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THE PERSONALITY CORRELATES OF CONFORMITY; A LITERATURE REVIEW

by Kurt Robert Student

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l i t e r a t u r e review paper submitted i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t of the requirements f o r the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy i n The University of Michigan

1965

Conformity i s one of today's major social issues, and the l a s t decade has seen an ever increasing amount of psychological research

f devoted to the areas of social influence, p e r s u a s i b i l i t y , and con­formity. However, conformity i s not a new interest f o r the social

* psychologist; on the contrary, conformity has been a central area * of concern f o r the experimental psychologist almost from the begin­

ning of the f i e l d . The fact that when individuals learn of the behavior of others, they tend to modify t h e i r own behaviors i n the d i r e c t i o n of increased conformity i s one of the oldest and most stable findings i n experimental social psychology (e.g., A l l p o r t , 1924; Bridges, 1914; Moede, 1920; Moore, 1921; Sherif, 1935, 1936; and T r i p l e t t , 1897, 1900). While early research demonstrated con­formity i n ambiguous and judgmental situations, i t remained f o r Asch (1951, 1952) to demonstrate the pervasive power of social influence i n t o t a l l y unambiguous situations. In his now classic line-judging task, Asch showed that when an indiv i d u a l i s faced w i t h a spurious unanimous or majority consensus, the individual's c o n f l i c t between the spurious group judgment and his own cognition w i l l with s i g n i f i c a n t frequency be resolved by acceding to what Festinger (1950) has called "social r e a l i t y . " Experimental research on conformity has flourished following Asch's pioneering studies, and i t i s the purpose of t h i s review to present one aspect of t h i s increasingly important research area w i t h i n the f i e l d of experi­mental social psychology.

* >i.sch himself (1951, 1952) suggested that independence or yiel d i n g t o group influence i s a j o i n t function of three classes of varia-

t bles: (1) the character of the stimulus; (2) the character of the group forces; and (3) the character or personality of the i n d i v i d ­u a l . A great deal of research has centered upon each of these three variables. However, t h i s review w i l l deal only with the t h i r d class of variables; as the t i t l e of t h i s review indicates, i t w i l l deal solely with presenting experimental research which has related conformity behavior to personality variables. This review covers the available l i t e r a t u r e from 1897 to 1964. The bibliography was compiled by searching the most relevant journals and published abstracts, and by following the chain of references from a r t i c l e to a r t i c l e . Earlier reviews by Bass (1961b), Blake and toouton (1961a, 1961b), and by Graham (1962) also have been h e l p f u l . Before presenting the indicated review, i t should be noted that t h i s i s a review of experimental research. The thorny theoretical issue of d e f i n i t i o n and how conformity can be conceptualized w i l l be discussed only at the conclusion of t h i s review; indeed the major purpose of t h i s review i s h e u r i s t i c , i t i s the wr i t e r ' s hope

£ t h a t t h i s review w i l l stimulate theory and t h e o r e t i c a l l y oriented research. The need f o r a clearer conceptualization of the phenom­ena called "conformity" w i l l become apparent, at least the wr i t e r

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hopes to make t h i s need apparent, only after the reader has had # the opportunity to see the many d i f f e r e n t ways i n which the v a r i ­

ous researchers working i n t h i s area have operationalized the M phenomena i n t h e i r research designs.

One further note appears to be necessary. The reader might well ask, how can the personality correlates of conformity be isolated from the stimulus factors and the group factors. The writ e r ' s answer i s unequivocal—there can be no theoretical i s o l a t i o n of any one of the three variable classes which are generally con­sidered to be the basis of conformity behavior. Conformity must be viewed t h e o r e t i c a l l y as an in t e r a c t i o n between these three variable classes. Thus the w r i t e r ' s d i s t i n c t i o n of the "personal­i t y correlates of conformity" i s an a r t i f i c i a l one. However, experimentally, one can iso l a t e , or at least attempt to isolate, the personality correlates of conformity, while t h e o r e t i c a l l y , no such d i s t i n c t i o n i s possible. Jessor (1958, p. 173) has noted t h a t the very d e f i n i t i o n of psychology i s i n t e r a c t i o n a l . He wri t e s :

. . . behavior viewed psychologically i s i n t e r a c t i o n a l or r e l a t i o n a l i n nature; i t s specification or i d e n t i f i ­cation at the r e f e r e n t i a l l e v e l requires the specifica­t i o n of a p a r t i c u l a r context and a set of relationships

* thereto. Our d e f i n i t i o n of psychology, therefore, excludes the study of organisms or physical environments per se, and behavior may not be referred to either alone.

€ The laws of behavior of a d i s c i p l i n e so defined refer to the dynamics of organism-environment functional interac­t i o n . (Note: the w r i t e r has added the underscoring indi c a t i n g i t a l i c s i n t h i s c i t a t i o n . )

I n a c r i t i q u e of the then current research techniques used to study prejudice, Hood and Sherif (1955, p. 85) made the following statement which t h i s w r i t e r believes applies equally well to the study of conformity:

Only by considering factors coming both from the socio-c u l t u r a l setting and from the indi v i d u a l i n a function­a l l y i n t e r r e l a t e d ( i t a l i c s i n the o r i g i n a l ) way, and by noting i n every case the r e l a t i v e weights of factors coming from both sides, can we hope to a t t a i n an adequate account of intergroup phenomena . . .

Fi n a l l y , we should note the view of one of the most prominent researchers i n the area being reviewed, one whose name w i l l appear time and time again i n t h i s review—Richard S. Crutchfield. He ( i n Krech, Crutchfield, and Ballachey, 1962, pp. 528-529) has stated the place of personality factors i n a t o t a l conceptualiza-

% t i o n of conformity to be the following:

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- . . there remains the c r i t i c a l question of whether the influence of such personality factors i s universal for a l l kinds of conformity situations. I n view of what we have learned e a r l i e r about the powerful govern-

* ing r o l e of s i t u a t i o n a l factors, i t would seem prudent to conclude that, although personality factors undoubt­edly play a major r o l e i n determining conformity behav­i o r , t h e i r influence may be substantially modulated by variations i n those specific situations i n which the conformity behavior i s e l i c i t e d . . . we must speak of the conforming person or the independent person as described wit h i n a specified range of situations ( i t a l ­ics i n the original)« The personality predisposing toward conformity i n one type of s i t u a t i o n are to some extent d i f f e r e n t from those relevant to other situa­t i o n s . I n some kinds of situations, indeed, personal­i t y factors may play a negl i g i b l e part.

Clearly, the a r t i f i c i a l d i s t i n c t i o n of "personality correlates of conformity" which forms the basis of t h i s review w i l l be hard to maintain, and the reader w i l l note that throughout t h i s review some experiments c i t e d deal with stimulus or group variables as wel l as with personality variables. The problem of inclusion or exclusion i s one faced by every reviewer; i t i s hoped that the

/ reader's c r i t i c i s m w i l l not be too harsh should he disagree with t h i s reviewer's inclusions.

f I n any case, t h i s review w i l l take the following form. The generality, s t a b i l i t y , and consistency of conformity behavior w i l l be presented as a prerequisite to studying the personality corre­lates of conformity. Then experiments r e l a t i n g to d i f f e r e n t i a l h i s t o r i c a l experience and to d i f f e r e n t i a l p r i o r experimental experi­ence w i l l be presented. Next experiments r e l a t i n g to physiological factors w i l l be presented, and, f i n a l l y , the w r i t e r w i l l present hi s own evaluation of the research c i t e d and w i l l present what he considers to be the major h e u r i s t i c implications of the review.

CONSISTENCY, GENERALITY, AND STABILITY Off CONFORMITY BEHAVIOR

I f i t can be shown that individuals d i f f e r greatly i n t h e i r con­formity behavior across situations and tasks, i f a person w i l l tend to conform i n one s i t u a t i o n but not i n another, then i t would appear that variables other than personality factors would account f o r most of the variance i n conformity behavior. However, the above i s not the case. A l l investigators have found that there are large ind i v i d u a l differences among people i n t h e i r p r o c l i v i t y t o conform; but they have also found that f o r any one person the tendency t o conform tends to be stable across many situations and tasks. Using a standard group technique by which subjects hear a background by means of earphones, Blake, Helson, and Mouton (1957) found consistent indiv i d u a l differences i n conformity across three

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tasks, reporting the number of metronome c l i c k s heard, expressing a t t i t u d e s toward statements about peace and war, and solving a r i t h ­metical problems. The s p l i t - h a l f r e l i a b i l i t y f o r a composite con­formity score on the three tasks was .93 in d i c a t i n g that conformity was a general response. Helson, Blake, Mouton, and Olmstead (1956) demonstrated that individuals s h i f t i n g t h e i r judgments on a larger number of items moved closer to the contradictory opinions of others than did individuals who s h i f t e d less frequently. Tudden-ham (1958a) obtained highly consistent i n d i v i d u a l differences across 74 t r i a l s involving judging visual targets, general informa­t i o n items, and opinions. Occasionally a high yielder gave an "independent" response on an item, or a r e l a t i v e l y independent sub­j e c t gave a t y p i c a l l y y i e l d i n g response. However, subjects at both extremes of the yielding-independent continuum displayed s i g n i f i ­cantly more s t a b i l i t y from item to item than did subjects w i t h y i e l d i n g scores i n the middle range. Tuddenham found s p l i t - h a l f r e l i a b i l i t i e s of from .68 to .90 for his subscales of items, with lower but highly s i g n i f i c a n t correlations between subscales. In h i s early studies Asch (1951, 1952) reports that his subjects showed a remarkable degree of consistency. Asch (1956) l a t e r investigated intraseries consistency i n indi v i d u a l performance and found that both subjects who conformed and those who resisted i n i t i a l l y tended to maintain t h e i r behavior throughout the series of t r i a l s . T r i p l i n g the length of the series did not a l t e r the

/ r e s u l t s . Beloff (1958), using an Asch-type s i t u a t i o n , found that acquiescence, defined as agreement with expressed group opinion i n a s i t u a t i o n involving pressures from others, and conventionality,

r which she defined as concurrence with tenets, attitudes, and mores of a culture or subculture, were correlated. This finding was interpretated to indicate that there i s a generalized tendency toward or away from conformity i n individuals. Luchins and Luchins (1955a) have reported a s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n between degree of agreement with response given by an assistant i n a preliminary t r i a l series and an experimental series. Crutchfield (1955) found the s p l i t - h a l f r e l i a b i l i t y of ind i v i d u a l conformity scores f o r a 21 item t e s t to be .90. MacBride (1958) reports that he was impressed by the high degree of i n d i v i d u a l consistency i n conform­ing obtained even a f t e r he systematically had raised or lowered the self-confidence of his subjects. Both Bass (1959b) and McDonald (1960) have reported consistent i n d i v i d u a l differences i n the tendency of experimental subjects to conform t o group decisions-For 10 to 12 t r i a l s , Bass found s p l i t - h a l f r e l i a b i l i t i e s averaging .52 f o r subjects i n groups of f i v e t r y i n g to determine the correct rank-ordering of the f a m i l i a r i t y of words. McDonald obtained simi­l a r consistencies f o r group judging a l t e r n a t i v e solutions t o human re l a t i o n s problems. Iscoe and Williams (1963) used nine-year-olds

% t o study the function of changes i n stimulus presentation on con­formity i n a Blake-Brehm (1954) simulated group s i t u a t i o n and concluded that " i n a conformity s i t u a t i o n of t h i s kind children

£ display a generalized conformity reaction r e l a t i v e l y independent of t h e i r a b i l i t y to perform when conformity pressures are absent" (p. 245). Ferguson (1944) found consistency i n response by

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subjects to group opinion on three a t t i t u d i n a l scales dealing w i t h r e l i g i o n , humanitarianism, and nationalism. However, since the materials i n t h i s study were a l l concerned with opinion, i t provides no basis f o r assessing the consistency of conformity tendencies i n individuals when factual tasks are involved. Linton and Graham (1959), on the other hand, did f i n d that subjects who yielded to group influence on perceptual tasks did so also on judgmental and opinion tasks. Consistencies i n conformity have been found not only between tasks, but have been found also between experimental settings. Using an Asch-type s i t u a t i o n i n which three confederates made erroneous judgments about nonsense words, nonsense figures, and a simple paragraph, Resner (1957) found a high degree of consistency i n conformity f o r a l l tasks and phi correlations of .33 to .54 f o r conformity f o r two d i f f e r e n t administrations of one task. Wiener, Carpenter, and Carpenter (1956, 1957) c l a s s i f i e d a sample of under­graduate psychology students by three degrees of t h e i r compliance w i t h a request to hand i n some extra class work on time. I t was found that subjects who conformed to group influence i n a task invo l v i n g the judging of ambiguous designs were also more l i k e l y to hand i n t h e i r extra work on time. Helson, Blake, and Mouton (1958) report comparable results w i t h a p e t i t i o n signing task.

J While the research c i t e d above has demonstrated conformity i n sit u a t i o n s with perceptual, informational, and opinion items, a recent experiment has indicated that analytic thought processes

* are also subject to social pressures. Rosenham, DeWilde, and McDougal (1963) used an Asch-type s i t u a t i o n i n which the task was the solving of l o g i c a l syllogisms which had been previously shown t o be w i t h i n the capacities of the subjects. Significant conform­i t y behavior was found, indicating that thought processes are also subject t o social pressures. Moreover, Kassarjian and Kassarjian (1962) have demonstrated that conformity can also be induced i n group tasks with a simultaneous group approach. I n t h i s study perceptual judgments were indicated p r i v a t e l y with paper and pencol by 97 undergraduates while 10 confederates attempted t o influence judgments by p u b l i c l y indicated wrong choices. S i g n i f i c a n t l y more errors were made than by a control group who performed the task without influence. This r e s u l t was interpretated as indicating t h a t such group approaches are workable and can y i e l d results com­parable to those obtained i n i n d i v i d u a l situations l i k e Asch's. Two experiments have been conducted which indicate that socially induced responses appear t o be remarkably stable. Endler (I960) , w i t h a sample of grade school and high school students, assessed

5 the point at which subjects reported the cessation of autokinetic movement during a pretest session. One day a f t e r the pretest the subjects judged autokinetic movement with a confederate, and under

J social pressure a new cessation point was established i n the direc­t i o n of the confederate's judgment. I n private retests both imme­d i a t e l y a f t e r the social influence s i t u a t i o n , again two weeks lat e r ,

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the so c i a l l y induced cessation point was found to be relatively-stable and s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from the o r i g i n a l response. I n a somewhat similar experiment, Rohrer, Baron, Hoffman, and Swander (1954) trained ROTC students under alone conditions to perceive autokinetic movement as either two or eight inches. Sub­je c t s then judged i n pairs i n which subjects trained at two inches were paired with those trained at eight inches. Significant con-

* sistency was found between estimates given under the interaction conditions and those given under a pr i v a t e condition one year l a t e r . S i m i l a r i t i e s between performances after the i n i t i a l t r a i n ­ing and the year l a t e r private s i t u a t i o n were small i n d i c a t i n g t h a t pretraining influences were n e g l i g i b l e by comparison with e f f e c t s produced w i t h i n the social influence s i t u a t i o n . VJhile these s t a b i l i t y results are impressive, the ambiguous nature of the task may have contributed to these re s u l t s . While most researchers have found the conformity response consist­ent and general, the research results have not been unequivocal. Nakamura (1958), using an undergraduate sample and an Asch-type s i t u a t i o n , found the r e l i a b i l i t y of perceptual items highly sig­n i f i c a n t (.87 f o r men; .80 f o r women), but the r e l i a b i l i t y of a t t i t u d e items was very low and nonsignificant. Linton (1955), w i t h 530 male undergraduates, divided her subjects i n t o two groups according to the extent of change toward the judgments of a male

/ confederate who responded f i v e inches above the subject's pre-group norm on the autokinetic task. This conformity measure was then related to a measure of dependence on the perceptual f i e l d

9 (the T i l t i n g Room, T i l t i n g Chair, and Embedded Figures Tests), to the degree of a t t i t u d e change af t e r reading an a r t i c l e contrary t o own opinion, and to the influence of personal attitudes on a syllogisms t e s t . The conformity measure f o r the autokinetic s i t u ­ation correlated s i g n i f i c a n t l y with a composite score f o r the degree of dependence on the perceptual f i e l d ; however, no s i g n i f i ­cant correlations were found between conformity and the at t i t u d e change or a t t i t u d e influence measures. Both the Nakamura and Linton results can be interpretated as arguing against a general tendency to conform. The most controversial study i n t h i s area, and the only one which d i r e c t l y argues against the notion of a general conforming response i s a study by Goldberg (1954) i n which judgments of inte l l i g e n c e from pictures were made, before and af t e r f i c t i t i o u s group norms were supplied. S u s c e p t i b i l i t y to influence was found to be highly spe c i f i c to each picture and Goldberg interpretated t h i s result to argue against "a general personality characteristic of suggesti­b i l i t y or conformity" (p. 328). Goldberg's conclusion has been

i challenged by both Graham (1962) and Helson (1964). Graham points out that Goldberg's f i n d i n g might not depend on s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to influence, but rather on the nature of the pictures used. Some

5 of the f i c t i t i o u s norms may have appeared to be plausible assess­ments while other did not appear to be plausible. I f t h i s were the case, Graham points out, lack of consistency should not be

surprising. Helson states that Goldberg based his argument on low in t e r c o r r e l a t i o n s between nine experimental conditions which were actually variants of the same task. Therefore h i s finding cannot be interpretated against some generality i n conformity behavior. I n his Handbook of Small Group Research, Hare (1952, p. 33) reviews the evidence i n t h i s area and concludes:

Apparently, whatever the device f o r measuring conformity, whether i t be a paper-and-pencil test as i n the case of the F scale, a measure of conventionality derived by com­parison of a subject with the mean response of his group, or a t e s t of the Asch type, subjects who conform i n one s i t u a t i o n w i l l probably conform i n another.

F i n a l l y , i t should be emphasized that postulating a generality of conforming behavior does not negate the s i t u a t i o n a l elements of conformity. Heyns (1958) has c l a r i f i e d t h i s point and presented what appears to be a very cogent psychodynamic explanation of t h i s phenomenon i n terms of d i f f e r e n t i a l response hierarchies. Heyns wr i t e s :

Personality t r a i t s have been found to r e l a t e t o the tendency to conform t o group opinions. I m p l i c i t i n t h i s l a t t e r conception i s the notion that conforming behavior has a great deal of generality, that tendency to conform i s a t r a i t characterizing individuals i n consistent ways, irrespective of the s i t u a t i o n . Even i f one were t o conceive of the act of conformity as instrumental to the s a t i s f a c t i o n of indi v i d u a l needs and hence to some extent s i t u a t i o n a l , i t might never­theless become a general response high i n the hierarchy fo r some people and less high f o r others. (Heyns, 1958, p. 436)

Summary: Conformity behavior has been found to be consistent across d i f f e r e n t tasks, situations, and experimental settings. This consistency has been demonstrated most c l e a r l y with percep­t u a l items; a t t i t u d i n a l items or ambigious s t i m u l i l i k e auto­k i n e t i c movement may reduce the generality of conformity. Two studies using the autokinetic task have demonstrated a remarkable s t a b i l i t y of the social induced response tendency.

DIFFERENTIAL HISTORICAL EXPERIENCE IN SUBJECTS AND CONFORMITY BEHAVIOR

Di f f e r e n t childhood experiences, as revealed biographically or through questionnaires and projective measures, and t h e i r effects on conformity behavior have been experimentally investigated. Mussen and Kagan (1958), using male college students i n an Asch-type s i t u a t i o n with l i n e - j u d i n g items related conforming behavior

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perceptions of parents as shown i n responses to eight TAT cards. TAT stories were scored f o r presence or absence of parental punish­ment themes, and a s i g n i f i c a n t l y greater per cent of extreme con­formists perceived t h e i r parents as harsh, punitive, r e s t r i c t i v e , and r e j e c t i n g . These researchers concluded: "These data . . . suggest that conformity tendencies are manifestations of basic personality structure and are influenced by early parent-child r e l a t i o n s . " (p. 60). Using a college student sample and a simu­l a t e d group s i t u a t i o n with an auditory c l i c k counting task, League (1963) related conformity to responses on a preexperimental ques­tio n n a i r e and found that reported childhood experiences s i g n i f i ­cantly related t o conformity. Subjects r e c a l l i n g adult models as having been adequate and successful tended to y i e l d more i n the social pressure s i t u a t i o n . I t was also found that adequate models were viewed d i f f e r e n t l y by men and women, with nurturance being more emphasized by the men i n t h e i r descriptions. Crutchfield (1955) reports that persons raised i n broken homes tend to be less conformant than those raised i n unbroken homes. Krebs (1958) c l a s s i f i e d male college students as either early or l a t e i n inde­pendence t r a i n i n g according t o T/interbottom's (1953) independence t r a i n i n g questionnaire. Greatest conformity, i n an Asch-type s i t u a t i o n with perceptual items, occurred f o r individuals c l a s s i ­f i e d as l a t e i n independence t r a i n i n g ; those with early independ­ence t r a i n i n g were s i g n i f i c a n t l y less conformant. McQueen (1957)

# found a greater s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to conform to e t h i c a l standards under social influence for students c l a s s i f i e d i n the dominant s t y l e of l i f e according to McGuire's (1954) Index of Value Orienta-

* t i o n . McQueen's study involved the return of examination papers w i t h correct and incorrect scores and subjects c l a s s i f i e d i n the dominant l i f e s t y l e reported s i g n i f i c a n t l y more errors. Summary: Experimental research indicates that childhood experi­ences i n d i r e c t l y a f f e c t the p r o c l i v i t y to conform. Conformists tend to view t h e i r parents as harsh and punitive, come from broken homes, and r e c a l l childhood adult models as adequate. Conformists also receive l a t e r independence t r a i n i n g and tend t o be c l a s s i f i e d i n the "dominant st y l e of l i f e . "

EXPERIMENTALLY CREATED DIFFERENTIAL EXPERIENCE IN SUBJECTS AND CONFORMITY

Personality characteristics or in d i v i d u a l differences may be described by several kinds of measures; psychological character­i s t i c s or physiological states may be measured or personal d i f f e r ­ences may be characterized i n terms of experimentally created

% differences i n amount or type of p r i o r experience. Experiments which deal with the l a t t e r type of i n d i v i d u a l differences w i l l be reviewed i n t h i s section; the two sections which follow w i l l review

% those experiments which deal with psychological or physiological i n d i v i d u a l differences. Individual differences have been experi­mentally created by p r i o r experiences of success or f a i l u r e .

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d i f f e r e n t amounts of f a m i l i a r i t y with the task, differences i n anxiety and insecurity, variations i n properties of the p r i o r task, p r e t r a i n i n g with reward, and by differences i n p r i o r social experi­ence. The experimental evidence i n t h i s area w i l l be reviewed i n the preceding order. P r i o r success or f a i l u r e : Goldberg (1954) found that the amount of p r i o r experience with a task with no subsequent feedback, no experience of having the performance evaluated as good, poor, or i n d i f f e r e n t , does not appear to be related to s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to conformity on a task which i s l a t e r subjected to conformity pres­sures. Chapman and Volkmann (1939) found that once subjects have established t h e i r own standards i n an o r i g i n a l l y ambiguous task ( t h a t of setting a level of as p i r a t i o n ) , the experimenter cannot make them s h i f t towards him as easily as when the subjects had not had an opportunity to establish t h e i r own bases of judgment. A number of studies have indicated that f a i l u r e results i n decreased reliance i n one's own judgments and consequently leads to increased conformity. Mausner (1954a), a f t e r creating i n d i v i d u a l private experiences of success or f a i l u r e f o r male college students, arranged inte r a c t i o n f o r success-success pairs, f a i l u r e - f a i l u r e pairs, and success-failure pairs. He found that those who had experienced f a i l u r e showed a s i g n i f i c a n t l y greater tendency to s h i f t toward the answer given by the partner. I n the success-f a i l u r e pairings, the unsuccessful member shifted toward the suc­cessful one, but the successful ones did not s h i f t from t h e i r p r i o r estimates. In the f a i l u r e - f a i l u r e pairings, the members' responses tended to converge. Similar results have been reported by Goldberg and Lubin (1958), Mausner (1954b), Kausner and Bloch (1957), and by Blake, Mouton, and Olmstead (1956). Rosenberg (1961) demonstrated that the relationship between p r i o r f a i l u r e and conformity was consistent and independent of group size. Rosen­berg used a male undergraduate sample and a Crutchfield apparatus w i t h a line-judging task i n which d i f f e r e n t group sizes (2, 3, 4, and 5 member groups) were simulated. *\ p r i o r f a i l u r e condition was also introduced i n which subjects were lead to believe that t h e i r estimates were much less accurate than estimates of the others i n the group, and f o r a l l levels of group size the p r i o r f a i l u r e condition s i g n i f i c a n t l y increased conformity. I n a l a t e r study Rosenberg (1963), with a male undergraduate sample, assessed conformity i n a simulated group s i t u a t i o n using a l i n e judging task and related conformity behavior t o the "prior experience variable" of experiencing f a i l u r e and of perceiving the partner as highly accurate i n a pretest s i t u a t i o n p r i o r to the group influence s i t u ­a t i o n . Rosenberg used control groups which had no p r i o r experiences and experimental groups i n which the treatment consisted of ten sessions during which the subjects were "wrong" on eight t r i a l s and " r i g h t " on two while they were t o l d that the average number of times t h e i r partners had been " r i g h t " was seven. The results indicated t h a t increasing the s e l f - e r r o r s i g n i f i c a n t l y increased conformity; decreasing partner error also s i g n i f i c a n t l y increased conformity.

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A study by Wolf and Zolman (1959) has demonstrated that success can also be manipulated by the i n t e r p o l a t i o n of a related task. These investigators created a partner i n t e r a c t i o n s i t u a t i o n i n which subjects were required t o estimate the number of paratroopers i n two b r i e f l y exposed photographs before and again a f t e r judgments were by the confederate partner. A task consisting of counting dots on a specially prepared card supposedly representing the num­ber of chutes i n the f i r s t photograph was interpolated between the two judgments; t h i s task was used to manipulate success by making the number of dots similar to or d i f f e r e n t from the subject's own judgment i n the f i r s t photograph. Wolf and Solman found that sub­j e c t s who had t h e i r i n i t i a l judgment reinforced i n the interpolated task were s i g n i f i c a n t l y more resistant to social influence during the second judgment than were subjects whose i n i t i a l judgments were discontinued i n the interpolated task. Keisler (1956), with a high school student sample, measured d i f ­ferences i n i m i t a t i v e behavior before and a f t e r t r a i n i n g by allow­ing subjects to respond to size estimation items a f t e r observing responses given by a model. The experimental "success" groups, whose responses during t r a i n i n g were called correct with no informa­t i o n about the model's performance, did not d i f f e r i n t h e i r change i n i m i t a t i v e behavior from the corresponding " f a i l u r e " groups who were also given no information about the model's performance. How­ever, "successful" subjects who followed a model who was perceived as receiving chance scores followed the model s i g n i f i c a n t l y less often than "unsuccessful" subjects who followed a successful model. Kelman (1950) used the autokinetic task t o investigate the effects of success and f a i l u r e and found that subjects who perceived f a i l ­ure and inadequacy i n the preinfluence s i t u a t i o n showed greater s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to confederate influence i n the interaction situa­t i o n than did subjects who experienced success and adequacy i n the pretest. Moreover, Kelman found that differences i n responses i n the social influence s i t u a t i o n and a postindividual session showed t h a t successful subjects s h i f t e d away from the confederate's report while the f a i l u r e subjects s h i f t e d toward the confederate's norm. Consequently, these data suggest not only that f a i l u r e experience increases conformity, but that success decreases conformity behavior. A study by Kidd and Campbell (1955) indicates that i t i s necessary t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e between in d i v i d u a l f a i l u r e i n a p r i o r alone experi­ence and a p r i o r experience of group f a i l u r e . I n t h e i r study Kidd and Campbell created three member undergraduate groups which were given d i f f e r e n t degrees of f a i l u r e and success i n a collaborative group task (forming words from separate l e t t e r l i s t s given to each subject i n such a way that each word contained at least one l e t t e r from each member's l i s t ) . Following t h i s task subjects twice judged the number of f l i c k e r s of a l i g h t , receiving a bogus average group judgment p r i o r to the second estimate. I t was found that persons i n groups given three successes and no f a i l u r e s i n the p r i o r task showed s i g n i f i c a n t l y more movement i n the second e s t i ­mate i n the d i r e c t i o n of the bogus group average than did subjects

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i n either the three f a i l u r e groups or those i n a central situa­t i o n which had no p r i o r experience. Persons given two successes and one f a i l u r e were intermediate; the three f a i l u r e groups showed less conformity than did the control groups; however, the d i f f e r ­ence was not s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . Thus i t can be seen that when an indi v i d u a l has a p r i o r alone experience of f a i l u r e , he i s more susceptible to group pressures on a second task. However, follow i n g a group experience of f a i l u r e , subjects are less sus­ceptible to group pressures on the second task. Perhaps the most cogent explanation of t h i s l a t t e r f i n d i n g i s that group f a i l u r e lowers the perceived competence of the group, thereby lowering i t s influence. A study by Croner and W i l l i s (1961) has added another q u a l i f i c a ­t i o n to the relationship between p r i o r f a i l u r e and s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o influence. Croner and W i l l i s have shown that p r i o r success or f a i l u r e of a partner on a d i f f e r e n t but related task results i n increased social influence only when the tasks are perceived to be s i m i l a r . I n one experiment the partner's perceived competence was manipulated on a bean counting task, and no difference was found i n the degree to which p r i o r competence affected movement toward the partner's judgments i n a second task of l i n e length judgments. I n a second experiment the partner's competence was established i n the same bean counting task, but the second task involved the judging of i r r e g u l a r l y shaped areas, and the experimenter explic­i t l y explained the s i m i l a r i t y between the two tasks. In t h i s second condition i n which the tasks were similar and the instruc­t i o n s emphasized the s i m i l a r i t y , a s i g n i f i c a n t degree of asymmetry of influence toward the competent partner was found. F a m i l i a r i t y with task: I n the previously described study by Gold­berg (1954) i n which subjects judged i n t e l l i g e n c e from pictures, Goldberg provided a l l subjects with three degrees of experience and found that increased experience did not res u l t i n more r e s i s t ­ance t o social influence pressures. As explained e a r l i e r , the nature of the task may account for t h i s unexpected f i n d i n g . On the other hand, Harvey and Rutherford (1958) found that naive college subjects with fewer p r e t r i a l s on the autokinetic task showed a s i g n i f i c a n t l y greater tendency to s h i f t t h e i r responses i n a sub­sequent group pressure s i t u a t i o n . Degree of anxiety or insecurity: Sherif and Harvey (1952) varied f a m i l i a r i t y with the experimental s e t t i n g and the manner ( f r i e n d ­liness and helpfulness) of the experimenter. Subjects judged the autokinetic task i n i t i a l l y i n p r i v a t e ; then two to seven days l a t e r they judged i n p a i r s . Comparisons were made of ranges and medians of judgments f o r private and pair sessions. The greater the uncertainty induced under pr i v a t e conditions, the more i n d i ­viduals fluctuated i n the ranges and medians of t h e i r pair judgments For those subjects experiencing maximum uncertainty under private conditions, dispersion of judgments was s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduced in the pair sessions while no differences occurred between private and

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group judgments f o r those experiencing lesser degrees of uncer­t a i n t y . Sherif and Harvey interpreted these findings to i n c i -cate that subjects served as "anchors" f o r one another when f i e l d anchorages were reduced. Properties of the p r i o r task; Several experimenters have provided pr e t r a i n i n g on tasks wit h properties d i f f e r i n g from the l a t e r tasks on which social pressures are exerted. Luchins {1945) used the task of naming the percept i n a series of twelve drawings. By comparison with a control group, the erroneous response was given more frequently by those who had had pretraining with a confederate whose i d e n t i c a l response was called "correct" i n the preliminary series and "incorrect" i n the second social influence series. When the confederate's preliminary responses were not supported by features of the drawing, no differences were found between the experimental and control groups. These results are consistent with those of Croner and W i l l i s (1963) who found that p r i o r experience increases s u s c e p t i b i l i t y only when the tasks are perceived to be similar. Luchins and Luchins (1955) have also shown that stimulus characteristics of the p r i o r task can influence s u s c e p t i b i l i t y . In t h i s study the responses of the confederate to a preliminary series of pictures were varied and h a l f the subjects judged pictures of clea r l y delineated objects while the other half judged an ambiguous set of l i n e s a Conformity was found to be higher when the preliminary series was ambiguous and when the confederate's responses i n the preliminary series were congruent with those of a control group which judged p r i v a t e l y . Reward pretraining; Experimenters have varied the type of responsse which has been reinforced; i n some studies independent responses have been rewarded while i n others conformity to false group norms has been reinforced. Scott (1957) found that college debaters who were rewarded by praise showed s i g n i f i c a n t l y greater average change i n the di r e c t i o n of t h e i r positions than did losers or con­t r o l subjects. In the study by Luchins and Luchins (1955) men­tioned above, subjects showed greater s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to influence on a subsequent t e s t series when i n the preliminary series the experimenter called the naive subject's responses " r i g h t " when they agreed with the purposely incorrect responses of the confed­erate. I t appears, therefore, that feedback or reward has a s t a b i l i z i n g e f f e c t even when the information i s incorrect. With si m i l a r conditions i n an e a r l i e r study Luchins (1944) reported comparable r e s u l t s . Crutchfield (1955) found that when the experi­menter called erroneous reports of others " r i g h t , " conformity increased on a task involving perceptual judgments. However, sub­sequent responses to a t t i t u d e judgments by the same subjects were not influenced by erroneous feedback. I t appears, therefore, that conformity behavior following pretraining with reward f o r erroneous responses i s l i m i t e d by the content of the tasks. Pr i o r social experience: Several investigators have manipulated social i n t e r a c t i o n p r i o r to the influence s i t u a t i o n ; the results from these experiments are equivocal. Kidd (1958) used a l i g h t

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f l i c k e r counting task to create social influence pressures. After an alone estimate, undergraduate subjects were given bogus average group estimates a t t r i b u t e d to either an i d e n t i f i a b l e or a non-i d e n t i f i a b l e source. Kidd found that i d e n t i f i a b i l i t y of the source s i g n i f i c a n t l y increased conformity toward the bogus estimates. Lambert and Lowy (1957) had male undergraduates f i l l out compara­b l e forms of the F scale (Adorno et a l . , 1950) under three condi-t i o n s ; alone, i n groups of f i v e without discussion, and i n groups of f i v e a f t e r discussion. The degree of acquaintance of the group members was also varied. Among the high acquaintance subjects there was a s i g n i f i c a n t reduction i n score v a r i a b i l i t y from both the alone condition to the group together condition and from the alone condition to the group discussion condition; the low acquaint­ance subjects showed no reduction i n score v a r i a b i l i t y to either of the group conditions. Bray (1950) found that i n the auto­k i n e t i c task Gentile subjects ranking high i n anti-Semitism on the Levinson-Sanford Scale of A t t i t u d e Toward Jews (1944) converged t h e i r judgments toward supposedly Jewish partners; Gentile subjects ranking high i n anti-Negro feelings on the L i k e r t Scale of Attitude Toward the Negro (1942) f a i l e d to converge towards a Negro partner. Bray related these findings to what he considered to be common stereotypes among prejudiced people i n which the Jew i s seen as clever and the Negro i s seen as stupid. I n a study i n which p r i o r social experience was not experimentally induced, but based on self-s e l e c t i o n , Ex (1960) found that i n the autokinetic task strangers appear to exert more social influence

« than acquaintances. Ex used Dutch undergraduates ranging i n ages from 20 to 30 years; 32 male-female partnerships were used, 16 of these partners were engaged couples (I-duos) and 16 of the partners were strangers (S-duos). I n deach duo eight males were confeder­ates and eight were the naive subject. The naive subject judged autokinetic movement alone p r i o r to the influence s i t u a t i o n i n which the confederate gave judgments either larger or smaller than e s t i ­mates the subjects had previously given. Under these conditions Ex found s i g n i f i c a n t l y more s h i f t i n g toward the partner i n the S-duo condition; moreover, s h i f t i n g away from the partner was found only i n the I-duo. The men i n the S-duos shi f t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y more toward t h e i r partners than did the men i n the I-duos, but women i n the S-duos did not s h i f t more toward t h e i r partners than d i d women i n the I-duos. Neither with the S-duos nor with the I-duos did an ove r a l l comparison of s h i f t i n g between men and women produce a s i g n i f i c a n t difference. Perhaps one can best i n t e r p r e t these results facetiously t o indicate that engaged couples should not judge autokinetic movement together. More seriously, one must consider c u l t u r a l factors when r e l a t i n g these results to the Ameri­can studies which o f f e r contradictory evidence that acquaintances exert more social influence than do strangers. Summary: A p r i o r i n d i v i d u a l f a i l u r e experience on a task that i s l a t e r subjected to conformity pressures has been found t o render the indi v i d u a l less resistant t o subsequent social influence.

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Properties of a p r i o r task on which a confederate gave a false report have been found related to the degree os s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to pressures exerted by the same confederate on a la t e r and d i f f e r e n t task provided that the two tasks are perceived as similar. Experi­mentally induced anxiety and insecurity p r i o r to the pressure s i t u ­a t i o n i s related to s u s c e p t i b i l i t y ; those experiencing the greatest anxiety are least r e s i s t a n t . Pretraining with reward f o r incorrect responses renders a person more susceptible to influence. Finally, experimentally induced p r i o r social i n t e r a c t i o n appears to increase s u s c e p t i b i l i t y , although a Dutch f i e l d experiment of f e r s contra­d i c t o r y evidence.

PHYSIOLOGICAL AND DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS AND CONFORMITY

The physiologic characteristics which have been experimentally rel a t e d to conformity w i l l be reviewed i n the following order: sex, age, b i r t h order, sex of s i b l i n g , physical condition, and physiologic states of the person. Then experiments r e l a t i n g con­formity to the demographic characteristics of culture, race, occu­pation, income l e v e l , and re l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n w i l l be presented. I t should be noted that while sex and age are c l a s s i f i e d as physio­lo g i c factors f o r purposes of t h i s review, t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s a r b i t r a r y and not appropriate i n every case. Age and sex d i f f e r ­ences i n s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to social influence can also be i n t e r ­preted i n terms of such c u l t u r a l and psychological factors as role expectancy, d i f f e r e n t i a l experiences, and c u l t u r a l role prescrip­t i o n s . Consequently, the experimental results reported i n t h i s section may be i n d i r e c t l y related to age and sex but not "caused by" the physiologic factor varied i n the experiment. I t should also be noted that the experiments r e l a t i n g demographic character­i s t i c s to conformity have been included i n t h i s review t o add completeness; nonetheless, i t i s recognized that some readers -will view these experiments as beyond the scope of a s t r i c t interpreta­t i o n of the "personality correlates of conformity." Sex: Seventeen experiments which have related conformity behavior t o sex differences are summarized i n Table 1. (Throughout the remainder of t h i s review the w r i t e r w i l l summarize i n table form those experiments i n which a number of investigators have related the same variable t o conformity behavior. -/here an experiment can be described adequately i n table form, no further mention of that experiment w i l l be made i n the review i t s e l f . "Where experimental d e t a i l s cannot be summarized, the experiment w i l l appear both i n the tables and i n the t e x t . The f a i l u r e to describe i n d e t a i l a summarized experiment should not be interpretated as indicating t h a t the experiment i s of less importance than an experiment which i s both summarized and detailed.) I n the experiment by Ba l l (1953) 38 statements from the Drobra A t t i t u d e Toward War scale (1931) ranging from moderately p a c i f i s t i c , through neutral, t o moderately m i l i t a r i s t i c were used with three background conditions: items

TABLE 1

SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENTS RELATING SEX DIFFERENCES TO CONFORMITY

I n v e s t i g a t o r S i t u a t i o n Task Subjects Finding

B a l l (1953)

B e l o f f (195S)

Paper and pen c i l a t t i t u d e measure

Simulated d i s c u s s i o n

A t t i t u d e toward war items with v a r i o u s norms provided

A t t i t u d e toward war, a e s t h e t i c preference, s o c i a l / p o l i t i ­c a l , and r e l i g ­ious items

Undergraduates (60 male; 37 female)

Undergraduates at Queen 1s Uni­v e r s i t y , B e l f a s t ( I r e l a n d ) (35 male; 25 female)

Women s h i f t e d judg­ments more toward given norms than did men (as compared to a c o n t r o l group)

Men more conforming to p o l i t i c a l - s o c i a l i s s u e s ; women more conforming to aes­t h e t i c i s s u e s ; over­a l l , women more con­formant than men

Burt t (1920)

Chaplin (1955)

Group d i s c u s s i o n

A u t o k i n e t i c s i t u a t i o n

Groups with 4-26 members judg­ing t r u t h f u l n e s s of recounting an imaginary crime

Latency, d i r e c ­t i o n , and amount of movement measured

Undergraduates (156 male; 88 female)

Undergraduates (52 male; 51 female)

No sex d i f f e r e n c e i n s h i f t of judgment as a r e s u l t of group d i s c u s s i o n

Females showed longer la t e n c y , p erceived s h o r t e r movement, and reported 13% more no-movement responses

IS

TABL2 1 (continued)

Investigator Situation Task Subjects Finding

Coleman, Blake, and kouton (1958)

Crutchfield (1955)

DiVesta and Cox (1960)

Hottel (1961)

Simulated group

Crutchfield apparatus

Crutchfield apparatus

Simulate group

General informa­t i o n items, d i f ­f i c u l t y con­t r o l l e d

Perceptual, information, and opinion items

Perceptual, onformation, and opinion items

Judging l i n e lengths

Undergraduates (30 male; 30 female)

Undergraduates (19 male; 40 female)„ Also college alumnae aged about 40 and a compara­ble aged male group (50 i n each adult group) Summer school undergraduates ages 18-40 (35 male; 35 female) School children, grades 3, 5, and 7 (180 children i n sample)

Rank difference corre­l a t i o n between item d i f f i c u l t y and con­formity was .58 for men, „89 f o r women College women more conforming than c o l ­lege men; the college alumnae group showed less conformity than the male group of equal age

Females more conform­ant at a l l age levels

G i r l s more conforming at a l l grade levels

TABLE 1 (continued)

Investigator Situation Task Subjects Finding

Hunt, Goldberg, Meadow, and Cohen (1958) Iscoe, Williams, and Harvey (1963)

Jenness (1932)

r i s c h s i t u a t i o n Judging l i n e lengths

Simulated group

Group discussion

Auditory c l i c k counting

Judging number of beans i n a j a r

Undergraduates (21 male; 20 female)

Children ages 7, 9, 12, and 15 (32 male and 32 female i n each age group)

Undergraduates (51 male; 50 female)

No sex difference i n conformity behavior

Females more conform­ing than males. Up to age 12, females much more conforming; by age 15, males s l i g h t l y more con­forming than females No sex difference i n s h i f t of judgment as a resul t of group dis cussion

Kirkpatrick (1936)

Mouton (1957)

Paper and pen­c i l a t t i t u d e measure

Simulated group

Male-female pairs working on a t t i t u d e measure At t i t u d e , a r i t h ­metic, and i n ­formation items with controlled f a m i l i a r i t y

150 undergradu­ates each paired with opposite sex member Undergraduates (50 male; 50 female)

Women changed t h e i r opinion less than men as a re s u l t of pair in t e r a c t i o n For items of equal f a m i l i a r i t y , no sex difference. With sex-related item f a m i l i a r ­i t y varied, difference i n conformity related to f a m i l i a r i t y difference

TABLE 1 (continued)

Investigator Situation Task Subjects Finding

Patel and Gordon (1960)

Paper and pen- Measured accept-c i l vocabulary ance of incor-

Tuddenham (1958)

Tuddenham (1959)

Tuddenham (1961)

t e s t

Crutchfield apparatus

Crutchfield apparatus

Cructchfield apparatus

rect hints w r i t t e n i n t o booklet Perceptual com­parisons/ i n ­formation and opinion items

Perceptual com­parisons/ i n ­formation and opinion items

Visual percep­t i o n ietms

10th, 11th, 12th grade students (72 i n sample, both sexes i n each grade) Undergraduates (106 male; 99 female) and an adult sample (27 male; 29 female) Undergraduates (37 male; 27 female) and an adult sample (27 male; 29 female) 10-12 year old children (35 boys; 35 g i r l s ) and undergradu­ates (32 male; 33 female)

Acceptance of incor­rect h i n t s was greater for g i r l s at a l l grade levels

College women more con­forming than college men; adult women more conforming than adult men but sex difference less i n the adult group For men only, negative correlation between conformity and Inde­pendence of Judgment scale (Barron, 1953a)

Females more conform­ant i n both age groups; greater sex difference i n conformity among children than among adult group

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were introduced wit h the phrase "Most people think that," with the phrase "Few people think that," or with no background. I t was found that women rated items s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher with the "Most" background and s i g n i f i c a n t l y lower with the "Few" background than d i d a control group; men rated items s i g n i f i c a n t l y lower than a cont r o l group only with the "Few" background. Because women shifted more i n both directions, i t was concluded that women were more sus­ceptible to influence. While Beloff's (1958) fin d i n g that women are more conformant than men i s supported by other researchers, i t must be noted that her sample consisted of I r i s h students. Conse­quently, her fi n d i n g d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g aesthetic conformity and p o l i t i c a l - s o c i a l conformity f o r women and men respectively cannot be easily generalized to other student populations i n other c u l ­tures (a study by Milgram, 1961, r e a l t i n g to t h i s issue w i l l be described i n d e t a i l l a t e r i n t h i s review). Crutchfield's (1955) fin d i n g that a sample of college alumnae i n t h e i r f o r t i e s showed less conformity than a male sample of equal age cannot easily be interpretated as indicating that older women are less conformant than older men because of the highly select nature of the alumnae group. I t should be noted that Tuddenham (1958a) found a general sample of adult women to be more conform­ant than a sample of adult men. IViouton's (1957) f i n d i n g that sex differences i n conformity behavior may be an a r t i f a c t of sex-related differences i n item f a m i l i a r i t y appears to be noteworthy. In her experiment, two tasks were judged by a standardizing group to be of equal f a m i l i a r i t y to men and women; one task was composed of a t t i t u d e statements, the other included mental arithmetic problems. A t h i r d task involved informa­t i o n items, with h a l f of the selections judged to be items wit h which men are more f a m i l i a r and h a l f composed of items with women are judged to be more f a m i l i a r . I n the simulated group s i t u a t i o n , each subject responded a f t e r hearing the responses of two "others." The "others" were men f o r half the male subjects, women for the other h a l f of the male subjects; s i m i l a r l y , h a l f of the female sub­j e c t s responded a f t e r hearing responses of two female "others," the other half responded a f t e r hearing two "men" respond. For materials w i t h men and women were equally f a m i l i a r , Kouton found no d i f f e r ­ence i n s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to social influence between the male and female subjects. When f a m i l i a r i t y was related to sex role, sus­c e p t i b i l i t y was found to be a function of f a m i l i a r i t y rather than sex; both men and women were more susceptible to conformity pres­sures on materials with which they were not f a m i l i a r . Moreover, Mouton found that pressures f o r change created by men were not greater than pressures for change created by women. Rather, i t was found that women are capable of exerting more pressure on both men and women for materials with which they are more f a m i l i a r , and women accepted more pressure from other women, rather than from men, f o r materials with which men and women are equally f a m i l i a r . This l a t t e r f i n d i n g i s contradicted by Tuddenham, KacBride, and Zahn (1958) who, with an undergraduate sample and perceptual comparison

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items, found that i n simulated mixed-sex groups women tended to conform more when more men were supposedly contained i n t h e i r simulated groups (however, unlike the Mouton study, item d i f f i c u l t y was not controlled). I n any case, Mouton's experiment indicates the complex nature of the relationship between sex differences and con­formity behavior. Other investigators have also conducted experiments which point to the complex nature of the sex difference-conformity relationship. Bass (1961b) has suggested that the sex differences usually found i n experiments on the s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to social influence may be due to differences i n motivational o r i e n t a t i o n f o r men and women i n the experimental s i t u a t i o n . Bass (1961b) notes that a series of unpublished studies conducted at Louisiana State University indicated that college men tend to be much more task-oriented, more concerned about getting the r i g h t answer, or doing the best job possible. Women, on the other hand, were found to be more interaction-oriented, concerned with obtaining harmonious r e l a t i o n ­ships with others, and being accepted as members of t h e i r groups. Consistent with Bass' observations i s Tuddenham and KacBride's (1959) finding that women were more conforming i f they were con­cerned about t h e i r answers not appearing peculiar t o the other par t i c i p a n t s , while men were more conforming when they said they were concerned with doing the job faster. According to post-experimental interview reactions, Tuddenham and MacBride also found that men seemed more s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e i r performance, were more confident of t h e i r answers, and were more f l a t t e r i n g to them­selves i n comparison to others. Tuddenham*s (1959) fin d i n g that the Barron Independence of Judgment scale (1953a) was negatively correlated to conformity only f o r men also suggests that the con­comitants of conformity f o r women are quite d i f f e r e n t than they are f o r men. Tuddenham (1959) concluded that "the y i e l d i n g -independence variable i s less closely related i n women to attitudes toward the self and the sex rol e , and hence, i s somewhat less pre­dic t a b l e from other variables" (p. 284). The importance of motivational factors (or response set) to con­formity has been demonstrated by serveral researchers. DiVesta (1959) used a t t i t u d e , information, and perceptual items wit h an undergraduate sample i n a Crutchfield apparatus and found that g i v i n g instructions that s k i l l i n making accurate judgments was rela t e d to in t e l l i g e n c e s i g n i f i c a n t l y decreased conformity. Thi-baut and Strickland (1956) found that when subjects were given a "task set," when they were t o l d to do the best possible job i n an Asch-type s i t u a t i o n , conformity behavior decreased s i g n i f i c a n t l y from what i s was when subjects had a "social set." I f i t i s true, as Bass suggests and the above research indicates, that men and women do indeed approach the experimental s i t u a t i o n with d i f f e r e n t motivational orientations, more research appears to be needed to specify the i n t e r a c t i o n between motivational variables and sex d i f ­ferences i n conformity behavior.

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I t has also been demonstrated i n a recent study by Allen and Crutchfield (1963) that there i s a sex difference i n the degree to which conformity effects w i l l generalize. With a male and female undergraduate sample, Allen and Crutchfield used a Crutch­f i e l d apparatus with f i v e types of items: perceptual, vocabulary, number series, opinion estimates, and a t t i t u d i n a l . Feedback1 was given only on the perceptual and vocabulary items, and i t was found t h a t the experimentally reinforced conformity generalized to a sig­n i f i c a n t degree to the items on which feedback was not given. Taking both feedback and nonfeedback items together, females were s i g n i f i c a n t l y more conforming than males on the vocabulary items, and they tended t o be more conformant on the perceptual items. Moreover, the females showed s i g n i f i c a n t l y greater generalization of conformity than did the males. These results are interpretated as in d i c a t i n g that the female r o l e not only involved greater expec­t a t i o n of conformity, but that the r o l e i s a generalized one i n which the female's conforming behavior i s less discriminating than male conformity.

Perceived status differences may also contribute to the sex difference-conformity relationship as suggested i n the studies by Strodtbeck (1951) demonstrating that status differences i n three cultures (navaho Indian, Mormon, Texas farmer) led t o d i f f e r e n t i a l tendencies of husbands and wives to lead i n problem-solving dis­cussions. F i n a l l y , Crutchfield (as reported i n Krech, Crutchfield, and Ballachey, 1962) has conducted a series of studies, with m i l i ­t a r y o f f i c e r s , medical school applicants, engineers, research s c i e n t i s t s , creative w r i t e r s , and architects, a l l of which indicate t h a t sex r o l e i s an important variable i n the sex difference-conformity relationship. In a l l his studies, Crutchfield reports t h a t females earned higher conformity scores than males and t h i s difference tended t o get larger as the testing sessions continued. The average conformity scores for males tended to decline over the duration of the sessions; the average scores for females tended to r i s e . Crutchfield also found evidence that the higher conforming females tended t o be generally characterized by an easier accept­ance of the female r o l e . Many of the females who resisted group pressures tended to be characterized by marked signs of c o n f l i c t i n t h e i r feelings about the conventional feminine r o l e , by rejec­t i o n of dependent relationships w i t h parents and others, and by h o s t i l e attitudes toward family. On a personality scale intended to measure "so c i a l i z a t i o n " (Gough, 1960a), the independent females scored s i g n i f i c a n t l y lower than did the conforming females; among the males there was no difference i n s o c i a l i z a t i o n scores between

In conformity research, feedback refers to a method i n which the experimenter provides a u t h o r i t a t i v e confirmation of the group by informing the subject immediately a f t e r a judgment what the "cor­r e c t " response was; t h i s alledgedly "correct" response i s arranged to be i n agreement with the bogus group consensus.

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the independents and the conformers. In reviewing and interpre-t a t i n g the findings from h i s many studies, Crutchfield (1959, p. 387) has w r i t t e n the following concerning the relationship between sex and conformity:

The females conform more readily, and the personal corre­lates of t h e i r conforming behavior are appreciably d i f ­ferent from those i n the male. An int e r p r e t a t i o n of t h i s f i n d i n g i s that males and females perceive the group pres­sure s i t u a t i o n i n d i f f e r e n t ways, owing to t h e i r d i f f e r e n t b e l i e f s and values concerning conformity, and r e f l e c t e d i n the contrasting d e f i n i t i o n s of the t y p i c a l feminine and masculine roles.

Thus as Table 1 indicates, and as the above experiments have f u r ­ther demonstrated, the relationship between sex differences and conformity i s complex and equivocal; the most appropriate conclu­sion appears to be that d i f f e r e n t i a l s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to social influence by men and women i s d i f f i c u l t to i n t e r p r e t and that t h i s d i f f e r e n t i a l merits further research. Age: Ten experiments which have related conformity behavior to age differences are summarized i n Table 2. In Berenda's (1950) study, the younger children conformed more to incorrect responses made by t h e i r teachers than to incorrect peer responses; the older children conformed equally to both types of confederates, and as noted i n Table 2, the younger children were more conformant i n both cases. I n the study by Duncker (1938) food preferences ( f o r carrots, nuts, bananas, apples, bread, and grapes) were i n i t i a l l y established and then the children watched another c h i l d whose pre­ference was d i f f e r e n t select a food from a table. Milgram's (1961) study has important theor e t i c a l implications which w i l l be discussed l a t e r i n t h i s review; moreover, i t i s necessary to describe t h i s experiment more f u l l y than can be done i n table form, i n what was ostensively a "learning experiment" whose pur­pose was to investigate the effec t of punishment upon verbal learn­ing, the naive subject was paired wit h three confederates, one who read the word pairs, one who indicated whether the response was correct, and one who was the "learner." The subject had control over the shock leve l and was requested to administer increasingly greater shocks when the learner gave an incorrect response. As indicated i n Table 2, the subjects varied i n age, occupational status, and educational l e v e l . Milgram also related response to group pressure to such variables as p o l i t i c a l preference, religious preference, birth-order, and m i l i t a r y experience, and these results w i l l be presented l a t e r i n t h i s review. In summarizing the experimental evidence r e l a t i n g age to conformity behavior, i t appears that younger people are generally more respon­sive to social pressures than are older individuals.

TABLE 1

SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENTS RELATING AGE DIFFERENCES TO CONFORMITY

I n v e s t i g a t o r S i t u a t i o n Task Subjects Finding

Berenda (1950)

P a i r interac­t i o n a f t e r i n i t i a l judgments

L i n e judgments with teacher and peer con­fede r a t e s

47 c h i l d r e n ages 7-10; 29 c h i l ­dren ages 10-13

Both groups showed s i g n i f i c a n t s u s c e p t i ­b i l i t y to both teacher and peer confederates; the younger group showed s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r s u s c e p t i b i l i t y than the olde r group

DiVesta and Cox (1960)

C r u t c h f i e l d apparatus

Perceptual, information, and opinion items

Summer school undergraduates, ages 18-40 (35 male; 35 female)

S i g n i f i c a n t negative c o r r e l a t i o n between age and conformity (-.24; p l e s s than .05)

Duncker (1938)

P a i r interac­t i o n a f t e r e s t a b l i s h i n g i n i t i a l pre­ference

Choosing a pre­f e r r e d food a f t e r a peer has chosen

London nursery school c h i l d r e n , ages 2 years, 8 months to 5 years, 2 months

Younger c h i l d r e n were more i n f l u e n c e d to i m i t a t e peer's choice, c h i l d r e n under 2 and 2/3 y e a r s d id not respond to i n f l u e n c e of others

I s c o e , Williams, and Harvey (1963)

Simulated group

Auditory c l i c k C h i l dren ages counting 7, 9, 12, and

15 (white c h i l ­dren j urban and r u r a l , 32 of each sex i n each age group)

R e l a t i o n s h i p between age and conformity was c u r v i l i n e a r ; con­formity i n c r e a s e d to age 12, then decreased

TABLE 2

(continued)

I n v e s t i g a t o r S i t u a t i o n Task Subjects Finding

I s c o e , Williams, and Harvey (1964)

Simulated group

Mar p i e (1933)

Paper and pen­c i l a t t i t u d e measure, i n i ­t i a l and a f t e r expert and peer opinion

Auditory c l i c k count ing

P o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l , e t h i ­c a l , and edu­c a t i o n a l items

Children ages 7, 9, 12, and 15 (both Negro and white, from urban l o c a l e , 64 male, 64 female i n each r a c i a l group

300 high school s e n i o r s , median age 18; 300 c o l ­lege s e n i o r s , median age 22; 300 a d u l t s , median age 39

Whites i n c r e a s e d i n conformity from 7 to 12, then s l i g h t decrease; Negroes Negroes showed pro­g r e s s i v e decrease i n conformity a f t e r age

A l l t h r e e groups s h i f t e d to both expert and peer group opinion; a d u l t s s h i f t e d l e s s than student groups; no d i f f e r e n c e between the student groups

Milgram (1964)

Group " l e a r n i n g experiment"

Administering "shock" to a l e a r n e r f o r i n c o r r e c t answers under group p r e s s u r e

80 adult males; ages 20-50, var i o u s occupa­t i o n s and edu­c a t i o n a l l e v e l s from l e s s than completing e l e ­mentary school to doctorate

Age not r e l a t e d to the naive s u b j e c t ' s w i l l i n g ­ness to administer punishment under group pr e s s u r e as compared to to an i n d i v i d u a l c o n t r o l c o n d i t i o n

TABLE 2

(continued)

Investigator Situation Task Subjects Finding

Luchins and Luchins (1955b)

Pair interac­t i o n with partner giving incorrect responses

Line length judgments

13 elementary school c h i l ­dren, ages 10-13; 13 male undergraduates

Conformity to incor­rect response by con­federate was s i g n i f i ­cantly greater among the children than among the college group

Patel and Gordon (1960)

Tuddenham (1961)

Paper and pen­c i l vocabulary t e s t

Crutchfield apparatus

Measured acceptance of incorrect h i n t s w r i t t e n i n t o t e s t booklet

Visual per­ception items

10th, 11th, and 12th grade stu­dents (72 i n sample, both sexes i n each grade)

10-12 year old children (35 boys, 35 g i r l s ) and undergradu­ates (32 male, 33 female)

12th graders accepted s i g n i f i c a n t l y less suggestion than did 10th and 11th graders; the l a t t e r two groups did not d i f f e r s i g n i f i ­cantly from each other Children yielded more than adults to false norms; nonsignificant difference i n y i e l d i n g between college men and boys; difference between college women and g i r l s reached 1 per cent lev e l

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Birth-Crder: Although Adler (1945) had suggested the importance of an individual's ordinal position i n the family some years ago, u n t i l quite recently very l i t t l e research had been conducted using ordinal position as the independent variable. Then a few years ago Schachter (1959) published a book i n which he reported the r e s u l t s of a series of studies on ordinal position, motivation, and behavior i n both experimental and social situations. Schachter suggested that f i r s t - b o r n individuals are more anxious and more a f f i l i a t i v e l y dependent than later-born individuals; he also sug­gested that f i r s t - b o r n individuals would be more prone to i n f l u ­ence by others. The book reported the findings of a study by Ehrlich i n which f i r s t - b o r n males were found to be less resistant to social influence than later-born males, and since the publica­t i o n of Schachter's book, a number of researchers have both sup­ported and contradicted Ehrlich's f i n d i n g . (The contradictory nature of the findings and the variety of methodologies used i n these experiments make them d i f f i c u l t to summarize i n table form; consequently, the w r i t e r w i l l review these experiments i n t e x t form.) Using an interaction-type influence s i t u a t i o n i n which a hired assistant sought to influence a subject to adopt an a t t i t u d e con­t r a r y to one indicated i n a pre-influence assessment, Sampson (1962) found that f o r a female undergraduate sample birth-order tended to be related i n a d i r e c t i o n opposite to Schachter*s hypothesis (at the .10 l e v e l ) ; f i r s t - b o r n females were more resistant to social influence than were later-born females. I n a second study which used the discrepancy between a subject's own personal evaluation and a group leader's evaluation of performance i n a group task as the measure of s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to social influence, Sampson (1962) found that f o r a sample of male Coast Guard r e c r u i t s he replicated Ehrlich's f i n d i n g that f i r s t - b o r n males are more conformant than later-born males. Becker and Carroll (1962) report similar results w i t h a sample of grade school boys tested i n an Asch-type situa­t i o n with l i n e judging items. In a l a t e r study Becker, Lerner, and Carroll (1964) tested the hypothesis that the relationship between birth-order and conformity i s dependent upon the type of social influence, normative or informational, which i s operating i n the influence s i t u a t i o n . I n t h i s study, f i r s t - b o r n and l a t e r -born high school boys were tested i n an Asch-type s i t u a t i o n , and a small ($.05) or large ($.25) reward was introduced for each cor­rect response; a control group made judgments without any mention of rewards. The study replicated the e a r l i e r finding that f i r s t ­born boys y i e l d more frequently than later-born boys. Moreover, the small payoff condition lead to decreased y i e l d i n g f o r both the f i r s t - b o r n and later-born boys, whereas the larger payoff lead to increased y i e l d i n g only f o r the later-born boys. These results are interpreted as indicating that f i r s t - b o r n persons are more depend­ent on others for social support (normative influence) whereas later-born persons r e l y more on others for the v a l i d a t i o n of t h e i r b e l i e f s (informational influence). The operationalization of the two types of social influence i n t h i s experiment i s , i n the opinion of the w r i t e r , a noteworthy methodological innovation which w i l l be discussed more f u l l y at the conclusion of t h i s review.

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Using female undergraduate samples, two researchers have f a i l e d to f i n d a birth-order e f f e c t . Thorne (1962) compared only children and f i r s t - b o r n against later-borns i n a Crutchfield apparatus with per­ceptual judgments as s t i m u l i and did not f i n d a relationship between conformity and birth-order. Schrnuch (1963) assessed the "personal disposition to conform" by a three picture projective t e s t developed by Davis (1954). According to Davis' work these pictures are related to compliant-defiant derivatives of the anal complex i n psycho-analytic theory and were validated with Blum's Blacky Test (1949). Schmuck found no relationship between birth-order and con­formity as measured by the projective t e s t . I n a recent study Moore (1964) found no relationship between birth-order and suscepti­b i l i t y to social influence except for an only c h i l d group where her f i n d i n g was i n a d i r e c t i o n opposite to Schachter's hypothesis; the only c h i l d group was less susceptible than a later-born group on one of three measures. Moore's subjects were male undergraduates; her measures were the Pers u a s i b i l i t y t e s t of w r i t t e n communications of opinion from a u t h o r i t a t i v e sources (Hovland and Janis, 1959), the I n f l u e n c i b i l i t y t e s t with false peer group norm feedback (Schachter, 1959), and the autokinetic s i t u a t i o n . Moore compared only children, f i r s t - b o r n , and later-born on each of these three measures and found no relationships except on the I n f l u e n c i b i l i t y t e s t where only children were less "influencible." Walters and Karal (1960) have hypothesized that anxiety i s the most important motivating factor i n determining s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to social influence, and the relationship between anxiety, birth-order, and conformity has been experimentally investigated i n a study by Staples and Walter (1961). I n t h i s study suggestion of movement i n the autokinetic s i t u a t i o n was given to 64 female undergraduates, 32 f i r s t - b o r n and 32 later-born. I t was found that f i r s t - b o r n responded more quickly to suggestion of movement than did later-born. Half of the f i r s t - b o r n and half of the later-born were then t o l d t h at they would receive shock when t h e i r judgments were i n error (anxiety condition). I t was found that f i r s t - b o r n i n the anxiety condition were more suggestible than f i r s t - b o r n i n the nonanxiety condition; there was no s i g n i f i c a n t difference between later-born i n the anxiety condition and later-born i n the nonanxiety condition. There was also no difference between f i r s t - b o r n and later-born i n the nonanxiety condition. Thus the results are inconclusive; both Schachter*s hypothesis r e l a t i n g s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to birth-order and the Walters-Karal hypothesis r e l a t i n g s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o anxiety received p a r t i a l support i n the Staples and Walters (1961) experi­ment . In summarizing the above experiments r e l a t i n g birth-order to con­formity or s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to social influence, one must conclude that to date the results are equivocal and that no relationship has yet been empirically demonstrated.

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Sex of s i b l i n g : While Schmuck (1963) f a i l e d to f i n d a birth-order e f f e c t i n the previously c i t e d experiment, he did f i n d that h i s p r o j e c t i v e measure of conformity was related to the sex of s i b l i n g f o r his female undergraduate sample. The subjects were character­ized by one of the following: (1) a two-child family w i t h (a) a younger brother or (b) a younger s i s t e r or (c) an older brother or (d) an older s i s t e r ; or (2) a one-child family. In the two-child families the age difference between the subject and the s i b l i n g was from two to f i v e years. Schmuck found that g i r l s with a brother more often had personal tendencies to conform than did g i r l s with a s i s t e r ; neither birth-order nor an int e r a c t i o n between birth-order and sex of s i b l i n g yielded s i g n i f i c a n t r e s u l t s . This appears to be the only study i n the l i t e r a t u r e which has used sex of s i b l i n g as the independent variable; i n view of Schmuck1s fin d i n g , more research i n t h i s area appears to be indicated.

Physical condition: One study, an investigation by Linde and Pat­terson (1964), has used the subject's physical condition as the independent variable i n a study of conformity. Conformity was assessed i n an Asch-type s i t u a t i o n using two control groups, one composed of able-bodied male undergraduates, the other consisting of disabled male undergraduates (paraplegic-type d i s a b i l i t i e s r equiring wheelchair confinement). Two experimental groups were used i n which the physical condition of the confederates was con­tra s t e d with the condition of the naive subject. I t was found that disabled men i n groups with able-bodied confederates conformed less than did able-bodied men i n groups wit h disabled confederates; moreover, conformity was greater i n homogeneous groups than i t was i n the nonhomogeneous groups. The researchers point out that t h e i r r e s u l t s are consistent with the observation by Wright (1960) that people who are able-bodied often have pos i t i v e attitudes toward the disabled related to respect f o r presumed inte l l i g e n c e , courage, or perseverance.

Physiologic states of the person: Physiologic states which have experimentally related t o conformity include sleep deprivation, degrees of t h i r s t , food preferences, palmer sweat, galvanic skin response, and plasma free f a t t y acid l e v e l . In a study by Fisher and Rubenstein (1956) loss of sleep was found to render a person more susceptible to social pressure. Subjects who had been awake continuously f o r 48 to 52 hours showed s i g n i f i c a n t l y greater changes i n autokinetic judgments, both within t r i a l s and between t r i a l s , than did a control group which was not sleep deprived. After experi­mentally creating two degrees of t h i r s t , strong and moderate, Kim-b r e l l and Blake (1958) asked subjects to wait f o r the remainder of the experiment near a drinking fountain with a sign forbidding i t s use. Under conditions of moderate t h i r s t , the naive subject was s i g n i f i c a n t l y influenced by a confederate who violated the sign; confederate behavior did not influence drinking i n the strong t h i r s t

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c o n d i t i o n . Marinho (1942) found t h a t w i t h r e s p e c t t o food p r e ­f e r e n c e s , t h e i n d i v i d u a l w i t h d e f i n i t e p r e f e r e n c e s i s more r e s i s t a n t t o change as a f u n c t i o n o f s o c i a l p r e s s u r e s . Marinho p l a c e d f o u r t o s i x y e a r o l d k i n d e r g a r t e n c h i l d r e n i n t o two groups, one showing a p r e f e r e n c e f o r one o f two k i n d s o f f r u i t p a s t e , t h e o t h e r group h a d an i n d e f i n i t e p r e f e r e n c e . H a l f o f each group s e r v e d a s a con­t r o l and h a l f s e r v e d a s t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l group i n an i n t e r a c t i o n s i t u a t i o n w i t h a p e e r c o n f e d e r a t e . B o t h groups showed a s h i f t as a r e s u l t of t h e c o n f e d e r a t e ' s s e l e c t i o n , b u t t h e group w i t h t h e d e f i n i t e p r e f e r e n c e s showed s i g n i f i c a n t l y l e s s s h i f t t h a n d i d t h e g r o u p w i t h t h e i n d e f i n i t e p r e f e r e n c e s .

S e v e r a l r e s e a r c h e r s have r e l a t e d a t t i t u d e change t o a n x i e t y a s measured by e i t h e r palmer sweat o r g a l v a n i c s k i n r e s p o n s e ( G S R ) . Lawson (1955) s e l e c t e d extreme s c o r e r s on two measures of n a t i o n a l i s m - i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s m from a male u n d e r g r a d u a t e sample, and 40 n a t i o n a l i s t s and 40 i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s t s t h e n p a r t i c i p a t e d i n a group d i s c u s s i o n i n w h i c h two n a i v e s u b j e c t s w i t h t h e same v i e w s w e r e opposed by s i x t o e i g h t r o l e - p l a y i n g c o n f e d e r a t e s w i t h t h e o p p o s i t e v i e w p o i n t . Lawson found t h a t a t t i t u d e s h i f t was brought a b o u t more s u c c e s s f u l l y i n t h e n a t i o n a l i s t group ( t o w a r d i n t e r ­n a t i o n a l i s m ) , and i n b o t h groups a t t i t u d e s h i f t toward t h e opposing v i e w r e s u l t e d i n d e c r e a s e d palmer sw e a t . I n a r e l a t e d e xperiment u s i n g a s i m i l a r sample, s i t u a t i o n , and t a s k , Lawson and S t a g n e r (1957) a g a i n found t h a t a t t i t u d e s h i f t s were accompanied by d e c r e a s e s i n palmer sweat, p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r t h o s e s u b j e c t s i n i t i a l l y h o l d i n g n a t i o n a l i s t i c p o s i t i o n s . I n a s t u d y r e l a t i n g a t t i t u d e s h i f t t o GSR, Hoffman (1957) u s e d s e l e c t e d i t e m s from t h e F s c a l e (Adorno e t a l . , 1950) t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e u n d e r g r a d u a t e s w i t h h i g h and low c o n f o r m i t y needs. GSR r e a d i n g s were t a k e n i n a s o c i a l p r e s s u r e s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h e a c h s u b j e c t r e s p o n d e d o r a l l y t o s o c i a l a t t i t u d e i t e m s a f t e r h e a r i n g bogus group norms t h a t a l t e r n a t e l y a g r e e d o r d i s a g r e e d w i t h r e s p o n s e s t h a t s u b j e c t s had g i v e n s i x weeks e a r l i e r t o t h e same i t e m s . U n e x p e c t e d l y , b o t h groups s h i f t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o w a r d t h e f a l s e norms. C o n f o r m i t y produced l e s s a n x i e t y t h a n d i d r e s i s t a n c e ( a s measured by t h e GSR), a l t h o u g h t h e d i f f e r e n c e s were s i g n i f i c a n t f o r t h e h i g h c o n f o r m i t y s u b j e c t s o n l y .

One o f t h e most s o p h i s t i c a t e d r e s e a r c h e f f o r t s t o appear i n t h i s r e v i e w , r e s e a r c h whose i m p o r t a n t m e t h o d o l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s t h e w r i t e r w i l l d i s c u s s a t t h e c o n c l u s i o n of t h i s r e v i e w , i s a s e r i e s o f s t u d i e s c o n d u c t e d a t t h e Duke M e d i c a l C e n t e r i n w h i c h a team o f m e d i c a l d o c t o r s and s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s h ave c o l l a b o r a t e d t o s t u d y t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n f o r m i t y and " c e n t r a l n e r ­v o u s s y s t e m a r o u s a l " by means o f s e q u e n t i a l p h y s i o l o g i c a l measures t a k e n t h r o u g h o u t t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s i t u a t i o n . B l o o d samples a r e drawn a u t o m a t i c a l l y t h r o u g h o u t t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s e r i e s and t h e p l a s m a f r e e f a t t y a c i d (FFA) l e v e l , w h i c h i s c o n s i d e r e d t o be a m e a s u r e o f c e n t r a l n e r v o u s s y s t e m a r o u s a l , i s r e g i s t e r e d . I n t h e f i r s t s t u d y o f t h e s e r i e s by Bogdonoff, K l e i n , E s t e s , Shaw, and B a c k ( 1 9 6 1 ) , n i n e four-member groups composed o f n o r m a l l y f a s t i n g

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m a l e s were a s s e s s e d i n a m o d i f i e d C r t u c h f i e i d a p p a r a t u s w i t h p e r ­c e p t u a l judgment i t e m s . The g e n e r a l e f f e c t o f t h e group p r e s s u r e s i t u a t i o n was a s u b s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e i n t h e FFA l e v e l . F o r t h o s e s u b j e c t s who r e s i s t e d group p r e s s u r e , t h e FFA l e v e l remained h i g h , b u t f o r t h o s e who conformed t h e FFA l e v e l was re d u c e d . The c o r r e ­l a t i o n between c o n f o r m i t y s c o r e s and FFA l e v e l r e d u c t i o n was s i g ­n i f i c a n t ( r = . 6 3 ; p l e s s t h a n . 0 5 ) . T h i s f i n d i n g was i n t e r p r e t e d t o i n d i c a t e t h a t c o n f o r m i t y b e h a v i o r r e s u l t s i n a g e n e r a l l o w e r i n g o f t h e a r o u s e d s t a t e , an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w h i c h i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e f i n d i n g t h a t c o n f o r m i t y r e s u l t s i n d e c r e a s e d palmer sweat and l o w e r e d GSR. I n a more r e c e n t s t u d y c o n d u c t e d a t t h e Duke M e d i c a l C e n t e r by Back, Bogdonoff, Shaw, and K l e i n (1963) t h e r e s e a r c h e r s a t t e m p t e d t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l dynamics of c o n f o r m i t y b e h a v i o r by a n a l y s i n g p h y s i o l o g i c a l d a t a . The FFA l e v e l was mea­s u r e d a s a sample group of NROTC s t u d e n t s r e s p o n d e d t o a t a s k con­s i s t i n g o f m a t c h i n g a i r p l a n e s i l h o u e t t e s i n a m o d i f i e d C r u t c h f i e l d a p p a r a t u s . The e x p e r i m e n t e r s m a n i p u l a t e d group c o h e s i v e n e s s and t h e s u b j e c t ' s s u b j e c t i v e p e r c e p t i o n o f h i s a b i l i t y i n t h e t a s k . T h e g r e a t e s t c o n f o r m i t y and t h e g r e a t e s t i n c r e a s e i n FFA o c c u r r e d i n t h e h i g h c o h e s i v e n e s s - h i g h a b i l i t y c o n d i t i o n and i n t h e low-c o h e s i v e n e s s - l o w a b i l i t y c o n d i t i o n . T h e s e f i n d i n g s a r e i n t e r ­p r e t e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g manner. The FFA i n c r e a s e i n t h e h i g h c o h e s i v e n e s s - h i g h a b i l i t y c o n d i t i o n may i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e s u b j e c t e x p e r i e n c e s i n c r e a s e d a r o u s a l a s a consequence o f f e e l i n g r e s p o n s i ­b l e f o r h i s group which, e x c e p t f o r him, i s n o t v e r y a b l e . The s u b j e c t e x p e r i e n c e s l e s s a r o u s a l i f h e i s t h e weak member o f a c o n g e n i a l group and he can p r o f i t from h i s f r i e n d s * s u p e r i o r a b i l i t y ( t h e h i g h c o h e s i v e n e s s - l o w a b i l i t y c o n d i t i o n ) . I f , how­e v e r , he does not f e e l v e r y c l o s e t o t h e group ( l o w c o h e s i v e n e s s ) , and i f , t h e r e f o r e , he i s on h i s own, he e x p e r i e n c e s g r e a t e r a r o u s a l when he i s w o r s t and l e s s a r o u s a l when he i s b e s t i n h i s group ( l o w c o h e s i v e n e s s - h i g h a b i l i t y ) . I n t h e low c o h e s i v e n e s s c o n d i ­t i o n h i s p e r f o r m a n c e s t a n d s out more s i g n i f i c a n t l y ; he may t h e r e ­f o r e c o n s i d e r he i s under g r e a t e r s c r u t i n y , e s p e c i a l l y when he i s w o r s t , and t h i s may be t h e f a c t o r w h i c h c o n t r i b u t e s t o h i s i n c r e a s e d a r o u s a l . The u s e o f p h y s i o l o g i c a l d a t a w h i c h i s c o l l e c t e d t h r o u g h ­o u t an ex p e r i m e n t t o a t t e m p t t o u n d e r s t a n d s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g i c a l phenomena a p p e a r s t o be a s i g n i f i c a n t m e t h o d o l o g i c a l i n n o v a t i o n a b o u t w h i c h t h e w r i t e r w i l l make f u r t h e r comment a t t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f t h i s r e v i e w .

C u l t u r e : As Mead (1939) and many o t h e r a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s have shown, p r i m i t i v e s o c i e t i e s v a r y w i d e l y i n t h e de g r e e o f c o n f o r m i t y t o s o c i a l norms w h i c h t h e y demand o f t h e i r members. I t has a l s o been shown t h a t t h e n a t u r e of t h e p a r t i c u l a r c u l t u r e i n w h i c h an i n d i ­v i d u a l grows up may s i g n i f i c a n t l y shape h i s c o n f o r m i t y b e h a v i o r . F o r example, an i n v e s t i g a t i o n by B a r r y , C h i l d , and Bacon (1959) i n d i c a t e d t h a t c o n f o r m i t y t r a i n i n g i n c h i l d h o o d i s much g r e a t e r i n s u b s i s t e n c e c u l t u r e s engaged i n t i l l a g e and dependent upon l o y a l a d h e r e n c e t o d e t a i l e d p r a c t i c e s t h a n i n t h o s e s u b s i s t e n c e c u l t u r e s c f comparable s i z e and c o m p l e x i t y depending upon h u n t i n g and f i s h ­i n g . A n t h r o p o l o g i c a l e v i d e n c e , a s w e l l a s p e r s o n a l i t y t h e o r y , have i n d i c a t e d t h a t a s p a r t o f t h e s o c i a l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s t h e i n d i v i d u a l

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d e v e l o p s p a r t i c u l a r b e l i e f s , a t t i t u d e s , and v a l u e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e a b s t r a c t c o n c e p t s o f " c o n f o r m i t y " and "independence," and t h e s e v a l u e s w i l l h e l p govern how r e a d y t h e i n d i v i d u a l w i l l be t o conform o r r e s i s t when he i s f a c e d w i t h group p r e s s u r e s l a t e r i n l i f e .

T h e w r i t e r h a s not f o r g o t t e n t h e o b j e c t i v e o f t h i s r e v i e w , namely t o p r e s e n t e xperimenta1 r e s e a r c h , and t h e above comments s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d m e r e l y a s an i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t h e work of one e x p e r i m e n t e r , M i l g r a m ( 1 9 6 1 ) , who h a s a t t e m p t e d t o a p p l y e x p e r i m e n t a l methods t o t h e s t u d y o f n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r . M i l g r i m w r i t e s :

My o b j e c t i v e was t o s e e i f e x p e r i m e n t a l t e c h n i q u e s c o u l d be a p p l i e d t o t h e s t u d y of n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and i n p a r t i c u l a r t o s e e i f one c o u l d measure c o n f o r m i t y i n two European c o u n t r i e s : Norway and F r a n c e ( p . 4 7 ) .

M i l g r a m co n d u c t e d a s e r i e s o f e x p e r i m e n t s i n w h i c h a s i m u l a t e d group s i t u a t i o n was u s e d w i t h t h e t a s k b e i n g t o j u d g e t o n a l l e n g t h s . N a t i v e s o f t h e r e s p e c t i v e c o u n t r i e s c o n d u c t e d t h e e x p e r i m e n t s and t h e r e c o r d e d v o i c e s were t h o s e o f n a t i v e s p e a k e r s . A noteworthy f e a t u r e o f t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s , and one w h i c h w i l l a l s o be d i s c u s s e d l a t e r , was t h a t e a c h s u b j e c t was g i v e n a t o n a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n t e s t p r i o r t o t h e e x p e r i m e n t s and i t was found t h a t t h e r e was no p r i o r d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e s u b j e c t s from t h e two c o u n t r i e s i n t h e i r c a p a c i t i e s t o d i s c r i m i n a t e t o n a l l e n g t h s . The Norwegian sample c o n s i s t e d of s t u d e n t s a t t e n d i n g t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f O s l o ; t h e F r e n c h sample was a group o f P a r i s u n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s m a t c h i n g t h e Norwegian group i n age, l e v e l of e d u c a t i o n , sex, m a r i t a l s t a t u s , f i e l d s o f s t u d y , and so f a r a s p o s s i b l e , s o c i a l c l a s s . T h e r e were 20 s u b j e c t s i n each group, and i n t h e f i r s t s e r i e s o f e x p e r i m e n t s , 62 p e r c e n t o f t h e Norwegians conformed on t h e c r i t i c a l t r i a l s a s compared t o 50 per c e n t of t h e F r e n c h . A s e c o n d e x p e r i m e n t was c o n d u c t e d i n w h i c h t h e t a s k was r e l a t e d t o a l i f e and d e a t h i s s u e ; t h e s u b j e c t s were t o l d t h a t t h e r e s u l t s would be a p p l i e d t o t h e d e s i g n of a i r c r a f t s i g n a l d e v i c e s . Under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s Norwegians conformed on 56 p e r c e n t o f t h e c r i t i c a l t r i a l s a s compared t o 48 p e r c e n t f o r t h e F r e n c h . Another s e r i e s o f e x p e r i m e n t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t when s u b j e c t s made t h e i r judgments by s e c r e t b a l l o t ( a s compared t o p u b l i c r e s p o n s e i n t h e above d e s c r i b e d e x p e r i m e n t s ) , Norwegians conformed 50 p e r c e n t o f t h e t i m e a s compared t o 34 p e r c e n t f o r t h e F r e n c h . F o r t y Norwegian i n d u s t r i a l w o r k e r s were t h e n t e s t e d and t h e i r l e v e l o f c o n f o r m i t y was t h e same a s f o r t h e c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s ; a comparable sample o f F r e n c h w o r k e r s h a d not been s t u d i e d a t t h e t i m e t h e s e r e s u l t s were p u b l i s h e d . M i l g r i m (1961, pp. 50-51) i n t e r p r e t e d t h e s e r e s u l t s i n t h e f o l l o w i n g manner:

No m a t t e r how t h e d a t a a r e examined, t h e y p o i n t t o t h e g r e a t e r independence among t h e F r e n c h t h a n among t h e Norwegians . . . i n e v e r y one of t h e e x p e r i m e n t s p e r ­formed i n both c o u n t r i e s t h e F r e n c h showed t h e m s e l v e s t o be more r e s i s t a n t t o group p r e s s u r e s . T h e s e f i n d i n g s

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a r e by no means c o n c l u s i v e . R a t h e r t h e y must be r e g a r d e d as t h e b e g i n n i n g o f an i n q u i r y t h a t one would l i k e t o s e e extended. But imcomplete a s t h e f i n d i n g s a r e , t h e y a r e l i k e l y t o be f a r more r e l i a b l e t h a n a r m c h a i r s p e c u l a t i o n on n a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r . . . I t i s u s e f u l , n e v e r t h e l e s s , t o s e e i f t h e r e s u l t s a r e comparable w i t h a n a t i o n ' s c u l ­t u r e a s one c a n o b s e r v e i t i n d a i l y l i f e . . . C o n c e i v a b l y t h e d i s c r e p a n c y (between t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l f i n d i n g s and t h e o b s e r v e r ' s g e n e r a l i m p r e s s i o n s ) might be due t o v i e w ­i n g t h e c u l t u r e t h r o u g h a s c r e e n of s t e r e o t y p e s and p r e ­j u d i c e s r a t h e r t h a n s e e i n g i t w i t h a c l e a r eye. . . I n any c a s e , i n our s t u d y , e x p e r i m e n t and o b s e r v a t i o n seem t o be i n r e a s o n a b l e agreement.

P e p i n s k y , who was a Guggenheim F e l l o w and a F u l b r i g h t R e s e a r c h S c h o l a r a t t h e I n s t i t u t e f o r I n d u s t r i a l S o c i a l R e s e a r c h , Trondheim, Norway d u r i n g 1961-62, and who t h e r e f o r e had t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o o b s e r v e Norwegian c u l t u r e i n " d a i l y l i f e " and t o d i s c u s s some of M i l g r a m ' s r e s e a r c h w i t h h i s Norwegian c o l l e a g u e s , h a s b i t t e r l y a t t a c k e d Milgram's " e x p e r i m e n t a l " a p p r o a c h t o t h e s t u d y o f n a t i o n a l c u l t u r e . A f t e r r e v i e w i n g t h e Milgram e x p e r i m e n t s , P e p i n s k y (1962, pp. 182-183) w r i t e s :

W e l l k i d s , t h e l e s s o n t o be l e a r n e d from a l l t h i s i s t h a t you s h o u l d n ' t w a s t e your t i m e w i t h any l e n g t h y s t u d y o f c u l t u r e i n w h i c h y o u ' r e g o i n g t o conduct r e s e a r c h . J u s t v i e w i t w i t h a " c l e a r eye,' i n s t e a d o f t h r o u g h t h a t o b f u s c a t i n g ' s c r e e n o f s t e r e o t y p e s and p r e j u d i c e s . ' An e x p e r i m e n t ( i t a l i c s i n t h e o r i g i n a l ) w i l l h e l p , e s p e c i a l l y i f i t i s d r e s s e d up i n s h i n y c o n ­t e n t , a p p a r a t u s , and method from t h e Good O l d USA! Don't be b u f f a l o e d e i t h e r by s m a l l f r e q u e n c y d i f f e r ­e n c e s ; p r e t t y b l u e and g r e y g r a p h s t a k e c a r e o f t h a t . At l e a s t one Norwegian s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t I met l i k e s i t v e r y much . . . Now I'm l e a v i n g on a b r i e f t r i p where I e x p e c t t o do a ' q u i c k and d i r t y ' c a s i n g of s i x E u r o ­pean c u l t u r e s i n about s i x weeks. T h i s s h o u l d y i e l d a l o t o f dandy i d e a s f o r e x p e r i m e n t s .

I t i s not t h e w r i t e r ' s p u r p o s e t o t a k e s i d e s i n t h e above argument; t o do so i s f a r beyond t h e scope o f t h i s r e v i e w . I n any c a s e , each s i d e a p p e a r s t o have some m e r i t ; t h e r e a d e r i s c h a l l e n g e d t o t a k e h i s own p o s i t i o n . What i s i m p o r t a n t t o t h e p u r p o s e of t h i s r e v i e w i s t o n o t e t h e e x t e n s i o n o f c o n f o r m i t y r e s e a r c h i n t o a r e a s p r e ­v i o u s l y r e s e r v e d f o r a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n . The w r i t e r can s e e no harm i n c a r r y i n g t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l method i n t o new a r e a s of i n q u i r y ; whether e x p e r i m e n t a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s t h e n m i s a p p l i e d i s a n o t h e r m a t t e r a l t o g e t h e r .

One o t h e r e x p e r i m e n t r e l a t i n g c u l t u r a l v a r i a b l e s t o c o n f o r m i t y s h o u l d be mentioned. I n t h e p r e v s i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d e x p e r i m e n t by I s c o e , W i l l i a m s , and H a r v e y (1963) i t was found t h a t f o r w h i t e u r b a n and r u r a l c h i l d r e n , u r b a n males t e n d e d t o conform l e s s than r u r a l m a l e s w h i l e f e m a l e s conformed a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same r a t e i n b o t h l o c a l e s .

Much more r e s e a r c h w i l l be needed b e f o r e one can r e a c h any summary c o n c l u s i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s and c o n f o r m i t y b e h a v i o r .

R a c e : The p r e v i o u s l y c i t e d e x p e r i m e n t by I s c o e , W i l l i a m s , and H a r v e y (1964) p r e s e n t s t h e o n l y e x p e r i m e n t a l e v i d e n c e r e l a t i n g r a c e t o c o n f o r m i t y . I t was found t h a t o v e r a l l Negro c h i l d r e n were l e s s c o n f o r m i n g t h a n w h i t e s . A v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t s e x - r a c e i n t e r a c t i o n was a l s o found; w h i t e and Negro males were s i m i l a r i n t h e i r con­f o r m i t y b e h a v i o r w h i l e Negro f e m a l e s conformed much l e s s t h a n w h i t e f e m a l e s . Below 80 IQ ( a s measured by t h e C a l i f o r n i a M e ntal M a t u r i t y T e s t ) Negroes of b o t h s e x e s conformed much l e s s t h a n w h i t e s ; above 80 IQ d e c r e a s i n g c o n f o r m i t y w i t h i n c r e a s i n g i n t e l l i g e n c e was found f o r b o t h r a c e s . The i n v e s t i g a t o r s p o i n t o u t t h a t f i n d i n g Negro f e m a l e s l e s s conformant t h a n w h i t e f e m a l e s c a n perhaps b e s t be e x p l a i n e d by an e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e s e x r o l e e x p e c t a n c i e s and c h i l d r e a r i n g p r a c t i c e s o f t h e two r a c i a l g r o u p s . A c c o r d i n g t o D a i ( 1 9 5 2 ) , t h e f a t h e r i n t h e Negro c u l t u r e i s f r e q u e n t l y a b s e n t from t h e home and t h e mother i s t h e c h i e f s o u r c e of a u t h o r i t y . B e h a v i o r a l s c i ­e n t i s t s f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e Negro c u l t u r e g e n e r a l l y a g r e e t h a t a Negro g i r l c a n "get away" w i t h n o n c o n f o r m i t y more t h a n a w h i t e g i r l . The same h o l d s t r u e i n terms of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between Negroes and w h i t e s ; Negro f e m a l e s a r e much more in d e p e n d e n t i n d e a l i n g w i t h members o f t h e w h i t e c u l t u r e t h a n a r e Negro men. O b s e r v e r s note t h a t w h i t e f e m a l e s a r e i n s t r u c t e d e a r l y i n t o t h e v i r t u e s o f con­f o r m i t y and " g e t t i n g a l o n g , " and t h e y l a c k t h e c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s w h i c h i s f r e q u e n t l y e x h i b i t e d by Negro f e m a l e s .

The r e l a t i o n s h i p between r a c e and c o n f o r m i t y b e h a v i o r a p p e a r s to be a n e g l e c t e d r e s e a r c h a r e a w h i c h A m e r i c a n s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g y s h o u l d n e g l e c t no l o n g e r . The c u r r e n t A m e r i c a n "Negro R e v o l u t i o n " h e i g h t e n s t h e immediate s o c i o l o g i c a l i m p o r t a n c e of t h i s r e s e a r c h a r e a , and i t would appear t h a t w i t h a f a r b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between c o n f o r m i t y and r a c e , American s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g y c o u l d make a s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t s o c i a l problem.

O c c u p a t i o n : Two i n v e s t i g a t o r s have r e l a t e d c o n f o r m i t y b h e a v i o r t o o c c u p a t i o n a l s t a t u s . Miner (1962) t e s t e d t h e s u g g e s t i o n made by Whyte (1956) i n h i s book The O r g a n i z a t i o n Man t h a t team r e s e a r c h h a s i n f i l t r a t e d t h e academic w o r l d t o t h e p o i n t where i n d i v i d u a l i t y h a s l a r g e l y d i s a p p e a r e d and o r i g i n a l i t y h a s l o s t out t o u n i f o r m i t y of t h o u g h t and a c t i o n i n t h e academic community w h i l e t h e P r o t e s t a n t e t h i c s t i l l p r e v a i l s among e x e c u t i v e s o f l a r g e American c o r p o r a ­t i o n s where p r e s s u r e s t o conform have been l a r g e l y r e s i s t e d by such t o p - l e v e l e x e c u t i v e s . M i n e r ' s sample c o n s i s t e d of 44 e x e c u t i v e s and 41 p r o f e s s o r s . The e x e c u t i v e group c o n s i s t e d e n t i r e l y o f men who were o f f i c e r s o f l a r g e c o r p o r a t i o n s i n 1953; 24 were l i s t e d i n Who's Who i n America, 26 were p r e s i d e n t s , t h e r e s t were v i c e -p r e s i d e n t s , t r e a s u r e r s , o r h e l d e q u a l c o r p o r a t e r a n k . The p r o f e s s o r

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group c o n s i s t e d l a r g e l y o f department heads, o n l y s e v e n h e l d r a n k s l o w e r t h a n f u l l p r o f e s s o r , and 17 w e r e l i s t e d i n Who's Who i n A m e r i c a - ( I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t Whyte d i d not comment on p r o ­f e s s o r s i n t h e h u m a n i t i e s ; he l i m i t e d h i s d i s c u s s i o n t o p r o f e s s o r s i n t h e s c i e n c e s — p h y s i c a l , b i o l o g i c a l , and s o c i a l and o n l y 17 pro­f e s s o r s i n M i n e r ' s p r o f e s s o r group were s c i e n t i s t s . ) Miner used two c o n t r o l g r o u p s : c o l l e g e g r a d u a t e s who were n e i t h e r e x e c u t i v e s o r p r o f e s s o r s , and an a d u l t sample o f h o u s e w i v e s , r e t i r e d p eople, and p e o p l e i n t h e l a b o r f o r c e w h i c h matched t h e e x e c u t i v e and p r o ­f e s s o r groups i n terms o f age, i n t e l l i g e n c e , and e d u c a t i o n * M i n e r ' s measure o f c o n f o r m i t y was t h e Tompkins-Horn (1957) P i c t u r e A r r a n g e ­ment T e s t w h i c h i s a p e r s o n a l i t y a s s e s s m e n t measure r e q u i r i n g t h e s u b j e c t t o make an arrangement o f a s e t o f t h r e e p i c t u r e s so t h a t t h e p i c t u r e s "make t h e b e s t s e n s e . " T h e r e a r e a t o t a l o f 25 such s e t s ; t h e p i c t u r e s a l l r e p r e s e n t e v e r y d a y l i f e ; o v e r h a l f o f them d e p i c t work s i t u a t i o n s ; and c o n f o r m i t y i s a s s e s s e d by comparing t h e f r e q u e n c y o f a s u b j e c t ' s a r r a n g e m e n t s w i t h norms e s t a b l i s h e d i n a n a t i o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sample. Miner (1962, p. 106) r e p o r t s h i s r e s u l t s a s f o l l o w s :

. . . c o n f o r m i t y o c c u r r e d e q u a l l y i n b o t h o c c u p a t i o n a l groups, and b o t h were on t h e a v e r a g e l e s s c onforming t h a n t h e a v e r a g e c o l l e g e g r a d u a t e . T h i s r e l a t i v e non­c o n f o r m i t y was found t o be an a r t i f a c t , however; when age was h e l d c o n s t a n t , p r o f e s s o r s and e x e c u t i v e s were found t o be no l e s s c onforming . . . i t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e o l d e r and more d i s t i n g u i s h e d members of t h e a c a ­demic community a r e l e s s c o n f orming t h a n t h e a v e r a g e c o l l e g e g r a d u a t e , but most, i f n o t a l l , o f t h i s d i f ­f e r e n c e can be a c c o u n t e d f o r i n t e r m s o f age d i f f e r ­e n t i a l . T h e r e i s l i t t l e t h a t i s u n i q u e about t h e c o l l e g e p r o f e s s o r i n t h i s r e s p e c t . He does appear t o be more conforming t h a n o t h e r s h i s age, but n e i t h e r i s he l e s s c o n f orming . . . The f i n d i n g s a s r e g a r d s t h e b u s i n e s s e x e c u t i v e p o i n t t o a v e r y s i m i l a r con­c l u s i o n .

M i n e r a l s o t e s t e d t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e more s u c c e s s f u l e x e c u t i v e s and p r o f e s s o r s would be l e s s conformant; l i s t i n g i n Who's Who i n A m e r i c a was u s e d a s a c r i t e r i o n of r e l a t i v e s u c c e s s (55 p e r c e n t of t h e e x e c u t i v e s and 41 p e r c e n t of t h e p r o f e s s o r s were so l i s t e d ) . T h e men l i s t e d were found t o have h i g h e r mean c o n f o r m i t y s c o r e s t h a n t h o s e not l i s t e d , b u t t h e d i f f e r e n c e d i d not a p p r o a c h s i g n i f i ­c a n c e . Miner c o n c l u d e s t h a t " i n so f a r a s t h e d a t a p e r m i t a con­c l u s i o n , c o n f o r m i t y and r e l a t i v e s u c c e s s a r e not r e l a t e d i n t h e o c c u p a t i o n s s t u d i e d . " ( p . 1 0 8 ) . Milgram's (1964) s t u d y of a c t i o n c o n f o r m i t y ( s e e T a b l e 2) u s e d a male a d u l t sample w i t h v a r y i n g o c c u ­p a t i o n s ( p o s t a l c l e r k s , h i g h s c h o o l t e a c h e r s , salesmen, e n g i n e e r s , and l a b o r e r s were i n c l u d e d i n t h e s a m p l e ) , and no r e l a t i o n s h i p was f o u n d between t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l v a r i a b l e and a c t i o n c o n f o r m i t y . However, t h e s m a l l n e s s o f Milgram's sample ( i . e . , 80) makes any c o n c l u s i o n v e r y t e n t a t i v e .

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Xncome l e v e l : I n t h e p r e v i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d s t u d y by Hunt, Goldberg, Meadow, and Cohen (1958) s u b j e c t s were d i v i d e d i n t o two income l e v e l s and s i g n i f i c a n t l y more c o n f o r m i t y was found among s u b j e c t s r e p o r t i n g a n n u a l f a m i l y incomes above ^5,000 a s compared t o s u b j e c t s r e p o r t i n g incomes below t h i s f i g u r e . T h i s f i n d i n g i s i n t e r p r e t a t e d a s p r e s e n t i n g "some s u g g e s t i v e e v i d e n c e t h a t s o c i a l - c l a s s l e v e l and c o n f o r m i t y may be r e l a t e d . I t i s a l s o s u g g e s t e d t h a t f u t u r e i n v e s ­t i g a t i o n s of c o n f o r m i t y b e h a v i o r may g a i n p r e c i s i o n by c o n t r o l l i n g f o r s o c i a l - c l a s s l e v e l s " ( p . 1 9 8 ) . However, i n Milgram's (1964) a c t i o n c o n f o r m i t y s t u d y i t was found t h a t e d u c a t i o n a l h i s t o r y was s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d t o c o n f o r m i t y ; l e s s e d u c a t e d s u b j e c t s , t h o s e w i t h a h i g h s c h o o l e d u c a t i o n o r l e s s , t e n d e d t o y i e l d more t h a n t h o s e s u b j e c t s who p o s s e s s e d a c o l l e g e d e g r e e . Moreover, i n t h e n e x t s e c t i o n of t h i s r e v i e w i t w i l l be shown t h a t i n t e l l i g e n c e has been found t o be i n v e r s e l y r e l a t e d t o c o n f o r m i t y . C o n s e q u e n t l y , i t would appear t h a t t h e above i n t e r p r e t a t i o n by Hunt e t a l . may be a r t i f a c t u a l . S i n c e e d u c a t i o n , i n t e l l i g e n c e , and s o c i a l c l a s s a r e n o t independent i n our c u l t u r e , on t h e c o n t r a r y , t h e y a r e u s u a l l y h i g h l y c o r r e l a t e d , i t may w e l l be t h a t t h e g a i n i n e x p e r i m e n t a l p r e c i s i o n w h i c h Hunt e t a l . s e e k c a n be a c h i e v e d b e t t e r by c o n t r o l ­l i n g e d u c a t i o n a l l e v e l o r i n t e l l i g e n c e , r a t h e r t h a n s o c i a l c l a s s .

R e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n : Hunt e t a l . (1958) a l s o d i v i d e d t h e i r sub­j e c t s i n t o t h r e e m a j o r r e l i g i o u s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s , P r o t e s t a n t , Roman C a t h o l i c , and J e w i s h , and no r e l a t i o n s h i p between c o n f o r m i t y and r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n was found. On t h e o t h e r hand, Milgram (1964) f o u n d t h a t Roman C a t h o l i c s u b j e c t s t e n d e d t o y i e l d more t h a n P r o t e s ­t a n t s u b j e c t s (p l e s s t h a n . 1 0 ) . A g a i n , t h e s m a l l n e s s of t h e sample s i z e s must be noted; Hunt e t a l . u s e d 41 s u b j e c t s ; M i l g r a m 80.

Summary: As w i t h most r e s e a r c h a r e a s c i t e d i n t h i s r e v i e w , t h e e x p e r i m e n t s r e l a t i n g c o n f o r m i t y b e h a v i o r t o p h y s i o l o g i c and demo­g r a p h i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s h a v e produced r e s u l t s w h i c h a r e h a r d t o summarize and a r e i n many c a s e s e q u i v o c a l . Age a p p e a r s t o be i n v e r s e l y r e l a t e d t o c o n f o r m i t y , s e x d i f f e r e n c e s do not appear to be extreme, and p h y s i o l o g i c s t a t e s c a n a f f e c t c o n f o r m i t y b e h a v i o r . More r e s e a r c h i s needed b e f o r e one c a n r e l a t e s u c h v a r i a b l e s a s c u l t u r e , r a c e , income l e v e l , o c c u p a t i o n a l s t a t u s , and r e l i g i o u s a f f i l i a t i o n d i r e c t l y t o c o n f o r m i t y b e h a v i o r .

-36-

PSYCHOLCGICAL CHARACTERISTICS At© CONFORMITY

B e c a u s e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between c o n f o r m i t y b e h a v i o r and v a r i o u s p s y c h o l o g i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s o f i n t e r e s t t o r e s e a r c h e r s w i t h w i d e l y d i f f e r i n g backgrounds and o r i e n t a t i o n s , t h i s a r e a h a s seen e v e n more r e s e a r c h t h a n t h e o t h e r a r e a s a p p e a r i n g i n t h i s r e v i e w . Twenty-one d i f f e r e n t c o n t e n t a r e a s , r a n g i n g from i n t e l l i g e n c e t o s e l f - r a t i n g s w i l l be p r e s e n t e d . The s h e e r volume of r e s e a r c h i n t h e s e a r e a s demands t h a t e a c h e x p e r i m e n t be r e v i e w e d w i t h b r e v i t y ; c o n s e q u e n t l y , wherever p o s s i b l e t h e e x p e r i m e n t s w i l l be p r e s e n t e d i n summarized t a b l e f c r m and where r e q u i r e d , t e x t u a l mentions w i l l be b r i e f .

I n t e l l i g e n c e ; T h i r t e e n e x p e r i m e n t s h a v e r e l a t e d i n t e l l i g e n c e t o c o n f o r m i t y b e h a v i o r , f i v e o f t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s a r e summarized i n T a b l e 3, t h e r e s t h a v e been d e s c r i b e d e a r l i e r . N e i t h e r B e r e nda (1950) nor J e n n e s s (1932) found s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s between s u s c e p t i b i l i t y and measures o f i n t e l l i g e n c e . C r u t c h f i e l d (1955) r e p o r t s n e g a t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n s between c o n f o r m i t y and s t a f f r a t i n g s f o r i n t e l l e c t u a l competence (-.63) and between c o n f o r m i t y and Terman's (1956) Concept M a s t e r y T e s t ( - . 5 1 ) . Tuddenham (1959) f o u n d a c t u a l IQ ( a s measured by t h e Terman Group T e s t ) , academic g r a d e p o i n t a v e r a g e s , s e l f - r e p o r t q u e s t i o n n a i r e s c a l e s f o r academic a c h i e v e m e n t , and i n t e r v i e w e r s ' r a t i n g s o f i n t e l l e c t u a l e f f i c i e n c y a l l n e g a t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o y i e l d i n g . D i V e s t a and Cox (1960) found t h r e e measures o f i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t y r e l a t e d n e g a t i v e l y w i t h c o n f o r m i t y ; c o n f o r m i t y s c o r e s c o r r e l a t e d -.24 (p l e s s t h a n .05) w i t h C o o p e r a t i v e R e a d i n g T e s t - V o c a b u l a r y s c o r e s ; -.20 (p l e s s t h a n .05) w i t h ACE P s y c h o l o g i c a l Examination-Language s c o r e s ; and -.30 ( p l e s s t h a n .01) w i t h g r a d e p o i n t r a t i o o f academic achievement. H o t t e l (1961) found a s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between c o n f o r m i t y and IQ; b r i g h t and a v e r a g e c h i l d r e n d i d not d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y from one a n o t h e r but b o t h were s i g n i f i c a n t l y more independent t h a n d u l l c h i l d r e n . However, i n b o t h e x p e r i m e n t s by I s c o e , W i l l i a m s , and Harvey ( 1 9 6 3 ) , 1964) IQ ( a s measured by t h e C a l i f o r n i a Mental M a t u r i t y T e s t ) was n o t r e l a t e d t o c o n f o r m i t y b e h a v i o r .

The methodology i n C r u t c h f i e l d ' s (1951, 1953) two e x p e r i m e n t s i n w h i c h a c u r v i l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p between s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o p r e s s u r e and i n t e l l i g e n c e was found m e r i t s a s p e c i a l d e s c r i p t i o n s i n c e t h e w r i t e r w i l l make f u r t h e r r e f e r e n c e t o t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s a t t h e con­c l u s i o n o f t h i s r e v i e w . I n t h e Group S q u a r e s T e s t s u b j e c t s worked i n groups o f s i x on a problem t h a t i n v o l v e d f i t t i n g t o g e t h e r i r r e g u ­l a r l y shaped c a r d b o a r d p i e c e s i n t o s q u a r e s . E a c h s u b j e c t was r e q u i r e d t o c o m p l e t e h i s s q u a r e from a l i m i t e d s e t o f p i e c e s a v a i l a ­b l e i n common t o t h e group, and s u b j e c t s were t o l d t h e y would be e x c h a n g i n g p i e c e s w i t h one a n o t h e r i n o r d e r t o c o m p l e t e t h e i r s q u a r e s . The exchange was made i n d i r e c t l y t h r o u g h t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r who con­t r o l l e d t h e s i t u a t i o n and p e r m i t t e d no r e a l t r a n s a c t i o n s ; p i e c e s

TABLE 3

SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENTS RELATING INTELLIGENCE TO CONFORMITY

I n v e s t i g a t o r S i t u a t i o n T a s k S u b j e c t s F i n d i n g

C r u t c h f i e l d (1951)

S i m u l a t e d group i n t e r a c t i o n

Group S q u a r e s T e s t ( s e e t e x t )

G r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s i n t h e i r f i n a l y e a r o f Ph.D. work (40 male)

C u r v i l i n e a r r e l a t i o n ­s h i p between r e s p o n s e t o p r e s s u r e ( b r e a k i n g t h e Square) and i n t e l ­l i g e n c e a s measured by Terman Concept M a s t e r y T e s t (1956) and I d e a C l a s s i f i c a t i o n T e s t

C r u t c h f i e l d (1953)

S i m u l a t e d group i n t e r a c t i o n

"Bingo Game" ( s e e t e x t )

U n d e r g r a d u a t e s (60 f e m a l e ; 49 male)

C u r v i l i n e a r r e l a t i o n ­s h i p ; t h o s e o f h i g h e s t i n t e l l i g e n c e were i n t e r ­m e d i a t e on s o c i a l r e ­s p o n s i v e n e s s (measure o f i n t e l l i g e n c e not i d e n t i f i e d )

F i s h e r , W i l l i a m s , and L u b i n (1957)

S i m u l a t e d group Numerosity judgments

Not s p e c i f i e d No r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e 3 n i n t e l l i g e n c e and s u s ­c e p t i b i l i t y t o s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e (measure of i n t e l l i g e n c e not i d e n t i f i e d )

TABLE 3

( c o n t i n u e d )

I n v e s t i g a t o r S i t u a t i o n T a s k S u b j e c t s F i n d i n g

Nakamura (1958)

C r u t c h f i e l d a p p a r a t u s

P e r c e p t u a l i t e m s

W i l s o n (1960)

S i m u l a t e d group A u d i t o r y c l i c k c o u n t ­i n g and a t t i ­t u d e i t e m s

U n d e r g r a d u a t e s (77 f e m a l e ; 64 male)

1 0 t h and 1 1 t h gra d e h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s (80 male)

F o r men, s i g n i f i c a n t n e g a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p between c o n f o r m i t y and Terman Concept K a s t e r y T e s t ( r = - . 3 1 ; p l e s s t h a n . 0 1 ) ; f o r women no r e l a t i o n s h i p between c o n f o r m i t y and i n t e l l i ­gence

F o r c l i c k c o u n t i n g t a s k , no r e l a t i o n s h i p between c o n f o r m i t y and i n t e l l i g e n c e ; f o r a t t i ­t u de i t e m s , a s i g n i f i ­c a n t n e g a t i v e r e l a t i o n ­s h i p ( r = - . 3 7 ; p l e s s t h a n .01) ( I n t e l l i g e n c e measure not i d e n t i f i e d )

i 00

-39-

w e r e made a v a i l a b l e on a p r e s e t s c h e d u l e w h i l e m a i n t a i n i n g t h e i l l u s i o n t h a t t h e s u b j e c t s were d e a l i n g w i t h one a n o t h e r . E a c h s u b j e c t was p e r m i t t e d t o c o m p l e t e h i s s q u a r e e a r l y i n t h e e x p e r i ­ment, but was l e a d t o b e l i e v e t h a t o t h e r s had not y e t f i n i s h e d . T h e e x p e r i m e n t e r would t h e n r e q u e s t one o f t h e p i e c e s i n t h e sub­j e c t ' s c o mpleted s q u a r e , and t h e c r u c i a l d e t e r m i n a t i o n was how many r e q u e s t s were r e q u i r e d b e f o r e a s u b j e c t b r o k e h i s s q u a r e and y i e l d e d t h e r e q u e s t e d p i e c e . Some s u b j e c t s "broke" a t t h e f i r s t r e q u e s t ; one s u b j e c t broke o n l y a f t e r 20 s u c c e s s i v e r e q u e s t s . T h e "Bingo Game" was a s i m i l a r q u a s i - i n t e r a c t i o n s i t u a t i o n i n w h i c h t h e s u b j e c t was r e q u e s t e d t o y i e l d one o f h i s key numbers and t h e r e b y b r e a k h i s Bingo; l i k e t h e Group s q u a r e s T e s t , t h e B i n g o Game y i e l d e d a q u a n t i t a t i v e measure o f what Milgram (1964) t e r m s " a c t i o n c o n f o r m i t y . " C r u t c h f i e l d c l a s s i f i e d h i s s u b j e c t s a s t o whether t h e y b r o k e f a s t , moderate, o r slow, and, a s T a b l e 3 i n d i c a t e s , t h o s e who br o k e a f t e r moderate p r e s s u r e s c o r e d h i g h e s t i n i n t e l l i g e n c e .

A u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m , dogmatism, and e t h n o c e n t r i s m : T w e l v e e x p e r i m e n t s w h i c h have r e l a t e d c o n f o r m i t y t o a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m , dogmatism, or e t h n o c e n t r i s m a r e summarized i n T a b l e 4. As t h i s t a b l e i n d i c a t e s , most i n v e s t i g a t o r s h a v e found t h a t c o n f o r m i t y b e h a v i o r i s p o s i ­t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e above p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . S e v e r a l e x p l a n a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e summarized e x p e r i m e n t s a r e i n o r d e r . T h e u n e x p e c t e d f i n d i n g t h a t t h e r e was no d i f f e r e n c e i n c o n f o r m i t y between h i g h e t h n o c e n t r i c s u b j e c t s who r e c e i v e d s u p p o r t from w h i t e p a r t n e r s and t h o s e who r e c e i v e d s u p p o r t from Negro p a r t n e r s l e a d M a l o f and L o t t (1962) t o t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n , a c o n c l u s i o n w h i c h t o t h i s w r i t e r a p p e a r s t o be i m p o r t a n t : " . . . know p r e ­j u d i c i a l a t t i t u d e s do not p r o v i d e adequate grounds f o r making a c c u r a t e b e h a v i o r a l p r e d i c i t i o n s i n c e r t a i n i n t e r r a c i a l s i t u a t i o n s . " ( p . 2 5 8 ) . V i d u l i c h and Kaiman (1961) p o i n t o u t t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n between dogmatism and i n f l u e n c e s o u r c e cannot be a t t r i b u t e d t o d i f f e r e n c e s i n i n t e l l i g e n c e s i n c e t h e s e r e s e a r c h e r s f o u n d no d i f f e r e n c e s i n g r o s s i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t y ( a s e s t i m a t e d by g r a d e p o i n t a v e r a g e ) i n t h e i r a u t h o r i t a r i a n and n o n a u t h o r i t a r i a n s u b j e c t s ; moreover, p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s by Rokeach ( I 9 6 0 ) h ad i n d i ­c a t e d t h a t t h e 4 0 - i t e m Dogmatism s c a l e i s u n r e l a t e d t o i n t e l l i g e n c e f o r a s t u d e n t p o p u l a t i o n .

A r e c e n t e x p e r i m e n t by S t e i n e r and Johnson (1963) s e r v e s t o i l l u s ­t r a t e t h e c a r e w h i c h must be e x e r c i s e d i n g e n e r a l i z i n g l a b o r a t o r y f i n d i n g s t o r e a l l i f e s i t u a t i o n s , a c a u t i o n w h i c h i s a l s o i n d i c a t e d i n t h e f i n d i n g s o f Malof and L o t t (1962) c i t e d above. S t e i n e r and J o h n s o n found a s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n e f f e c t between c o n f o r m i t y , a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m , and u n a n i m i t y o f s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e . When two male u n d e r g r a d u a t e c o n f e d e r a t e s were a l m o s t a l w a y s unanimous i n t h e a n s w e r s t h e y gave t o a s e r i e s o f m u l t i p l e - c h o i c e q u e s t i o n s ( j u d g ­ments about p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l e v e n t s , t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a n i m a l s , and s i z e s and shapes o f g e o m e t r i c a l f i g u r e s ) , a p o s i t i v e

TABLE 4

SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENTS RELATING AUTHORITARIANISM DOGMATISM, AND ENTHNOCENTRISM TO CONFORMITY

I n v e s t i g a t o r S i t u a t i o n T a s k S u b j e c t s F i n d i n g

B e l o f f (1958)

S i m u l a t e d group A t t i t u d e toward U n d e r g r a d u a t e s a t war, a e s t h e t i c p r e f e r e n c e , s o c i a l / r e l i g ­i o u s , and p o l i ­t i c a l i t e m s

Queen's U n i v e r s i t y / B e l f a s t ( I r e l a n d ) (35 male; 25 f e m a l e )

A u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m on t h e F s c a l e and con­f o r m i t y p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d f o r both men and women

B l o c k and B l o c k (1952)

S u b j e c t e x p e r iment e r i n t e r a c t i o n

C o n t i n u i n g a b o r i n g t a s k ( s p o o l p a c k i n g ) under e x p e r i ­menter p r e s s u r e

54 male under­g r a d u a t e s

Tendency t o conform t o e x p e r i m e n t e r pres­s u r e and c o n t i n u e t h e t a s k a f t e r i n d i ­c a t i n g d e s i r e t o q u i t p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o s c o r e s on E s c a l e

C r u t c h f i e l d (1955)

C r u t c h f i e l d a p p a r a t u s

P e r c e p t u a l , i n f o r m a t i o n a l , and o p i n i o n i t e m s

U n d e r g r a d u a t e s (19 male; 40 female)

C o r r e l a t i o n between c o n f o r m i t y and F s c a l e was .39 ( p l e s s t h a n . 0 1 ) ; c o r r e l a t i o n between c o n f o r m i t y and s t a f f r a t i n g of a u t h o r i ­t a r i a n b e h a v i o r i n a s t a n d a r d psychodrama s i t u a t i o n was .35 (p l e s s t h a n .01)

TABLE 4

( c o n t i n u e d )

I n v e s t i g a t o r S i t u a t i o n T a s k S u b j e c t s F i n d i n g

Canning and B a k e r (1959)

A u t o k i n e t i c t a s k

Judge a u t o ­k i n e t i c move­ment w i t h con­f e d e r a t e i n t e r ­a c t i o n

40 u n d e r g r a d u a t e s S u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o c o n f e d e r a t e i n f l u ­ence p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o s c o r e s on A l l e n (1955) measure o f r e l i g ­i o u s a u t h o r i t a r i ­a n i s m

G o r f e i n (1961)

A s c h s i t u a t i o n L i n e l e n g t h judgments

24 Canadian u n d e r g r a d u a t e s

No r e l a t i o n s h i p between c o n f o r m i t y and F s c a l e s c o r e s

Hardy (1957)

Malof and L o t t (1962)

"Group i n t e r ­v iew" i n t e r ­a c t i o n

A s c h s i t u a t i o n

D i s c u s s i o n of 31 male under a t t i t u d e toward g r a d u a t e s d i v o r c e w i t h c o n f e d e r a t e s

L i n e l e n g t h judgments w i t h w h i t e and Negro c o n f e d e r a t e s

60 w h i t e male u n d e r g r a d u a t e s

No r e l a t i o n s h i p between e i t h e r p u b l i c c o n f o r m i t y o r p r i v a t e a t t i t u d e change a f t e r i n t e r ­a c t i o n e x p e r i e n c e and F s c a l e s c o r e s

S u b j e c t s h i g h on £ s c a l e more conform­a n t t h a n t h o s e low on E s c a l e ; b o t h h i g h and low E s c a l e s c o r e r s a c c e p t e d s i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u ­e n c e from Negro c o n f e d e r a t e

TABLE 4

( c o n t i n u e d )

I n v e s t i g a t o r S i t u a t i o n T a s k S u b j e c t s F i n d i n g

M i l l o n and S i m k i n s (1957)

A u t o k i n e t i c t a s k

N a d l e r (1959)

A s c h s i t u a t i o n

Judge a u t o ­k i n e t i c move­ment w i t h p r e s t i g e o r n o n p r e s t i g e p a r t n e r

L i n e l e n g t h judgments

U n d e r g r a d u a t e s (number not s p e c i f i e d )

91 u n d e r g r a d u a t e s

S u b j e c t s h i g h on F s c a l e more s u s c e p t i b l e t o p r e s t i g e i n f l u e n c e ; no d i f ­f e r e n c e i n o v e r a l l s u s c e p t i b i l i t y between h i g h and low F s c a l e s c o r e s

C o n f o r m i t y c o r r e ­l a t e d .30 w i t h s c o r e on E s c a l e ( p l e s s t h a n . 0 2 5 ) ; c o n f o r m i t y c o r r e ­l a t e d .48 w i t h s c o r e on F s c a l e (p l e s s t h a n .01)

i ro I

V i d u l i c h and Kaiman (1961)

A u t o k i n e t i c t a s k

Judge a u t o ­k i n e t i c move­ment w i t h h i g h s t a t u s ( c o l l e g e p r o f e s s o r ) c o n ­f e d e r a t e o f low s t a t u s ( h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t ) c o n f e d e r a t e

U n d e r g r a d u a t e s ( p i c k e d 30 h i g h s c o r e r s and 30 low s c o r e r s on Rokeach (1960) Dogmatism s c a l e from o r i g i n a l sample o f 237 under­g r a d u a t e s

S i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r ­a c t i o n between dogmatism s c o r e and i n f l u e n c e s o u r c e ; low on D s c a l e a g r e e w i t h low s t a t u s s o u r c e s ; h i g h on D s c a l e a g r e e w i t h h i g h s t a t u s s o u r c e ; no o v e r a l l d i f f e r e n c e i n s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o i n f l u e n c e

TABLE 4

( c o n t i n u e d )

I n v e s t i g a t o r S i t u a t i o n T a s k S u b j e c t s F i n d i n g

Weiner and M c G i n n i e s (1961)

S u b j e c t -c o n f e d e r a t e i n t e r a c t i o n (2 r o l e p l a y ­i n g c o n f e d e r ­a t e s ; one male, one female)

Judgment a s t o whether a human f a c e drawn n e i t h e r s m i l i n g nor f r o w n i n g ; o r a l j udgment s under c o n f e d e r ­a t e i n f l u e n c e

U n d e r g r a d u a t e s (20 h i g h s c o r e r s and 20 low s c o r e r s on F s c a l e p i c k e d from c l a s s of 300)

No r e l a t i o n s h i p between F s c a l e s c o r e and s u s ­c e p t i b i l i t y t o i n f l u e n c e ; b o t h groups gave s i g ­n i f i c a n t l y more agreements t h a n d i s a g r e e m e n t s

W e l l s , W e i n e r t , and K u b e l (1956)

A s c h - t y p e s i t u a t i o n

P l a c i n g blame f o r t r a f f i c a c c i d e n t p r o ­j e c t e d on s c r e e n f o r group d e c i s i o n

124 u n d e r g r a d u a t es (62 j u d g e d i n A s c h s i t u a t i o n ; 62 p r i ­v a t e judgments)

C o n f o r m i t y i n group s i t u a t i o n p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o s c o r e on Gough (1951) 30 i t e m form of F s c a l e

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c o r r e l a t i o n between c o n f o r m i t y and F s c a l e s c o r e s was o b t a i n e d f o r a male u n d e r g r a d u a t e sample. When t h e two c o n f e d e r a t e s d i s ­a g r e e d w i t h one a n o t h e r a moderate number o f t i m e s , a u t h o r i t a r i a n s u b j e c t s were more i n c l i n e d t h a n n o n a u t h o r i t a r i a n s t o conform e q u a l l y t o t h e two c o n f e d e r a t e s and t o a v o i d a l l i a n c e w i t h one a t t h e expense o f t h e o t h e r ; moreover, i n t h i s s i t u a t i o n , t o t a l con­f o r m i t y was u n r e l a t e d t o F s c a l e s c o r e s . When t h e two c o n f e d e r a t e s d i s a g r e e d w i t h one a n o t h e r many t i m e s , t h e a u t h o r i t a r i a n s u b j e c t s w e r e more i n c l i n e d t h a n t h e n o n a u t h o r i t a r i a n s t o r e j e c t one con­f e d e r a t e and conform t o one but not t h e o t h e r ; under t h e s e c o n d i ­t i o n s a l s o c o n f o r m i t y was u n r e l a t e d t o F s c a l e s c o r e s . S t e i n e r and Johnson p o i n t out, and t h i s w r i t e r c o n s i d e r s i t t o be a no t e ­w o r t h y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , t h a t o u t s i d e t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l l a b o r a t o r y i n d i v i d u a l s r a r e l y f i n d t h a t t h e i r a s s o c i a t e s u n animously c o n t r a ­d i c t t h e i r own v i e w s and t h a t when a s s o c i a t e s a r e not unanimous i n t h e i r v i e w s , i t i s t h e a u t h o r i t a r i a n who may be t h e nonconform­i s t . T h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n a l s o adds e f f i c a c y t o t h e i n t e r a c t i o n a l a p p r o a c h t o t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f c o n f o r m i t y b e h a v i o r w h i c h t h e w r i t e r championed a t t h e o u t s e t o f t h i s r e v i e w .

T h e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l and t h e o r e t i c a l c o n t r o v e r s y w h i c h h a s surro u n d e d t h e F s c a l e i s a l s o r e f l e c t e d i n some o f t h e r e s e a r c h r e l a t i n g c o n f o r m i t y b e h a v i o r t o a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m . B a s s ( 1 9 5 5 a , 1956, 1961a) h a s m a i n t a i n e d t h a t t h e u s u a l l y d e m o n s t r a t e d p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p between c o n f o r m i t y and a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m may be n o t h i n g more than an a r t i f a c t and t h a t t h e F s c a l e i s t o an a p p r e c i a b l e e x t e n t a meas u r e of c o n f o r m i t y . I n r e v i e w i n g t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s between con­f o r m i t y and a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m , B a s s (1961b, p. 44) h a s su g g e s t e d t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a common u n d e r l y i n g f a c t o r i n w r i t i n g a s f o l l o w s ;

I t i s p r o b a b l e t h a t s i m i l a r c o r r e l a t i o n s w i l l be found w i t h o t h e r r e l a t e d measures s u c h a s dogmatism, conven-t i o n a l i t y , xenophobia, r e l i g i o s i t y , m i 1 i t a n c y , and i n t o l e r a n c e o f a m b i g u i t y . A t t h e r o o t s o f c o n s i s t e n t i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n co n f o r m i n g b e h a v i o r a s w e l l a s r e l a t e d a c t i o n s and a t t i t u d e s s u c h a s c o n v e n t i o n ­a l i t y , a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m , and dogmatism may be c o r r e ­l a t e d d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e g e n e r a l i z e d t e n d e n c y t o a c q u i e s c e , t h e g e n e r a l i z e d need f o r c e r t a i n t y o r a s s u r e d n e s s , and p e r h a p s g e n e r a l i z e d f e e l i n g s of i n s e c u r i t y .

W h i l e B a s s ' h y p o t h e s i s a p p e a r s t o be a p l a u s i b l e one, a number o f i n v e s t i g a t o r s have p r e s e n t e d e v i d e n c e w h i c h i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m and c o n f o r m i t y i s not an a r t i f a c t and t h a t a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m , c o n f o r m i t y , and a c q u i e s c e n c e c a n be e x p e r i m e n t a l l y d i f f e r e n t i a t e d . C r u t c h f i e l d 1 s (1955) f i n d ­i n g t h a t c o n f o r m i t y was s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d t o a measure of a u t h o r i t a r i a n b e h a v i o r d e r i v e d from s t a f f o b s e r v e r r a t i n g s of s u b j e c t s i n a s t a n d a r d psychodrama s i t u a t i o n s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between c o n f o r m i t y and a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m i s more t h a n an a r t i f a c t . U s i n g a wide v a r i e t y o f ju d g m e n t a l i t e m s ( d o t

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n u m e r o s i t y , a r e a o f g e o m e t r i c f i g u r e s , a t t i t u d e t oward war, e t c . ) w i t h an u n d e r g r a d u a t e sample (male and female) i n a C r u t c h f i e l d a p p a r a t u s , F o s t e r (1961) d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t c o n f o r m i t y was not r e l a t e d t o a c q u i e s c e n c e r e s p o n s e s e t ( A R S ) . ARS was a s s e s s e d by two measures; an a p h o r i s m q u e s t i o n n a i r e c o n t a i n i n g 72 h e t e r o g e n ­eous i t e m s about human b e h a v i o r and a 78 i t e m t r u e - f a l s e t e s t c o n t a i n i n g 46 e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t i t e m s w h i c h had been found to e l i c i t an even d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t r u e and f a l s e a n s w e r s . F o s t e r c o n c l u d e d t h a t : "From t h i s s t u d y i t seems f a i r l y s a f e t o c o n ­c l u d e t h a t i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s o b s e r v e d i n t h e s e two o p e r a ­t i o n s (ARS and c o n f o r m i t y ) do n o t r e f l e c t t h e same p e r s o n a l i t y d i m e n s i o n o r b e h a v i o r a l t e n d e n c y " ( p . 1 5 9 ) . I n r e s p o n s e t o t h e p r o p o s a l s by B a s s t h a t t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s between t h e F s c a l e and c o n f o r m i t y might be p r i m a r i l y a f u n c t i o n of a g e n e r a l i z e d tendency t o a g r e e w i t h q u e s t i o n n a i r e i t e m s r e g a r d l e s s o f i t e m c o n t e n t , S m a l l and Campbell (1960) r e e v a l u a t e d t h e s e c o r r e l a t i o n s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e x t e n t t o w h i c h t h e s e c o r r e l a t i o n s a r e a f u n c t i o n o f i t e m w o r d i n g and i t e m c o n t e n t . The c o n f o r m i t y s c o r e u s e d by S m a l l a n d Campbell was d e r i v e d from t h e judgment o f t h e number o f beans i n t e n p l a s t i c bags under two j u d g i n g c o n d i t i o n s ; i n one c o n d i t i o n t h e s u b j e c t r e c o r d e d h i s judgment on a s h e e t w i t h s i x bogus j u d g ­ments p r e v i o u s l y r e c o r d e d , i n t h e o t h e r c o n d i t i o n t h e s u b j e c t j u d g e d an i d e n t i c a l bag and r e c o r d e d h i s judgment on a s h e e t w i t h no o t h e r judgments. C o n f o r m i t y was d e t e r m i n e d by t h e degree of s h i f t t o ward t h e bogus judgments. A 60 i t e m v e r s i o n o f t h e F s c a l e was u s e d c o n t a i n i n g t h e 30 o r i g i n a l i t e m s and t h e 30 r e v e r s e d i t e m s proposed by C h r i s t i e , H a v e l , and S e i d e n b e r g ( 1 9 5 8 ) . T h e i t e m s were mixed so t h a t b o t h t h e o r i g i n a l and t h e r e v e r s e d i t e m s were i n b o t h h a l v e s o f t h e t e s t and so t h a t t h e l a s t 30 i t e m s c o n t a i n e d t h e o p p o s i t e forms o f t h e f i r s t 30 i t e m s . S m a l l and Campbell found t h a t t h e F s c a l e b a s e d on t h e o r i g i n a l 30 items c o r r e l a t e d .17 w i t h t h e c o n f o r m i t y s c o r e ( s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .13 l e v e l ) ; t h e c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e r e v e r s e d F s c a l e and t h e con­f o r m i t y s c o r e was .26 ( p l e s s t h a n . 0 4 ) ; t h e c o r r e l a t i o n o f t h e t o t a l o r i g i n a l and r e v e r s e d F s c a l e s w i t h t h e c o n f o r m i t y s c o r e was .27 ( p l e s s t h a n . 0 3 ) ; and t h e c o r r e l a t i o n between c o n f o r m i t y a n d p u r e a c q u i e s c e n c e ( t h e t e n d e n c y t o e n d o r s e any i t e m no m a t t e r i n w h i c h d i r e c t i o n i t was worded) was .04. S m a l l and Campbell (1960, p. 70) c o n c l u d e d a s f o l l o w s :

I n s o f a r a s t h e s e d a t a a r e i n d i c a t i v e , t h e y r e a s s u r e us t h a t t h e c o r r e l a t i o n between c o n f o r m i t y and t h e F s c a l e i s a f u n c t i o n o f F - t y p e i t e m c o n t e n t . The problem i s of s u f f i c i e n t i m p o r t a n c e , however, t h a t i t s h o u l d be s u b j e c t t o f u r t h e r s c r u t i n y .

I t would appear t h a t one must i n t e r p r e t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m and c o n f o r m i t y b e h a v i o r c a u t i o u s l y ; t h e f i n d i n g s a r e somewhat e q u i v o c a l , have l i m i t e d g e n e r a l i t y and h a v e been sub­j e c t e d t o a t h e o r e t i c a l a t t a c k w h i c h h a s not been t o t a l l y negated.

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C o q n i t i v e c o n s i s t e n c y : S i n c e many i n v e s t i g a t o r s have u s e d a t t i ­t u d i n a l and o p i n i o n t y p e i t e m s i n t h e i r s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e e x p e r i ­ments, and s i n c e o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s have o p e r a t i o n a l i z e d c o n fomri b e h a v i o r i n t e r m s o f a t t i t u d e s h i f t o r o p i n i o n change f o l l o w i n g s o c i a l i n t e r a c t i o n , t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f a t t i t u d e change t o t h e s t r u c t u r a l p r o p e r t i e s o f a t t i t u d e s a p p e a r s t o be an i m p o r t a n t and somewhat n e g l e c t e d r e s e a r c h a r e a w h i c h h a s i m p o r t a n t m e t h o d o l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r f u t u r e con­f o r m i t y r e s e a r c h . S c o t t (1959) h a s s t u d i e d one s t r u c t u r a l p r o ­p e r t y of a t t i t u d e s , c o g n i t i v e c o n s i s t e n c y , and found t h a t s u c h c o n s i s t e n c y i s p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o d e c r e a s e d s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to s o c i a l p r e s s u r e . S c o t t d e f i n e s c o g n i t i v e c o n s i s t e n c y a s c o n g r u i t y o f an a t t i t u d e w i t h one's p e r c e p t i o n o f an e v e n t i n r e l a t i o n t o o n e ' s v a l u e s ; an a t t i t u d e i s deemed c o n s i s t e n t , o p e r a t i o n a l l y , t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t i t s d i r e c t i o n and s t r e n g t h can be p r e d i c t e d f r om a knowledge of t h e s u b j e c t ' s v a l u e s and e x p e c t a n c i e s i n r e l a ­t i o n t o t h e o b j e c t o f t h e a t t i t u d e . I n h i s e x p eriment, w i t h 38 u n d e r g r a d u a t e s u b j e c t s , S c o t t a s s e s s e d a t t i t u d e s t oward s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t i s s u e s ( G r e e k o r g a n i z a t i o n s , campus a c t i v i t i e s , e t c . ) , a s k e d t h e s u b j e c t s t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h t h e y a d m i r e d e i g h t " i d e a l t r a i t s , " and t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h t h e o b j e c t o f e a c h a t t i t u d e would h e l p o r h u r t e a c h o f t h e e i g h t i d e a l s . On t h e b a s i s of t h e l a t t e r two s e t s o f r e p l i e s s u b j e c t ' s a t t i t u d e s were " p r e d i c t e d " ; sub­j e c t s whose p r e d i c t e d a t t i t u d e s c o r r e s p o n d e d t o t h e i r a c t u a l a t t i ­t u d e s were deemed c o g n i t i v e l y c o n s i s t e n t , t h e r e s t were deemed i n c o n s i s t e n t . C o n s i s t e n t and i n c o n s i s t e n t s u b j e c t s were t h e n i n d u c e d t o p r e s e n t arguments on one o f two i s s u e s , a l w a y s t a k i n g a d i f f e r e n t s i d e from t h a t w h i c h t h e y had i n d i c a t e d a s t h e i r own i n a p r e t e s t . T h e s e v e r b a l b e h a v i o r s were r e i n f o r c e d w i t h p r a i s e f r om t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r i n an a t t e m p t t o a l t e r t h e i r a t t i t u d e s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n . W h i l e t h e s u b j e c t group a s a w h o le showed a s i g n i f i c a n t , though s m a l l , a t t i t u d e s h i f t i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e r e i n f o r c e d b e h a v i o r , S c o t t found t h a t c o g n i t i v e c o n s i s t e n t s u b j e c t s were much more l i k e l y t o m a i n t a i n t h e i r i n i ­t i a l a t t i t u d e s t h a n were t h e c o g n i t i v e l y i n c o n s i s t e n t s u b j e c t s . T h e s e r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e t h a t c o nsonance of an a t t i t u d e w i t h o t h e r c o g n i t i v e e l e m e n t s , s u c h a s v a l u e s and e x p e c t a n c i e s , s e r v e s t o s t a b i l i z e t h e a t t i t u d e and makes i t more r e s i s t a n t t o change under e x t e r n a l l y imposed p r e s s u r e s s u c h a s t h o s e found i n many of t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n f o r m i t y s i t u a t i o n s . S c o t t 1 s f i n d i n g a p p e a r s t o s u g g e s t t h a t i n c o n f o r m i t y r e s e a r c h a t t i t u d i n a l i t e m s must be u s e d c a u t i o u s l y . When a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d war, p o l i t i c a l , r e l i g i o u s , s o c i a l , o r e d u c a t i o n a l a t t i t u d e s a r e s u b j e c t e d t o s o c i a l p r e s s u r e , t h e r e s u l t i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p between c o n f o r m i t y and t h e independent v a r i a b l e may be s p u r i o u s and c o n t a m i n a t e d by s u c h u n c o n t r o l l e d f a c t o r s a s c o g n i t i v e c o n s i s t e n c y o r o t h e r a t t i t u d i n a l v a r i a b l e s .

M a s c u l i n i t y - f e m i n i n i t y : T h r e e i n v e s t i g a t o r s have r e l a t e d c o n ­f o r m i t y t o v a r i o u s measures o f m a s c u l i n i t y and e a c h has found t h a t c o n f o r m i t y was n e g a t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o m a s c u l i n i t y . C r u t c h f i e l d

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( 1 9 5 1 ) found t h a t t h e s u b j e c t s i n t h e group w h i c h broke t h e i r p u z z l e s l a s t i n t h e Group S q u a r e s T e s t , t h e s u b j e c t s who were, t h e r e f o r e , l e a s t r e s p o n s i v e t o s o c i a l p r e s s u r e , were found t o be m a r k e d l y more m a s c u l i n e a s d e m o n s t r a t e d by l o w e r r a t i n g s on t h e F r a n c k T e s t ( 1 9 4 9 ) , a t e s t w h i c h a s s e s s e s m a s c u l i n i t y - f e m i n i n i t y t h r o u g h c o m p l e t i o n s o f f i g u r e drawings- Tuddenham (1959) r e p o r t s t h a t f o r t h e 27 men i n h i s a d u l t sample y i e l d i n g was n e g a t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e i n t e r v i e w e r r a t i n g s o f m a s c u l i n i t y (-.59; p l e s s t h a n . 1 0 ) , and s i m i l a r r e s u l t s have been r e p o r t e d by G old­b e r g , Hunt, Cohen, and Meadow (1954) who found t h a t s u b j e c t s i n t h e conforming group s c o r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o w e r on t h e Mf s c a l e (more f e m i n i n e ) o f t h e MMPI.

C o m p l e x i t y - s i m p l i c i t y : B a r r o n (1953a) u s e d 90 male s u b j e c t s from A s c h ' s (1951, 1952) e x p e r i m e n t s and c a t e g o r i z e d t h e two extreme g r o u p s as y i e l d e r s and i n d e p e n d e n t s . U s i n g t h e Barron-Welsh F i g u r e P r e f e r e n c e T e s t 2 (1952) t o measure c o m p l e x i t y - s i m p l i c i t y , B a r r o n ( 1 9 5 3 a ) found t h a t s u b j e c t s who were in d e p e n d e n t i n t h e A s c h s i t u ­a t i o n made s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r c o m p l e x i t y s c o r e s . P r e v i o u s l y , B a r r o n (1952, 1953b) had f ound t h a t a l i k i n g f o r complex f i g u r e s was n e g a t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o r i g i d i t y , c o n s t r i c t i o n , s o c i a l c o n f o r m i t y s u b s e r v i e n c e t o a u t h o r i t y , p o l i t i c o - e c o n o m i c c o n s e r v a t i s m , and e n t h n o c e n t r i s m ; a l i k i n g f o r complex f i g u r e s had been found t o be p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o o r i g i n a l i t y , v e r b a l f l u e n c y , e x p r e s s i o n as opposed t o r e p r e s s i o n o f i m p l u s e , and c a t h e c t i o n o f i n t e l l e c t u a l a c t i v i t y . B a r r o n combines t h e s e e a r l i e r f i n d i n g s w i t h t h e r e s u l t s f r om t h e p r e s e n t l y r e v i e w e d e x p e r i m e n t t o c o n c l u d e as f o l l o w s : "Thus independence o f judgment i n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r e x p e r i m e n t a l s i t u a t i o n ( t h e A s c h s i t u a t i o n ) must be i n c l u d e d i n t h e g e n e r a l c o n s t e l l a t i o n o f f a c t o r s w h i c h go a l o n g w i t h p r e f e r e n c e f o r com­p l e x f i g u r e s " ( B a r r o n , 1953a, p. 293) . The w r i t e r would n o t e t h a t h e i s not a l t o g e t h e r c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h s u c h sweeping c o n c l u s i o n s a bout g e n e r a l p e r s o n a l i t y f a c t o r s when s u c h c o n c l u s i o n s a r e based on r e l a t i v e l y l i m i t e d e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s e a r c h ; i t may i n d e e d be t r u e , a s B a r r o n s u g g e s t s , t h a t l i k i n g complex f i g u r e s t a p s a c e n t r a l and g e n e r a l p e r s o n a l i t y f a c t o r , however t h e w r i t e r would a r g u e t h a t t h e r e i s g r e a t m e r i t i n i n t e r p r e t a t i n g e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a c o n s e r v a t i v e l y and he becomes somewhat s k e p t i c a l when b r o a d g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s a r e made from r a t h e r l i m i t e d d a t a . I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t one o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t o r , C r u t c h f i e l d (1951) has r e l a t e d c o n f o r m i t y t o p r e f e r e n c e f o r symmetry and h a s found r e s u l t s which a r e somewhat c o n s i s t e n t w i t h B a r r o n ' s f i n d i n g s . C r u t c h f i e l d found

T h e B a r r o n - W e l s h F i g u r e P r e f e r e n c e T e s t c o n s i s t s o f 65 l i n e d r a w i n g s on 3" x 5" c a r d s ; t h e s u b j e c t i s a s k e d f o r e a c h draw­i n g whether he l i k e s i t o r n o t , and t h e t e s t i s so s c o r e d t h a t l i k i n g t h e complex f i g u r e s and d i s l i k i n g t h e s i m p l e ones e a r n s a h i g h s c o r e .

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t h a t s u b j e c t s who y i e l d e d i n t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e range i n h i s Group S q u a r e s T e s t showed s i g n i f i c a n t l y l e s s p r e f e r e n c e f o r symmetry on t h e Welsh F i g u r e P r e f e r e n c e T e s t (1949) t h a n d i d s u b j e c t s who were e i t h e r most r e s p o n s i v e o r l e a s t r e s p o n s i v e t o s o c i a l p r e s s u r e . However, i t s h o u l d be remembered t h a t s u b j e c t s who y i e l d e d i n t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e r a n g e i n t h i s s i t u a t i o n were a l s o found t o be more i n t e l l i g e n t so t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between p r e f e r e n c e f o r sym­m e t r y and c o n f o r m i t y may i n f a c t be a s p u r i o u s one. I n any c a s e , i t a p p e a r s , t o t h i s w r i t e r a t l e a s t , t h a t more r e s e a r c h i s needed b e f o r e we can a c c e p t t h e v i e w t h a t t h e p r e f e r e n c e f o r c o m p l e x i t y i s a p a r t o f a g e n e r a l f a c t o r d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o c o n f o r m i t y b e h a v i o r .

O r i g i n a l i t y : The same two i n v e s t i g a t o r s who have a t t e m p t e d t o r e l a t e c o m p l e x i t y t o c o n f o r m i t y b e h a v i o r h a v e a l s o r e l a t e d o r i g i ­n a l i t y t o c o n f o r m i t y . From a sample o f 100 U n i t e d S t a t e s A i r F o r c e c a p t a i n s , B a r r o n (1955) s e l e c t e d extreme groups on e i g h t m e a s u r e s of o r i g i n a l i t y i n c l u d i n g s c o r e s from t h e R o r s c h a c h , t h e TAT, anagrams, and p l o t t i t l e s . U s i n g a C r u t c h f i e l d a p p a r a t u s t o a s s e s s c o n f o r m i t y , B a r r o n found t h a t t h o s e c l a s s i f i e d a s o r i g i ­n a l y i e l d e d l e s s i n t h e group p r e s s u r e s i t u a t i o n . However, t h e r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l s i z e o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l groups s h o u l d be noted; o f t h e 100 c a p t a i n s c o m p r i s i n g t h e p o p u l a t i o n i n t h i s experiment, o n l y 15 were s e l e c t e d a s o r i g i n a l and 15 a s u n o r i g i n a l . U s i n g t h e Group S q u a r e s T e s t C r u t c h f i e l d (1951) found t h a t w i t h h i s sam­p l e of male g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s who were i n t h e i r f i n a l y e a r o f Ph.D. work, t h o s e s t u d e n t s r e s p o n d i n g i n t h e m i d d l e r a n g e on s u s ­c e p t i b i l i t y t o s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e were r a t e d by t h e i r i n s t r u c t o r s a s b e i n g h i g h e s t on o r i g i n a l i t y r e l a t e d t o b e i n g a s c h o l a r o r s c i e n ­t i s t .

I n n e r - d i r e c t e d — o t h e r - d i r e c t e d : C e n t e r s and H o r o w i t z (1963) have u s e d t h e 1-0 S o c i a l P r e f e r e n c e s c a l e ^ d e v e l o p e d by K a s s a r j i a n ( 1 9 6 0 ) t o t e s t Riesman's (1950) h y p o t h e s i s t h a t " o t h e r - d i r e c t e d " p e r s o n s a r e more s u s c e p t i b l e t o s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e t h a n a r e " i n n e r -d i r e c t e d " p e r s o n s . I n t h e i r s t u d y c e n t e r s and Horowitz u s e d 364 u n d e r g r a d u a t e s and s e l e c t e d 80 extreme s c o r e r s on t h e 1-0 s c a l e f o r random as s i g n m e n t t o e i t h e r of two t r e a t m e n t groups. The t a s k i n v o l v e d r e s p o n d i n g t o 24 i t e m s from t h e F s c a l e ; s u b j e c t s i n t h e

T h e 1-0 s c a l e c o n t a i n s 36 t w o - c h o i c e i t e m s , one r e p r e s e n t i n g an i n n e r - d i r e c t e d r e s p o n s e , t h e second c h o i c e an o t h e r - d i r e c t e d r e s p o n s e . The i t e m s were d e r i v e d from m a t e r i a l i n Riesman's The L o n e l y Crowd, and t h e i t e m c o n t e n t was t a k e n from d e s c r i p t i o n s o f s i t u a t i o n s i n w h i c h Riesman made a c l e a r d i s t i n c t i o n between i n n e r - d i r e c t e d and o t h e r - d i r e c t e d b e h a v i o r .

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e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s v/ere a d m i n i s t e r e d t h e F s c a l e on w h i c h f o r e a c h i t e m t h e a l t e r n a t i v e chosen by "a number of well-known and i m p o r t a n t p e o p l e " was d e s i g n a t e d w h e r e a s i n t h e c o n t r o l c o n d i t i o n s u b j e c t s responded t o a s t a n d a r d f o r m . I t was found t h a t t h e o t h e r -d i r e c t e d p e r s o n s were more s u s c e p t i b l e t o t h e s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e o f t h e r e p o r t e d o p i n i o n o f o t h e r s t h a n were t h e i n n e r - d i r e c t e d p e r ­s o n s , and t h e s e r e s u l t s , t h e r e f o r e , c o n f i r m t h e Riesman hypothe­s i s . Campbell (1961) h a s r e p o r t e d t h a t B e l l (1955) h a s a l s o found o t h e r - d i r e c t e d p e r s o n s t o be more conformant, b u t t h e d e t a i l s of t h i s l a t t e r e x p e r i m e n t were not s t a t e d .

I t would appear t h a t Riesman's h y p o t h e s i s t h a t o t h e r - d i r e c t e d p e r ­s o n s a r e more r e s p o n s i v e t o s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e m e r i t s f u r t h e r e m p i r i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n ; i t would be w o r t h w h i l e t o a s s e s s t h e c o n f o r m i t y b e h a v i o r o f i n n e r - d i r e c t e d and o t h e r - d i r e c t e d p e r s o n s i n more d i r e c t s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e s i t u a t i o n s s u c h a s t h e A s c h - t y p e s i t u a t i o n a s i m u l a t e d group, t h e C r u t c h f i e l d a p p a r a t u s , o r i n a q u a s i -i n t e r a c t i o n s i t u a t i o n .

S o c i a l a c q u i e s c e n c e : I t was n o t e d e a r l i e r i n t h i s r e v i e w t h a t B a s s (1961b) h a s p o s i t e d a g e n e r a l i z e d t e n d e n c y t o a c q u i e s c e which h e b e l i e v e s t o be a g e n e r a l f a c t o r t h a t i n c l u d e s b o t h a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m and c o n f o r m i t y . To s u p p o r t t h i s p o s i t i o n B a s s (1956) h a s d e v e l o p e d a S o c i a l A c q u i e s c e n c e (SA) s c a l e ^ w h i c h measures t h e g e n e r a l i z e d t e n d e n c y t o a c c e p t a w i d e v a r i e t y of g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s a b o u t s o c i a l b e h a v i o r , and B a s s ( 1 9 6 1 a ) r e p o r t s t h a t a v a r i e t y of s a m p l e s h a s s u g g e s t e d t h a t one who e a r n s a h i g h s c o r e on t h e SA s c a l e t e n d s t o be an u n c r i t i c a l conformer, a "yes-man" t o s o c i a l demands. Moreover, F r y e and B a s s (1963) have r e l a t e d SA s c o r e t o b e h a v i o r i n problem s o l v i n g s i t u a t i o n s and found t h a t i n such s i t u a t i o n s t h e h i g h s c o r e r on t h e SA s c a l e would be most prone among t h e group members t o a c c e p t w h a t e v e r group d e c i s i o n i s r e a c h e d and t o i n c r e a s e i n agreement w i t h o t h e r s a s he l e a r n e d t h e i r o p i n i o n s d u r i n g d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h o t h e r s .

T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f s o c i a l a c q u i e s c e n c e t o b e h a v i o r i n s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e s i t u a t i o n s a p p e a r s t o be a n o t h e r a r e a w h i c h m e r i t s f u r ­t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n by r e s e a r c h e r s o t h e r t h a n t h e d e v e l o p e r s of t h e SA s c a l e . At t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f t h i s r e v i e w t h e w r i t e r w i l l have more t o s a y about t h e u s e o f q u a s i g r o u p - i n t e r a c t i o n s i t u a t i o n s t o a s s e s s a c t i o n c o n f o r m i t y b e h a v i o r ; however, i t s h o u l d be noted h e r e t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between s o c i a l a c q u i e s c e n c e and con­f o r m i t y i n a c t i o n s i t u a t i o n s a p p e a r s t o be an i m p o r t a n t and a s y e t n e g l e c t e d r e s e a r c h a r e a .

The S o c i a l A c q u i e s c e n c e s c a l e i s a 56 i t e m measure w h i c h a s s e s s e s t h e t e n d e n c y o f t h e s u b j e c t t o a c c e p t o r r e j e c t a phorisms, p r o ­v e r b s , and a wide v a r i e t y of s i m i l a r g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s .

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O b j e c t i v i t y : B e r n b e r g ( 1 9 5 4 ) , w i t h a sample o f 89 fe m a l e s o c i a l w e l f a r e c a s e w o r k e r s and c a s e work s u p e r v i s o r s , found a s i g n i f i ­c a n t n e g a t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n (-.47; p l e s s t h a n .05) between t h e O b j e c t i v i t y F a c t o r on t h e Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey ( 1 9 4 9 ) and a measure of what B e r n b e r g h a s c a l l e d " s o c i a l conform­i t y . " S o c i a l c o n f o r m i t y i s d e f i n e d a s " t h e t e n d e n c y of members o f a s o c i e t y t o m a n i f e s t communality o f a t t i t u d e s and o f b e h a v i o r a s a r e s u l t of t h e r e s t r i c t i v e i n f l u e n c e of c u l t u r e and s o c i e t y i n p e r s o n a l i t y development " ( B e r n b e r g , 1954, p. 1 4 8 ) . Bernberg ( 1 9 5 5 ) h a s r e p o r t e d t h a t h i s s c a l e i s a 37 i t e m measure w i t h t h e i t e m c o n t e n t drawn from s i x a r e a s ; m o r a l v a l u e s , p o s i t i v e g o a l s , r e a l i t y t e s t i n g , a b i l i t y t o g i v e a f f e c t i o n , t e n s i o n l e v e l , and i m p u l s i v i t y . B e r n b e r g d e v e l o p e d h i s s c a l e by a r b i t r a r i l y d e s i g n a t ­i n g h i g h s c h o o l males a s confor m e r s and inm a t e s o f a y o u t h p r i s o n a s nonconformers. The s c a l e was t h e n v a l i d a t e d by u s i n g a sample o f " r e g u l a r c h u r c h g o e r s " a s t h e con f o r m i n g group and a sample of m a l e and fe m a l e p r i s o n i n m a t e s a s t h e nonconforming group.

Not o n l y was t h e sample o b t a i n e d i n t h i s s t u d y h i g h l y s e l e c t and somewhat d i f f e r e n t from a n o r m a t i v e f e m a l e p o p u l a t i o n on t h e Guilford-Zimmerman s c a l e , b u t one must s e r i o u s l y q u e s t i o n t h e methodology u s e d t o c o n s t r u c t t h e above measure o f " s o c i a l con­f o r m i t y . " At t h e c o n c l u s i o n of t h i s r e v i e w i t w i l l be n o t e d t h a t s u c h men a s A s c h and S h e r i f a r e p e s s i m i s t i c and c r i t i c a l about t h e n a t u r e and q u a l i t y o f c o n f o r m i t y r e s e a r c h ; t h e y b e l i e v e t h a t much o f t h e r e s e a r c h i n t h i s a r e a h a s been t r i v i a l and p o o r l y c o n c e i v e d t h e o r e t i c a l l y . The w r i t e r would argue t h a t B e r n b e r g 1 s e x p e r i m e n t s e r v e s t o i l l u s t r a t e b o t h c o u n t s of t h i s c r i t i c i s m .

Dependence on p e r c e p t u a l f i e l d : S t u d i e s by J a c k s o n ( 1 9 5 8 ) , L i n t o n ( 1 9 5 5 ) , and Ros n e r (1957) have a t t e m p t e d t o l i n k c o n f o r m i t y t o b e h a v i o r i n p e r c e p t u a l s i t u a t i o n s . From a p o p u l a t i o n of 143 under­g r a d u a t e s J a c k s o n s e l e c t e d 36 " y i e l d e r s " and 36 " i n d e p e n d e n t s " i n d i r e c t l y from extreme s c o r e s on a 45 i t e m i n v e n t o r y d e r i v e d from i t e m s r e p o r t e d by B a r r o n (1953a) and C r u t c h f i e l d (1955) t o d i s ­t i n g u i s h between i n d e p e n d e n t s and y i e l d e r s . The s u b j e c t s were i n s t r u c t e d t o h o l d t h e "up" phase of a Necker cube, and y i e l d e r s w e r e found t o be more s u c c e s s f u l i n d o i n g s o . J a c k s o n i n t e r p r e t s t h i s r e s u l t t o i n d i c a t e t h a t i n d e p e n d e n t s a r e "more a c t i v e i n m a n i p u l a t i n g t h e i r f i e l d f o r c e s " ( p . 280) . Moreover, J a c k s o n c o n c l u d e s t h a t "The e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t t h o s e who c h a r a c t e r i s t ­i c a l l y r e s i s t c e r t a i n h y p o t h e t i c a l f i e l d f o r c e s a l s o h a v e t h e p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h independence of j u d g ­ment, a form of r e s i s t a n c e t o s o c i a l f i e l d f o r c e s " ( p . 2 8 1 ) . I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t t h e e v i d e n c e f o r s u c h a c o n c l u s i o n was s l i g h t , s i n c e t h e r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e c o n f o r m i t y i n v e n t o r y was o n l y .54 f o r men and .44 f o r women.

I n t h e L i n t o n (1955) e x p e r i m e n t ( w h i c h was c i t e d e a r l i e r i n t h i s r e v i e w ) , two p e r c e p t u a l t e s t s ( T i l t i n g Room, T i l t i n g C h a i r and t h e

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Embedded F i g u r e s T e s t ) and t h r e e c o n f o r m i t y measures were u s e d ( a u t o k i n e t i c s i t u a t i o n , o p i n i o n change t e s t , and p e r s o n a l a t t i ­t u d e i n f l u e n c e on a s y l l o g i s m test)„ As noted e a r l i e r , t h e t h r e e c o n f o r m i t y measures were not c o r r e l a t e d w h i l e t h e p e r c e p t u a l t e s t s d i d c o r r e l a t e w i t h e a c h o t h e r . L i n t o n a l s o found s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s between t h e c o m p o s i t e p e r c e p t u a l dependence s c o r e s and h i g h c o n f o r m i t y i n t h e a u t o k i n e t i c s i t u a t i o n (.54; p l e s s t h a n .01) and between t h e p e r c e p t u a l i n d e x and o p i n i o n change (.66; p l e s s t h a n . 0 1 ) . The c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e p e r c e p t u a l i n d e x and t h e s y l l o g i s m t e s t was n o n s i g n i f i c a n t . L i n t o n (1955, p. 506) i n t e r p r e t s h e r r e s u l t s a s f o l l o w s :

The r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e r e i s a common b a s i s f o r b e h a v i o r i n p e r c e p t u a l and c o n f o r m i t y s i t u a t i o n s . The common element, w h a t e v e r i t may be, i s a p p a r e n t l y more u n i f o r m l y e x p r e s s e d i n t h e p e r c e p t u a l s i t u a t i o n s s i n c e t h e y a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n t e r c o r r e l a t e d , on t h e whole, w h i l e t h e c o n f o r m i t y s i t u a t i o n s a r e n o t . I t may be t h a t p e r c e p t u a l t a s k s t a p deeper, more e n d u r i n g l e v e l s o f t h e p e r s o n t h a n do t h e c o g n i t i v e and s o c i a l s i t u a ­t i o n s .

R o s n e r ( 1 9 5 7 ) , w i t h a p o p u l a t i o n of 88 s t u d e n t n u r s e s , s e l e c t e d 20 i n d e p e n d e n t s and 20 y i e l d e r s i n t h e A s c h s i t u a t i o n u s i n g a l i n e judgment t a s k . The Embedded F i g u r e s T e s t ( W i t k i n , 1950) was ad­m i n i s t e r e d t o ea c h group and t h e y i e l d e r s f a i l e d t o l o c a t e t h e s i m p l e t e s t p a t t e r n i n t h e complex f i g u r e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y more o f t e n t h a n d i d t h e i n d e p e n d e n t s .

T / h i l e t h e e v i d e n c e i s somewhat s l i g h t , t h e t h r e e e x p e r i m e n t s r e v i e w e d above do s u g g e s t t h a t t h o s e who a r e more s u s c e p t i b l e to c o n f o r m i t y p r e s s u r e s show g r e a t e r dependence on t h e p e r c e p t u a l f i e l d .

P r o j e c t i v e m a t e r i a l s : From a p o p u l a t i o n o f 373 u n d e r g r a d u a t e s , Hoffman (1953) composed extreme groups o f t h o s e who s h i f t e d most ( 1 2 m a l e s ; 15 f e m a l e s ) and t h o s e who s h i f t e d l e a s t (10 m a l e s ; 10 f e m a l e s ) toward f a l s e norms r e p o r t e d f o r two l i n e j u d g i n g t a s k s . C o n f o r m i t y t o t h e f a l s e norm was r e l a t e d t o TAT r e s p o n s e s and i t was found t h a t h i g h c o n f o r m e r s s c o r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o w e r on two ego s t r e n g t h c a t e g o r i e s and h i g h e r on measures of p a r e n t a l domi­nance, i n t r o p u n i t i v e a g g r e s s i o n , o v e r i d e a l i z a t i o n o f p a r e n t s , and s u c c e s s s t r i v i n g . T h i s f i n d i n g i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e r e s u l t from Mussen and Kagan (1958) s t u d y , r e v i e w e d e a r l i e r , w h i c h i n d i c a t e d t h a t c o n f o r m e r s more o f t e n p e r c e i v e t h e i r p a r e n t s a s b e i n g h a r s h , p u n i t i v e , r e s t r i c t i v e , and r e j e c t i n g .

Two i n v e s t i g a t o r s have r e l a t e d s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e t o R o r s c h a c h r e s p o n s e s and have r e p o r t e d c o n t r a d i c t o r y r e s u l t s . S t e i s e l ( 1 9 5 2 ) , w i t h a sample o f male and f e m a l e u n d e r g r a d u a t e s ,

-52-

a s s e s s e d s u g g e s t i b i l i t y by t h e f o l l o w i n g f i v e measures: (1) t h e mean amount of movement r e p o r t e d i n 50 t r i a l s i n t h e a u t o k i n e t i c s i t u a t i o n ; ( 2 ) t h e d egree t o w h i c h t h e s e movement e s t i m a t e s c h anged a s a r e s u l t o f s u g g e s t i o n o f f e r e d by t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r i n a s e c o n d a u t o k i n e t i c t e s t ; (3) t h e mean t i m e r e q u i r e d t o r e p o r t movement i n t h e i n i t i a l a u t o k i n e t i c s i t u a t i o n ; (4) t h e number of p e r c e p t s a c c e p t e d i n t h e E y s e n c k and Furneaux (1945) " I n k - b l o t S u g g e s t i o n " T e s t ; and (5) t h e maximum amount of body sway d u r i n g t h e r e c i t a t i o n o f s u g g e s t i o n t h a t t h e s u b j e c t was f a l l i n g f o r w a r d . T h e s e s u g g e s t i b i l i t y measures were t h e n r e l a t e d t o t h e f o l l o w i n g R o r s c h a c h measures w h i c h S t e i s e l presumed t o be measures o f sug­g e s t i b i l i t y : R, CF, %CF, M, %M, F%, F+%, and on c o l o r e d c a r d s A%, P, %9 and a v e r a g e c o l o r s c o r e . Of t h e 72 c o r r e l a t i o n s which r e s u l t e d from t h i s a n a l y s i s , o n l y t h r e e r e a c h e d t h e f i v e p e r c e n t l e v e l of c o n f i d e n c e o r beyond, and f o u r a d d i t i o n a l c o r r e l a t i o n s r e a c h e d a s i g n i f i c a n c e l e v e l between f i v e and t e n p e r c e n t . S t e i ­s e l p o i n t e d out t h a t t h i s p r o p o r t i o n o f s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s w o u l d be e x p e c t e d by chance, and he t h e r e f o r e c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e r e i s no c o n s i s t e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between R o r s c h a c h measures o f sug­g e s t i b i l i t y and o t h e r measures o f s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o i n f l u e n c e .

L i n t o n ( 1 9 5 4 ) , w i t h a sample of male u n d e r g r a d u a t e s , r e l a t e d R o r s c h a c h r e s p o n s e s t o change o f a u t o k i n e t i c judgments under t h e i n f l u e n c e o f p l a n t e d judgments g i v e n by a p e e r c o n f e d e r a t e . L i n ­t o n found s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s between h i g h s u s c e p t i b i l i t y and Low w, High P, F l e x o r M, H i g h Hd, H i gh F%, H i gh Ms Sum C, and a n i m a l r e s p o n s e s . I n comparing h e r f i n d i n g s w i t h t h o s e o f S t e i s e l ( 1 9 5 2 ) , L i n t o n p o i n t s out t h a t she u s e d a male sample and c o n f e d ­e r a t e i n f l u e n c e w h i l e S t e i s e l u s e d b o t h males and f e m a l e s i n h i s e x p e r i m e n t as w e l l a s u s i n g h i m s e l f a s t h e i n f l u e n c e s o u r c e . L i n ­t o n (1954, p. 82) i n t e r p r e t s h e r f i n d i n g as f o l l o w s : "The f i n d ­i n g s of t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y i n d i c a t e , t h a t w h i l e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e not s i m p l e , c e r t a i n R o r s c h a c h measures a r e c l e a r l y r e l a t e d t o r e a c t i o n s t o t h e a u t o k i n e t i c s i t u a t i o n . "

The w r i t e r f i n d s t h e l a t t e r two r e s u l t s p u z z l i n g . I t would appear t h a t t h e e q u i v o c a l i t y o f t h e s e r e s u l t s cannot be due s o l e l y t o t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l d i f f e r e n c e s s u g g e s t e d by L i n t o n ; moreover, t h e w r i t e r must wonder why t h e two e x p e r i m e n t e r s u s e d somewhat d i f f e r e n t R o r s c h a c h c a t e g o r i e s t o r e l a t e s u s c e p t i b i l i t y . P e r h a p s one can c o n c l u d e t h a t i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e R o r s c h a c h i s s t i l l more of an " a r t " t h a n a " s c i e n c e . "

M i n n e s o t a m u l t i p h a s i c p e r s o n a l i t y i n v e n t o r y : S i x e x p e r i m e n t s w h i c h h a v e r e l a t e d MMPI r e s p o n s e s t o c o n f o r m i t y a r e summarized i n T a b l e 5. As t h i s t a b l e i n d i c a t e s , i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o i d e n t i f y b a s i c r e l a ­t i o n s h i p s b e c a u s e t h e r e s u l t s a r e e q u i v o c a l and b e c a u s e d i f f e r e n t s c a l e s have been u s e d . One o t h e r e x p e r i m e n t s h o u l d be c i t e d , not o n l y b e c a u s e i t i s r e l a t e d t o t h e a r e a under c o n s i d e r a t i o n b u t a l s o b e c a u s e i t a g a i n i l l u s t r a t e s t h e m a n i f o l d ways i n w h i c h d i f ­f e r e n t r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e a t t e m p t e d t o o p e r a t i o n a l i z e " c o n f o r m i t y . "

TABLE 5

SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENTS RELATING MINNESOTA MULTIPHASIC PERSONALITY INVENTORY (MMPI) RESPONSES TO CONFORMITY

I n v e s t i g a t o r S i t u a t i o n T a s k S u b j e c t s F i n d i n g

B a r r o n (1953a)

A s c h s i t u a t i o n J u d g i n g l i n e l e n g t h s

Male undergradu­a t e s (92 " i n d e ­p e n d e n t s " ; 92 " y i e l d e r s " )

No d i f f e r e n c e between y i e l d e r s and independ­e n t s on t h e u s u a l c l i n i c a l and v a l i d i t y s c a l e s ; summed s c o r e s on t h e F, Sc, Pa, and Ma 1 s c a l e s ( t h i s i n d e x was t a k e n t o i n d i c a t e s u b c l i n i c a l p s y c h o t i c t r e n d s ) and a g a i n no d i f f e r e n c e between t h e two groups

C r u t c h f i e l d (1951)

S i m u l a t e d group i n t e r a c t i o n

Group S q u a r e s T e s t ( s e e t e x t )

40 male g r a d u ­a t e s t u d e n t s i n t h e i r f i n a l y e a r o f Ph.Do work

The group most r e s p o n ­s i v e t o s o c i a l p r e s s u r e s c o r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r on t h e Ma 1 s c a l e ; group m o d e r a t e l y r e s p o n ­s i v e s c o r e d l o w e s t on Ma s c a l e ; l e a s t r e s p o n -group s c o r e d i n i n t e r ­m e d i ate range on Ma s c a l e

"Ma (Hypomania) s c a l e measures t e n d e n c i e s toward marked o v e r p r o d u c t i v i t y i n thought and a c t i o n s ; Sc ( S c h i z o p h r e n i c ) s c a l e measures t e n d e n c i e s toward b i z a r r e and u n u s u a l t h o u g h t s o r b e h a v i o r ; Pa ( P a r a n o i a ) s c a l e measures t e n d e n c i e s t oward s u s p i c i o u s n e s s , o v e r s e n s i t i v i t y

TViBLE 5

( c o n t i n u e d )

I n v e s t i g a t o r S i t u a t i o n T a s k S u b j e c t s F i n d i n g

C r u t c h f i e l d (1955)

C r u t c h f i e l d a p p a r a t u s

P e r c e p t u a l / o p i n i o n , and i n f o r m a t i o n i t e m s

U n d e r g r a d u a t e s (19 male; 40 female)

No r e l a t i o n s h i p between c o n f o r m i t y and MMPI r e s p o n s e s

Goldberg, Hunt, Cohen and Meadow (1954

A s c h s i t u a t i o n J u d g i n g l i n e l e n g t h s

76 undergradu­a t e s ( m a l e and femal e )

Male conforming group s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o w e r on Mf, Hs, and P t s c a l e s ; 1

f e m a l e conforming group s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r on P t s c a l e

i

S a r b i n and Hardyck (1955)

P e r c e p t u a l r e s p o n s e s t o a s e t o f sche­m a t i z e d human f i g u r e s

I d e n t i f y t h e p o s t u r e o f t h e f i g u r e s

91 u n d e r g r a d u ­a t e s ( m a l e and femal e )

Nonconformist p e r c e p t u a l r e s p o n s e s c o r r e l a t e d .32 w i t h F s c a l e ; t h u s sub­j e c t s who answer MMPI ite m s i n u n u s u a l ways a l s o p e r c e i v e p e r c e p t u a l s t i m u l i i n nonconforming way

and d e l u s i o n s o f p e r s e c u t i o n ; F ( V a l i d i t y S c o r e ) i s not a p e r s o n a l i t y s c a l e b u t measures t e s t v a l i d i t y by a s s e s s i n g c a r e l e s s n e s s , i n a b i l i t y t o u n d e r s t a n d i t e m s , and e x t e n s i v e s c o r i n g o r r e c o r d i n g e r r o r s ; Mf ( I n t e r e s t ) s c a l e measures t e n d e n c y toward m a s c u l i n i t y o r f e m i n i n i t y of i n t e r e s t p a t t e r n ; Hs ( H y p o c h o n d r i a s i s ) s c a l e i s a measure o f amount of abnormal c o n c e r n about b o d i l y f u n c t i o n s ; P t ( P s y c h a s t h e n i a ) s c a l e measures t e n d e n c y toward p h o b i a s o r c o m p u l s i v e b e h a v i o r ? Pd ( P s y c h o p a t h i c D e v i a t e ) s c a l e i s a measure o f a b s e n c e o f deep

TABLE 5

( c o n t i n u e d )

I n v e s t i g a t o r S i t u a t i o n T a s k S u b j e c t s F i n d i n g

Tuddenham (1959)

C r u t c h f i e l d a p p a r a t u s

P e r c e p t u a l , o p i n i o n , and i n f o r m a t i o n i t e m s

A d u l t sample, age about 35 (27 male; 29 female)

N o n s i g n i f i c a n t n e g a t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n between c o n f o r m i t y and t h e Welsh A n x i e t y S c a l e ( 1 9 5 6 ) ; 2 n o n s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n between c o n f o r m i t y and t h e Welsh R e p r e s s i o n S c a l e (1956) i

Ul

i

e m o t i o n a l r e s p o n s e , i n a b i l i t y t o p r o f i t from e x p e r i e n c e , and d i s r e g a r d f o r s o c i a l mores. ( S o u r c e : Hathaway and K c K i n l e y , 19 51.)

2 T h e Welsh A n x i e t y S c a l e (1956) i s a measure o f t h e g e n e r a l c o m p l a i n t l e v e l and a n x i e t y about c o m p l a i n t s .

3The Welsh R e p r e s s i o n S c a l e (1956) i s a s e c o n d f a c t o r fciMPI s c a l e w h i c h presumably measures n e u r o t i c r e p r e s s i o n and d e n i a l .

-56-

( T h e t h e o r e t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h i s l a t t e r o b s e r v a t i o n w i l l be d i s c u s s e d a t t h e c o n c l u s i o n of t h i s r e v i e w . ) H o l d e r (1958) a s s e s s e d " c o n f o r m i t y " by a pap e r and p e n c i l t e s t , a s p e c i a l l y p r e p a r e d I n v e n ­t o r y V a l u e I n t e g r a t i o n ( I V I ) ( H o l d e r , 1955) which c o n t a i n e d 240 v a l u e - a t t i t u d e i t e m s i n w h i c h c o n f o r m i t y i t e m s were t h o s e on which 75 p e r c e n t o r more o f t h e s t u d e n t s i n a v a l i d a t i o n group agreed i n t h e i r a n s w e r s . I n t h e experiment 136 u n d e r g r a d u a t e s (66 male; 70 f e m a l e ) were g i v e n t h e I V I and MMPI. "Two h i g h l y q u a l i f i e d j u d g e s " ( a d m i n i s t r a t o r s o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M i s s o u r i T e s t i n g and C o u n s e l i n g S e r v i c e ) were a s k e d t o j u d g e t h e s u b j e c t s i n d e p e n d e n t l y on t h e b a s i s o f t h e i r MMPI p r o f i l e s and t o c l a s s i f y them i n t o t h e f o l l o w i n g c a t e g o r i e s : normal (87 S s ) , non-normal ( 3 8 S s ) , and u n c l a s s i f i a b l e ( l l S s ) . H o l d e r r e p o r t s t h a t t h e normal group had s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r c o n f o r m i t y s c o r e s t h a n t h e non-normals. A Welsh A n x i e t y I n d e x (1952) was computed from t h e MMPI s c o r e s and i t was found t h a t h i g h e s t c o n f o r m i t y was accompanied by l o w e s t a n x i e t y and t h e l o w e s t c o n f o r m i t y group i n d i c a t e d t h e h i g h e s t a n x i e t y .

A s c e n d a n c y - s u b m i s s i o n : Seven e x p e r i m e n t s w h i c h h a v e r e l a t e d a s c e n d a n c y - s u b m i s s i o n t o c o n f o r m i t y a r e summarized i n T a b l e 6. As t h e t a b l e i n d i c a t e s , a number o f d i f f e r e n t measures h a v e been employed and t h e r e s u l t s a r e not e a s i l y i n t e r p r e t e d . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , B e l o f f (1958) p r o v i d e s no b a s i s f o r i n t e r p r e t i n g h e r d i v e r g e n t r e s u l t s f o r men and women. The c o m p l i c a t e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s between a s c e n d a n c y , p r e j u d i c e , and s u s c e p t i b i l i t y found i n t h e Bra y (1950) s t u d y do n o t appear t o f i t any s y s t e m a t i c p a t t e r n ; i t would appear t h a t o n l y r e p l i c a t i o n and r e f i n e m e n t w i l l make i t p o s s i b l e t o com­p r e h e n d t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s . Kelman's (1950) s t u d y i n d i c a t e s t h a t a s c e n d a n c y does not n e c e s s a r i l y c a r r y o v e r s i m p l y i n t o a group judgment s i t u a t i o n and t h a t p e r s o n a l i t y f a c t o r s f u n c t i o n d i f f e r ­e n t i a l l y . Mouton, B l a k e , and Olm s t e a d (1956) s u g g e s t two i n t e r ­p r e t a t i o n s of t h e i r r e s u l t s : one i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s t h a t submis­s i v e s u b j e c t s a r e more s e n s i t i v e , i n t h e s e n s e of b e i n g more aware o f t h e o p i n i o n s o f o t h e r s , and t h a t t h e r e f o r e t h e i r r e a c ­t i o n s a r e more l i k e l y t o r e v e a l t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e r e p o r t s o f o t h e r s . A more l i k e l y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s t h a t w h i l e a s c e n d a n t and s u b m i s s i v e s u b j e c t s may be e q u a l l y s e n s i t i v e t o t h e o p i n i o n s o f o t h e r s , t h e former a r e l e s s swayed by t h e o p i n i o n s o f o t h e r s due t o t h e i r g r e a t e r c a p a c i t y t o r e s i s t s u c h i n f l u e n c e . Mouton e t a l . f a v o r t h e l a t t e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n b e c a u s e t h e items i n t h e A l l p o r t s c a l e i n d i c a t e t h a t one who s c o r e s i n t h e a s c e n d a n t r a n g e i s one who r e s i s t s t h e i n f l u e n c e a t t e m p t s o f o t h e r s i n a v a r i e t y o f d i f ­f e r e n t s i t u a t i o n s .

A t e n t a t i v e c o n c l u s i o n from t h e r e v i e w e d s t u d i e s would be t h a t a b a s i c a s s o c i a t i o n e x i s t s between c o n f o r m i t y and a s c e n d a n c y -s u b m i s s i o n i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f g r e a t e r c o n f o r m i t y a s a f u n c t i o n of g r e a t e r s u b m i s s i v e n e s s . T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p h a s been c o n f i r m e d f o r male s u b j e c t s o n l y ; an i n v e r s i o n o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p was r e p o r t e d f o r women i n one s t u d y .

TABLE 6

SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENTS RELATING ASCENDANCY-SUBMISSION TO CONFORMITY

I n v e s t i g a t o r S i t u a t i o n Task Subjects Finding

B e l o f f (1958)

Simulated group

Berenda (1950)

A t t i t u d e toward war/ a e s t h e t i c preference, s o c i a l , r e l i g ­ious, and p o l i t i c a l items

P a i r i n t e r a c t i o n L i n e judgments a f t e r i n i t i a l judgments

with peer and teacher con­fede r a t e s

Undergraduat es a t Queen's Uni v e r s i t y , B e l ­f a s t ( I r e l a n d ) (35 male? 25 female)

47 c h i l d r e n , ages 7-10; 29 c h i l d r e n , ages 10-13

Used A l l p o r t - A l l p o r t A-S r e a c t i o n study (1928) to a s s e s s ascendancy. For men, a negative r e l a t i o n ­ship between ascend­ancy and conformity; f o r women, a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p

Ascendancy measured by t e a c h e r s ' r a t i n g s . No r e l a t i o n s h i p between r a t e d ascendancy and s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to con­federate i n f l u e n c e

Bray (1950)

A u t o k i n e t i c t a s k

Judge movement 150 male G e n t i l e , Jewish, undergraduates and Negro con­fe d e r a t e s (see t e x t f o r measures

Ascendancy as s e s s e d by the A s c a l e of the Guilford-Martin Inven­t o r y F a c t o r s GAMIN (1945) For a n t i - S e m i t i c group judging with Jewish confederate, ascendancy p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d to s u s c e p t i b i l i t y ; f o r not a n t i - S e m i t i c group, no r e l a t i o n s h i p under same con d i t i o n s . For not a n t i - S e m i t i c group with

TABLE 6

( c o n t i n u e d )

I n v e s t i g a t o r S i t u a t i o n T a s k S u b j e c t s F i n d i n g

B r a y ( c o n t i n u e d ) Gent i 1 e conf e d e r a t e, a s c e n d a n c y p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o s u s c e p t i ­b i l i t y ; f o r a n t i -S e m i t i c group, no r e l a ­t i o n s h i p under same c o n d i t i o n s . F o r not a n t i - N e g r o group, n e g a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p ; f o r t h e a n t i - N e g r o group, no r e l a t i o n s h i p

H e l s o n , B l a k e , Mouton, and Olmstead (1956)

S i m u l a t e d group 18 s t a t e m e n t s from Thurstone-Chave A t t i t u d e toward war s c a l e ( 1 9 3 0 -1931)

45 male under g r a d u a t e s

Used A l l p o r t - A l l p o r t A-S r e a c t i o n s t u d y t o a s s e s s a s c e n d a n c y . Both f r e q u e n c y and amount o f o p i n i o n s h i f t from a l o n e con­d i t i o n t o group c o n d i ­t i o n p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o s u b m i s s i v e n e s s .

J e n n e s s (1932)

Group d i s c u s s i o n

J u d g i n g t h e number o f beans i n a j a r

101 under­g r a d u a t e s (51 male; 50 female)

Ascendancy measured by t e a c h e r s ' r a t i n g s . No r e l a t i o n s h i p between a s c e n d a n c y and s u s c e p t i ­b i l i t y t o group i n f l u e n c e

TABLE 6 (continued)

Investigator Situation Task Subjects Finding

Kelman (1950)

Mouton, Blake, and Olmstead (1956)

Autokinetic task

Simulated group

Judge movement with confeder­ate; with sue cess, f a i l u r e ambiguous/ and control condi­tions

Auditory c l i c k counting (per­sonality iden­t i t y and anony­mous conditions

48 undergradu­ates (18 male; 30 female)

48 male undergraduates

Used A scale of Guilford-Martin Inven­tory Factors GAMIN (1945) 1 to assess ascendancy. Under f a i l u r e , c ontrol, and ambiguous conditions, low ascendancy related to s u s c e p t i b i l i t y ; under success condi­t i o n , high ascendancy related to s u s c e p t i b i l i t y Used A l l p o r t - A l l p o r t A-S reaction study (1928) to assess ascendancy. Ascendant Ss show no differences i n y i e l d i n g as a func­t i o n of revealing per­sonal i d e n t i t y ; submis­sive Ss s i g n i f i c a n t l y increased t h e i r rate of yie l d i n g under disclosure of i d e n t i t y

iThe Factors GAMIN are as follows: G—general pressure f o r overt a c t i v i t y ; A—ascendancy i n social situations as opposed to submissiveness; M—masculinity of attitudes and interests as opposed t o femininity? I — l a c k of i n f e r i o r i t y feelings, self-confidence; N—lack of nervous tenseness and i r r i t a b i l i t y .

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Needs: A r e l a t i v e l y large number of studies have investigated relationships between conformity and the strength of various needs or drives, as measured by personality t e s t s . The needs for achieve­ment, a f f e c t , a f f i l i a t i o n , approval, dependency, and status, as w e l l as overa l l need p r o f i l e as measured by the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule (EPPS) (1954), have been related to conform­i t y ; these studies w i l l be reviewed i n the preceding order.

A. Achi evement McClelland, Atkinson, Clark, and Lowell (1953) analyzed

fantasy stories w r i t t e n by Asch's subjects i n terms of the avhieve-ment motive and found that of subjects with need achievement scores above the group median, 13 per cent were "yielders," while 87 per cent of those with achievement scores below the median were found t o y i e l d to conformity pressures. Krebs (1958), using as his measure of conformity the degree to which memory judgments about the content of two slides was influenced by bogus norms, found subjects with high n Achievement (as measured by TAT fantasy) to be less conformant than subjects with low n Achievement.

In a study c i t e d e a r l i e r , Hoffman (1953) found that with a l i n e judging task i n an Asch s i t u a t i o n , conformers score higher on a measure of "success s t r i v i n g s . " Hoffman's personality meas­ures were obtained from a sentence completion t e s t , the TAT, and two questionnaires. I t i s somewhat puzzling to note that Hoffman found conformers t o be more highly motivated t o succeed while Krebs found conformers to have lower n Achievement. These con­f l i c t i n g findings may be due to some extent to the measuring instruments; the differences may also be due to a difference in the meaning of the experimental s i t u a t i o n . TThat subjects regard as "achievement" and how important they consider achivement to be may vary w i t h the experimental s i t u a t i o n . An inverse r e l a t i o n ­ship between conformity and n Achievement has also been reported by other investigators. Both Cruchfield (1955) and Tuddenham (1959) found that y i e l d i n g to a d i s t o r t e d group norm was nega­t i v e l y correlated with need for achievement as measured by the C a l i f o r n i a Psychological Inventory (Gough, 1957). Marlowe (1959) reports a similar negative relationship between conformity i n a cimulated group s i t u a t i o n and n Achievement as measured by TAT fantasy.

A number of studies have presented evidence which appears t o q u a l i f y the relationship between achievement and conformity. Samelson (1957) had subjects i d e n t i f y nonsense syllables under group pressure ( c o n f l i c t situation) while he provided some of the subjects with information that might allow the subject to account for the discrepancy between physical and social r e a l i t y (reduced c o n f l i c t ) . Need achievement was measured by TAT response. Samelson found s i g n i f i c a n t l y less conformity i n the reduced con­f l i c t s i t u a t i o n . I n the usual f u l l c o n f l i c t s i t u a t i o n , n Achieve­ment was negatively but not s i g n i f i c a n t l y correlated w i t h conformity;

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under the reduced c o n f l i c t condition the relationship was positive and s i g n i f i c a n t , Moreover, i n the reduced c o n f l i c t s i t u a t i o n sub­j e c t s low i n n Achievement became s i g n i f i c a n t l y more independent while those high i n n Achievement showed no change i n t h e i r con­formity behavior. In a second study i n which subjects were con­fronted with wrong majority judgments i n a word recognition task f o r which the subjects were t o l d they "were better than others i n recognizing words," Samelson (1958) found that subjects with high n Achievement scores showed a s i g n i f i c a n t l y stronger tendency to conform than subjects with lower n Achievement scores.

Samelson's l a t t e r f i n d i n g supports a suggestion made by Burdick (1955) that a person with strong achievement motivation should conform i n situations i n which he perceives conformity as instrumental to achievement. Burdick's hypothesis has received support from a study by Zajonc and Wahi (1961) which assessed the rel a t i o n s h i p between n Achievement and conformity with c u l t u r a l norms using a sample of 30 male Indian students. The results indicated that the relationship between conformity to cross-c u l t u r a l norms and n Achievement (as measured by TAT fantasy) was mediated by the instrumental value of conformity; when conformity was perceived as instrumental, a positive relationship between conformity and n Achievement was found. The high n Achievement group was also found to be more sensitive t o the instrumental value of conformity whereas the low n Achievement group was found t o be more sensitive t o the congruence of c u l t u r a l norms.

B. Affect Need G i l l (1963) equated 28 normal males and 28 schizophrenic

males f o r age and education and related t h e i r conformity behavior i n an Asch-type s i t u a t i o n to what he has termed "affect need." Four TAT cards were used to score affec t need i n interpersonal r e l a t i o n s and G i l l found a s i g n i f i c a n t i n t e r a c t i o n between the factors of mental health, conformity, and a f f e c t need. G i l l (1963, p. 505) interprets his results as follows:

The fact that a f f e c t and conformity do interact sug­gests that i n general those individuals who conform more readily to group pressure manifest more affect need, while those who manifest l i t t l e a f f e c t need have less tendency to conform i n a group influence situa­t i o n . C. A f f i l i a t i o n

T7alker and Heyns (1962) report a series of studies i n which n A f f i l i a t i o n was p o s i t i v e l y correlated with conformity. I t was also found i n these studies that subjects high i n n A f f i l i ­a t i o n and low i n n Achievement were p a r t i c u l a r l y predisposed toward

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conformity behavior i n various group pressure situations. (Through­out t h e i r research Walker and Heyns (1962) used TAT fantasy meas­ure needs.) As Samelson (1957, 1958) did i n the case of n Achieve­ment, Hardy (1957) has reported a study indicating an interaction between n A f f i l i a t i o n and the s i t u a t i o n a l determinants of conform­i t y . Hardy manipulated the degree of support given to a naive subject i n an Asch-type s i t u a t i o n by having the subject either unanimously opposed or supported by one confederate i n six member groups. High, medium, and low n A f f i l i a t i o n , as measured by the TAT, was related to conformity f o r both the support and no sup­port conditions. Within each support v a r i a t i o n , a positive rela ­tionship between n A f f i l i a t i o n and conformity was found. I n the no support condition, subjects with high or medium n A f f i l i a t i o n were s i g n i f i c a n t l y more conforming than were the low n A f f i l i a t i o n subjects. However, i n the partner support v a r i a t i o n , the medium and low n A f f i l i a t i o n subjects were s i g n i f i c a n t l y more conforming than the high n A f f i l i a t i o n subjects. Consequently, Hardy's f i n d ­ings appear to add an important q u a l i f i c a t i o n to the relationship between n A f f i l i a t i o n and conformity. For those individuals with high n A f f i l i a t i o n , the presence of a single partner appears to r e s u l t i n a disappearance of conformity that i s d e f i n i t e l y present under conditions of no support.

D. Need for Approval Moeller and Applezweig (1957) placed female undergradu­

ates i n t o groups representing combinations of high and low needs f o r social approval and self-approval as measured by a sentence completion form of t h e i r Behavior In t e r p r e t a t i o n Inventory (Moeller and Applezweig, 1956). I n an Asch-type s i t u a t i o n , sub­j e c t s high i n social approval needs and low i n need for s e l f -approval conformed with greater frequency than subjects i n the other groups; no differences i n conformity were found f o r persons scoring high i n self-approval needs and low i n social approval needs, or f o r those scoring high on both measures. The r e l a t i o n ­ship between conformity and low self-approval was confirmed i n studies by Schroeder and Hunt (1958) and Strickland and Crowne (1962).

E. Dependency In a study by Jacubczak and Walters (1958), 24 c h i l d sub­

j e c t s , h a l f c l a s s i f i e d as high dependent and half as low dependent (by teacher r a t i n g s ) , were subjected to peer and adult pressure i n the autokinetic task. Adults were found to exert more social influence, but no difference i n s u g g e s t i b i l i t y was found between those subjects rated high and those rated low on dependency. In a second study using the same experimental conditions with a sam­ple of nine-year old boys, Jacubczak and Walters (1959) report t h a t the high dependent boys were more suggestible. The high dependent subjects were more susceptible to adult suggestion while

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there was no difference i n s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to peer suggestion. Kagan and Mussen (1956) have reported evidence indicating that n Succorance (Murray, 1943) on the TAT and Asch's measure of con­formity refer to the same construct of dependency. In t h e i r study, Kagan and Mussen (1956) assessed the conformity behavior of 27 male undergraduates i n an Asch-type s i t u a t i o n with l i n e judgment items. Stories from eight TAT cards were analyzed f o r two types of themes suggesting dependency needs; themes i n which the hero sought help from another indiv i d u a l i n solving a personal problem or was disturbed over the loss of a source of love or support were c l a s s i f i e d as D themes. Kagan and Mussen (1956) found a s i g n i f i ­cant p o s i t i v e relationship between D themes i n TAT fantasy and conformity i n the Asch s i t u a t i o n . With a sample of only 12 non-psychosomatic hospital patients, Weiss and Emmerich (1962) report a similar positive relationship between conformity i n an Asch-type s i t u a t i o n and n Succorance as measured by TAT fantasy. However, contradictory evidence i s presented i n a study by Bernardin and Jessor (1957) who assessed conformity behavior of an undergradu­ate sample i n an Asch-type s i t u a t i o n with l i n e judgments and r e l a t e d conformity to dependency as measured by the EPPS. Depend­ent subjects were defined as those who scored high on the deference scale and low on the autonomy scale; independents were those scor­ing high on autonomy and low on deference. No difference i n con­formity behavior between those subjects termed dependent and those termed independent.

F. Status Harvey and Consalvi (1960) found that a want or drive

f o r status lead to conforming behavior i n groups of delinquent boys at a state t r a i n i n g school who were subjected to group pres­sure i n a perceptual task involving the judgment of the distance between l i g h t s . The greatest conformity was exhibited by boys w i t h the second highest status i n t h e i r respective groups (as measured by a previously administered sociometric t e s t ) . The leader was least conformant, but not s i g n i f i c a n t l y less than the lowest status persons. Harvey and Consalvi i n t e r p r e t these results as i n d i c a t i n g that those boys j u s t one position removed from lead­ership had a greater need to conform than did the leader himself or those with lower status. Dittes and Kelley (1956) found that among male undergraduates who attach equal importance to t h e i r membership i n a group, those who receive information that they are only minimally accepted by t h e i r colleagues and that t h i s evalua­t i o n i s subject to change, possibly becoming worse, conforming behavior was s i g n i f i c a n t l y greater than i t was f o r subjects who receive information that they are highly accepted and that t h i s condition i s stable. Dittes and Kelley i n t e r p r e t t h i s f i n d i n g as i n d i c a t i n g that subjects who enjoyed somewhat less than complete acceptance were motivated to conform because they saw conforming behavior as a means to increase t h e i r status. Hollander (1958) has presented a model of status emergence which indicates that behavior

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perceived as nonconforming f o r one member may not be so perceived f o r another. Such d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n s are seen to be a function of an accumulation of p o s i t i v e l y disposed impressions which Hollander terms "idiosyncrasy c r e d i t s . " A person gains credits ( i . e . , rises i n status) by showing competence and by conforming to the expect­ancies applicable t o him at the time. Hollander's model would predict that with a r e l a t i v e l y constant level of manifest compe­tence, the influence of a person who nonconforms early would be less than the influence of a person who nonconforms l a t e r . I n a l a t e r experiment Hollander (1960) reports results consistent with h i s model. I n a group problem solving task, a highly competent confederate's influence was found to increase as the t r i a l s pro­gressed and past conformity by the confederate was p o s i t i v e l y and s i g n i f i c a n t l y related t o the acceptance of his influence.

The w r i t e r believes that Hollander's model and his sub­sequent experiment have added an important, and largely neglected, dimension to conformity research. Hollander has used time as the independent variable; t h i s appears t o be an important methodologi­c a l innovation about which the w r i t e r plans to make further com­ment at the conclusion of t h i s review.

G, EPPS Needs While the SPPS has been used by a number of investigators

to r e l a t e needs to conformity, the s t a b i l i t y of correlations be­tween yi e l d i n g and EPPS scores across samples i s not impressive. Tuddenham (1959), Izard (1960), DiVesta and Cox (1960), Endler (1960), and Appley and Moeller (1963) have studied the r e l a t i o n of EPPS scales to conformity. Across seven samples i n these f i v e studies (Tuddenham1s adult men and women; Izard's college men and women; DiVesta and Cox's undergraduates; Endler's college men; and Appley and Moeller's college women) 10 of the 105 correlations d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y from zero, and only three pairs of these correlations are mutually confirming. Achievement i s negatively correlated with conformity f o r Tuddenham's adult women and DiVesta and Cox's undergraduates. Dominance i s negatively related t o con­formity f o r Tuddenham's adult women and Izard's college men, and order i s p o s i t i v e l y related to conformity f o r the l a t t e r two groups. Moreover, two of these three replicated correlations arise from studies which d i f f e r e d the most methodologically from each other. Izard employed the autokinetic task i n which social pressure came from the experimenter i n a subtle point i n the ins t r u c t i o n s t o the subject rather than from a real or simulated group, whereas Tuddenham, Divesta and Cox, Endler, and Appley and Moeller a l l used variants of the Asch-type s i t u a t i o n . I t should be noted that Robbins (1961) also reports no relationship between s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o social pressure i n an opinion change s i t u a t i o n and EPPS needs. I n the study by Appley and Moeller (1963) c i t e d above, conformity was also related to scores on the Gough California Psychological Inventory (1956) and the Gordon Personal P r o f i l e (1953), and with a sample of 41 female freshmen.

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only the Edward's Abasement scale was able to generate a small but s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i v e relationship with conformity while the scale t i t l e s and descriptions of from 12 to 27 of the 38 person­a l i t y scales which compose the three tests used indicate that they would y i e l d predictions of conforming behavior* I t appears that one must summarize cautiously the various studies r e l a t i n g needs t o conformity behavior- Need f o r achievement has been found to be inversely related to conformity except i n cases where conformity i s perceived to be instrumental to achievement; i n the l a t t e r case the relationship between conformity and n Achievement i s p o s i t i v e . Conformity has generally been found to be p o s i t i v e l y related to needs f o r a f f i l i a t i o n , a f f e c t , status, dependency, and approval, while no basic relationship has been demonstrated between conformity and the 15 needs on the EPPS.

Self-esteem: Research i n the area of conformity, including studies of a t t i t u d e change and p e r s u a s i b i l i t y , have generally supported the hypothesis that persons with low self-esteem tend to be more con­forming and more susceptible to social influence than persons with high self-esteem (Crutchfield, 1955; deCharms and Rosenbaum 1960; Hochbaum, 1954; Janis, 1954, 1955; Janis and Field, 1959; Janis and Rife, 1959; Lesser and Abelson, 1959; Schroeder and Hunt, 1958; and Tuddenham, 1959). Moreover, Stotland, Thorley, Thomas, Cohen, and Zander (1957) found individuals low i n self-esteem to be more easily influenced by group evaluations than individuals w i t h high self-esteem, and Stotland and Hillmer (1962) found that low self-esteem individuals i d e n t i f y more readily w i t h others„ However, i t should be noted that with few exceptions (e.g., M i l -gram, 1961), i n studies dealing with altered judgments of physi­cal s t i m u l i as a r e s u l t of social pressure, the assumption has been made that the experimental tasks are so simple that i t i s unnecessary to obtain p r i o r judgments to assess accuracy i n a non-social s i t u a t i o n . The importance of c o n t r o l l i n g i n i t i a l compe­tency i n conformity research has been demonstrated i n a recent study by League and Jackson (1964), a study which the w r i t e r believes has important methodological implications. Prior to the application of group pressure to conform to an erroneous consensus i n the Blake-Brehm (1954) simulated group procedure with an audi­t o r y c l i c k counting task, League and Jackson (1964) administered a control series i n the absence of social pressure to ascertain sheer counting accuracy i n two groups of undergraduate subjects selected to d i f f e r i n t h e i r degree of measured self-esteem. (The c l i c k s were recorded at a rate of 176 per minute, a rate which had been found by Olmstead and Blake (1955) to be well within the a b i l i t y of most subjects and to produce maximum y i e l d i n g . In t h e i r study League and Jackson (1964) found that low self-esteem subjects were s i g n i f i c a n t l y less accurate than high self-esteem subjects i n counting accuracy under nonsocial conditions. I f , as t h i s study indicates, low self-esteem subjects are indeed less

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able to make accurate judgments i n tasks which are used i n con­formity research, then the commonly obtained negative relationship between self-esteem and conformity may take on a d i f f e r e n t i n t e r ­p r e t a t i o n from that usually provided. Low self-esteem subjects may be depending upon the judgments of others i n situations i n which they are inadequate. In reviewing t h e i r results, League and Jackson (1964, p. 114) make the following remarks:

Whatever independent t h e o r e t i c a l importance ( i f any) the finding that many low self-esteem subjects cannot count accurately may have, i t i s clear that a r e f i n e ­ment i n the design of conformity experiments i s needed. Even i n situations involving apparently simple physical events or relationships, i t i s necessary, p r i o r to the introduction of group pressure to conform, t o obtain accuracy judgments under s o l i t a r y conditions. Unless t h i s control i s introduced, y i e l d i n g scores obtained as a resul t of various experimental conditions or by preselection of subjects w i l l be confounded t o an unknown degree by differences i n the a b i l i t y of groups of subjects t o render accurate judgments of physical s t i m u l i .

The methodological implications of t h i s study w i l l receive further discussion at the conclusion of t h i s review; i n any case the prob­lem raised by t h i s study appears to be of s u f f i c i e n t importance to merit r e p l i c a t i o n and further study.

Commitment: A number of investigators have related conformity behavior t o public commitment to a pos i t i o n p r i o r to an attempt at social influence, and such investiagations w i l l be reviewed i n the present section. I t i s important to distinguish such experi­ments from those i n which public disclosure of one's position is required a f t e r an attempt at social influence. These two types of experiments have produced opposite res u l t s , and the l a t t e r type of research w i l l be reviewed i n a l a t e r section. Hobart and Hovland (1954) found that subjects who were required to commit themselves on a social issue p r i o r to an attempt at i n f l u ­ence were more resistant to influence by the communication than a con t r o l group i n which commitment was lacking. Deutsch and Gerard (1955) found that i n an Asch-type s i t u a t i o n fewer s o c i a l l y induced errors occurred by subjects who were p u b l i c a l l y committed t o t h e i r judgments p r i o r to the influence attempt. Similarly, Asch (1955) found that i f a subject was independent of the others at the out­set, he tended to remain independent t o the end of the series of judgments. Since the amount of evidence disconfirming the sub­j e c t ' s own judgments increases with successive disagreement, i t would decrease and y i e l d i n g would increase . . . a subject who was adamant at the outset would be expected to relent w i t h con­tinued confrontation of discrepant judgments. However, the l a t t e r was not the case; the subject remained adamant.

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However, a study by Fisher, Rubinstein, and Freeman (1956) contra­d i c t s the .asch (1956) study. This study indicates that i t i s important to d i f f e r e n t i a t e between social influence i n a single i n t e r a c t i o n and influence re s u l t i n g from the overall accumulative e f f e c t s of the influence s i t u a t i o n . I n t h e i r study Fisher et a l . used a perceptual judgment task of estimating dot numerosity on tachistoscopically presented slides i n a continuous interaction s i t u a t i o n . The results indicated that the i n t e r t r i a l effects of commitment were s i g n i f i c a n t l y greater than the i n t r a t r i a l effects. On the i n i t i a l i n t e r a c t i o n , subjects who committed themselves immediately p r i o r to the influence attempt were less influenced; however, the overall influence scores accumulated from the outset of the interactions were not s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t f o r the com-m i t a l and noncommital groups. These results are interpreted as i n d i c a t i n g that commital seems to produce "resistance t o change" only from the commital response to the post-influence response; the subject may s t i l l be heavily influenced i n the s i t u a t i o n and t h i s e f f e c t may be re f l e c t e d i n subsequent commital response. The greater task ambiguity i n t h i s l a t t e r study should be noted; i t may be that the highly ambiguous nature of the task can account f o r the f a i l u r e of the self-commital subjects to maintain t h e i r independence as they did i n the Asch (1956) study which used the f a r less ambiguous Asch s i t u a t i o n . A series of studies by Cervin has indicated that the relationship between conformity and commitment may also be q u a l i f i e d by other personality characteristics. Cervin (1957a) has constructed a 10-item scale of "emotional responsiveness" and has related t h i s variable to the degree of opinion change i n a two person i n t e r ­action i n which the participants were selected on the basis of opposing i n i t i a l opinions. In one study i n which the subjects d i d not commit themselves p u b l i c l y to t h e i r opinions p r i o r to the i n t e r a c t i o n , Cervin (1957b) found that high emotional subjects p a r t i c i p a t e d more and showed s i g n i f i c a n t l y fewer opinion changes than did the low emotional subjects. However, when the situation was repeated except that subjects made p r i o r public commitment of t h e i r opinions, Cervin, Joyner, Spence, and Heinzl (1961) found the opposite r e s u l t ; under public commitment high emotional sub­j e c t s participated less and tended t o change t h e i r opinions more frequently. Recently Gerard (1964) has attempted to understand the paradoxical e f f e c t s of commitment by studying the nature of the Asch s i t u a t i o n . Gerard has hypothesized that the subject responds not only to the apparent discrepancy i n information about the stimulus, but also t o what he believes are the expectations of the others as to what hi s response should be. In the face-to-face s i t u a t i o n an avowal of a discrepant stand i s a public commitment to the group of one's stalwartness . . . any change i n the d i r e c t i o n of y i e l d i n g would v i o l a t e t h i s image not only to oneself but to the group. Gerard (1964) tested t h i s explanation using an Asch-type s i t u a t i o n with

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an anonymous and a public response. He found both greater y i e l d ­ing and greater independence i n the public condition; he also found an increased change toward y i e l d i n g i n the anaonymous con­d i t i o n . These results are interpreted as supporting the theory t h a t commitment to a behavior serves t o f i x the cognitions associ­ated w i t h the behavior, and i n the Asch situation taking an inde­pendent stand i n public tends t o f i x that stand due t o the negative consequences attendant to changing i t . I t should be noted that t h i s analysis of the Asch situ a t i o n by Gerard (1964) i s consist­ent with the recent review and c r i t i q u e of work i n dissonance theory by Brehm and Cohen (1962) i n which these authors stress the importance of commitment f o r dissonance arousal. I t would appear that t h i s area of research has important p r a c t i c a l and social implications and that i t merits further study. At the present time, when many social thinkers are becoming alarmed about the increasing trend toward conformity i n our social society, a phenomena l i k e commitment, which tends to decrease conformity, would appear to merit more thorough investigation than i t has received to date.

Motivation to be correct: The motivation to be correct, or to do the best job possible, a variable which has been called "task set" or "task o r i e n t a t i o n " by a number of investigators, has been found to influence conformity behavior. Asch (1951, 1952) observed that a subject was much less l i k e l y to y i e l d to group pressure to make an erroneous judgment about the length of two lines when the subject maintained a f e e l i n g of neces­s i t y f o r dealing adequately with the task and avoiding an erroneous defective solution. Thibaut and Strickland (1956) report a simi­l a r f i n d i n g ; when they gave t h e i r subjects a "task set," when the subjects were t o l d to do the best job possible i n an Asch-type s i t u a t i o n , conformity decreased s i g n i f i c a n t l y from what i t was i n the usual s i t u a t i o n which these investigators terms the "social set." I n a previously c i t e d study Samelson (1957) showed that the amount of conformity t o erroneous majority opinion was reduced by instructions that implied i n d i v i d u a l subjects might be more accurate than the majority opinion. Similarly, Tuddenham (1958b) found a marked reduction i n conformity when subjects were t o l d t h a t the group norm i n a simulated group si t u a t i o n might be wrong occasionally. Both of the l a t t e r studies can be interpreted as i n d i c a t i n g that conformity behavior resulted from an attempt to be correct; when the accuracy of the group norm was questionable, conformity would be less l i k e l y to produce the correct response. The e f f e c t of the motivation to be correct was also demonstrated i n an experiment by Jones, Wells, and Torrey (1958). When the experimenter fed back information to the subjects (female under­graduates i n a Crutchfield apparatus wit h perceptual items) sup­p o r t i n g the correct answer and opposing the incorrect solution

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reached by the simulated majority, conformity to the simulated majority was s i g n i f i c a n t l y decreased. However, when the experi­menter added his weight to supporting the incorrect majority, the experimenter's influence was s i g n i f i c a n t l y decreased. These results are interpreted as indicating that a strong motivation to be cor­r e c t was manifest i n the subjects. When the experimenter entered the scene with the correct solution, subjects were ready to reject the majority opinion; however, when the experimenter joined forces w i t h the c l e a r l y erroneous majority, he gave the majority l i t t l e extra weight. Tuddenham (1958a) has c i t e d the desire to be cor­r e c t to account f o r the tendency of both "yielders" and "inde­pendents" i n the Asch-type s i t u a t i o n to t r y to compromise between r e a l i t y and social demands. Thus, the extreme "yielders" i n Tuddenham's (1958a) study were found to chose the more reasonable of the two false norms. On the other hand, Crutchfield (reported i n Krech, Crutchfield, and Ballachey, 1962) has reported several studies which contradict the finding that i n t e n s i f i e d s t r i v i n g to be r i g h t reduces conform­i t y . In one of Crutchfield's studies 12 five-man groups tested i n his usual conformity apparatus were t o l d that they would compete f o r a $50 prize, t o be divided equally among the f i v e members of the group which got the highest number of items correct i n a series of judgments involving matters of f a c t and lo g i c . Instead of show­ing the expected reduction i n conformity, these groups showed greater conformity than did control groups run under standard i n ­stru c t i o n s . One possible explanation of t h i s paradoxical finding was that each i n d i v i d u a l , not wishing to reduce his group's chances of winning the prize, decided to go along with the group when there was a discrepancy. However, t h i s explanation ought not to apply i n noncooperative situations where the individual's dissident judgment would not i n t e r f e r e with the group welfare. Consequently, Crutchfield conducted a second experiment with 12 other five-man groups i n which each person was t o l d he was competing for a $10 p r i z e against j u s t those individuals i n the 11 other groups who had occupied his position i n the booths. Under these conditions, i n which the subject was neither cooperating nor competing with the members of his own group, there was j u s t as much conformity i n these i n d i v i d u a l l y motivated subjects as there was i n control sub­j e c t s run under the standard procedure. Thus Crutchfield points out that motivating the subject to be r i g h t did not, under these conditions, make him less conforming to the bogus and incorrect group consensus. I t should be noted that the l a t t e r study did not involve d i r e c t competition f o r the prize between members of the same group; a study by DiVesta (1958) has indicated that where there i s such d i r e c t competition, the amount of y i e l d i n g i s decreased. From a p r a c t i c a l point of view, the relationship between conformity and the motivation t o be correct appears to be another area which merits further research. Many social sc i e n t i s t s are currently

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interested i n c r e a t i v i t y , i n ways to increase c r e a t i v i t y , and in the relationship between c r e a t i v i t y and conformityo A better understanding of the relationship between conformity and the moti­vation to be r i g h t 5 would also enhance our understanding of the group processes which promote c r e a t i v i t y .

Self-confidence: Self-confidence (or certainty of judgment) can r e s u l t from s k i l l s which a subject brings with him to the experi­mental s i t u a t i o n , or i t can be b u i l t up by manipulating success or f a i l u r e i n a p r i o r s i t u a t i o n . The l a t t e r type of experiment has been reviewed earlier? the present section w i l l review results from the former type of experiment. Table 7 summarizes f i v e experiments each of which has found t h a t self-confident subjects tend to r e s i s t pressures t o conform. Moreover, Tuddenham and MacBride (1959), i n t h e i r study of the reaction of adult subjects t o the conformity s i t u a t i o n from the "subject's point of view," found that lack of confidence i n the accuracy of answers was a major factor i n y i e l d i n g . This relationship between low s e l f -confidence and conformity i s also consistent with Campbell's (1961) hypothesis that conformity may r e f l e c t i n part a subject's f r e ­quent past experience of fi n d i n g his judgments wrong. The above relationship between conformity and confidence has also been demonstrated i n two additional experiments which were d i f f i ­c u l t to summarize and w i l l therefore be presented t e x t u a l l y . Kelley and Lamb (1957), i n an experiment on taste, used phenyl-thiaurea (PTU) which i s a tasteless substance to some individuals but tastes extremely b i t t e r to others. I t was found that non-taster s were s i g n i f i c a n t l y more susceptible t o majority influence concerning the taste of PTU than were individuals f o r whom PTU was tasteless. Kelley and Lamb (1957, p. 139) note that the taster's greater resistance to social influence "may be a t t r i b u t a ­b l e to the stronger reactions tasters have to PTU and the r e s u l t ­i n g greater c e r t a i n t y they have about t h e i r judgments of the sub­stance." I n a recent noteworthy study Crowne and Liverant (1963) compared conformity i n the usual Asch-type s i t u a t i o n with two experimental variants representing increasing degrees of s e l f -confidence. In addition to the usual condition, these investiga­t o r s created an expectancy condition i n which subjects indicated t h e i r c e r t a i n t y of being r i g h t on a ten point scale while the con­federates made confidence statements of a prearranged magnitude, and they created a betting condition i n which the subject could bet nothing, $.25, or $.50 on each judgment while the confederates made prearranged bets i n such a way that the subject could not

'The w r i t e r i s i m p l i c i t l y assuming a relationship between crea­t i v i t y ( i . e . , creative problem-solving) and the motivation t o be correct.

TABLE 7 SUMMARY OP EXPERIMENTS RELATING SELF-CONFIDENCE TO CONFORMITY

Investigator Situation Task Subjects Finding

Boomer (1959)

Simulated group in t e r a c t i o n

Burdick (1955)

Simulated group discussion

Similar to Cructchfield's Group Squares Test assembl­ing a number series

Group decision about a case of juvenile delinquency

Undergraduates (36 male; 36 female)

Self-ratings from 0 to 100 on the degree of certainty that the transaction had been the "best thing to do." Subjects who expressed 100% certainty were s i g ­n i f i c a n t l y less l i k e l y to y i e l d than subjects who expressed some certainty

38 undergraduates Self-ratings of cer-certainty before i n f l u ­ence attempts and a f t e r f i n a l influence attempt. Persons less certain of t h e i r o r i g i n a l position on the issue were s i g ­n i f i c a n t l y more conform­ant than persons who were more certain

i

Fisher, Williams, and Lubin (1957)

Simulated group Numerosity judgments

Not specified Self-ratings of c e r t a i n ­t y constituted a f a i r degree of predictive power for conformity scores; certainty posi­t i v e l y related to re s i s t ' ance to conformity pres­sures

(continued)

Investigator Situation Task Subjects Finding

Meyers and Hohle (1962)

Simulated group

Wiener (1958)

Paper and pencil t e s t — naming 10 ambiguous designs with two alterna­t i v e s provided

Auditory c l i c k counting

I n i t i a l naming; then naming again with false norms w r i t t e n i n t o t e s t booklet

Undergraduat es (17 male; 23 female)

116 undergradu­ates

Self-ratings of c o n f i ­dence i n judgments taken during the course of the experiment; a s i g n i f i c a n t negative correlation between conformity and ce r t a i n ­t y (--57; p less than .05) Self-ratings f o r each j udgment (absolutely certain, f a i r l y certain, uncertain); subjects who were absolutely certain of t h e i r judg­ments showed s i g n i f i ­cantly less conformity to bogus norms than did subjects who expressed some uncertainty

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form his own be t t i n g pattern on the basis of consistent group behavior. Using a r e l a t i v e l y large sample (110 undergraduates; 40 male, 70 female), Crowne and Liverant (1963) were then able to examine the confidence of conformers and independents by comparing t h e i r expectancy statements and t h e i r bets as well as t h e i r con­formity behavior. I t was found that conformers tended to express a lesser degree of confidence than independents and t h i s d i f f e r ­ence was s i g n i f i c a n t on t r i a l s on which subjects remained inde­pendent. Conformers and independents did not d i f f e r i n t h e i r declarations of confidence on conforming t r i a l s and s i g n i f i c a n t l y less confidence was expressed by both conformers and independents on the conforming t r i a l s . The relationship between conformity and self-confidence appears to be one of the most unequivocal relationships reviewed to date. In reviewing some of the results of his many conformity experiments, Asch (1955, p. 33) has w r i t t e n an appropriate summary of t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p :

Among the independent individuals were many who held fast because of staunch confidence i n t h e i r own judg­ment. The most s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t about them was not absence of responsiveness to the majority, but a capacity to recover from doubt and to reestablish equilibrium.

A b i l i t y : A number of laboratory experiments have indicated that conformity i s inversely related to a b i l i t y and that one member of a group w i l l conform to the influence of another i f the other has demonstrated his a b i l i t y to solve the f i r s t member's problems (e.g., Kelman, 1950; Mausner, 1954b; Mausner and Bloch, 1957; Smith, 1961) . However, other research evidence indicates that the above results, which were derived i n "rigged" laboratory studies, cannot be generalized to situations where true answers and true group opinions are involved. I'Jhen a norm i s developed f r e e l y i n a group, i t w i l l be subject to the greater influence of the more able members, and i n such situations the above ability-conformity r e l a t i o n s h i p i s obscured. Among 350 adult subjects working i n small groups on ten judgmental problems, Bass (1955b) found small but s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i v e correlations between the i n i t i a l accuracy of the subjects and t h e i r tendency to accept the group decision and to be i n agreement with the other members following interaction w i t h them. Another study by Bass (1959b) produced a s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n between the i n i t i a l accuracy of a subject and h i s r e l a t i v e successful leadership as measured by the greater tendency of other members to s h i f t toward his i n i t i a l judgment rather than vice versa. s i m i l a r l y , Thorndike (1938) demonstrated t h a t the closer a par t i c i p a n t was to the correct answer i n i t i a l l y on matters of f a c t , the less he was influences to change his

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judgment by a subsequent majority vote. These l a t t e r experiments can be interpreted as indicating that where group opinion develops f r e e l y and i s true group opinion rather than simulated opinion, those members with more a b i l i t y are l i k e l y to contribute more to the group decision and to accept t h i s decision to a greater extent. Thus the group decision i s more l i k e the o r i g i n a l opinion of the most able members so that, i n r e a l i t y , other members have shifted more to the most able member rather than vice versa. A study by F l i n t (1960) has demonstrated an important d i s t i n c t i o n between actual a b i l i t y and perceived a b i l i t y . For a sample of 120 adult subjects working i n small groups on judgmental problems, F l i n t supplied feedback to some of the subjects that t h e i r opinions were more accurate and more correct than the opinions of the aver­age other member of t h e i r groups. F l i n t found that whether or not a subject knew about his a b i l i t y r e l a t i v e t o the others i n the group was c r i t i c a l i n determining the degree to which he would maintain his o r i g i n a l p o s i t i o n ; subjects who were more accurate and learned of t h e i r a b i l i t y were much more l i k e l y to hold to t h e i r own positions and less l i k e l y to conform than correspondingly able subjects who did not receive information about t h e i r a b i l i t y . I t was also found that a member's knowledge of his a b i l i t y carried much more weight than did knowledge of his deviation from the rest of the group i n determining whether or not he would t r y to i n f l u ­ence others i n the group rather than remain passive. Similarly, Wilson (1959) found that when an i n d i v i d u a l i s confronted w i t h disagreement from others perceived to be less i n t e l l i g e n t than himself, resistance to group pressure i s strengthened-The complexity of the a b i l i t y - c o n f o r m i t y relationship i s further demonstrated by an observation made by Levi, Torrance, and Pletts (1954). While conducting a series of sociometric studies of a i r crew trainees during an advanced survival t r a i n i n g course conducted by the Air Force, these researchers observed that i f an individual does not possess the necessary s k i l l s or characteristics which would make i t possible to conform, he may f a l l behind and remain a deviant much l i k e the r e c r u i t who lags behind on a long in f a n t r y march. The above studies which have related conformity and a b i l i t y appear t o suggest a number of important methodological implications for f u t u r e research. Vroom (1964) has noted that behavior i s a func­t i o n of both motivation and a b i l i t y and that the l a t t e r variable has often been neglected i n contemporary social psychological research. Vroom*s observation finds confirmation i n conformity research; the a b i l i t y variable has indeed been neglected, and t h i s review appears to suggest that i n conformity research, at least, the a b i l i t y factor merits more research e f f o r t i n the future than i t has received to date. Another implication of these studies is the important d i s t i n c t i o n between "laboratory" experimentation and "natural" or " f i e l d " experiments. I t w i l l be noted l a t e r i n t h i s review that some prominent contemporary social s c i e n t i s t s , notably

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Sherif, have been c r i t i c a l of conformity research because i t has focused too heavily on laboratory control, thereby s a c r i f i c i n g external v a l i d i t y . Not only i s the in t e r n a l v a l i d i t y - e x t e r n a l v a l i d i t y c o n f l i c t heightened i n the experiments r e l a t i n g con­formity to a b i l i t y , but these experiments suggest cle a r l y the need f o r more "natural" or " f i e l d " experiments i n a l l areas of conformity research, and p a r t i c u l a r l y i n the area of the a b i l i t y -conformity relationship.

Pathological trends i n personality; A r e l a t i v e l y large number of investigators have related conformity behavior to various measures and degrees of personality pathology, and a potpourri of 21 such experiments i s presented i n Table 8. (The reader w i l l r e c a l l that experiments r e l a t i n g conformity s p e c i f i c a l l y to the MMPI have been reviewed e a r l i e r and are summarized i n Table 5.) As Table 8 indicates, persons who do not conform tend to show some deficiency or deviation from the normal and extreme nonconformity t o social norms and social standards may be seen as a measure of abnormal function. I t i s important t o note that a basic r e l a t i o n ­ship between nonconformity and personality pathology has been demonstrated only f o r schizophrenic pathology. The results of experiments attempting t o r e l a t e psychoneurotic tendencies to con­formity have produced only equivocal results and have demonstrated no basic relationships. Failure to establish a relationship between the various measures of anxiety, neuroticism, nervousness, etc. may r e f l e c t inadequacies i n the measuring instruments as well as an inadequate operationalization of conformity; however, these r e s u l t s also suggest that the relationship between conformity and psychoneurotic tendencies may be a secondary one which may be mediated by other personality or s i t u a t i o n a l variables.

Fear of public disclosure of p o s i t i o n : The threat of public dis­closure of one's position a f t e r a social influence attempt experi­mentally manipulates fear and tends t o increase conformity to social pressure; t h i s explains the use of the secret b a l l o t as a basic instrument of personal expression. Five experiments which have related public disclosure to conformity are summarized i n Table 9. Robbins' (1961) f a i l u r e to f i n d the expected results may be due i n part to the a t t i t u d i n a l and ambiguous nature of the task; unfortunately Robbins does not i n t e r p r e t h i s contradictory finding.

Rating and check l i s t procedures: A number of investigators have found that s t a f f - r a t i n g and s e l f - r a t i n g procedures comparing con­formers and independents tend t o produce d i f f e r e n t i a l personality descriptions. Block (1955) assessed the child-rearing attitudes of 100 m i l i t a r y o f f i c e r s on a "Child-Rearing Att i t u d e Inventory"; the 20 highest and the 20 lowest scorers on t h i s inventory were c l a s s i f i e d as " r e s t r i c t i v e " and "permissive," respectively, and

TABLE 8 SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENTS RELATING PATHOLOGICAL TRENDS IN PERSONALITY TO CONFORMITY

Investigator Situation Task Subj ects Finding

Beloff (1958)

Simulated group Attitude toward war, aesthetic preference, social, r e l i ­gious, and p o l i t i c a l items

Undergraduates at Queen's Uni­v e r s i t y , Belfast (Ireland) (35 male; 25 female)

Neuroticism measured by the Maudsley Per­sonality Inventory (Eysenck, 1956). For men, conformity i s po s i t i v e l y related to neuroticism; f o r women conformity i s negative­l y related to neuroti­cism

i

Cervxn (1955a, 1955b, and 1956)

Group discus­sion with two same-sex con­federates

Opinion change measured under conditions of approval and disapproval i n the social interactions

64 Canadian undergraduates

Anxiety measured by the Taylor (1953) Mani­fest Anxiety scale; neuroticism measured by the Pd scale of the MMPI. Under disapproval, the high neurotic are more r i g i d i n holding t h e i r opinions, espe­c i a l l y when they are also more anxious (1955a, 1956). Under conditions of approval and praise, no difference i n behav­i o r between subjects high or low on either measure or both (1955b)

TABLE 8 (continued)

Investigator Situation Task Subjects Finding

Crutchfield (1962)

Crutchfield apparatus

Perceptual, opinion, and informational items

50 m i l i t a r y o f f i c e r s

Conformers consistently more anxious; scores on the Taylor MAS corre­l a t e i n the range of .30 to .40 with con­formity scores

Diamond (1956)

Autokinetic task

Judge movement wi t h one part­ner

30 male hospi­t a l i z e d schizo­phrenics; 30 male hospi­t a l i z e d drug addicts as control group

Convergence of the schizophrenics was s i g n i f i c a n t l y less than that of the con­t r o l s . When respond­ing alone a f t e r part­ner i n t e r a c t i o n , con­vergence of schizo­phrenics was again s i g n i f i c a n t l y less

Didato (1955)

Autokinetic task

Judge movement with groups of four-six

32 schizophre­nics; 32 normals (equated f o r age and education)

Results similar to those of Diamond (1956) above. Normals showed si g n i f i c a n t convergence to the group norm; s chi zophren i c s showed no such convergence

TABLE 8 (continued)

Investigator s i t u a t i o n Task Subjects Finding

Janis (1954)

Janis (1955)

Opinion change to persuasive communications

Opinion change to persuasive commun i c at i o n s

Read three com­munications about general informational items

Read f i v e a r t i c l e s pub­lished i n f i c t i t i o u s journals

78 male undergraduates

53 male undergraduates

"Three pertinent sets of personality inven­tory items indicate that feelings of social inad­equacy, i n h i b i t i o n of aggression, and depres­sive a f f e c t are associ­ated with high persuasi-b i l i t y . " l p . 512) Measured neurotic anxiety, s o c i a l l y -oriented anxiety, and test anxiety. No r e l a ­tionship between per-s u a s i b i l i t y and neurotic anxiety; positive r e l a ­tionship to s o c i a l l y -oriented anxiety; low test anxiety related to low p e r s u a s i b i l i t y

I

TABLE 8

(continued)

Investigator Situation Task Subjects Finding

Kelman 11950)

Autokinetic task

Levine (1954)

et a l Autokinetic task

Mangan, Quart ermain, and Vaughan (1960)

Group inter a c t i o n

Judge movement with confeder­ates; w i t h success, f a i l ­ure, ambiguous and control conditions

Group judgments of movement

Dot numerosity counting with four confeder­ates

Undergratuates (18 male; 30 female)

Hospitalized VA patients (10 nonpsycho-t i c psychiatric patients; 7 medical ward patients) Undergraduates (12 high scorers 12 low scorers on Taylor MAS taken from a class of 160)

Used N scale of Guilford-Martin Inventory Factors GAMIN (1945) to assess lack of nervous tension. Lack of nervous tension p o s i t i v e l y related to conformity i n success condition; negative relationship f o r the other three conditions Psychiatric patients more variable i n t h e i r judgments and showed less convergence toward group norm than did the "control group" of medi­cal ward patients S i g n i f i c a n t l y less con­formity shown by high anxious subjects; created a "strong pressure" condition where one con­federate c r i t i c i z e d another confederate p r i o r to judgment of naive sub­j e c t . Under these con­di t i o n s , high anxious again less conformant

i

i

TABLE 8 (continued)

Investigator Situation Task Subjects Finding

Meyers and Hohle (1962)

Rath and Misra (1963)

Sarbin and Hardyck (1955)

Simulated group

Group discussion

Perceptual responses to a set of schematized human figures

Auditory c l i c k counting

Compared i n d i ­vidual decision with group deci. sion a f t e r d i s ­cussion ( p o l i ­t i c a l and social items) I d e n t i f y the posture of the figures

Undergraduat es (17 male? 23 female)

105 Indian undergraduates (90 male; 15 female)

30 schizophre­nics compared to 91 under­graduates

Anxiety assessed bythe the Sarason-Mandler (1952) Test Anxiety Questionnaire (TAQ). Positive correlation between conformity and anxiety ( r = .33; p less than .05) Neuroticism measured by the Eysenck scale (1956). Neurotics less prone to change t h e i r opinion toward the group norm

Schizophrenics made s i g n i f i c a n t l y more non­conforming perceptual responses as compared to the college group

oo o I

TABLE 8 (continued)

Investigator Situation Task Subjects Finding

Schooler and Spohn (1960)

Asch si t u a t i o n

Judging l i n e 48 regressed lengths schizophrenics;

48 p a r t i a l l y remitted schizo­phrenics ; 48 hospitalized TB patients (con­t r o l s )

Schizophrenics conformed with frequency equal to the normals; no peer effect of whether con­federates were normals or other schizophrenics; as schizophrenics became more responsive, t h e i r behavior became more bizarre (response did not conform to either social or physical r e a l i t y )

Spohn (1956)

Group int e r a c t i o n

Tuddenham (1959)

Crutchfield apparatus

Perceptual judgments (length of rectangles)

Perceptual comparisonsi information and opinion items

Moderately regressed s chi zophr en i c s and markedly regressed s chi zophren i c s (number not specified) Adult sample, age about 35 (27 male; 39 female)

Moderately regressed s chi zophr en i c s showed some motivation to con­form to group estimates; markedly regressed schizophrenics showed only very s l i g h t tenden­cies to conform For both male and female subjects, a negative but nonsignificant correla­t i o n between conformity and anxiety as measured by the Taylor MAS

TABLE 8 (continued)

Investigator Situation Task Subjects x^inding

Walters, Marshall, and Shooter (1960)

Weiss and Emmerich (1962)

Autokinetic task

Judge movement with conferer-ate

Asch si t u a t i o n

Judging l i n e lengths

36 high school boys

Male VA patients (14 ulcer patients; 9 non-ulcer psycho­somatic; 14 non-psychosomatic)

Anxiety measured by two scales suggested by Schachter (1959). Judg­ments made under four conditions: isolated anxious; isolated non-anxious; nonisolated anxious; nonisolated nonanxious. Anxious subjects showed more s u s c e p t i b i l i t y than non-anxious; no difference in s u s c e p t i b i l i t y between Isolated and nonisolated ( i s o l a t i o n experiment­a l l y manipulated) Ulcer group y i e l d more frequently than the other two groups; the other two groups did not d i f f e r from each other i n conformity behavior

TABLE 8 (continued)

Investigator Situation Task Subj ects Finding

Wilson simulated Auditory 80 male high "Nonconformity revealed (1960) group c l i c k school students one class of variables

counting centered around such q u a l i t i e s as i r r i t a ­b i l i t y , high anxiety, chronic derogatory, and i n a b i l i t y to establish e f f e c t i v e relationships with peers." (p. 198)

TABLE 9

SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENTS RELATING FEAR OF PUBLIC DISCLOSURE OF POSITION TO CONFORMITY

Investigator Situation Task Subjects Finding

Argyle (1957)

Aesthetic judgment with confederate

Judge the aesthetic q u a l i t y of a picture

27 English high school boys

I n i t i a l and f i n a l judgments of the pic­ture were made on a six point scale; s i g n i ­f i c a n t l y more conformity to confederate opinion when judgment was stated p u b l i c l y

Asch (1956) ^.sch

s i t u a t i o n Judging l i n e lengths

123 male under­graduates (14 i n the private judgment varia­tion)

Conformity of 14 Ss under private judgment condition was s i g n i f i ­cantly less frequent than i n the usual pub­l i c disclosure condition

Mouton, Blake, and olmstead (1956)

Simulated group

Auditory c l i c k counting

48 male under­graduates

24 Ss gave names before j udging; other 24 Ss made judgments anony­mously. A s i g n i f i c a n t increase i n conformity i n the personal i d e n t i ­f i c a t i o n condition

TABLE 9 (continued)

Investigator Situation Task subjects Finding

Raven (1959)

Robbins (1961)

Opinion change a f t e r group discussion

Opinion change to bogus group norms

Wrote descrip­tions about case of juve­n i l e d e l i n ­quency

Watch movie about case of juvenile delin­quency, and make judgments about remedial action

344 undergradu­ates (10-14 i n each experi­mental group)

110 undergradu­ates

In some groups the wr i t t e n descriptions of the case were passed to the other group mem­bers; i n other groups descriptions remained private; s i g n i f i c a n t l y more opinion change when the opinions were made public Threat of public expo­sure of opinion did not increase conformity to the bogus group norm

i oo

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t h e i r conformity behavior was assessed i n a Crutchfield apparatus w i t h the usual perceptual, informational, and opinion items. Block found that the y i e l d i n g scores of the r e s t r i c t i v e fathers were s i g n i f i c a n t l y higher (p less than ,001) than the y i e l d i n g scores of the permissive fathers. Barron (1953a) used the Asch s i t u a t i o n to select extreme groups i n s u s c e p t i b i l i t y and then com­pared t h e i r s e l f - r a t i n g s on the Gough Adjective Check L i s t (1960b). Subjects low i n conformity s i g n i f i c a n t l y more often perceived themselves to be a r t i s t i c , emotional, o r i g i n a l (.01 l e v e l of con­fidence) , demanding, excitable, fairminded, l o g i c a l , moody, r a t i o n a l , reckless, and tactless (.05 l e v e l of confidence). Yielders considered themselves to be more determined, e f f i c i e n t , kind, obliging, o p t i m i s t i c , patient (.01 level of confidence), affected, considerate, d i g n i f i e d , f r i e n d l y , h e l p f u l , modest, stable, t a c t f u l , and wise (.05 l e v e l of confidence). The relationship between conformity behavior and personality ratings has been of continuing interest to Crutchfield, and he has reported r e s u l t s from a number of studies comparing the personality descrip­t i o n s of independents and yielders. I n an early study by Crutch­f i e l d (1953) s t a f f ratings on an adjective check l i s t described those subjects most responsive to social pressure as f l u i d , impul­sive, disturbed, and tense; those least responsive were described as conventional, calm, careful, r i g i d , serious, i n t e l l i g e n t , stable, and quiet. On s e l f - r a t i n g s , those who were most respon-. sive agreed with the s t a f f assessment, those least responsive tended to overrate themselves, and those intermediately responsive tended to underrate themselves. In a l a t e r study (Crutchfield, 1955) s e l f - r a t i n g s characterized the independent i n d i v i d u a l as one who i s adventurous, possessed of self-respect, free from com­pulsion about rules, and self-assertive; conformers characterized as r i g i d , externally sanctioned, anxious, inconsistent, and possess­ing moralistic attitudes and conventional values. Crutchfield (reported i n Krech, Crutchfield, and Ballachey, 1962) assessed the conformity behavior of 50 m i l i t a r y o f f i c e r s and 68 medical school applicants, each of whom had also been observed and interviewed by a s t a f f of expert psychological observers over a three-day assessment period. Each subject was rated on a long l i s t of personality t r a i t s and these ratings were made by the s t a f f raters i n complete ignorance of the performance of the sub­j e c t s i n the conformity task. A . r e l a t i v e l y large number of t r a i t s were found to d i f f e r e n t i a t e persons with high conformity scores from those with low conformity scores; the results of t h i s study are presented i n Table 10. Crutchfield ( i n Krech et a l . , 1962, p. 527) i n t e r p r e t s the results i n Table 10 as follows: " I t i s clear that the same pict u r e of the personality of the conformist and the independent in d i v i d u a l described by objective t e s t data i s revealed i n these ratings. I n his various studies Crutchfield (reported i n Krech et a l . , 1962) has also found s i g n i f i c a n t differences i n occupational i n t e r ­est patterns as measured by the Strong Vocational Interest Blank

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TABLK 10 DESCRIPTION OF HIGHLY INDEPENDENT SUBJECTS

VERSUS HIGHLY CONFORMING SUBJECTS IN TWO SAMPLES* Independents Conformists

tend to be described as tend to be described as M i l i t a r y o f f i c e r s (N = 50)

I s an ef f e c t i v e leader. Takes an ascendant role i n his

relations with others. I s persuasive; tends to win

other people over to his point of view.

I s turned to f o r advice and reassurance.

I s e f f i c i e n t , capable, able to mobilize resources easily and e f f e c t i v e l y .

I s active and vigorous. Is an expressive, ebullient

person. Seeks and enjoys aesthetic and

sensuous impressions. Is natural; free from pretense,

unaffected. I s s e l f - r e l i a n t ; independent i n

judgment; able to think f o r himself.

Itfith respect to authority, i s submissive, compliant, and overly accepting.

I s conforming; tends t o do the things that are prescribed.

Has a narrow range of interests. Overcontrols his impulses; i s

in h i b i t e d ; needlessly delays or denies g r a t i f i c a t i o n .

I s unable to make decisions without v a c i l l a t i o n or delay.

Becomes confused, disorganized, and unadaptive under stress.

Lacks insight i n t o his own motives and behavior.

I s suggestible; overly respon­sive to other people's evalua­tions rather than his own.

Applicants to medical school (N = 68) Values his own independence and

autonomy. Is o r i g i n a l and imaginative. Thinks and associates to ideas

i n unusual ways, has unconven­t i o n a l thought processes.

Is concerned with philosophical problems.

Appears straightforward, f o r t h ­r i g h t , and candid i n relations w i t h others.

Is masculine i n s t y l e of behavior. Expresses his h o s t i l i t i e s d i r e c t l y . Is s e l f - r e l i a n t , independent i n

judgment, able to think f o r himself.

Withdraws i n the face of adve adversity.

Allows others to exploit him. Judges self and others i n con­

ventional terms, such as "popularity," the correct thing to do, group opinion, etc.

Has readiness t o fe e l g u i l t y . I s unaware of his impressions

on others. I s suggestible, overly respon­

sive to other people's evalu­ations rather than his own.

^Adapted from Krech, Crutchfield, and Ballachey, 1962.

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(1943). Conformers tend t o have inter e s t patterns which are simi­l a r to those generally regarded as placing more stress on conven­t i o n a l values. Conformers scored r e l a t i v e l y higher than independ­ents on scales f o r policemen/ o f f i c e men, real estate salesmen, and morticians. Interest patterns of the independents tend to be simi l a r to those persons i n occupations c a l l i n g f o r a r t i s t i c and s c i e n t i f i c o r i g i n a l i t y / e.g.., a r t i s t , musician, author-journalist, mathematician, and architect. I t can be seen that s e l f - r a t i n g s and s t a f f - r a t i n g s , as well as objective experimental data, are indeed able to d i f f e r e n t i a t e between some of the personality t r a i t s which characterize the con-former and the independent. Nonetheless, these r a t i n g procedures appear t o produce a potpourri of d i f f e r e n t descriptions which are complicated, confusing, and sometimes contradictory.

THEORETICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS OF THIS REVIEW

Theoretical implications: More than 200 experiments have been reviewed, yet few basic relationships between personality and con­formity have been i d e n t i f i e d . Even a cursary examination of the research reviewed shows that much of the work i n t h i s area has been based on previous empirical work, on i n t u i t i o n , or on "hunch." Our th e o r e t i c a l understanding of conformity i s not impressive. After more than 50 years of research e f f o r t , conformity i s s t i l l a phenomenon i n search of a theory. The writer's dour view i s more than a r a i l l e r y of the accomplishments of his professional elders; i t i s a statement of the major need i n t h i s important area of social psychological research, and the reader w i l l r e c a l l that an exposure of t h i s need constituted the major h e u r i s t i c purpose of t h i s review. Cohen's (1964, pp. 139-140) recent and posthumous book ends with the following remarks, an eloquent statement of the need f o r t h e o r e t i c a l l y directed research:

Progress i n research i s guided by and benefits from being based on adequate theory. The development of a theo r e t i c a l structure makes i t increasingly l i k e l y that the experimenter can select beforehand the appro­p r i a t e variables that a f f e c t the acceptance of a com­munication . . . the application of theory results i n an enhanced understanding of what goes on i n a r e a l -l i f e s i t u a t i o n and has implications f o r p r a c t i c a l action w i t h regard to i t . . . . The increasingly more complicated s p i r a l of theory, hypothesis, research, application, and new theory represents the best s t r a t ­egy f o r uncovering the psychological processes under­l y i n g a t t i t u d e change and social influence.

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I f t h i s r e v i e w h a s any t h e o r e t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n w h a t s o e v e r , i t i s t o u n d e r s c o r e Cohen's v i e w a s i t a p p l i e s t o an u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e c o n f o r m i t y - p e r s o n a l i t y r e l a t i o n s h i p .

T h e p r e v i o u s comments a r e not i n t e n d e d t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e r e a r e no t h e o r e t i c a l c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s of c o n f o r m i t y , i n d e e d t h e r e a r e . However, t h e v a r i o u s t h e o r i e s appear t o be d i v i s i v e r a t h e r t h a n i n t e g r a t i v e , and few e x p e r i m e n t s have been b a s e d on t h e o r y . Walker and Heyns (1962) have p r o p o s e d a c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n of s o c i a l i n f l u ­e n c e w h i c h c o n t r a s t s c o n f o r m i t y w i t h n o n c o n f o r m i t y w h i l e o t h e r s , s u c h a s A s c h (1956) and Jahoda ( 1 9 5 9 ) , p r e f e r t o c o n t r a s t c o n f o r m i t y w i t h independence. I n e i t h e r c a s e , i t i s assumed t h a t r e a c t i o n s t o s o c i a l p r e s s u r e s can be d e s c r i b e d i n t e r m s of a s i n g l e r e s p o n s e d i m e n s i o n . W h i l e s u c h u n i d i m e n s i o n a l approaches have dominated t h e t h i n k i n g i n t h e a r e a s o f s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e and a t t i t u d e change, r e c e n t l y s e v e r a l r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e e x p r e s s e d d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h a u n i d i m e n s i o n a l model. K r e c h , C r u t c h f i e l d , and B a l l a c h e y (1962, p. 507) have i n t r o d u c e d t h e c o n c e p t o f c o u n t e r - c o n f o r m i t y i n w r i t i n g : "Conformity, independence, and c o u n t e r - c o n f o r m i t y a r e t h u s not t o be thought o f a s t h r e e p o i n t s a l o n g a s i n g l e c o n t i n i u m . R a t h e r t h e y r e p r e s e n t v e r t i c e s o f a t r i a n g l e . " W i l l i s (1963) has r e c e n t l y p r o p o s e d a t w o - d i m e n s i o n a l model of s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e i n w h i c h one d i m e n s i o n i s dependence-independence ( o r independence) and t h e o t h e r d i m e n s i o n i s c o n f o r m i t y - a n t i - c o n f o r m i t y ( o r n e t c o n f o r m i t y ) . I n t h e W i l l i s model c o n f o r m i t y , independence, and a n t i - c o n f o r m i t y a r e s e e n a s t h e t h r e e b a s i c r e s p o n s e modes t o f e l t s o c i a l p r e s s u r e s . I n a r e c e n t s t a t e m e n t W i l l i s and H o l l a n d e r (1964, p. 151) have d e l i n e a t e d t h e s e t h r e e r e s p o n s e modes as f o l l o w s :

P u r e c o n f o r m i t y b e h a v i o r i s d e f i n e d a s a c o m p l e t e l y c o n s i s t e n t a t t e m p t on t h e p a r t o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o behave i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e n o r m a t i v e e x p e c t a t i o n s of a s p e c i f i e d group, a s h e s e e s them. Pu r e i n d e p e n d ­ence b e h a v i o r o c c u r s whenever t h e i n d i v i d u a l p e r c e i v e s t h e r e l e v a n t n o r m a t i v e e x p e c t a t i o n s , but g i v e s z e r o w e i g h t t o them a s g u i d e s t o h i s b e h a v i o r . . . . The p e r s o n c a p a b l e o f a c t i n g i n d e p e n d e n t l y i s a b l e t o r e s i s t s o c i a l p r e s s u r e s , r a t h e r t h a n b e i n g unaware of them o r i g n o r i n g them. I n t h e c a s e of a n t i c o n f o r m i t y t h e r e s p o n s e i s d i r e c t l y a n t i t h e t i c a l t o t h e norm p r e ­s c r i p t i o n . . . . P u r e a n t i c o n f o r m i t y b e h a v i o r , l i k e p u r e c o n f o r m i t y , i s p u r e dependent b e h a v i o r .

F i n a l l y , i t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t V i d e b e c k and B a t e s (1959) have c o n c e p t u a l i z e d c o n f o r m i t y i n t e r m s o f r o l e e x p e c t a t i o n s i n which t h e c o n c e p t o f r o l e e x p e c t a t i o n i s m u l t i d i m e n s i o n a l and i n t e n s i t y and c o n s e n s u s appear t o be two major d i m e n s i o n s w h i c h d e t e r m i n e c o n f o r m i n g b e h a v i o r . Thus we s e e t h a t d e s p i t e t h e g r e a t c o n c e r n a t p r e s e n t w i t h t h e phenomena o f c o n f o r m i t y and s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e , many b a s i c t h e o r e t i c a l q u e s t i o n s s u c h a s how c o n f o r m i t y i s con­c e p t u a l i z e d and what a r e t h e a l t e r n a t i v e s t o c o n f o r m i t y and t h e p o s s i b l e ways t o r e s p o n d t o f e l t s o c i a l p r e s s u r e s , have not been answered.

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C l o s e l y a l l i e d t o t h e c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n problem i s t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e t h e o r e t i c a l and m e t h o d o l o g i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n between v a r i o u s k i n d s o f c o n f o r m i t y . D e u t s c h and G e r a r d (1955) have made a d i s ­t i n c t i o n between " n o r m a t i v e " and " i n f o r m a t i o n a l " s o u r c e s of i n f l u ­e n c e i n t h e c o n f o r m i t y s i t u a t i o n . A p e r s o n may conform b e c a u s e he w i s h e s t o s a t i s f y t h e p o s i t i v e e x p e c t a t i o n of o t h e r s ( n o r m a t i v e ) o r he may conform b e c a u s e he r e g a r d s t h e judgments of o t h e r s a s s u p e r i o r t o h i s own. With t h e n o t a b l e e x c e p t i o n of t h e s t u d y by B e c k e r , L e r n e r , and C a r r o l ( 1 9 6 4 ) , t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l e f f e c t s o f d i f f e r e n t s o u r c e s o f s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e have not been i n v e s t i g a t e d . R e c e n t l y , Milgram (1964) h a s d i s t i n g u i s h e d between what he terms s i g n a l c o n f o r m i t y and a c t i o n c o n f o r m i t y . I n t h e c a s e of s i g n a l c o n f o r m i t y , t h e immediate consequence i s p u r e l y i n f o r m a t i o n a l , t h e s u b j e c t s t a t e s h i s o p i n i o n o r r e p o r t s on h i s p e r c e p t i o n of some f e a t u r e o f t h e environment. A c t i o n c o n f o r m i t y r e f e r s t o t h e e l i c i -t a t i o n o f a deed by group f o r c e s w i t h t h e i n d u c t i o n of an a c t b e i n g more t h a n communicative i n i t s e f f e c t s . T h e r e a p p e a r s t o be no a p r i o r i r e a s o n why t h e same c o n f o r m i t y - p e r s o n a l i t y r e l a t i o n s h i p s c a n be assumed t o e x i s t f o r t h e s e v a r i o u s t y p e s o f c o n f o r m i t y . T h e d i f f e r e n c e s and s i m i l a r i t i e s can be e s t a b l i s h e d o n l y by e m p i r i c a l f i n d i n g s , and h e r e a g a i n we s e e a f u r t h e r need f o r t h e o ­r e t i c a l l y o r i e n t e d r e s e a r c h .

M e t h o d o l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s ; The m a j o r m e t h o d o l o g i c a l q u e s t i o n a r i s i n g from t h i s r e v i e w i s whether o r not one can c o n s i d e r t h e v a r i o u s measures o f c o n f o r m i t y comparable. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e w r i t e r t h i n k s n o t and i t i s f o r t h i s r e a s o n t h a t t h i s r e v i e w has been so e x c e s s i v e l y l o n g and d e t a i l e d . D e t a i l s c o n c e r n i n g t h e s i t u a t i o n , t a s k , i t e m s , sample, e t c . have been m e t i c u l o u s l y men­t i o n e d , t h e r e b y p l a c i n g an o p p r e s s i v e burden on t h e r e a d e r . How­e v e r , t h e a l t e r n a t i v e a p p e a r s t o be no b e t t e r . Unsound i n f e r e n c e s c o u l d have been made, v a r i o u s m e t h o d o l o g i e s c o u l d h a v e been com­b i n e d , and a much s h o r t e r r e v i e w c o u l d have been p r e s e n t e d by r e c o u r s e t o p r e s e n t i n g t h e combined s t u d i e s i n p e r c e n t form. But t o do so i s a most q u e s t i o n a b l e e x p e d i e n t . F o r example, L e v y (1960) i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e q u e s t i o n o f whether s u b j e c t s who a r e p l a c e d i n t h e e l e c t r i c a l l y s i m u l a t e d C r u t c h f i e l d s i t u a t i o n a r e exposed t o t h e same de g r e e o f s o c i a l p r e s s u r e a s s u b j e c t s who g i v e t h e i r a n s w e r s i n t h e f a c e - t o - f a c e A s c h s i t u a t i o n . W ith a sample o f 96 s u b j e c t s r a n g i n g i n age from 17 t o 38 y e a r s (median age of 20) L e v y found t h a t i n t h e C r u t c h f i e l d s i t u a t i o n c o n f o r m i t y r e s p o n s e s a c c o u n t e d f o r 19.10 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l number of r e s p o n s e s a s compared t o A s c h ' s (1956) r e p o r t e d 36.86 p e r c e n t . Moreover, L e v y f o u n d t h a t t h e t e n d e n c y t o conform was not s t a b l e i n t h e C r u t c h f i e l d s i t u a t i o n , c o n f o r m i t y d e c r e a s e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y a second b l o c k o f t r i a l s . Such a f i n d i n g i s p a r t i c u l a r l y u n s e t t l i n g b e c a u s e much of t h e r e s e a r c h r e p o r t e d i n t h i s r e v i e w i s b a s e d on t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e between c o n f o r m e r s and i n d e p e n d e n t s . A r e t h e r e p o r t e d p e r s o n a l i t y c o r r e l a t e s o f c o n f o r m i t y m e r e l y an a r t i f a c t o f t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e s o c i a l i n d u c t i o n s i n t h e v a r i o u s s i t u a t i o n s ? I n any c a s e , t h e w r i t e r c o u l d n o t b r i n g h i m s e l f t o t h e p o i n t of a b s t r a c t i n g and i n f e r r i n g t o a d e g r e e common i n most l i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w s . D e t a i l s have been r e t a i n e d and mentioned b e c a u s e t h e y r e p r e s e n t d i f f e r e n c e s w h i c h make a d i f f e r e n c e .

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A number o f o t h e r u n s e t t l i n g m e t h o d o l o g i c a l q u e s t i o n s a r e r a i s e d by t h i s r e v i e w . The l i t e r a t u r e i n t h e a r e a r e v i e w e d i s l a d e n w i t h " o n e - s h o t " s t u d i e s w h i c h make t h e a c c e p t a n c e of any c o n c l u s i o n t e n u o u s , and r e p l i c a t i o n e x p e r i m e n t s a r e needed t o i n s u r e t h a t t h e c o n c l u s i o n s from s i n g l e s t u d i e s w i l l s t a n d . Moreover, when f a i r l y s i m i l a r s i t u a t i o n s , t a s k s , sample, and me t h o d o l o g i e s have been used, t h e r e s u l t s have o f t e n been c o n t r a d i c t o r y . The u s e o f paper-and-p e n c i l measures o f c o n f o r m i t y r a i s e s s p e c i a l q u e s t i o n s . Most of t h e s e measures have been u s e d o n l y once o r t w i c e w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t v e r y l i t t l e c o m p a r i s o n between f i n d i n g s i s p o s s i b l e and t h a t f r e q u e n t l y t h e s e measures have no known v a l i d i t y . The w r i t e r h a s p a r t i c u l a r l y c r i t i c i z e d t h e " s o c i a l c o n f o r m i t y " s c a l e used by B e r n b e r g (1954, 1955) b u t many o f t h e o t h e r p a p e r - a n d - p e n c i l mea­s u r e s o f c o n f o r m i t y appear t o be e q u a l l y s u s p e c t .

E x p e r i m e n t s u t i l i z i n g some t y p e o f s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e i n t e r a c t i o n s i t u a t i o n w i t h e i t h e r p e r c e p t u a l i t e m s o r a t t i t u d i n a l , i n f o r m a ­t i o n a l , o r o p i n i o n i t e m s were common throughout t h i s r e v i e w . Con­s e q u e n t l y , i t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y d i s t u r b i n g t o note t h a t s e r i o u s q u e s t i o n s have been r a i s e d about t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l methods u s e d w i t h e i t h e r of t h e s e t y p e s o f i t e m s . The i m p o r t a n c e of a s s e s s i n g t h e s u b j e c t ' s i n i t i a l a c c u r a c y i n t h e making of even s i m p l e p e r c e p t u a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s was d e m o n s t r a t e d i n t h e s t u d y by League and J a c k ­s o n ( 1 9 6 4 ) . F a i l u r e t o c o n t r o l f o r i n i t i a l a c c u r a c y , and u n f o r ­t u n a t e l y most of t h e e x p e r i m e n t s u t i l i z i n g p e r c e p t u a l i t e m s have f a i l e d t o do so, s u b j e c t s many o f t h e r e p o r t e d f i n d i n g s i n t h i s r e v i e w t o q u e s t i o n and t o an a l t e r n a t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n b a s e d on t h e r i v a l h y p o t h e s i s o f i n i t i a l d i f f e r e n c e . A more complex ques­t i o n h a s been r a i s e d by e x p e r i m e n t s u s i n g a t t i t u d i n a l o r o p i n i o n i t e m s and by t h o s e e x p e r i m e n t s w h i c h h a v e used a t t i t u d e s h i f t or o p i n i o n change a s an i n d e x of c o n f o r m i t y . S c o t t ' s (1959) f i n d i n g t h a t c o g n i t i v e c o n s i s t e n c y i n f l u e n c e s a t t i t u d e change s u g g e s t s t h a t more t h a n a t t i t u d e v a l e n c e must be a s s e s s e d i n t h e p r e - i n f l u e n c e c o n d i t i o n . Few a t t i t u d e s o r o p i n i o n s e x i s t i n a s t a t e o f i s o l a ­t i o n ? c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e s t r u c t u r a l e l e m e n t s o f t h e a t t i t u d e s and o p i n i o n s w h i c h a r e l a t e r s u b j e c t e d t o s o c i a l p r e s s u r e , s u c h s t r u c t u r a l components a s c o n s i s t e n c y , m u l t i p l e x i t y , and i n t e r -c o n n e c t e d n e s s , must be a s s e s s e d . F a i l u r e t o c o n t r o l f o r a l l a s p e c t s o f a t t i t u d e and o p i n i o n s t r u c t u r e , and a g a i n few o f the e x p e r i m e n t s c i t e d i n t h i s r e v i e w h a v e u s e d s u c h c o n t r o l s , s u g g e s t s t h a t some o f t h e f i n d i n g s c i t e d may be a r t i f a c t u a l ; t h e y may r e f l e c t d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e s u b j e c t s ' i n i t i a l a t t i t u d e s t r u c t u r e r a t h e r t h a n a r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e inde p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e and c o n f o r m i t y .

FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS

Throughout t h i s r e v i e w t h e w r i t e r h a s c i t e d s p e c i f i c r e s e a r c h a r e a s w h i c h he b e l i e v e s m e r i t i n t e n s i f i e d e m p i r i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n ? t h e s e s u g g e s t i o n s need not be r e p e a t e d a g a i n . However, i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s u g g e s t i o n s a l r e a d y made, t h e w r i t e r w i s h e s t o propose t h r e e f u r t h e r d i r e c t i o n s w h i c h f u t u r e r e s e a r c h c o u l d p r o f i t a b l y t a k e .

Most p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h d e s i g n s make i t most d i f f i c u l t t o g e n e r a l i z e f rom l a b o r a t o r y s i t u a t i o n s t o " r e a l l i f e . " The A s c h s i t u a t i o n , t h e C r u t c h f i e l d a p p a r a t u s , and t h e s i m u l a t e d group have s e r v e d w e l l and f a i t h f u l l y f o r o v e r a decade, but now new and more l i f e ­l i k e d e s i g n s a r e needed. T h i s need i s c o g e n t l y s t a t e d by Kahn and Mann (1957, p. 14) who w r i t e a s f o l l o w s :

. . . t h e w o r l d o f s o c i a l r e a l i t y h a s i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i ­b u t i o n s t o make t o t h e q u a l i t y o f s o c i a l s c i e n c e . Study­i n g and l i v i n g i n t h e r e a l - l i f e f i e l d s i t u a t i o n p r o v i d e i m p o r t a n t l e a r n i n g and i n s i g h t f o r t h e s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t . To t h e e x t e n t t h a t he o p e r a t e s i n i s o l a t i o n , d e p r i v e d o f t h e s e i n s i g h t s and s e l f - c o r r e c t i n g e x p e r i e n c e s i n t h e f i e l d , he r u n s t h e c o n s t a n t r i s k of making h i s c o n t r i v e d l a b o r a t o r y s i t u a t i o n s u n r e a l , o f f a i l i n g t o c a p t u r e i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y t h e e s s e n t i a l f o r c e s and v a r i a b l e s which a r e o p e r a t i n g i n t h e f i e l d .

T h e w r i t e r would a r g u e t h a t many o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t s r e v i e w e d have f a i l e d t o " c a p t u r e t h e e s s e n t i a l f o r c e s " i n r e a l l i f e , and a few s u g g e s t i o n s f o r p o s s i b l e new d e s i g n d i r e c t i o n s a r e i n o r d e r .

C r u t c h f i e l d ' s (1951, 1953) u s e o f q u a s i - g r o u p i n t e r a c t i o n t e c h ­n i q u e s ( i . e . , The Group S q u a r e s T e s t and t h e "Bingo Game" t a s k ) c o u l d be expanded and m o d i f i e d t o be u s e d w i t h i n s i t u groups. F o r example, some t y p e o f a r e a l i s t i c b u s i n e s s s i t u a t i o n c o u l d be d e v e l o p e d and u s e d i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h management s e m i n a r s . P e r ­h a p s v a r i o u s d e c i s i o n a l t e r n a t i v e s c o u l d be p r e s e n t e d t o t h e n a i v e s u b j e c t i n t e r m s o f p r e e s t a b l i s h e d norms and a s e r i e s o f r e a l - l i f e p r o b l e m s c o u l d be s u b j e c t e d t o q u a s i - i n t e r a c t i o n c o n t r o l . T h e s e p r o b l e m s c o u l d v a r y i n d i f f i c u l t y a s w e l l a s i n s u b j e c t c o n t e n t . I t would be p o s s i b l e t o a s s e s s commitment, s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e , and a b i l i t y i n e a c h s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o n ? p e r h a p s a l i m i t e d number of p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s c o u l d a l s o be a s s e s s e d , and t h e r e s u l t s from t h e q u a s i - i n t e r a c t i o n s i t u a t i o n might be compared w i t h a b r i e f a s s e s s m e n t o f c o n f o r m i t y i n one o f t h e s t a n d a r d l a b o r a t o r y d e v i c e s . The v a r i o u s human r e l a t i o n s t r a i n i n g programs c o n d u c t e d by t h e N a t i o n a l T r a i n i n g L a b o r a t o r i e s o f f e r a n o t h e r p o s s i b l e o p p o r t u n i t y where new e x p e r i m e n t a l t e c h n i q u e s c o u l d be a p p l i e d t o i n s i t u g r o u p s . Not o n l y would s u c h e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n i n c r e a s e t h e a c c u r a c y and t h e s c o p e o f g e n e r a l i z a t i o n , b u t s u c h r e s e a r c h would no doubt d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t p e r s o n a l i t y v a r i a b l e s w h i c h a r e r e l e v a n t t o t h e c o n f o r m i t y b e h a v i o r of u n d e r g r a d u a t e s j u d g i n g t h e l e n g t h of l i n e s

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would have l i t t l e r e l e v a n c e t o t h e c o n f o r m i t y b e h a v i o r o f b u s i n e s s ­men engaged i n a q u a s i - i n t e r a c t i o n problem r e l a t i n g t o q u e s t i o n s o f f i n a n c e , m e r c h a n d i s i n g , l a b o r r e l a t i o n s , e t c . F o r example, t h e s e x v a r i a b l e i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t t o t h e e x p e r i m e n t e r who r e c r u i t s u n d e r g r a d u a t e s u b j e c t s from t h e d e p a r t m e n t a l s u b j e c t p o o l ; however, t h e s e x v a r i a b l e i s o f l i t t l e i m p o r t a n c e , t o d a t e a t l e a s t , i n t h e b u s i n e s s community, most b u s i n e s s d e c i s i o n s a r e s t i l l made by male g r o u p s . On t h e o t h e r hand, i n r e a l - l i f e groups, one would expect t o f i n d much g r e a t e r v a r i a n c e i n a b i l i t y , s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e , and p e r h a p s i n m o t i v a t i o n t h a n one f i n d s i n u n d e r g r a d u a t e groups who h a v e been s e l e c t e d f o r u n i v e r s i t y a t t e n d a n c e b e c a u s e o f e q u a l l y h i g h h i g h - s c h o o l g r a d e s and e q u a l l y h i g h e n t r a n c e t e s t s c o r e s , w h e r e a s r e a l - l i f e groups a r e o f t e n b a s e d on s p e c i a l h e t e r o g e n e r i t y ; e x e c u t i v e committees and b o a r d s o f d i r e c t o r s a r e o f t e n s e l e c t e d t o r e p r e s e n t d i f f e r e n t a b i l i t i e s and e x p e r i e n c e s . The i n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e o f need achievement may a l s o be much g r e a t e r f o r many r e a l -l i f e g roups t h a n i t i s f o r t h e t y p i c a l u n d e r g r a d u a t e sample. Cur­r e n t knowledge s h o u l d make i t p o s s i b l e t o d e s i g n e x p e r i m e n t s w i t h l i f e l i k e s e t t i n g s and t h e development o f s u c h new d e s i g n s poses a m a j o r c h a l l e n g e t o a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e p e r s o n a l i t y -c o n f o r m i t y r e l a t i o n s h i p .

S c i e n c e c o n s i s t s v e r y l a r g e l y o f d e t e r m i n i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s among v a r i a b l e s , and s c i e n c e p r o g r e s s e s by goin g from a g r o s s d e m o n s t r a t i o n t h a t A e f f e c t s B t o a more p r e c i s e s p e c i f i c a t i o n o f t h e c o n d i t i o n s w h i c h i n f l u e n c e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p . Most o f t h e s t u d i e s r e v i e w e d have been o f t h e former t y p e ; t h e y have been con­t e n t w i t h d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h a t "X h as an e f f e c t . " E x p e r i m e n t s a r e now needed w h i c h d e m o n s t r a t e t h e f u n c t i o n of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between v a r i a b l e s a s w e l l a s d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n s under w h i c h t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s . F o r example, t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between c o n f o r m i t y and v a r i o u s p e r s o n a l i t y v a r i a b l e s may n o t be l i n e a r , i t may be c u r v i l i n e a r . The r e l a t i o n s h i p s may a l s o be nonmonotonic, t h e y may t a k e v a r i o u s forms depending upon t h e l e v e l o f o p e r a t i o n of t h e v a r i o u s o t h e r f a c t o r s ( e . g . , s t i m u l u s and group f a c t o r s ) t h a t may i n t e r v e n e and i n t e r a c t ( i . e . , p e r s o n a l i t y f a c t o r s s u c h a s a b i l i t y , i n t e l l i g e n c e , and s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e may i n t e r a c t w i t h v a r i a b l e s s u c h a s group s i z e , p r i o r i n t e r a c t i o n s , t y p e o f s i t u a t i o n , e t c . ) . Moreover, a s noted e a r l i e r , t i m e has been a n e g l e c t e d v a r i a b l e , b u t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s , w h a t e v e r t h e i r n a t u r e , may v a r y o v e r t i m e and t h e t i m e dimension s h o u l d be con­s i d e r e d i n f u t u r e r e s e a r c h . Our p r e s e n t knowledge o f t h e p e r s o n a l i t y - c o n f o r m i t y r e l a t i o n s h i p i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e i n t e r a c t i o n s between v a r i a b l e s a r e complex i n n a t u r e , and what i s needed i s an e x p e r i m e n t a l approach w h i c h s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w i t h i n t h e d e s i g n of a s i n g l e e x p e r i m e n t c o n s i d e r s t h e v a r i o u s f a c t o r s t h a t i n t e r a c t and i n t e r v e n e t o a f f e c t c o n f o r m i t y b e h a v i o r .

A t h i r d d i r e c t i o n f o r f u t u r e r e s e a r c h , one w h i c h p r o m i s e s t o enhance g r e a t l y o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e psychodynamics o f c o n f o r m i t y , i s a n e x p a n s i o n o f t h e p i o n e e r i n g work o f t h e Duke group i n which c o n t i n u o u s p h y s i o l o g i c a l a s s e s s m e n t i s r e l a t e d t o ongoing c o n f o r m i t y

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b e h a v i o r . The mere c o l l a b o r a t i o n of m e d i c a l r e s e a r c h e r s w i t h s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s t o conduct s o p h i s t i c a t e d s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h i n m e d i c a l s e t t i n g s and under c a r e f u l m e d i c a l c o n t r o l a p p e a r s t o be an i n n o v a t i o n . The w r i t e r would a l s o s u g g e s t t h a t s u c h r e s e a r c h be p u b l i s h e d i n j o u r n a l s more a c c e s s i b l e t o s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g i s t s ? t h e s e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s do not appear t o have r e c e i v e d t h e r e c o g n i t i o n and t h e d i s s e m i n a t i o n w h i c h t h e y m e r i t . Ongoing p h y s i o l o g i c a l a s s e s s m e n t would appear t o o f f e r a new avenue o f a p p r o a c h t o s e a r c h f o r a nswers t o some of t h e q u e s t i o n s r a i s e d i n t h i s r e v i e w . F o r example, FFA l e v e l s i n d i c a t i n g c e n t r a l nervous s y s t e m a r o u s a l c o u l d h e l p answer some of t h e q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e s e x d i f f e r e n c e - c o n f o r m i t y r e l a t i o n s h i p . P h y s i o l o g i c a l measures c o u l d i d e n t i f y d i f f e r e n t psychodynamic p a t t e r n s and h e l p e x p l a i n t h e meaning o f t h e c o n f o r m i t y s i t u a t i o n i n terms o f n e r v o u s s y s t e m a r o u s a l . The p sychodynamics o f d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s of s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e , a b i l i t y , commitment, e t c . c o u l d a l s o be a s s e s s e d p h y s i o l o g i c a l l y . S u c h a s s e s s m e n t s c o u l d answer some o f t h e q u e s t i o n s about t h e f u n c t i o n of t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s , p e r h a p s d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s of p e r ­s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n t e r a c t t o produce d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s of a r o u s a l f o r d i f f e r e n t s i t u a t i o n s . P h y s i o l o g i c a l a s s e s s m e n t s c o u l d a l s o be u s e d i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h p e r s o n a l i t y t e s t s t o answer s u c h q u e s t i o n s as under what c o n f o r m i t y c o n d i t i o n s do h i g h a n x i o u s i n d i v i d u a l s m a n i f e s t more a r o u s a l , under what c o n d i t i o n s i s a n x i e t y n e g a t e d by o t h e r f a c t o r s , e t c . Moreover, u s e o f FFA a s an a r o u s a l i n d e x i s m e r e l y t h e f i r s t of s e v e r a l o t h e r p o s s i b l e p h y s i o l o g i c a l i n d i c e s w h i c h a r e c u r r e n t l y b e i n g p e r f e c t e d . Cobb^ h a s s t a t e d t h a t c o n t i n u o u s measures o f s k i n p o t e n t i a l s and h e a r t r a t e , a s w e l l a s u r i n e a n a l y s e s b e f o r e and a f t e r c o n f o r m i t y b e h a v i o r , a r e o t h e r p h y s i o l o g i c a l i n d i c e s w h i c h might be u s e d i n a d d i t i o n t o FFA l e v e l . S e l f - r e p o r t s and p o s t - e x p e r i m e n t a l q u e s t i o n n a i r e s h a v e n e v e r a d e q u a t e l y answered t h a t i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n o f "What's goin g on i n t h e s u b j e c t r " ; t h e u s e o f c o n t i n u o u s p h y s i o l o g i c a l measures a p p e a r s t o be a new and a l m o s t untapped a r e a f o r a n s w e r i n g t h i s q u e s t i o n and f o r s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s i n g our knowledge about the p s y c h o d y n a m i c s o f t h e p e r s o n a l i t y - c o n f o r m i t y r e l a t i o n s h i p . ' '

I t seems a l t o g e t h e r a p p r o p r i a t e t o c o n c l u d e a l i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w of t h e p e r s o n a l i t y c o r r e l a t e s o f c o n f o r m i t y by c i t i n g t h e v i e w s of two men whose work h a s " f a t h e r e d " much o f t h e r e s e a r c h r e v i e w e d . A symposium was h e l d i n 1959 a t w h i c h p a p e r s were r e a d on t h e s u b j e c t o f " c o n f o r m i t y and d e v i a t i o n . " P e p i n s k y (1960, p. 144) has sum­m a r i z e d t h i s symposium as f o l l o w s :

'Sidney Cobb, p e r s o n a l communication, 1965.

S c h a c h t e r ' s (1964) r e c e n t work on t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f c o g n i t i v e and p h y s i o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n a n t s o f emotion, and t h e work of S c h a c h t e r and Latane' (1964) on t h e c o g n i t i v e and p h y s i o l o g i c a l c o r r e l a t e s o f c r i m e a r e o t h e r a r e a s where p h y s i o l o g i c a l measures a r e making i m p o r t a n t r e s e a r c h c o n t r i b u t i o n s .

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A p p r o p r i a t e l y enough, two o f t h e most d i s t i n g u i s h e d s t u d e n t s o f t h e problem, Solomon A s c h and Musafer S h e r i f , were p a r t i c i p a n t s a t t h e symposium. Both r e p o r t e d f e e l i n g s of p e s s i m i s m about t h e c u r r e n t s t a t u s o f ' c o n f o r m i t y ' r e s e a r c h . Asch, f o r example, was d i s t r e s s e d o v e r t h e t e n d e n c y t o equate c o n f o r m i t y w i t h an e n t i r e r ange of s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e , whereas he b e l i e v e s what a p p e a r s t o be a homogeneous p s y c h o ­l o g i c a l c a t e g o r y i s a c t u a l l y a d i v e r s e and complex a r r a y of e m o t i o n a l - c o g n i t i v e phenomena. What seem t o be c o n f o r m i n g r e s p o n s e s , i n t h e l a t t e r view, may be m o t i v a t e d by s u c h d i v e r s e p s y c h o l o g i c a l s t a t e s a s f e a r , t r u s t , c o n c e r n f o r p e r s o n a l t i e s , e t c . Ttfhat i s a t s t a k e h e r e , i n t h e f a i l u r e t o u n d e r s t a n d what phenomenal p r o c e s s e s a r e o p e r a t i v e , i s t h e a b i l i t y t o p r e d i c t b e h a v i o r . . . S h e r i f 1 s p e s s i m i s m took a n o t h e r t u r n . To him t h e b u l k of r e s e a r c h on c o n f o r m i t y h a s been m i s t a k e n l y c l o i s t e r e d i n t h e l a b o r a t o r y , c e n t e r e d on t r i v i a l i s s u e s , and m i s l e a d ­i n g i n outcome. And so S h e r i f h a s t u r n e d i n c r e a s i n g l y t o s o c i o l o g i c a l s t u d i e s o f s m a l l groups i n n a t u r a l s e t t i n g s f o r s u b s t a n t i v e i d e a s and f o r r e s e a r c h p r o ­c e d u r e s .

T h e w r i t e r s h a r e s t h e s e v i e w s ; h i s own t h o u g h t s about t h e t h e o r e t i ­c a l and m e t h o d o l o g i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h i s r e v i e w and h i s sug­g e s t e d d i r e c t i o n s f o r f u t u r e r e s e a r c h r e f l e c t h i s c o n c e r n f o r t h e i s s u e s r a i s e d by A s c h and S h e r i f .

I n c o n c l u d i n g h i s summary of t h e symposium, P e p i n s k y (1960, p. 146) h a s w r i t t e n :

I t i s i r o n i c t h a t A s c h and S h e r i f , h a v i n g s i r e d much of t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h on c o n f o r m i t y t h a t i s now a v a i l a b l e t o us, s h o u l d h a v e v o i c e d a t t h e sympo­sium t h e i r d e s p a i r o v e r how t h e i r c h i l d r e n have t u r n e d o u t . Y e t one hopes t h a t t h e s e two eminent s c h o l a r s c o u l d l e a v e t h e ' c o n f o r m i t y and d e v i a t i o n ' symposium, as I d i d , h e a r t e n e d by t h e t h o u g h t t h a t i n n o v a t i v e and p r o d u c t i v e i n q u i r y was b e i n g d i r e c t e d a t a c r i t i c a l s o c i a l problem.

L i k e P e p i n s k y , t h e w r i t e r c o n c l u d e s t h i s r e v i e w both h e a r t e n e d and c h a l l e n g e d ; t h i s i s i n d e e d a c r i t i c a l problem w h i c h demands the b e s t t h a t contemporary s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g y can o f f e r . The demands a r e g r e a t and, h o p e f u l l y , t h i s r e v i e w h a s added even a s m a l l con­t r i b u t i o n t o t h e i n q u i r y .

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Adorno, T. W., F r e n k e l - B r u n s w i k , E l s e , L e v i n s o n , D. J . , and S a n f o r d , R. N. The a u t h o r i t a r i a n p e r s o n a l i t y . New Y o r k : Harper, 1950.

A l l e n , M. K. P e r s o n a l i t y and c u l t u r a l f a c t o r s r e l a t e d t o r e l i g i o u s a u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m . U n p u b l i s h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , S t a n ­f o r d U n i v e r s i t y , 1955.

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A l l p o r t , F. H. S o c i a l p s y c h o l o g y . B o s t o n : Houghton M i f f l i n , 1924.

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Wiener, M., C a r p e n t e r , J a n e t h T., and C a r p e n t e r , B. E x t e r n a l v a l i d a t i o n o f a measure o f c o n f o r m i t y b e h a v i o r , J . abnorm. s o c . P s y c h o l . , 1956, 52, 421-422.

Wiener, M., C a r p e n t e r , J a n e t h T., and C a r p e n t e r , B. Some d e t e r m i ­n a n t s of c o n f o r m i t y t o s o c i a l norms, J . s o c . P s y c h o l . , 1957, 45, 289-297.

W i l l i s , R. H. Two d i m e n s i o n s o f c o n f o r m i t y - n o n c o n f o r m i t y , S o c i o m e t r y , 1963, 26, 499-513.

W i l l i s , R. H. and H o l l a n d e r , E . P. An e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d y o f t h r e e r e s p o n s e modes i n s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e s i t u a t i o n s , J . abnorm. s o c . P s y c h o l . , 1964, 69, 150-156.

W i l s o n , R. S. P e r s o n a l i t y p a t t e r n s and s o u r c e a t t r a c t i v e n e s s as j o i n t d e t e r m i n a n t s of c o n f o r m i t y . U n p u b l i s h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y , 1959.

Winterbottom, M a r i a n R. The r e l a t i o n o f c h i l d h o o d t r a i n i n g i n independence t o achievement m o t i v a t i o n . U n p u b l i s h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , The U n i v e r s i t y of M i c h i g a n , 1953.

W i t k i n , H. A. I n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e e a s e o f p e r c e p t i o n of embedded f i g u r e s , J . P e r s . , 1950, 19, 1-15.

Wolf, I . S. and Zolman, J . F. S o c i a l i n f l u e n c e : s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e and p r e s t i g e d e t e r m i n a n t s , P s y c h o l . Record, 1959, 9, 71-79.

W r i g h t , B e a t r i c e . P h y s i c a l d i s a b i l i t y : a p s y c h o l o g i c a l approach. New Y o r k : H a r p e r , 1960.

Z a j o n c , R. B. and Wahi, N. K. C o n f o r m i t y and need achievement under c r o s s - c u l t u r a l norm c o n f l i c t , Hum. R e l a t . , 1961, 14, 241-250.

-114-

Wiener, K. C e r t a i n t y o f judgment a s a v a r i a b l e i n c o n f o r m i t y b e h a v i o r , J . s o c . P s y c h o l . , 1958, 48, 257-263.

Wiener, M., C a r p e n t e r , J a n e t h T., and C a r p e n t e r , B. E x t e r n a l v a l i d a t i o n of a measure o f c o n f o r m i t y b e h a v i o r , J . abnorm. s o c . P s y c h o l . , 1956, 52, 421-422.

Wiener, M., C a r p e n t e r , J a n e t h T., and C a r p e n t e r , B. Some d e t e r m i ­n a n t s o f c o n f o r m i t y t o s o c i a l norms, J . s o c . P s y c h o l . , 1957, 45, 289-297.

W i l l i s , R. H. Two d i m e n s i o n s o f c o n f o r m i t y - n o n c o n f o r m i t y , S o c i o m e t r y , 1963, 26, 499-513.

W i l l i s , R. H. and H o l l a n d e r , E . P. An e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d y o f three, r e s p o n s e modes i n s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e s i t u a t i o n s , J . abnorm. s o c . P s y c h o l . , 1964, 69, 150-156.

W i l s o n , R. S. P e r s o n a l i t y p a t t e r n s and s o u r c e a t t r a c t i v e n e s s as j o i n t d e t e r m i n a n t s o f c o n f o r m i t y . U n p u b l i s h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , Y a l e U n i v e r s i t y , 1959.

Winterbottom, M a r i a n R. The r e l a t i o n o f c h i l d h o o d t r a i n i n g i n independence t o a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n . U n p u b l i s h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , The U n i v e r s i t y of M i c h i g a n , 1953.

W i t k i n , H. A. I n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e e a s e o f p e r c e p t i o n of embedded f i g u r e s , J . P e r s . , 1950, 19, 1-15.

Wolf, I . S. and Zolman, J . P. S o c i a l i n f l u e n c e : s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e and p r e s t i g e d e t e r m i n a n t s , P s y c h o l . Record, 1959, 9, 71-79.

W r i g h t , B e a t r i c e . P h y s i c a l d i s a b i l i t y : a p s y c h o l o g i c a l approach. New Y o r k : Harper, 1960.

Z a j o n c , R. B. and Wahi, N. K. C o n f o r m i t y and need a c h i e v e m e n t under c r o s s - c u l t u r a l norm c o n f l i c t , Hum._Relat., 1961, 14, 241-250.

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