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Nikiya Crisostomo Urban Studies 165: Sustainable Transportation
Individual Essay 12/13/2013
The Philippine Jeepney’s Black Carbon Emissions: Sustainability Challenges and Solutions
TRANSPORTATION IN THE PHILIPPINES
As the Philippines pushes to rise out of its developing nation status, it is faced with the
difficulty of sustaining its growth in a way that is environmental, equitable and economical. This
difficulty is most evident in the country’s urban transportation system, especially in the nation’s
capital of Manila. Manila City is the densest city in the world, with 43,079 persons per square
kilometer.1 Due to this high density, transportation infrastructure takes center stage, as the 1.65
million people living in Manila constantly navigate the streets of the 38.55-square-kilometer
city.1 Approximately 80 percent of the residents of Metro Manila rely on public transportation.1
In 2007, the country’s road density was 0.67 kilometers per square kilometer—the second
highest among Asian countries, following Singapore.1 The transportation sector consumes the
most energy out of all the sectors in the country, taking up 37.7 percent of the total energy
consumption in 2009.1 Environmentally, emissions from mobile sources take up 65 percent of
the total air pollution nationwide.1 Economically, the high financial costs brought about by
perpetual traffic congestion inhibit the proper modernization of the aging transit infrastructure.1
In terms of equity, switching to a more sustainable mode of transport is hindered by high poverty
rates in the country, which leave many people with no choice other than to take the cheapest
form of transportation available, without taking sustainability into consideration.1 The metro is
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1 http://www.futurarc.com/index.cfm/projects-2013/2013-manila-city-profile/
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serviced by three lines of light rail transit (LRT) and metro rail transit (MRT), 23,000 buses,
36,000 taxis, 90,000 tricycles, and 217,000 jeepneys.1 Jeepneys, which are the most affordable
mode for traveling medium to long distances, clearly dominate Philippine road travel. Dissecting
the environmental, equity, and economic effects of the jeepney as a uniquely Filipino mode of
public transportation shows not only the problematic effects on the Philippines as it tries to grow
sustainably, but also the global effects that pull other nations into the Philippine jeepney
sustainability issue.
THE PHILIPPINE JEEPNEY
Hailed as the “King of the Road” in the Philippines, the jeepney has been the most
popular mode of public transportation since the 1960’s.2 Its name was derived from combining
“jeep” and “jitney.” They came into existence towards the end of World War II, when the
Americans started to recall troops from the Philippines.2 Military vehicles were left behind,
including many jeeps that were sold or given to the Filipinos.2 Entrepreneurial Filipinos then
refashioned these U.S. jeeps to make them roadworthy, thereby creating a new form of mass
transit.3 The first jeepneys hit the roads in the 1950’s.3
In addition to its historical significance, the Philippine jeepney has become a symbol of
Filipino art and creativity.2 Each jeepney is garishly adorned with religious or nationalistic
artwork.3 Every surface of the jeepney is emblazoned with brightly colored scenes and names,
streamers and flags are attached to the antennae, the interior and windshield are covered with
stickers and ornaments, and some have special horn sounds that range from wolf whistles to
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!2 http://matadornetwork.com/community/robertcipriano18/how-electronic-jeepneys-will-ease-the-philippines-air-pollution-problem/ 3 http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-23352851!
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classical music.4 Decorations are personal to the jeepney owner, so no two jeepneys are
identical.3
While they were adapted from World War II U.S. army jeeps, the Philippine jeepneys
have been transformed into mass transit vehicles that clearly chose utility over comfort or
safety.4 Compared to the original jeeps, jeepneys sit higher and are longer to accommodate more
passengers.4 Jeepneys can carry 18-20 people, with two people in the front with the driver, the
rest seated in the body of the jeepney, and up to four more people clinging to the bars at the rear
exit, completely exposed and vulnerable to trailing vehicles.4 The body of the jeepney is
composed of two rows of upholstered benches facing each other.4 Passengers sit on these
benches, packed shoulder-to-shoulder.3 There are no seat belts.4 Windows are glassless for
ventilation in the tropical climate,3 but this exposure means there is no accommodation for wet
weather; at best, a plastic tarpaulin could be loosely attached to the windows.4 Most of the
jeepneys use surplus diesel engines from Japan, which may not be the best option for human and
environmental health, but are the most accessible and cheapest for the poor Filipinos.2 For Ed
Sarao, one of the first makers of jeepneys, the jeepney represents the Philippines’ multi-cultural
history: Spanish influences in the vivid fiesta-like colors of the painted decorations, American
origins as U.S. army jeeps, Japanese contributions with the Japanese engine, and the Filipino
identity since it was built by Filipino hands.3
Similar to the convoluted physical attributes of the Philippine jeepney, its service
performance also exhibits conflicting advantages and disadvantages. Owner-drivers design their
jeepney routes depending on what they perceive would bring them the highest profits. Therefore,
jeepney routes end up covering the city in interlocking and redundant networks.4 While each !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!4 http://news.bbc.co.uk/dna/place-lancashire/plain/A747065 !
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jeepney’s route is painted down the sides of the vehicle as names of general areas, regular stops
and stations do not exist other than at the extreme ends of the routes.4 This system becomes
confusing for everyone, even the natives.4 Additionally, throughout the entire trip, the jeepney is
demand-responsive, and could be hailed and could stop anywhere and at any time.4 Jeepney
drivers would frequently stop their vehicles right in the middle of traffic, just to let one of their
passengers out. Many Filipinos blame such unpredictable and seemingly inconsiderate driving
behavior as one of the major causes of congestion in the Philippine streets, with individual
jeepney passengers frequently interrupting the flow of traffic through their loading and
unloading. But while the jeepney’s service may cause confusion and congestion, the jeepney
continues to be the most popular mode of public transit in the Philippines. For average Filipinos,
it is the cheapest way to travel, costing around eight pesos (20 U.S. cents) for a ride.3
Black Carbon
But in recent years, the Philippine jeepney has been thrust into the international
spotlight for another reason besides its cultural uniqueness or its basic structural and
service shortcomings: black carbon. Black carbon, commonly known as soot, is a
byproduct of inefficient combustion of fuels—in this case, diesel fuel.5,6,7 It is part of a
larger type of emissions called aerosols, which are very small particles suspended in the
atmosphere.8 For diesel engines, the greater the inefficiency in the combustion to power
the vehicle and in the exhaust system, the greater the amount of black carbon produced.7
And for Philippine jeepneys, the commonly used low-cost but dirty Japanese diesel
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!5 http://www.thecarbondesk.com/services/carbon-desk-black.html 6 http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/cutting-climate-changes-gordian-knot 7 http://manilajeepneyproject.com/black-carbon-and-the-manila-jeepney-project-2/ 8 http://www.pressrepublican.com/0800_special_sections/x511770118/Black-Carbon-Impact-on-Climate-Change-and-Human-Health
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engines, combined with high sulfur fuels, are responsible for the growing problem of
black carbon emissions in the nation.7 It has been found that around 500,000 diesel-driven
public utility vehicles, mostly jeepneys, are accountable for 70 percent of black carbon
emissions in the country’s urban regions, producing 22,000 metric tons of soot emissions
per year.9
THE JEEPNEY’S BLACK CARBON SUSTAINABILITY ISSUES
The jeepneys’ black carbon problem not only exacerbates the pre-existing environmental,
equity, and economic transportation issues of the country, but also affects the international
community, especially the environmental sector, due to the recent findings of black carbon’s
significant contributions to climate change. The sustainability of the Philippines’ transportation
has become a global sustainability issue.
Environmental Issues
Black carbon emitted by jeepneys is composed of ambient fine particles (PM2.5)
that are among the largest man-made contributors to global warming.9 By directly
absorbing light, reducing the reflectivity of snow and ice, and interacting with clouds,
black carbon impacts the climate in various ways, including increasing temperatures and
accelerating ice and snow melt.10 Sensitive regions, like the Arctic, are particularly
vulnerable to the warming and melting effects of black carbon.10 In these regions, black
carbon not only warms the ice caps with the retained heat it carries, but the layer of black
that lands on the ice prevents the sun from reflecting back into the atmosphere, greatly
increasing the speed of melting.5
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!9 http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/316247/govt-to-retrofit-metro-jeepneys-to-lessen-carbon-emissions 10 http://www.epa.gov/blackcarbon/effects.html
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Other indirect effects of black carbon include contributing to surface dimming,
the formation of atmospheric brown clouds (ABCs), and changes in the pattern and
intensity of precipitation.10 PM2.5, including black carbon, contributes to harmful
ecosystem impacts, visibility impairment, reduced agricultural production, and materials
soiling and damage.10
Though previously overlooked, black carbon is now emerging as the second most
important factor in global warming, following carbon dioxide (CO2).9 In fact, black
carbon has a climate change effect several thousand times that of CO2.11 With a warming
effect of about 1.1 Watts per square meter,12 one ton of black carbon has 27,000 times the
warming effect that CO2 has; in the sensitive Arctic, this number raises to 47,000 times.5
Equity Issues
In additional to environmental damages, black carbon emissions adversely impact
human health; in fact, up to half of the world’s population is directly affected by them.5
Black carbon’s tiny pollution particles (PM10 and PM2.5) penetrate the lungs and interfere
with its function, producing symptoms like coughing, increased phlegm production, and
shortness of breath.13 They cause respiratory illnesses like lung cancer and asthma,5 and
are associated with cardiovascular diseases and breast cancer among women.13 According
to the World Health Organization (WHO), black carbon causes up to 1.5 million
premature deaths per year.5 The social injustice in these health issues is that most of these
premature deaths are among the poor or the vulnerable.5 In Metro Manila alone, over !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!11 http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/353117/diesel-powered-motor-vehicles-blamed-for-most-of-phs-air-pollution 12 http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2013/01/16/1452741/black-carbon-larger-cause-of-climate-change-than-previously-assessed/!13 http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/284212/economy/finance/diesel-emissions-costs-phl-economy-1-5b-annually
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100,000 deaths due to black carbon occur each year, and most of them occur in the very
young and elderly.7 Jeepney drivers, who are exposed to the diesel engine’s black carbon
emissions on a daily basis, have the lowest life expectancy of any group in the
Philippines.7 Because jeepneys are owned and used mainly by the populations who
cannot afford cleaner options, the individuals who are most exposed to the harmful health
effects of black carbon, like the drivers and the passengers, are usually individuals from
the poorest sectors of society.
This social inequity related to black carbon effects is evident beyond the regional
lens, and expands to the global arena. Black carbon emissions are highest among the
developing nations, since these countries—like in the Philippines and its use of
jeepneys—cannot afford the more expensive and cleaner modern technologies.5 Because
of this divide between developed and developing nations, a troubling side effect to
focusing on black carbon to mitigate climate change impacts is the perception by many
developing countries that the blame for climate change is being shifted to them.6
Economic Issues
Finally, both the environmental and health issues compound into high economic
values that actually harm the economic status of the Philippines more than they help. Air
pollution, in large part due to diesel vehicles, costs the Philippine economy $1.5 billion,9
or 1.5 percent of its GDP,7 per year. Health expenses caused by air pollution costs the
Philippine economy over $400 million, or 0.6 percent of its GDP, in direct costs per
year.9
Moreover, some economic issues worsen the pre-discussed equity issues
concerning the disproportionately negative effects of black carbon on the poorer and
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more vulnerable populations. Returning to the source of the jeepney’s black carbon—the
inefficient diesel engine—reveals that while the initial cost of jeepneys may be low due
to the fact that it is mainly a retrofitted vehicle, the operation and maintenance costs are
higher than normal due to the lower quality facilities. For instance, the fuel use of a 16-
passenger jeepney is almost the same as the fuel use of a 54-passenger air-conditioned
bus.14 This takes a heavy toll on the poor jeepney drivers’ pockets.
THE JEEPNEY’S BLACK CARBON SUSTAINABILITY POTENTIAL
But despite the currently grim case of the Philippine jeepney’s black carbon issues,
significant opportunities for sustainability improvements exist.
Environmental Potential
The bright side of black carbon’s environmental effects is that reducing current
black carbon emissions will lead to significant and immediate improvements on both the
local region and the global climate.5 If all CO2 emissions stopped today, the CO2 already
in the atmosphere would remain there and continue to warm for the next 100 years.5
However, since black carbon has a short atmospheric life,10 if all black carbon emissions
stopped today, they would be gone from the atmosphere within two weeks, along with
their warming effects.5 If black carbon levels were substantially cut through the use of
already existing and available technologies, the rate of global warming would be reduced
by 50 percent. This would increase the chance of keeping the temperature rise below two
degrees Celsius, slowing the climate change advance by several decades.9
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!14 http://www.forum-adb.org/BACKUP/Articles/200708-Bankwatch_6.htm
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Equity Potential
Once black carbon’s environmental effects are improved, much of the equity
issues involving the uneven distribution of negative health impacts would be reduced.
However, moving beyond the individual and local issues, the international concern of
black carbon pitting developed nations against developing nations poses great potential
for collaboration and cooperation. In targeting black carbon, everyone needs to remember
the continuing importance of CO2. Black carbon mitigation may be important due to its
immediate effect, but this immediate effect will be short-term, and CO2 mitigation is still
essential in order to achieve long-term cooling.15 The world is facing the war on climate
change together, so both developed and developing nations should be doing their parts to
mitigate global warming. While developing nations are working towards reducing their
black carbon emissions, developed nations must also be working towards reducing their
CO2 emissions and helping developing nations attain cleaner technologies.
Economic Potential
Most of the jeepney’s black carbon economic issues are associated with
environmental and equity issues, so targeting those problems would inadvertently lead to
greater economic vitality for the Philippine economy. The nation’s economic costs due to
air pollution and health impacts would decrease. Additionally, cleaner and more efficient
engines would reduce the poor jeepney drivers’ operation and maintenance costs.
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!15 http://www.rtcc.org/2013/01/15/black-carbon-second-largest-global-warming-source/
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POTENTIAL FOR SUSTAINABLE GROWTH: SOLUTIONS TO THE JEEPNEY’S BLACK CARBON ISSUES
The existence of opportunities for improvement under each of the categories of the triple
bottom line provides a glimmer of hope for sustainable growth in the Philippines. In order to
achieve a meaningful sustainable solution to the black carbon issues, the problem must be
addressed at different levels: the international policy level, the regional transportation level, and
the jeepney unit level.
The Big Picture of Policy Change
While the problem of the jeepney’s black carbon begins with the jeepney as a unit
of transportation, it extends far beyond the Philippines’ transportation system, and must
be tackled from a global perspective of policy change. One example of a black carbon
policy initiative gaining ground is spearheaded by environmental groups calling for the
regulation of black carbon under the U.S. Clean Water Act, on the grounds that black
carbon impacts sea ice and glaciers.6 Another effort involves the Philippines and a
number of other countries that have been pushing for the international inclusion of black
carbon as one of the greenhouse gases responsible for global warming.9 Because black
carbon is presently excluded from many carbon trading programs, like the greenhouse
markets created under the Kyoto Protocol and the European trading markets, few
incentives exist to reduce black carbon emissions.6 By including black carbon into
climate schemes, governments can directly attack black carbon, immediately addressing
climate change by as much as 50 percent,9 improving global health, and assisting the
sustainable growth of developing nations.6
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The “King of the Road” Must Share the Road
Narrowing the focus closer to the source of the problem, solutions must also exist
on the regional level. The Philippines government must invest in other modes of transit
and shift the domination away from the jeepneys, without obliterating the cultural icon.
The relatively recent construction of the three LRT and MRT lines is a first step, but the
effort needs to be better. While the LRT and MRT lines exist, many Filipinos are
discouraged from using these modes due to the poorly maintained facilities, daily
excessive overcrowding, and high rates of theft during trips.16 Improving the LRT and
MRT experience, and possibly expanding the lines to accommodate the high numbers of
passengers, would help convert a significant number of motor vehicle users to a more
sustainable mode of transportation. Achieving this could lead to other benefits, like
easing congestion and reducing air pollution, thereby creating a more pleasant
atmosphere for leisure walking and cycling—modes that are currently non-existent on
Philippine urban streets due to safety and health issues connected to high volumes of
motor vehicle traffic.16
A Cleaner Jeepney: The Manila Jeepney Project
Finally, improving the jeepney itself in order to reduce its black carbon emissions
is essential if jeepneys are to be preserved for their historical and cultural significance.
The most well-known initiative focusing on reducing the Philippine jeepney’s black
carbon emissions is called the Manila Jeepney Project. It is led by ROTEC, an Asian-
based carbon company, in partnership with the Philippine government.7 The project
creates its own version of carbon credits for black carbon, in order to financially
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!16 Personal experience as a Filipino
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incentivize stakeholders. Black carbon reduction will be achieved using a low-cost,
ROTEC-developed technology that will be leased to the jeepney owner for a token cost.7
The plan is to convert the emission reductions into high-end, high-premium Verified or
Voluntary Emission Reduction (VER) credits, which will be offered to the international
marketplace.7 The VERs generated will repay the capital investment, which is an
appropriate approach to payment in a developing nation where competing solutions are
expensive.7 Beyond the token cost of $1 per year for the use of the black carbon-reducing
equipment, the cost to the jeepney owner will be zero.7
The Manila Jeepney Project seeks to modify around 500,000 jeepney engines over
a period of five years.11 The estimated project cost is $615 million, a majority of which is
sourced mainly from the international private sector.11 By the end of the project, the
expected outcome is to have an 80 percent reduction in black carbon emissions.11
This project is the prime example of the private and public sectors from different
levels of society and governance collaborating in order to use policy and technology to
develop a sustainable solution to a multi-layered, complex issue. If the Manila Jeepney
Project delivers on its promise, the “King of the Road” will be here to stay as a
sustainable mode of transportation, and the Philippines faces a bright future in its climb
toward becoming a developed nation.
APPENDIX- Images
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