The Partisans of `Ali

HIST 100710/4/13

Sunni Jurisprudence

• Qur’an• Hadith• Ijtima - Consensus• Qiyas – Analogy• Tradition and precedent• Ra’y – Legal opinion

Growing Importance of Qur’an and Hadith

• Hanafis: law based on precedent and legal judgments

• Malikis: traditions of the sahaba and people of Medina along with Qur’an and hadith

• Shafi`i: consensus and analogy in interpreting the Qur’an and hadith

• Hanbalis: Qur’an and hadith only, rejection of consensus and analogy

Hadith Collections

• Sahih Bukhari, Muhammad al-Bukhari (d. 870)• Sahih Muslim, Muslim b. al-Hajjaj (d. 875)• Sunan al-Sughra, al-Nasa`I (d. 915)• Sunan Abu Dawood, Abu Dawood (d. 888)• Jami al-Tirmidhi, al-Tirmidhi (d. 892)• Sunan ibn Majah, Ibn Majah (d. 887)• All six collections of sound hadith were collected by Persians.

Tomb of al-Bukhari in Samarqand, Uzbekistan

What Makes Shi’ism Different?

• Piety attached to loyalty to `Ali and his descendants• Imam: True leader of theMuslim community• Both political and religious• Who are the Imams andwhat makes them special?

The Nature of the Imams

• Nass – designation of a successor by an Imam• Investiture of `Ali at GhadirKhumm• Transmits secret knowledge• Exclusive authority to interpret the Qur’an and hadith• Exclusive authority to (re)define the legal system of Islam

The Imams1. `Ali b. Abu Talib (r. 632-661): also fourth Rashidun Caliph,

assassinated by Kharijites2. Hasan b. `Ali (r. 661-670): politically quietest, allowed

Mu`awiya to rule while he retired to Medina3. Husayn b. `Ali (r. 670-680): led a revolt against Yazid, killed at the Battle of Karbala4. `Ali b. Husayn Zayn al-Abidin (r. 680-712): may have been assassinated by the Umayyads

Zaydi (Fiver) Shi’ites

• 713: Fourth Shi’ite Imam `Ali b. Husayn Zayn al-Abidin dies

• Imami (Twelver) Shi’ites acknowledge Muhammad b. `Ali al-Baqir his successor

• Others support Zayd b. `Ali, another son• Zayd promotes action against Umayyads• True Imam proves himself by active struggle

Imami (Twelver) Shi’ism

• Mainstream modern Shi’ism• Develop their own legal traditions

emphasizing Qur’an, hadith, and the opinions of the Imams

• Denies other sources of law – Example of the sahaba, especially Abu Bakr,

`Umar, and `Uthman– Develops their own collections of sound hadith

The Imams

5. Muhammad b. `Ali al-Baqir (r. 712-733): Established foundations of Shi’ite jurisprudence

6. Ja`far b. Muhammad al-Sadiq (r. 733-765): Developed Ja`fari Law School, polymath scholar known for work in astronomy, theology, philosophy, medicine, and physics

Shi’ite Messianism

• Ascription of supernatural powers begins during Ja`far al-Sadiq’s Imamate

• Qa’im – redemeer• Mahdi – messiah, chosen by God to restore Islam

and establish justice• Ma`sun – sinless and infallible guide to religious

truth• Indwelling spirit of God• How do a succession of child Imams support this?

But How Far Does This Go?

God

Imams?

Everything else

Ghulat – Extremism

• Extremism in belief, not necessarily in action.• Gnosticism – humans embody a divine spark• Return to the divine realm• Incarnation• Transmigration of souls• Continuous living prophethood

Isma`ili (Sevener) Shi’ism

• 765: Promotes Isma`il b. Ja`far over Musa al-Kazim as seventh Imam

• Extreme messianism• Zahir and batin: literal and esoteric truths• Prophet and wasi: executer and interpreter of

revelation• Cycles of seven prophets and seven wasi• Muhammad b. Isma`il to be the seventh prophet,

will reveal truth and establish justice

Isma`ili (Sevener) Shi’ism

• Natiq – Prophet• Imam• Hujja – Proof, represent the Imams in their

absence• Da`is – Missionaries• Each level can access more esoteric knowledge

Fatimid Caliphate (909-1171)• Isma`ili Shi’ite counter caliphate• Founded in North Africaby missionaries amongBerbers• Eventually spread to Egypt and Syria• Establish rule of Isma`ili Imams• 969: Founded Cairo as capital

Back to the Imami (Twelver) Imams7. Musa b. Ja`far al-Kazim (r. 765-799): Succession struggle with

half-brother Isma`il8. `Ali b. Musa al-Rida (r. 799-818): Recognized by both Zaydi

and Imami Shi’ites, briefly declared heir to `Abbasid Caliph al-Ma’mun

9. Muhammad b. `Ali al-Taqi (r. 818-835): Becomes Imam at 8 years old10. `Ali b. Muhammad al-Hadi (r. 835-868): May have been as young as 5 years old when declared Imam

Why Twelvers?

• Hasan b. `Ali al-Askari (r. 868-874): 11th Imam• Does he have an heir when he dies?• Muhammad b. Hasan al-Mahdi: Can an infant or,

possibly, fetus be Imam?• Ghaybah: Occultation• Lesser Occultation (873-941): al-Mahdi is alive, in

hiding, in contact with intermediaries• Greater Occultation (941-present): al-Mahdi did

not die, but is waiting in the spiritual realm

Shi’ism without the Imam

• Baghdad and Qom• Messianism and mysticism vs. scholars• Lesser Occultation: Four deputies• Greater Occultation: Hujjat al-Islam, scholars

as “proof” of Islam• Legal system based on Qur’an, modified hadith, and hadith of the Imams