THE OCEAN BASINS AND MARGINS

Volume 6 The Indian Ocean

THE OCEAN BASINS AND MARGINS Volume 1: Volume 2: Volume 3: Volume 4A: Volume 4B: Volume 5: Volume 6:

The South Atlantic The North Atlantic The Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean The Eastern Mediterranean The Western Mediterranean The Arctic Ocean The Indian Ocean

In Preparation:

Volume 7: The Pacific Ocean

THE OCEAN BASINS AND MARGINS

Edited by Alan E. M. Nairn

Earth Science and Resources Institute University oj South Carolina Columbia, South Carolina

and Francis G. Stehli

College oj Geosciences University oj Oklahoma

Norman, Oklahoma

Volume 6

The Indian Ocean

PLENUM PRESS· NEW YORK AND LONDON

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Nairn, A. E. M. The ocean basins and margins.

Vol. 5- edited by A. E. M. Nairn, M. Churkin, Jr., and F. G. Stehli. Includes bibliographies. CONTENTS: v. I. The South Atlantic. - v. 2. The North Atlantic. - [etc.] - v. 6. The

Indian Ocean. I. Submarine geology. 2. Continental margins. I. Stehli, Francis Greenough, joint

author. II. Title. QE39.N27 551.46'08 72-83046 ISBN 978-1-4615-8040-9 ISBN 978-1-4615-8038-6 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4615-8038-6

© 1982 Plenum Press, New York Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1 st edition 1982 A Division of Plenum Publishing Corporation

233 Spring Street, New York, N.Y. 10013

All rights reserved

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming,

recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher

CONTRIBUTORS TO THIS VOLUME

z. R. Beydoun

Department of Geology American University of Beirut Beirut, Lebanon

J. Boast

Department of Geology University of South Carolina Columbia, South Carolina

Bruce H. Corliss

Department of Geology and Geophysics

Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

Woods Hole, Massachusetts

Joseph R. Curray

Scripps Institution of Oceanography La Jolla, California

v

Kees A. De Jong

Department of Geology University of Cincinnatti Cincinnatti, Ohio

E. M. El Shazly

Nuclear Materials Corporation Cairo, Egypt

Frans J. Emmel

Scripps Institution of Oceanography La Jolla, California

Edward S. Grew

Department of Geology University of Melbourne Parkville, Victoria, Australia

David K. Hobday

Department of Geology and Geophysics

University of Sydney Sydney, New South Wales,

Australia

vi

Charles S. Hutchison

Department of Geology University of Malaya Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

P. E. Kent

Natural Environment Research Council

London, England

Robert B. Kidd

Institute of Oceanographic Sciences

Wormley, Surrey, England

Venkatarathnam Kolla

Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory

Palisades, New York

David G. Moore

Scripps Institution of Oceanography La Jolla, California

Alan E. M. Nairn

Department of Geology University of South Carolina Columbia, South Carolina

Contributors

Russel W. Raitt

Scripps Institution of Oceanography La Jolla, California

Ashok Sahni

Geology Department Panjab University Chandigarh, India

R. Schlich

Institut de Physique de Globe Laboratoire de Geophysique

Marine Strasbourg, France

B. G. J. Upton

Department of Geology University of Edinburgh Edinburgh, Scotland

J. J. Veevers

School of Earth Sciences Macquarie University North Ryde, New South Wales,

Australia

Douglas F. Williams

Department of Geology and Belle W. Baruch Institute for Marine Biology and Coastal Research

University of South Carolina Columbia, South Carolina

CONTENTS

Chapter 1. Sedimentation and Sedimentary Processes in the Indian Ocean

Venkatarathnam Kolla and Robert B. Kidd

I. Introduction .................................................................. . A. Climatology and Geology ............................................ 1 B. Physiography ............................................................ 3 C. Physical Oceanography .............................................. 4

II. Quaternary Sedimentation ................................................. 6 A. Surface Sediments ..................................................... 7 B. Subsurface Sediments ...................................... ........... 18

III. Mesozoic and Cenozoic Sediment Distributions .................... 29 A. Sedimentation Changes at Individual DSDP Sites ........... 30 B. Oceanwide Sedimentation Changes ............................... 31

References ............................................................................ 45

Chapter 2. The Indian Ocean: Aseismic Ridges, Spreading Centers, and Oceanic Basins

R. Schlich

I. Introduction ................................... ... ............................. 51 II. The Morphology of the Indian Ocean ............. ..................... 52

vii

vHi Contents

III. The Exploration of the Indian Ocean .................................. 55 IV. The Data ....................................................................... 59 V. The Submarine Plateaus or Aseismic Ridges ........................ 61

A. The Ninetyeast Ridge ................................................. 63 B. The Chagos-Laccadive Ridge, the Seychelles Bank, and

the Mascarene Plateau ................................................ 64 C. The Madagascar Ridge and the Crozet Plateau ................ 68 D. The Mozambique Ridge and the Agulhas Plateau ............. 72 E. The Ob, Lena, and Marion Dufresne Seamount Chain ..... 74 F. The Kerguelen-Heard Plateau and Broken Ridge ........... 76 G. The Naturaliste, Wallaby, Exmouth, and Scott Plateaus.. 81 H. Conclusion ................................................................ 84

VI. The Ocean Basins and Midocean Ridge ............................... 85 A. The Sheba Ridge and the Gulf of Aden .......................... 86 B. The Carlsberg Ridge, the Arabian and Eastern Somali

Basins ...................................................................... 88 C. The Central Indian Ridge ............................................ 91 D. The Southwest Indian Ridge ....................................... 95 E. The Southwest Indian Ridge: The Crozet and Central Indian

Basins ............................................................... 99 F. The Madagascar Basin ............................................... 109 G. The Mascarene Basin ................................................ 114 H. The Wharton Basin ................................................... 118 I. The Perth, Cuvier, Gascoyne, and Argo Abyssal Plains ... 123 J. The Western Somali Basin and the Mozambique Basin .... 128 K. Conclusion ............................................................... 134

References ............................................................................ 135

Chapter 3. The Southeast African Margin

David K. Hobday

I. Introduction .. .... .... ...... .......... ....... ...... ..... ..... ............... ... 149 II. The Early Paleozoic Natal Embayment ............................... 152

III. Dwyka Glaciation in Natal and Adjoining Areas ................... 155 IV. The Ecca ....................................................................... 158 V. Beaufort and Stormberg Sedimentation ............................... 160

VI. Volcanism and Continental Fragmentation ........................... 162 VII. Mesozoic Basins ............................................................. 164

VIII. Land Surfaces and Tertiary Basins of Natal and Zululand.... 167 IX. Tertiary Deposits of Mozambique ...................................... 170

Contents ix

X. Quaternary History.......................................................... 171 XI. Conclusions .................................................................... 175

References ............................................................................ 176

Chapter 4. The Somali Ocean Basin and the Continental Margin of East Africa

P.E. Kent

I. Introduction ................................................................... 185 II. The Structural Framework ................................................ 187

III. Development of the Coastal Sedimentary Basins .................. 187 A. Carboniferous and Permo-Triassic (Karoo) ..................... 188 B. Jurassic and Early Cretaceous...................................... 188 C. Later Cretaceous ....................................................... 189 D. Tertiary.................................................................... 190

IV. Structure of the Somali Ocean Basin .................................. 194 V. The Relation of Continent and Ocean ................................. 197

VI. The Palaeoposition of Madagascar .. .... .. .. .. .. .. .. .... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . 200 VII. Conclusions.......... ................................................ ..... ..... 201

References ............................................................................ 202

Chapter 5. The Red Sea Region

E.M. EI Shazly

I. Introduction ................................................................... 205 II. Stratigraphy ................................................................... 205

A. Basement Rocks ........................................................ 208 B. Sedimentary Cover in the Red Sea Region ..................... 211 C. Contribution of DSDP Drilling to Red Sea Stratigraphy.... 216 D. Phanerozoic Vulcanism ...................................... ......... 218

III. The Red Sea ................................................................... 220 A. Geophysical Observations* ........................................ 222 B. Petrology of Red Sea Rocks .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ...... .. .. .. .. .. .. 229 C. Metasomatic Development of Red Sea Rocks ................. 231

* Written by S. Hall, University of Houston, Texas.

x Contents

IV. Tectonics ....................................................................... 236 V. Conclusions .................................................................... 244

References ............................................................................ 247

Chapter 6. The Gulf of Aden and N.W. Arabian Sea

Z. R. Beydoun

I. Introduction ................................................................... 253 II. Stratigraphy ................................................................... 257

A. Arabian Side ............................................................. 257 B. African Side ............................. .......... ....................... 271

III. Structural Framework and Tectonic Evolution ....................... 280 A. Arabian Side ............................................... .............. 281 B. African Side .............................................................. 285 C. The Gulf of Aden and N. W. Arabian Sea ....................... 297

IV. Conclusion ................................................................... 301 References ............................................................................. 306

Chapter 7. Tectonics of the Persian Gulf, Gulf of Oman, and Southern Pakistan Region

Kees A. De Jong

I. Introduction ........................ ........................................... 315 II. Arabian Platform ............................................................. 317

III. Zagros Orogen ............................................................... 320 A. Zagros Fold Belt ........................................................ 321 B. Zagros Thrust Belt ..................................................... 325 C. Main Zagros Thrust (and Strike-Slip Fault) ..................... 327 D. Internal Zagros .......................................................... 327

IV. Oman Mountains ............................................................. 328 A. Autochthonous Formations ......................................... 329 B. Hawasina Nappe ..................... .................................. 331 C. Semail Ophiolite Nappe .............................................. 332

V. Makran Ranges ............................................................... 333 VI. Southern Pakistan ........ . . ... . ...... . . . . . ........ ..... ..................... 337

A. Kirthar-Suleiman Mountain Belts .................................. 340 B. Chaman Transform Zone ............................................. 342

Contents xi

VII. Conclusions .................................................................... 346 References ............................................................................ 347

Chapter 8. The Structure, Sedimentation, and Evolution of Indian Continental Margins

Ashok Sahni

I. Introduction ................................................................... 353 II. Coastal Physiography ....................................................... 354

A. West Coast ............................................................... 354 B. East Coast ................................................................ 354 C. Sea Level Fluctuations ............................................... 358

III. Geotectonic Framework of the Marginal Basins .................... 358 A. Structural Trends along the West Coast ......................... 359 B. The Structure of the Laccadive-Maldive Ridge in Relation

to the West Coast ofIndia ........................................... 364 C. Structural Trends on the East Coast .............................. 365

IV. Stratigraphy and Paleontology of the Coastal Basins ............. 367 A. Rajasthan, Kutch, Kathiawar, and Cambay Basins ......... 367 B. Deccan Basaltic Lava Flows ........................................ 370 C. Kerala Basin ............................................................. 371 D. Cauvery, Palar, and Godavara-Krishna Basins ............... 372

V. Marginal Sedimentation .................................................... 375 A. West Coast Sedimentation ........................................... 380 B. East Coast Sedimentation ............................................ 384

VI. Evolution ofIndian Continental Margins ............................. 387 VII. Conclusion ..................................................................... 388

References ............................................................................ 389

Chapter 9. Structure, Tectonics, and Geological History of the Northeastern Indian Ocean

Joseph R. Curray, Frans J. Emmel, David G. Moore, and Russell W. Raitt

I. Introduction 399 II. Structure .. ......... ......... . . ............ . . .. . . ....... .................. . . . ... 403

xii Contents

A. Methods ................................................................... 403 B. Area of the Bengal Basin and Bengal and Nicobar Fans ... 405 C. Western Sunda Arc .................................................... 413 D. The Andaman Sea and Burma .... ...... ....... ..... ...... .......... 421

III. Present Tectonics ............................................................ 425 IV. Geological History ........................................................... 431

A. Evolution of the Northeastern Indian Ocean ................... 431 B. Origin of the Ninetyeast Ridge ..................................... 435 C. Collision oflndia and Asia .......................................... 440 D. Reconstruction of Burma and the Andaman Sea .............. 441 E. Quaternary Sediment Distribution ................................. 443

References ............................................................................ 447

Chapter 10. Southeast Asia

Charles S. Hutchison

I. Introduction ................................................................... 451 II. Tectonic Subdivisions ...................................................... 453

III. Precambrian ................................................................... 455 IV. Cambrian ....................................................................... 458

A. Main Range-Tenasserim-Shan Massif .......................... 458 B. Carboniferous Ophiolites ............................................ 458

V. Ordovician ..................................................................... 458 A. Burma...................................................................... 460 B. Thailand ................................................................... 460 C. Indochina ................................................................. 461 D. Peninsular Malaysia ................................................... 461

VI. Silurian ................ ............................ ........... ..... .... .......... 461 A. Burma.................................................... .................. 461 B. Yunnan .................................................................... 462 C. Thailand ................................................................... 462 D. Indochina ................................................................. 462 E. Peninsular Malaysia ................................................... 462

VII. Devonian ....................................................................... 463 A. Burma...................................................................... 463 B. Yunnan .................................................................... 464 C. Thailand ................................................................... 464 D. Indochina ................................................................. 465 E. Peninsular Malaysia ................................................... 465

Contents xiii

VIII. Carboniferous ................................................................. 466 A. Burma.... .. . ................ ............................................... 466 B. Thailand ................................................................... 466 C. Yunnan .................................................................... 469 D. Indochina ................................................................. 471 E. Peninsular Malaysia ................................................... 471 F. Sunda Shelf Islands .................................................... 472 G. West Borneo Basement ............................................... 472 H. Sumatra ................................................................... 473

IX. Permian ......................................................................... 473 A. Burma...................................................................... 473 B. Thailand ...................... ................ ................... .......... 474 C. Yunnan .................................................................... 475 D. Indochina ................................................................. 475 E. Peninsular Malaysia ................................................... 475 F. Borneo ..................................................................... 476 G. Sumatra .... ............................................................... 476

X. Triassic......................................................................... 476 A. Burma...................................................................... 476 B. Thailand ................................................................... 477 C. Yunnan .................................................................... 477 D. Indochina ................................................................. 478 E. Peninsular Malaysia ................................................... 478 F. Borneo..................................................................... 479 G. Sumatra ...................... ............... ............ .................. 479

XI. Igneous Activity and Orogenesis ........................................ 479 A. Lower Paleozoic Volcanism ......................................... 479 B. Carboniferous Ophiolite .............................................. 480 C. Carbo-Permian Igneous Activity.................................. 480 D. Late Triassic Orogeny................................................ 482

·XII. Jurassic ......................................................................... 485 A. Burma...................................................................... 487 B. Yunnan ... ................................................................. 487 C. Thailand ................................................................... 487 D. Indochina ................................................................. 488 E. Peninsular Malaysia ................................................... 488 F. Borneo. ............. .......... . . .......... . ..... . ... .............. ......... 489 G. Sumatra ................................................................... 489

XIII. Cretaceous ..................................................................... 489 A. Burma...................................................................... 490 B. Indochina ................................................................. 490 C. Thailand ................................................................... 490

xlv Contents

D. Peninsular Malaysia ................................................... 490 E. Bornea ..................................................................... 491 F. Sumatra ................................................................... 491 G. Java ......................................................................... 491

XIV. Tertiary Basins ............................................................... 491 A. Shelf Basins .............................................................. 491 B. Continental Margin Basins ........................................... 498 C. Superficial Cenozoic Deposits ...................................... 499

XV. Cenozoic Igneous Activity and Tectonics ............................ 500 A. Granites ................................................................... 500 B. Volcanic Arc ............................................................. 500 C. Continental Basalts .................................................... 501 D. Tectonics................................................ .................. 501

XVI. Summary ....................................................................... 503 References ...................................... ..... . ........... ..................... 505

Chapter 11. Western and Northwestern Margin of Australia

J. J. Veevers

I. Introduction ............................ ....................................... 513 II. Physiography .................................................................. 514

III. Descriptive Stratigraphy of Basins along the Margin.............. 515 A. Perth Basin ....................... ,....................................... 515 B. Camavon Basin ......................................................... 518 C. Canning Basin ........................................................... 519 D. Browse Basin ............................................................ 520 E. Bonaparte Gulf Basin ................................................. 521 F. Money Shoal Basin .................................................... 521

IV. Developmental Phases ...................................................... 522 A. Pre-Cratonic (Phase I) ................................................ 522 B. Post-Cratonic (Phase II) .............................................. 525 C. Failed Arm (Phase III) ................................................ 527 D. Rifting (Phase IV) ...................................................... 530 E. Post-Breakup: Detrital Deposition (Phase V) .................. 534 F. Post-Breakup: Carbonate Deposition (Phase VI) .............. 535 G. Collision (Phase VII) .................................................. 536

V. Summary ............................................. ,......................... 537 References ............................................................................ 540

Contents

Chapter 12. The South Australian Continental Margin and the Australian-Antarctic Sector of the Southern Ocean

Douglas F. Williams and Bruce H. Corliss

xv

I. Introduction ................................................................... 545 II. Structural Units along Southern Continental Australia ........... 547

III. Southern Continental Margin ............................................. 550 A. Physiography of the Southern Continental Margin ........... 550 B. Basement Structure under the Great Australian Bight ..... 552 C. Marginal Basins ......................................................... 554 D. Marginal Plateaus ...................................................... 561

IV. The Australian-Antarctic Sector of the Southern Ocean ....... 562 V. Sedimentation and Depositional Processes ........................... 567

VI. Spreading History Between Australia and Antarctica and the Development of the South Australian Margin ....................... 573

VII. Summary ........................................................................ 577 References ............................................................................. 579

Chapter 13. Oceanic Islands

B. G. J. Upton

I. Introduction ................................................................... 585 II. Morphology of the Islands ................................................ 588

III. The Seychelles ................................................................ 589 IV. The Mascarene Islands ..................................................... 592

A. Introduction .............................................................. 592 B. Mauritius. . . . . . . . ... . . . . . ........ . . . . ... . . . . . . .... ...... ..... . . . . .... . . ... . 593 C. Reunion ................................................................... 596 D. Rodrigues ................................................................. 603 E. Cognate Inclusions in the Mascarene Volcanoes .............. 606

V. The Comoro Archipelago .................................................. 608 A. Introduction .............................................................. 608 B. Gran Comoro (Njazidja) .............. ...... ...... .................... 610 C. Moheli (Mwali) .......................................................... 612 D. Anjouan (Nzwami) ..................................................... 613 E. Mayotte ................................................................... 615 F. Coarse-Grained Igneous Inclusions and Clasts in the

Comorien Volcanoes ....... . ... .. .. ..... . . . .. . . ......... . ... . . . . ... . 616 G. Islands East and South of the Comoro Archipelago ......... 616

xvi Contents

VI. Marion and Prince Edward Islands ..................................... 617 VII. The Crozet Archipelago .................................................... 620

VIII. Kerguelen Islands ............................................................ 623 IX. Heard Island .................................................................. 628 X. Amsterdam and Saint Paul Islands ..................................... 631

XI. Christmas Island ............................................................. 635 XII. Petrological Summary of the Volcanic Islands ...................... 638

References ............................................................................. 643

Chapter 14. An Outline of the Geology of Madagascar

J. Boast and A. E. M. Nairn

I. Introduction ................................................................... 649 II. The Basement Complex .................................................... 651

A. The Androyen System ................................................ 652 B. The Graphite System .................................................. 652 C. The Vohibory System ................................................. 653

III. The Basins Bordering the Mozambique Channel ................... 656 A. The Diego Basin ........................................................ 656 B. The Majunga Basin .................................................... 664 C. The Morondava Basin................................................. 682

IV. The East Coast ............................................................... 691 V. The Mozambique Channel ................................................ 692

References ............................................................................. 695

Chapter 15. The Antarctic Margin

Edward S. Grew

I. Introduction ................................................................... 697 II. Physiography ...................... ....... ........ ............................ 701

III. Geophysical Investigations and Crustal Structure .................. 704 IV. Geology ......................................................................... 708

A. General Statement ..................................................... 708 B. Geochronologic Data and Age Provinces in the Crystalline

Basement . . . . . . .. .... . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709 C. Archean and Proterozoic Rocks (Ages Greater than 650

m.y.) ........................................................................ 713

Contents xvii

D. Late Proterozoic-Early Paleozoic Crystalline Rocks (Ages 400 to 650 m.y.) ......................................................... 728

E. Late Precambrian or Early Paleozoic Metasediments ....... 730 F. Late Paleozoic Sediments ............................................ 730 G. Mesozoic and Cenozoic Sediments ............................... 731 H. Phanerozoic Igneous Rocks (Exclusive of Early Paleozoic

Plutonic Rocks) ......................................................... 732 V. Summary of Geologic History........................................... 733

VI. Some Comparisons with India and Australia ........................ 739 VII. Conclusion .................................................................... 742

References 744

Index ...................................................................................... 757