The Policy-Making Process

The Policymaking Process Every policy has a unique history, but each

generally goes through five basic steps.

1. Agenda Setting2. Policy Formulation3. Policy Adoption4. Policy Implementation5. Policy Evaluation

Setting the Agenda “Agenda building may occur as the result of a

crisis, a technological change, a mass media campaign, as well as through the efforts of a strong political personality or lobby groups.”

Most important decision affecting policy-making is deciding what belongs on the political agenda -Shared beliefs determine what is legitimate.-Legitimacy affect by: Shared political values Weight of custom and tradition Impact of events (war, depressions) Changes in ways political elites think about politics

The Legitimate Scope of Government Action

Always gets larger (nothing is illegitimate today)

May be enlarged without public demand even when conditions improving

Groups: a motivating force in adding new issues May be organized (corporations) or disorganized

(urban minorities) May react to sense of relative deprivation – people’s

feeling that they are worse off than they expected (example – riots of the 1960s)

May produce an expansion of government agenda (example – new commissions and laws)

May change the values and beliefs of others (example – white response to urban riots)

Institutions: a second force adding new issues to agendaCourts- favorite method (don’t need popular support)

Make decisions that force action by other branches: school desegregation, abortion. They can change the political agenda

Bureaucracy -Source of political innovation due to size and expertise

Thinks up problems to solve Forms alliances with senators and their staffs

Senate Contrary to the intent of the Framers – a major source of

change Media

Help place issues on political agenda. Publicizes those issues raised by others, such as safety standards proposed by Senate

The Legitimate Scope of Government Action

The Legitimate Scope of Government Action

Action by the states Sometimes laws are pioneered in states Lawsuits in states can have national effect (Tobacco)

Evolution of political agendaChanges in popular attitudes- gradual change

Critical events- spur rapid changeElite attitudes and Govt actions- interdependent change, sometimes volatile

Making a Decision Nature of issue

Affects politicking Affects intensity of political conflict

Costs and benefits of proposed policy a way to understand how issue affects political power Cost: any burden, monetary or nonmonetaryBenefit: any satisfaction, monetary or

nonmonetary Two aspects of costs and benefits important:

Perception affects politics People consider whether it is legitimate for a

group to benefit

Making a Decision

Politics a process of settling disputes about who benefits and who ought to benefit

People prefer programs that provide benefits at low cost

Perceived distribution of costs and benefits shapes the kinds of political coalitions that form but not who wins

Four Points of Public PolicyMajoritarian Politics: a policy in

which almost everybody benefits and almost everybody pays.Distributed Benefits, Distributed Costs Gives benefits to large numbers Distributes costs to large numbers Initial debate in ideological or costs terms

(for example, military budget)

Four Points of Public PolicyInterest Group Politics: A policy in

which one small group benefits and another small group pays Concentrated Benefits, Concentrated Costs Gives benefits to relatively small groupCosts imposed on another small group Debate carried on by interest groups (ex.

labor unions versus businesses)Public often uninformed

Four Points of Public Policy

Client Politics: a policy in which one small group benefits and almost everybody pays. Concentrated Benefits, Distributed Costs Relatively small group benefits; group has incentive to

organize Costs distributed widely Most people unaware of costs, sometimes in form of pork

barrel projects

oPork-barrel legislation = legislation that gives tangible benefits to constituents in several districts or states in the hope of winning votes in return.

oLogrolling = a legislator supports a proposal favored by another in return for support of his or hers.

Four Points of Public PolicyEntrepreneurial Politics: a policy in which

almost everybody benefits and a small group pays the cost. Distributed Benefits, Concentrated Costs Gives benefits to large numbers Costs imposed on small groupSuccess may depend on people who work on

behalf of unorganized majorities (Ex. Ralph Nader “consumer advocate”)

Legitimacy of client claims is important Ex. Superfund sites

Types of Policy Politics: Breakdown

Costs Benefits

Majoritarian Large group Large group

Interest Group Small Group Small group

Client Large group Small group

Entrepreneurial Small group Large group

The Case of Business Regulation Which is true?

Large corporations threaten popular rulePolitics is threat to market economy

All four types of politics have had a unique history leading to policies impacting various groups of people.

= Meat Inspection Act of 1906

Majoritarian PoliticsAnti-trust legislation in the 1890’s

Public opinion strongly against monopolies (“trusts”) but was unfocused (no single target, no specific legislation)

Anti-trust laws strengthened in 20th century

Enforcement based on broad philosophies rather than interest groups

Interest Group PoliticsLabor-Management Conflict

1935 unions sought govt protection of their rights

Govt passed the Wagner Actcreated the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB)

1947 Taft-Hartley Act- made certain union practices illegal, pres could block a strike if it effected “national health or safety”

1959 Landrum Griffin Act- more restrictions…another win for business

Politics of ConflictHighly publicized struggleWinners/losers determined by partisan Congress

Client PoliticsAgency capture: when an agency charged with regulating

becomes too closely tied to the firm it’s supposed to regulate Very likely in Client Politics! The agency has been created to serve the interests of a particular group

But, regulation aren’t always a burden…sometimes they are a benefitEx. Laws regulate practice of law and medicinePrevents fraud, malpractice, safety issues and restricts

entrance into the occupation. Great for everyone!Little public opposition because:

Public not awarePeople believe regulations protect themCosts are not always obvious or not big enough to make

anyone careClient Politics for special interests is declining

Entrepreneurial PoliticsCaused by policy entrepreneur dramatizing issue, gaining

public opinion and mobilizing Congressional supportSometimes that person is in govt, sometimes a private

citizen (but they will need support from someone within)Crisis or scandal helps (or simply public fear of it)Debate on issue usually is extreme and moralistic

“Do you want you kids to get cancer??”Great risk is that the agency will be “captured” and

regulations not enforced (Ex. FDA and pharmaceutical companies)

Newer agencies less vulnerable because:Standards specific, timetables strictUsually regulate many different industries, no unified

oppositionPublic interest lobbies and media keep the agency honest

Perceptions, Beliefs, Interests, & Values

Problem of definitionCosts and benefits not completely defined in money terms

Cost/benefit a matter of perception Political conflict largely a struggle to make one set of beliefs about costs and benefits prevail over another

Types of arguments“Here-and-now” argument- tendency to discount the future

Cost argument-tendency to react more to what you will lose rather than gain

Perceptions, Beliefs, Interests, & Values

The role of values: our concept of what is good for our community or our country Emphasis on self-interest

Deregulation- end of govt-imposed regulationsEx: airline fares, long-distance telephone rates,

trucking A challenge to “iron triangles” and client politics Explanation: the power of ideas (why regulate

competitive industries?)Presidents since Ford have continued the trend by

reviewing regulationsMany groups oppose deregulation- look at means not

endProcess regulation- improve consumer, worker, or

environ. conditions

Perceptions, Beliefs, Interests, & Values

LimitsSome clients are just too powerful, for example, dairy farmers, agricultural supports

But trend is toward weaker client politics