check


Checking for Understanding1. Vocabulary Define: federal, affirmative

action, contract, busing, bilingualism,guarantee.

2. People and Terms Identify: AllanBakke, Jesse Jackson, CongressionalBlack Caucus, César Chávez, La RazaUnida, American Indian Movement.

3. Analyze how the Bakke case, along withother cases, affected affirmative action.

Reviewing Big Ideas4. Explaining How did the Supreme Court

support civil rights during the 1970s?Cite two court cases and their decisions.

Critical Thinking5. Synthesizing

Why have African Americans becomesignificantly more influential in the U.S.Congress since the early 1970s?

6. Categorizing Use a graphic organizersimilar to the one below to identify civilrights leaders and their causes duringthe 1960s and 1970s.

Analyzing Visuals7. Analyzing Graphs Study the graph on

page 829 of U.S. Hispanic populationgrowth since 1980. The largest percent-age of Hispanics is represented byMexican Americans. What was theapproximate percentage growth forHispanic Americans from 1980 to 2000?

CA HI1

Writing About History8. Expository Writing Write a magazine

article about the conditions that gaverise to the Native American protestmovement of the 1960s and 1970s. Inyour article, discuss the movement’sgoals and activities. CA 11WA2.1a

Civil Rights Leaders Causes

Native American Rights Many Native Americans, like this highschool student, worked to gain more freedom and improve their lives.The increase in Native American organizations has led to improved quality of life and economic conditions. How have reservations beenable to improve their economic conditions?

History


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Bob Daemmrich/The Image Works



Guide to Reading

ConnectionIn the previous section, you learned howminority groups gained greater civilequality. In this section, you will discoverhow Americans grew concerned aboutenvironmental issues.

• Rachel Carson’s book Silent Springwarned the public of the dangers ofpollution and pesticides. (p. 833)

• In the early 1970s, Congress passed legislation to protect the nation’s air,water, and endangered species. (p.834)

• Concerns about the quality and safetyof many products, including automo-biles, led to new legislation protectingconsumers. (p. 836)

Content Vocabularysmog, fossil fuel

Academic Vocabularypublication, nonetheless, consequence

People and Terms to IdentifyRachel Carson, Environmental ProtectionAgency, Three Mile Island, Ralph Nader

Reading Objectives• Explain the origins of the environmen-

tal movement.• Identify the significant measures taken

to combat environmental problems.

Reading StrategyOrganizing As you read about thenation’s environmental problems in the1960s and 1970s, complete a graphicorganizer by including actions taken tocombat these problems.

Preview of Events

Saving the Earth

ActionsTaken

1962Rachel Carson’s SilentSpring published

✦1968 ✦1980✦1974

1965Ralph Nader’s Unsafe atAny Speed published

1970First Earth Day celebrated;EPA established

1979Nuclear accident atThree Mile Island

1972U.S. bans use ofpesticide DDT

✦1962

. The Big Idea ,Societies change over time. During the 1960s and 1970s, Americans becameaware of environmental problems. As the dangers of pesticides such as DDTbecame known, individuals and groups began efforts to halt their use. The environ-mental movement gained public support, and the government began to take actionby establishing the Environmental Protection Agency. Congress passed several actsaimed at protecting the nation’s air, water, and endangered species. Many citizenswere also concerned with nuclear energy and its effects on the environment andpeople’s health. People also began to question the safety of consumer goods. Theconsumer movement led to new legislation to protect consumers from defectiveand unsafe products, including automobiles.


11.8.6 Discuss the diverse environ-mental regions of North America,their relationship to local economies,and the origins and prospects of envi-ronmental problems in those regions.

11.11.5 Trace the impact of, need for,and controversies associated with envi-ronmental conservation, expansion ofthe national park system, and the devel-opment of environmental protection laws,with particular attention to the interactionbetween environmental protection advo-cates and property right advocates.

11.11.7 Explain how the federal, state, andlocal governments have responded to demo-graphic and social changes such as populationshifts to the suburbs, racial concentrations in the cities, Frostbelt-to-Sunbelt migration, international migration, decline of family farms, increases in out-of-wedlock births, anddrug abuse.

The Beginnings ofEnvironmentalism

Rachel Carson’s book Silent Spring warnedthe public of the dangers of pollution and pesticides.

Reading Connection Do you recycle or take othersteps to protect the environment? Read on to learn of the con-troversies associated with environmental conservation and thedevelopment of environmental protection laws.

During the 1960s and 1970s, a growing number ofAmericans began to focus on environmental issues.They argued that pesticides had damaged wildlife andthat pollution had fouled the nation’s air and water.

In 1966 Carol Yannacone of Patchogue, a smallcommunity on Long Island, New York, learned thatofficials were using a powerful pesticide, DDT, as partof a mosquito control operation in a local lake.Alarmed that the pesticide would poison lakes andstreams, Yannacone and her husband, Victor, an attor-ney, contacted several local scientists, who confirmedtheir suspicions. The Yannacones then successfullysued to halt the use of the pesticide.

The Yannacones had discovered a new strategy foraddressing environmental concerns. The legal system,Victor Yannacone insisted, was the one place wherefacts and evidence, not politics and emotions, woulddecide the outcome:

“A court . . . is the only forum in which a full inquiryinto questions of environmental significance can be car-ried on. . . . Only on the witness stand, protected by therules of evidence though subject to cross-examination,can a scientist be free of the harassment of legislatorsseeking re-election of higher political office; free fromthe glare of the controversy-seeking media; free fromunsubstantiated attacks of self-styled experts represent-ing vested economic interests and yet who are not sub-ject to cross examination.”

—quoted in Since Silent Spring

Shortly after the Yannacones’ court victory, the sci-entists involved in the case established theEnvironmental Defense Fund and used its contribu-tions for a series of legal actions across the country to

halt DDT spraying. Their efforts led to a nationwideban on the use of the pesticide in 1972.

The effort to ban DDT was only one aspect of alarger environmental movement that took shape inthe 1960s and 1970s. The person who sounded theloudest alarm bell was not a political leader or promi-nent academic, but a soft-spoken marine biologist,Rachel Carson. Carson’s 1962 book Silent Springassailed the increasing use of pesticides, particularlyDDT. She contended that while pesticides curbedinsect populations, they also killed birds, fish, andother creatures that might ingest them. Carsonwarned Americans of a “silent spring,” in whichthere would be few birds left to usher spring in withtheir songs. In her book, she imagined such a scenefrom a fictitious town:

“There was a strange stillness. The birds, for exam-ple—where had they gone? Many people spoke ofthem, puzzled and disturbed. . . . On the morningsthat had once throbbed with the dawn chorus ofrobins, catbirds, doves, jays, wrens, and scores ofother bird voices there was now no sound; onlysilence lay over the fields and woods and marsh.”

—from Silent Spring

The Power of One Rachel Carson, a marine biologist, sounded a warningnote for the environment. Her concern over how humans affect the environ-ment helped start a new reform movement. What pesticide in particular worried Carson?

History

Alfred Eisenstaedt/TimePix/Getty Images

Silent Spring became one of the most controversialand powerful books of the 1960s. It sold nearly half amillion copies within six months of its publicationand was widely discussed. The chemical industrywas outraged and began an intense campaign to dis-credit Carson and her arguments. Nonetheless,many Americans took Carson’s warnings to heartand began to focus on environmental issues.

Identifying What natural resourcesdid environmental groups want to protect?

The Environmental Movement

In the early 1970s, Congress passed legisla-tion to protect the nation’s air, water, and endangeredspecies.

Reading Connection Who do you think should beresponsible for protecting the public against environmental dis-asters? Read on to discover ways that the federal governmentbecame involved in the environmental movement.

During the 1960s, Americans began to feel thatenvironmental problems plagued every region of thenation. In the Northwest, timber companies werecutting down acres of forestland. Smog, or fog made

Reading Check

heavier and darker by smokeand chemical fumes, wassmothering major cities. In1969 a major oil spill off SantaBarbara, California, ruinedmiles of beach and killedscores of birds and aquaticanimals. A dike project in theFlorida Everglades indirectlykilled millions of birds andanimals. Meanwhile, pollu-tion and garbage had caused

nearly all the fish to disappear from Lake Erie. By1970 a growing number of citizens were convincedthat the time had come to do something about pro-tecting the environment.

A Grassroots Effort Begins Many observerspoint to April 1970 as the unofficial beginning of theenvironmental movement. That month, the nationheld its first Earth Day celebration, a day devoted toaddressing the country’s environmental concerns.The national response was overwhelming. In thou-sands of colleges and secondary schools and in hun-dreds of communities, millions of Americansparticipated in activities to show their environmentalawareness, from picking up litter to demonstratingagainst air pollution.

Senator Gaylord Nelson of Wisconsin, who hadput forth the idea of an Earth Day celebration, com-mented on the event: “The people cared and EarthDay became the first opportunity they ever had tojoin in a nationwide demonstration to send a mes-sage to the politicians—a message to tell them towake up and do something.”

After Earth Day, the grassroots effort intensified.Citizens formed local environmental groups, whilenonprofit organizations such as the Sierra Club, theAudubon Society, and the Wilderness Society gainedprominence. These organizations worked to protectthe environment and promote the conservation ofnatural resources. In 1970 activists started theNatural Resources Defense Council to coordinate anationwide network of scientists, lawyers, andactivists working on environmental problems.

The Government Steps In With the environmen-tal movement gaining public support, the federalgovernment took action. In 1970 President Nixonsigned the National Environmental Policy Act, whichcreated the Environmental Protection Agency(EPA). The EPA took on the job of setting and enforc-ing pollution standards, promoting research, and


Environmental Awareness Numerous oil spills and events such asEarth Day have brought environmental concerns to the attention ofAmericans. What issues does the Sierra Club address?

History

Simon Fraser/Science Photo Library/Photo Researchers, (inset)Ken Regan, Camera 5

coordinating antipollution activities with state andlocal governments. The agency also monitored theimpact of other federal agencies on the environment.

The Clean Air Act also became law in 1970. Thisact established emissions standards for factories andautomobiles. It also ordered that all industries com-ply with such standards within five years.

In following years, Congress passed two morepieces of significant environmental legislation. TheClean Water Act (1972) restricted the discharge ofpollutants into the nation’s lakes and rivers, and theEndangered Species Act (1973) established measuresfor saving threatened animal species. Over time theselaws reduced smog and cut pollution levels.

In 1984 the World Court settled a boundary dis-pute between the United States and Canada overcommercial fishing in the Georges Bank. The bankwas divided between the countries by a borderknown as the Hague Line. This reduced the numberof U.S. fishing boats and briefly replenished the num-ber of fish in the bank.

Love Canal Despite the flurry of federal environ-mental legislation, Americans continued to mobilizeon the community level throughout the 1970s. One ofthe most powerful displays of community activismoccurred in a housing development near NiagaraFalls, New York, known as Love Canal.

In the 1970s, residents of Love Canal noticed a ris-ing number of health problems in their community,including nerve damage, blood diseases, cancer, mis-carriages, and birth defects. They soon learned thattheir community sat atop a decades-old toxic wastedump. Over time its hazardous contents had leakedinto the ground.

Led by a local woman, Lois Gibbs, the residentsjoined together and demanded that the governmenttake steps to address these health threats. Hinderedat first by local and state officials, the residentsrefused to back down, and by 1978 they had madetheir struggle known to the entire nation. That year,in the face of mounting public pressure and evidenceof the dangers posed by the dump, the state perma-nently relocated more than 200 families.

In 1980, after hearing protests from the familieswho still lived near the landfill, President Carterdeclared Love Canal a federal disaster area andmoved over 600 remaining families to new locations.In 1983 Love Canal residents sued the company thathad created the dump site and settled the case for $20million. The site was cleaned up by sealing the wastewithin an underground bunker and burning homeslocated above the dumping ground.

Concerns Over Nuclear Energy During the1970s, an increasing number of citizens expressedconcern over the growth of nuclear power. Sup-porters of nuclear energy hailed it as a cleaner andless expensive alternative to fossil fuels, such as coal,oil, and natural gas, which are in limited supply.Opponents warned of the risks, particularly the dev-astating consequences of an accidental radiationrelease into the air.

The debate moved to the nation’s forefront in 1979.In the early hours of March 28, one of the reactors at theThree Mile Island nuclear facility outside Harrisburg,Pennsylvania, overheated after its cooling systemfailed. While plant officials scrambled to fix the prob-lem, low levels of radiation escaped from the reactor.

Officials evacuated many nearby residents, whileothers fled on their own. Citizens and communitygroups expressed outrage in protest rallies. Officialsclosed down the reactor and sealed the leak. TheNuclear Regulatory Commission, the federal agencythat regulates the nuclear power industry, eventuallydeclared the plant safe.

The accident at Three Mile Island had a powerfulimpact and left much of the public in great doubtabout the safety of nuclear energy. Such doubts havecontinued. Since Three Mile Island, 60 nuclear powerplants have been shut down or abandoned, and nonew facilities have been built since 1973.


Spraying pesticides

➤

Nathan Benn/CORBIS

The Debate Over Environmentalism The envi-ronmentalist movement that emerged in the 1970sled to a new political debate in American society. Asenvironmentalists began proposing regulations theybelieved would help the environment, opponentsbegan arguing that the regulations had hidden costs.

One controversial issue involved DDT. The WorldHealth Organization has estimated that DDT saved25 million lives worldwide by killing disease-spreading pests such as mosquitoes and lice. DespiteDDT’s value in reducing disease, however, mostnations followed the U.S. example and banned thepesticide. Soon afterward, cases of malaria andtyphus began to rise again worldwide.

The debate over DDT demonstrated the difficultyin balancing the costs and benefits of environmentalregulations. Supporters of nuclear power havepointed out that coal-fired power plants also put peo-ple at risk. Miners regularly develop black lung dis-ease and die in mining accidents while mining coalfor power plants. Coal-fired plants also pollute theair. Yet requiring power plants, cars, and factories toreduce their air pollution may drive up the cost ofgoods. This can lead to fewer jobs and more poverty,and make more products unaffordable to people ofmodest means. Environmental regulations can also

clash with people’s property rights. As a result, theenvironmentalist movement became increasinglycontroversial in the 1980s and 1990s, as interestgroups, business leaders, and politicians took sidesin the debate over the costs and benefits of environ-mentalist policies. The debate has continued to shapepolitics to the present day.

Summarizing What is the environ-mental movement’s main goal?

The Consumer Movement

Concerns about the quality and safety ofmany products, including automobiles, led to new legis-lation protecting consumers.

Reading Connection What are some of the safety fea-tures that are now standard in vehicles? Read on to find outabout the beginnings of a consumer safety movement.

During the 1960s and 1970s, a number of citizensalso questioned the quality and safety of the manynew “technologically advanced” products floodingthe market. In an atmosphere of protest and overalldistrust of authority, more and more buyers

Reading Check


SolarEnergyConcerns in the 1970s aboutthe environment and safeenergy led to a strong inter-est in solar energy. Sunlightis composed of photons,particles of solar energy.The use of photovoltaic (PV)cells allows solar energy tobe used for a wide range ofenergy needs, from power-ing generators to runningagricultural water pumps orsimple calculators. Whywas solar power seen asan environmentallyfriendly power source?

1

2

Solar arrays or panels are madeup of thousands of PV cells andcapture the sun’s rays.

This magnificationshows the compositionof a PV cell. This schematic shows a cross-

section of a cell and how itselectrons respond to sunlight tocreate a flow of electricity.

3

demanded product safety, accurate information, anda voice in government formulation of consumerpolicy.

Perhaps the most notable figure of this new con-sumer protection movement was Ralph Nader, ayoung lawyer from Connecticut. In the early 1960s,Nader noted what he considered an alarmingly highnumber of automobile fatalities. He presented hisfindings in a 1965 book, Unsafe at Any Speed. Nadercharged car manufacturers with putting style, cost,and speed ahead of safety. He also challenged one ofthe auto industry’s long-held claims that driverswere to blame for most auto accidents:

“The American automobile is produced exclusivelyto the standards which the manufacturer decides toestablish. It comes into the marketplace unchecked.When a car becomes involved in an accident, theentire investigatory, enforcement and claims appara-tus that makes up the post-accident response looksalmost invariably to driver failure as the cause. . . .Accommodated by superficial standards of accidentinvestigation, the car manufacturers exude presump-tions of engineering excellence and reliability, andthis reputation is accepted by many unknowingmotorists.”

—from Unsafe at Any Speed

Nader’s efforts received an accidental boost froman unlikely source: the auto industry. Shortly after hisbook came out, a car company hired private detec-tives to follow Nader in an attempt to uncover infor-mation that might discredit him. The detectives

found nothing, and when this corporate spying inci-dent came to light, the publicity pushed Unsafe atAny Speed up the bestseller list. As a result, the publicbecame much more aware of auto safety issues.Nader sued the car company for invasion of privacyand used the settlement money to fund several con-sumer organizations.

Nader’s efforts helped spur Congress to pass theNational Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act in 1966.The act set mandatory safety standards and estab-lished a procedure for notifying car owners aboutdefects. For the first time, the automobile industrywas subject to federal safety regulations. Carmakershad to incorporate safety standards into their cardesigns so that auto crashes would be less devastat-ing. Requirements that called for the installation ofseat belts, door locks, safer fuel tanks, and otherimprovements have since saved hundreds of thou-sands of lives and prevented millions of injuries.

Nader’s success led to calls for a closer examina-tion of numerous other consumer goods during the1960s and 1970s. Organizations lobbied Congressand state legislatures to pass laws regulating suchproducts as dangerous toys, flammable fabrics, andpotentially unsafe meat and poultry.

Describing What was the impact ofthe consumer protection movement?

Reading Check


Checking for Understanding1. Vocabulary Define: publication,

nonetheless, smog, fossil fuel,consequence.

2. People and Terms Identify: RachelCarson, Environmental ProtectionAgency, Three Mile Island, Ralph Nader.

3. List three measures taken to combatenvironmental problems in the 1960sand 1970s.

Reviewing Big Ideas4. Identifying What groups lobbied for

government legislation to protect theenvironment in the 1960s and 1970s?

Critical Thinking5. Evaluating

Which environmental issue do youthink is the most pressing problem theenvironment faces today? Explain yourresponse.

6. Categorizing Use a graphic organizersimilar to the one below to list the envi-ronmental laws passed in the 1970s andexplain their purposes.

Analyzing Visuals7. Analyzing Posters Examine the “Love

It or Leave It” poster on page 834. Thisphrase was first used by Vietnam Warsupporters, directed toward critics ofthe war and referring to the UnitedStates instead of the earth. How has thephrase been adapted here?

CA HI5

Writing About History8. Descriptive Writing Take on the role

of an investigative reporter and describethe environmental disaster at eitherLove Canal or Three Mile Island. Explainhow community activism brought theissue to the nation’s attention.

CA 11WA2.1a

Environmental Legislation Purpose


tav.mt.glencoe.com



Bowling Green, KY

CANADA

UNITED STATES

MEXICO

ECUADOR

GERMANY

Geography&History

The production of a GM Chevrolet Corvette in Bowling Green, Kentucky,requires the assembly of components from around the world: an enginefrom Canada, a transmission from Mexico, balsa wood floor plates fromEcuador, switches from Germany, circuit boards from several Asiannations, and brakes from Australia.

Transmissions are manufac-tured in Mexico, where laborcosts are relatively low.

Light and durable balsa woodfloor plates are produced inEcuador, because the wood is abundant there.

Engines are made in Canada,close to the automotive assemblycenters of the United States.

838 CHAPTER 18 The Politics of Protest(t)Illustrations by David Kimble, (c)Molded Fiber Glass Companies, (b)Chevrolet communications

LEARNING FROM GEOGRAPHY

1. What three criteria are considered indecisions about suppliers?

2. Why might geography no longer beas big a factor as it once was in thelocation of a production plant?

Technological advances have alsomade manufacturing more efficient.For example, automakers can keeptrack of parts and suppliers so thatthe essential components can bedelivered to factories from anywherein the world “just in time”to assemblethe finished product.

Multinational corporations nowaccount for about two-thirds of theworld’s trade in products.Global cor-porations have become enormous,and the largest ones are wealthierthan entire countries.The income ofGeneral Motors, for instance, rivalsgross national products of the mid-sized economies of nations such asSouth Africa,Turkey, and Saudi Arabia.

The auto industry has come a long way since Henry Ford perfectedassembly line production techniquesthat made cars affordable for the massmarket.Today’s automakers haveadopted global assembly lines,apply-ing Ford’s innovations—standardizedjob tasks and division of labor—acrossinternational boundaries.

Global Cars

The globalization of the world economy since theend of World War II has revolutionized the way in which industries and cor-

porations operate.Tremendousadvances in technology,communica-tions, and the transport of goods haveenabled corporations to turn moreand more often to manufacturingfacilities and resources around theworld.The car industry is a goodexample of this trend.

For decades American automak-ers have operated assembly plants in foreign countries, including Brazil,Poland, India, and China.Car compa-nies have also established plantsabroad that manufacture particularcomponents,which are then assem-bled in an American factory. Asshown on the world map on the left,foreign manufacturers build majorcomponents of the ChevroletCorvette and ship them to BowlingGreen,Kentucky. There,workersassemble the parts—along with some1,900 others manufactured by about400 suppliers—into the finished car.The process of finding part suppliersoutside of the company,known as“outsourcing,” is one way multina-tional corporations try to gain a com-petitive advantage over their rivals.Companies contract with foreign sup-pliers that meet a combination of cri-teria, including cost,quality, and easeof delivery.

Computers and the Internet havemade worldwide communication dra-matically easier, faster, and cheaper.

Cars are shipped all over theworld. Here, Japanese cars areunloaded from a large containership in Baltimore, Maryland.

A worker assembles a Corvette at a plant inBowling Green, Kentucky.

AUSTRALIA

JAPAN

THAILAND

SINGAPORE

A German factory produces very highquality switches that can easily beshipped to the United States.

Circuit boards are assembled with parts from Japan, Thailand,and Singapore.

An Australian company with manufac-turing facilities in the United States pro-vides the premier brake pads neededin high-performance vehicles.

CHAPTER 18 The Politics of Protest 839(tl)Illustration by David Kimble, (tc)Jim Heafner, (tr)General Motors Corporation, (c)Used with permission, General Motors, GM, Chevrolet, Corvette & the Corvette Emblem are registered trademarks of GM

Corp., (b)Paul Conklin/PhotoEdit/PictureQuest

SOURCE 1:Betty Friedan helped start the women’s movement of the1960s by publishing The Feminine Mystique in 1963.She argued that society had pressured women to ignoretheir intellect and to sacrifice themselves entirely to theneeds of the family. In her 1976 memoir, Friedan recalledthe reaction to her book.

The emotions that bookstirred up in women werenot simple. In addition tothe dozens, then hundreds,by now thousands of lettersof relief, I received manyangry letters from women.In fact, I would hear of cock-tail parties being broken upby women arguing over my book. . . .

A woman called in to a television program inDetroit where I was publi-cizing the book. “Tell herto go back and take careof her own children andstop putting ideas into mydaughter’s head,” the woman sputtered angrily.“Being a mother is all women were meant to be; I would never leave any child of mine with a baby-sitter.” Thinking to suggest she might feel different a little later, I said, “How old is your youngest child?”“Twenty-three,” said the lifelong mother. . . .

I got very few angry letters from men. From thevery beginning, there was much less hostility frommen than one might have expected. Many womentold me their husbands had bought The Feminine

Mystique for them to read. It was much more of athreat to women—the challenge, the possibility, therisk and test of moving in society as a person onone’s own—than to their husbands. From the begin-ning, many men seemed to sense that women’s liberation would liberate them. It was women whofelt the fear—and the relief.

SOURCE 2:The National Organizationfor Women (NOW), co-founded by Friedan in1966, formed chiefly tofight gender discrimination in the workplace. Its state-ment of purpose asked forwomen’s full involvementin American society and an equal partnership with men.

We, men and womenwho hereby constitute ourselves as the NationalOrganization for Women,believe that the time has

come for a new movement toward true equality for allwomen in America, and toward a fully equal partner-ship of the sexes, as part of the world-wide revolutionof human rights now taking place within and beyondour national borders.

The purpose of NOW is to take action to bringwomen into full participation in the mainstream ofAmerican society now, exercising all the privilegesand responsibilities thereof in truly equal partnershipwith men. . . .

In the 1960s, feminism became a major issue on the national agenda. Many women hadbecome disenchanted with their lives and turned their anger into a political movement. Bythe 1970s, the movement began to stall as conservative activists working against feministsrose to power.


Founders of NOW, Chairman of the Board Dr. Kathryn F.Clarenbach and President Betty Friedan

➤

Bettmann/CORBIS

NOW is dedicated to the propo-sition that women first and fore-most are human beings, who, likeall other people in our society,must have the chance to developtheir fullest human potential. Webelieve that women can achievesuch equality only by accepting tothe full the challenges and respon-sibilities they share with all otherpeople in our society, as part ofthe decision-making mainstreamof American political, economicand social life. . . .

WE BELIEVE THAT women willdo most to create a new image of women by acting now, and byspeaking out in behalf of theirown equality, freedom, andhuman dignity—not in pleas forspecial privilege, nor in enmity1

toward men, who are also victimsof the current half-equality between the sexes—but inan active, self-respecting partnership with men. By sodoing, women will develop confidence in their own ability to determine actively, in partnership with men,the conditions of their life, their choices, their futureand their society.

SOURCE 3:Phyllis Schlafly a conservative attorney from Illinois, led the antifeminist movement. In her 1977 book, ThePower of the Positive Woman, Schlafly stressed thatwomen’s liberation posed a threat to women.

The Positive Woman starts with the assumption that the world is her oyster. She rejoices in the creativecapability within her body and the power potential ofher mind and spirit. She understands that men andwomen are different, and that those very differencesprovide the key to her success as a person and fulfill-ment as a woman.

The women’s liberationist, on the other hand, isimprisoned by her own negative view of herself andof her place in the world around her. . . .

This is the self-articulated dog-in-the-manger,chip-on-the-shoulder, fundamental dogma2 of the

women’s liberation movement.Someone—it is not clear who,perhaps God, perhaps the“Establishment,” perhaps a con-spiracy of male chauvinist pigs—dealt women a foul blow bymaking them female. It becomesnecessary, therefore, for womento agitate and demonstrate andhurl demands on society in orderto wrest from an oppressivemale-dominated social structurethe status that has been wrong-fully denied to women throughthe centuries.

By its very nature, therefore,the women’s liberation move-ment precipitates a series of conflict situations—in the legisla-tures, in the courts, in the schools,in industry—with man targeted as the enemy. Confrontation

replaces cooperation as the watchword of all rela-tionships. Women and men become adversariesinstead of partners. . . .

. . . A Positive Woman cannot defeat a man in awrestling or boxing match, but she can motivate him,inspire him, encourage him, teach him, restrain him,reward him, and have power over him that he cannever achieve over her with all his muscle. How orwhether a Positive Woman uses her power is deter-mined solely by the way she alone defines her goalsand develops her skills.


Source 1: How does Friedan describe the responseof women and men to her book?

Source 2: What is the main goal of NOW?

Source 3: Why does Schlafly believe that women’sliberation is a threat to women?

Comparing and Contrasting SourcesHow do Friedan, Schlafly, and NOW differ in theirdescriptions on how women and men viewed each other?➤

1enmity: anger2dogma: something presented as authoritative without proof

Phyllis Schlafly➤

CA HI2; HI3

Reviewing Academic VocabularyOn a sheet of paper, use each of these terms in a sentence thatreflects the term’s meaning in the chapter.

Reviewing the Main IdeasSection 122. What was the Free Speech Movement?

Section 223. How did Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 promote

women’s equality?

1. counterculture2. commune3. feminism4. Title IX

5. affirmativeaction

6. busing7. bilingualism

8. smog9. fossil fuel

10. validate11. rational12. derive13. gender

14. integral15. bias16. federal17. contract

18. guarantee19. publication20. nonetheless21. consequence

Reviewing Content VocabularyOn a sheet of paper, use each of these terms in a sentence.

Youth Movement Women’s Movement Minority GroupsEnvironmental and Consumer Groups

• Grows out of earlier “beat” movement

• Becomes increasingly influential as “baby boom” generation matures

• Protests injustices facing African Americans, the poor, and the disadvantaged

• Free Speech Movement establishes tactics of boycotting college classes and occupying buildings

• Hippie counterculture rebels against system, visualizes utopian ideals

• Fights for equal economic rights in workplace and society

• Demands equal opportunities in education

• Roe v. Wade expands access to abortion

• Expand on earlier success and speed up access to previous gains

• Affirmative Action advocates equality in work environment for minority and disadvantaged groups

• Native Americans gain more power on reservations and fight discrimination,unemployment, police brutality, and poverty

• Hispanic Americans lobby for better working conditions and job training

• First Earth Day sparks widespread awareness of environmental issues

• Federal government establishes pollution standards and begins monitoring environmental problems

• State and federal legislatures pass laws regulating the safety standards for a wide variety of consumer products

Speaking Out for Equality

Protests Status Quo Regains Momentum Continue the Fight New Concerns Emerge

Section 324. How did Native Americans expand their political rights and

economic opportunities in the 1960s and 1970s?

Section 425. How did the environmental movement begin?

Critical Thinking26. Evaluating Reread “A Protest

Movement Emerges” on pages 829–830. How did you reactto this passage? Did your opinion of Native Americanprotests change?

27. Civics Examine the 1978 Supreme Court’s decision on pref-erential college admissions in Regents of the University ofCalifornia v. Bakke. Do you agree or disagree with theCourt’s decision? Explain your position.

28. Analyzing In what ways did the counterculture movementchange American society?

29. Drawing Conclusions Why do you think so many protestmovements emerged in the United States during the 1960sand 1970s?


Standards 11.3, 11.3.4, 11.6.5, 11.8.6, 11.9.4, 11.9.7, 11.10.2,11.10.4, 11.10.5, 11.10.7, 11.11.1, 11.11.3, 11.11.5, 11.11.7

Directions: Choose the phrase that best completes the following sentence.

Congress did not act on the first proposed Equal RightsAmendment because

A the amendment did not do enough to protect womenand children.

B the National Woman’s Party opposed the amendment.

C the amendment lacked support due to a dividedwomen’s movement.

D the amendment did not address discrimination bygender.

35.

Standards Practice

30. Organizing Use a graphic organizer to list the protest move-ments of the 1960s and 1970s and their goals.

Writing About History31. Historical Connections

Research Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring. What connectionscan you make between its publication and the environmentallaws of the 1970s?

32. Write an article for your local newspaper aboutstudent protests in the 1960s and 1970s. Explain the reasonsfor the protests.

33. Interpreting Primary Sources In 1965 the National FarmWorkers Association founded by César Chávez staged a strikeagainst grape growers from Delano. Read the excerpt fromThe Plan of Delano and answer the following questions.

“ . . . We seek our basic, God-given rights as humanbeings. . . . We are ready to give up everything, even ourlives in our fight for social justice. We shall do it withoutviolence because that is our destiny. . . .

. . . We will strike. . . . We are poor, we are humble,and our only choice is to strike in those ranches wherewe are not treated with the respect we deserve as work-ing men, where our rights as free and sovereign men arenot recognized. . . . We want to be equal with all theworking men in the nation; we want a just wage, betterworking conditions, a decent future for our children. Tothose who oppose us . . . we say that we are going tocontinue fighting until we die, or we win. We ShallOvercome.”a. What groups would oppose the strike?

b. Can you make a connection between this strike and thecivil rights movement? What is similar or different?

CA HI1 Geography and History34. The map above shows the states that ratified the ERA. Study

the map and answer the questions below.a. Interpreting Maps How many states had ratified the

Equal Rights Amendment by 1977?

b. Applying Geography Skills What conclusion can youdraw about the distribution of states that did not approvethe ERA?

N

S

EW

500 kilometers0Albers ConicEqual-Area projection

500 miles0

80°W

70°W

120°W

30°N

40°N

AtlanticOceanPacific

Ocean

KY.

PA.

VA.

N.C.TENN.

S.C.GA.

N.Y.

N.H.VT.

MASS.

R.I.CONN.N.J.

DEL.

MD.

IOWA

WIS.

MINN.N. DAK.

S. DAK.

MONT.

WYO.IDAHO

WASH.

UTAH

ARIZ. N.MEX.

NEBR.ILL. IND.OHIO

W.VA.

FLA.

ME.

MICH.

ALA.LA.

ARK.

MO.KANS.COLO.

NEV.

OREG.

ALASKA

HAWAII

CALIF.

TEX.

OKLA.

MISS.

CANADA

MEXICO

ERA Ratification,1972–1982

19721973197419751977Did not ratify

Date Ratified:

Self-Check QuizVisit the American Vision: Modern Times Web site at

and click on Self-Check Quizzes—Chapter 18 to assess your knowledge of chapter content.tav.mt.glencoe.com

HISTORY

Movement Goals

Standard 11.10.7: Analyze the women’s rights movementfrom the era of Elizabeth Stanton and Susan Anthony andthe passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the movementlaunched in the 1960s, including differing perspectives onthe roles of women.



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