THE NORTHERN MOUNTAIN WALL

The Indian Himalayas can be divided into three zones - the Shiwaliks or the Outer Ranges on the southern wing, the Middle Ranges like the Pir Panjal and the Dhauladhar, and the Greater Himalayas with the highest and oldest peaks

(1) The Trans-Himalayan Zone is about 40 km in width, containing the valleys of the rivers rising behind the Great Himalyas,

(2) The Great Himalyas or the Central Himalayas comprise the zone of high snow-capped peaks, which are 128 or 144 km from the edge of the plains. Some of the important peaks are Mount Everest which is 8848 metres high, Kanchenjunga is 8580 metres high, Dhaulagiri is 8177 metres high, Mount Godwin Austin is 8611 metres high, and Nanda Devi is 7818 metres high.

(3) The lesser Himalayan Zone is 64 to 80 km wide and having an average altitude of about 3000 metres. This zone, having a height between 1500 and 1600 metres, is covered by evergreen and oak forests, that between 1600 and 2124 metres by coniferous forests of chir, deodar, the blue, pine, oaks and magnolias and that above 2436 metres has birch, spruce, silver fir etc.

(4) The Siwalik Foot-hills extend continuously along the foot of the Himalayas from the Brahmaputra Valley on the East to Potwar plateau and the Bannu plains on the west.

Geologically the Himalayan mountain ranges are not very oldthe Northern Mountains can also be divided from West to East into three major regions; and the three regions can be mentioned as Westerns, Central and Eastern. The eastern mountain region consists of those mountains, which lie to the east of the Brahmaputra and along the summit of which runs the frontier of India and Burma. They are divided by a series of river-valleys and covered for the most part with thick forests. The valleys are fertile and cultivated with the aid of irrigation. In the western mountain region the valleys are irrigated and cultivated wherever possible. Along these valleys and over the passes such as the Gomal, the Bolan and the Khyber run the routes to Central Asia and China on one hand and to Persia and the West on the other. The himalayas are the highest mountain ranges in Asia, which includes the Karakoram, Hindu Kosh and a host of minor ranges extending from the Pamir Knot. From the Pamirs in Pakistan to the easternmost bend of the Brahmaputra in Assam, the majestic Himalayas rise across a length of 2,500km. It also seperates India from the Tibetan plateau. The himalayan ranges are the home to about 100 mountain peaks, exceeding 7,200 meters including the famous Mount Everest. From the most ancient times they have attracted pilgrims from all over India, and in their sublime presence people have felt the grandeur and the infinity of the pure spirit.

An estimated 750 million people live in the watershed area of the Himalayan rivers, which also includes Bangladesh. The Himalayas stretch across the nations of Bhutan, china, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Afghanistan. Himalayas also encompass many glaciers,

of which the famous Siachen Glacier is also included. This glacier is also the largest in the world outside the polar region. The higher regions of the Himalayas are snowbound throughout the year in spite of their proximity to the tropics. It is the source of three of the world`s major river systems, the Indus Basin, the Ganga-Brahmaputra Basin and the Yangtze Basin. Thus, we can say that the Himalayas gave birth to great rivers Indus and its four tributaries. They form the sources for several large perennial rivers, most of which combine into two large river systems. SIGNIFICANCE:The Himalayas, forms the northern barrier of the Indian peninsula, containing the highest elevation of the world. Due to their large size and expanse, has been a natural barrier to the movement of people for many thousands of years. They have prevented intermingling of people from the Indian subcontinent with people from China and Mongolia, causing significantly different languages and customs between these regions. The Himalayas have also hindered trade routes and prevented military expeditions across its expanse. The Himalayas have not only proceed the country from invasion from North, but have also sheltered the vast plains of Northern India from the ice colds winds of the Tibet and have played a great part in determining the climate of North India.

The Indian Himalayas are a hot spot among climbers and trekkers throughout the world that offer some of the finest trekking and mountaineering challenges. Since most of India`s northern boundary lies in these mountains, many areas close to the international borders have been declared off-limits for tourists, especially for foreigners. Territorial disputes and trouble caused by militants are other reasons why access to some parts of the Indian Himalayas is restricted. However, those parts that are accessible include many high mountain ranges; deep valleys; fantastic varieties of vegetation - ranging from dense tropical forests of the lower foothills to alpine and sub-alpine vegetation in the higher reaches and from the rain forests of the east to the desert vegetation in the barren Trans Himalayas.

The flora and fauna of the Himalayas varies with climate, rainfall, altitude, and soils. The climate ranges from tropical at the base of the mountains to permanent ice and snow at the highest elevations. The amount of yearly rainfall increases from west to east along the front of the range. This diversity of climate, altitude, rainfall and soil conditions generates a variety of distinct plant and animal communities.

Lowland forests

On the Indo-Gangetic plain at the base of the mountains, an alluvial plain drained by the Indus and Ganga-Brahmaputra river systems, vegetation varies from west to east with rainfall. The xeric Northwestern thorn scrub forests occupy the plains of Indian Punjab. Further east lie the Upper Gangetic plains moist deciduous forests of Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh and Lower Gangetic plains moist deciduous forests of Bihar and West Bengal. These are monsoon forests, with drought-deciduous trees that lose their leaves

during the dry season. The moister Brahmaputra Valley semi-evergreen forests occupy the plains of Assam.

The Terai belt

Above the alluvial plain lies the Terai strip, a seasonally marshy zone of sand and clay soils. The Terai has higher rainfall than the plains, and the downward-rushing rivers of the Himalaya slow down and spread out in the flatter Terai zone, depositing fertile silt during the monsoon season, and receding in the dry season. The Terai has a high water table due to groundwater percolating down from the adjacent zone. The central part of the Terai belt is occupied by the Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands, a mosaic of grasslands, savannas, deciduous and evergreen forests that includes some of the world's tallest grasslands. The grasslands of the Terai belt are home to the Indian rhinoceros

Bhabhar belt

Above the Terai belt is an upland zone known as the Bhabhar, a zone of porous and rocky soils, made up of debris washed down from the higher ranges. The Bhabhar and the lower Shiwalik ranges have a subtropical climate. The Himalayan subtropical pine forests occupy the western end of the subtropical belt, with forests dominated by Chir Pine (Pinus roxburghii). The central part of the range is home to the Himalayan subtropical broadleaf forests, dominated by the sal tree (Shorea robusta). They are at the foot of the Himalayas where the Himalayan streams descend on to the plains.

Shiwalik Hills

Also called Churia or Margalla Hills, Sivalik Hills is an intermittent outermost range of foothills extending across the Himalayan region through Pakistan, India, Nepal and Bhutan. This region consists of many sub-ranges. Summits are generally 600 to 1,200 metres (2,000 to 3,900 ft). Steeper southern slopes form along a fault zone called Himalayan Frontal Thrust (HFT); northern slopes are gentler. Permeable conglomerates and other rocks allow rainwater to percolate downslope into the Bhabhar and Terai, supporting only scrubby forests upslope. The Himalayan subtropical pine and broadleaf forests continue here.

Inner Terai or Dun Valleys

The Inner Terai valleys are open valleys north of Shiwalik Hills or nestled between Shiwalik subranges. Examples include Dehra Dun in India and Chitwan in Nepal. Himalayan subtropical broadleaf forests grow here.

Some of the world's major rivers, Ganges, Indus, Brahmaputra, Yangtze, Mekong, Salween, Red River (Asia), Xunjiang, Chao Phraya, Irrawaddy River, Amu Darya, Syr Darya, Tarim River and Yellow River, rise in the Himalayas, and their combined drainage basin is home to some 3 billion people (almost half of Earth's population) in countries which includes Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, People's Republic of China,

India, Nepal, Burma, Cambodia, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Malaysia and Pakistan.

The Himalayas have profoundly shaped the cultures of South Asia; many Himalayan peaks are sacred in Hinduism, Buddhism and Sikhism. The main Himalaya range runs, west to east, from the Indus river valley to the Brahmaputra river valley, forming an arc 2,400 km (1,491 mi) long, which varies in width from 400 km (249 mi) in the western Kashmir-Xinjiang region to 150 km (93 mi) in the eastern Tibet-Arunachal Pradesh region. The range consists of three coextensive sub-ranges, with the northern-most, and highest, known as the Great or Inner Himalayas.

A great arc of mountains, consisting of the Himalayas, Hindu Kush, and Patkai ranges define the northern Indian subcontinent. These were formed by the ongoing tectonic collision of the Indian Plate with the Eurasian Plate that started around 50 million years ago. The mountains in these ranges include some of the world's tallest mountains which act as a natural barrier to cold polar winds. They also facilitate the monsoon winds which in turn influence the climate in India. Rivers originating in these mountains, flow through the fertile Indo–Gangetic plains. These mountains are recognised by biogeographers as the boundary between two of the Earth's great ecozones: the temperate Palearctic that covers most of Eurasia and the tropical and subtropical Indomalaya ecozone which includes the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia and Indonesia.

India has eight major mountain ranges having peaks of over 1,000 m (3,281 ft):

The Himalayan range is considered as the world's highest mountain range, with its tallest peak Mt. Everest on the Nepal–China border.[12] They form India's northeastern border, separating it from northeastern Asia. They are one of the world's youngest mountain ranges and extend almost uninterrupted for 2,500 km (1,553 mi), covering an area of 500,000 km2 (193,051 sq mi).[12] The Himalayas extend from Jammu and Kashmir in the west to Arunachal Pradesh in the east. These states along with Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and Sikkim lie mostly in the Himalayan region. Numerous Himalayan peaks rise over 7,000 m (22,966 ft) and the snow line ranges between 6,000 m (19,685 ft) in Sikkim to around 3,000 m (9,843 ft) in Kashmir. Kanchenjunga—on the Sikkim–Nepal border—is the highest point in the area administered by India. Most peaks in the Himalayas remain snowbound throughout the year. The Himalayas act as a barrier to the frigid katabatic winds flowing down from Central Asia. Thus, North India is kept warm or only mildly cooled during winter; in summer, the same phenomenon makes India relatively hot.

Mt. Kanchenjunga in Sikkim. The Karakoram is situated in the disputed state of Jammu and Kashmir. It has

more than sixty peaks above 7,000 m (22,966 ft), including K2, the second highest peak in the world 8,611 m (28,251 ft). K2 is just 237 m (778 ft) smaller

than the 8,848 m (29,029 ft) Mount Everest. The range is about 500 km (311 mi) in length and the most heavily glaciated part of the world outside of the polar regions. The Siachen Glacier at 70 km (43 mi) and the Biafo Glacier at 63 km (39 mi) rank as the world's second and third-longest glaciers outside the polar regions.[13] Just to the west of the northwest end of the Karakoram, lies the Hindu Raj range, beyond which is the Hindu Kush range. The southern boundary of the Karakoram is formed by the Gilgit, Indus and Shyok rivers, which separate the range from the northwestern end of the Himalayas.

The Patkai, or Purvanchal, are situated near India's eastern border with Myanmar. They were created by the same tectonic processes which led to the formation of the Himalayas. The physical features of the Patkai mountains are conical peaks, steep slopes and deep valleys. The Patkai ranges are not as rugged or tall as the Himalayas. There are three hill ranges that come under the Patkai: the Patkai–Bum, the Garo–Khasi–Jaintia and the Lushai hills. The Garo–Khasi range lies in Meghalaya. Mawsynram, a village near Cherrapunji lying on the windward side of these hills, has the distinction of being the wettest place in the world, receiving the highest annual rainfall.[14]

The Vindhyas in central India The Vindhya range runs across most of central India, extending 1,050 km (652

mi).[12] The average elevation of these hills is 3,000 m (9,843 ft).[12] They are believed to have been formed by the wastes created by the weathering of the ancient Aravali mountains.[15] Geographically, it separates northern India from southern India. The western end of the range lies in eastern Gujarat, near its border with Madhya Pradesh, and runs east and north, almost meeting the Ganges at Mirzapur.

The Satpura Range begins in eastern Gujarat near the Arabian Sea coast and runs east across Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. It extends 900 km (559 mi) with many peaks rising above 1,000 m (3,281 ft).[12] It is triangular in shape, with its apex at Ratnapuri and the two sides being parallel to the Tapti and Narmada rivers.[16] It runs parallel to the Vindhya Range, which lies to the north, and these two east-west ranges divide the Indo–Gangetic plain from the Deccan Plateau located north of River Narmada.

The Aravali Range is the oldest mountain range in India, running across Rajasthan from northeast to southwest direction, extending approximately 800 km (497 mi).[17] The northern end of the range continues as isolated hills and rocky ridges into Haryana, ending near Delhi. The highest peak in this range is Guru Shikhar at Mount Abu, rising to 1,722 m (5,650 ft), lying near the border with Gujarat.[18] The Aravali Range is the eroded stub of an ancient fold mountain system.[19] The range rose in a Precambrian event called the Aravali–Delhi orogen. The range joins two of the ancient segments that make up the Indian craton, the Marwar segment to the northwest of the range, and the Bundelkhand segment to the southeast.

Western Ghats near Matheran The Western Ghats or Sahyadri mountains run along the western edge of India's

Deccan Plateau and separate it from a narrow coastal plain along the Arabian Sea. The range runs approximately 1,600 km (994 mi)[16] from south of the Tapti River near the Gujarat–Maharashtra border and across Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu to the southern tip of the Deccan peninsula. The average elevation is around 1,000 m (3,281 ft).[16] Anai Mudi in the Anaimalai Hills 2,695 m (8,842 ft) in Kerala is the highest peak in the Western Ghats.[20]

Eastern Ghats (Javadi Hills) in Tamil Nadu The Eastern Ghats are a discontinuous range of mountains, which have been

eroded and vivisected by the four major rivers of southern India, the Godavari, Mahanadi, Krishna, and Kaveri.[21] These mountains extend from West Bengal to Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, along the coast and parallel to the Bay of Bengal. Though not as tall as the Western Ghats, some of its peaks are over 1,000 m (3,281 ft) in height.[16] The Nilgiri hills in Tamil Nadu lies at the junction of the Eastern and Western Ghats.

INDO GANGETIC PLAINS

The Indo-Gangetic Plains also known as the Northern Plains and The North Indian River Plain is a large and fertile plain encompassing most of northern and eastern India, The Indo-Gangetic plain is bound on the north by the abruptly rising Himalayas, which feed its numerous rivers and are the source of the fertile alluvium deposited across the region by the two river systems. The southern edge of the plain is marked by the Vindhya- and Satpura Range, and the Chota Nagpur Plateau. On the west rises the Iranian Plateau. Some geographers subdivide the Indo-Gangetic Plain into several parts: the Indus Valley, the Punjab Plain, the Haryana Plains, and the middle and lower Ganga. These regional distinctions are based primarily on the availability of water. the Indo-Gangetic Plain is divided into two drainage basins by the Delhi Ridge; the

western part consists of the Punjab Plain and the Haryana Plain, and the eastern part consists of the Ganga-Brahmaputra drainage systems.

Both the Punjab and Haryana plains are irrigated with water from the Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej rivers. The irrigation projects in progress on these rivers have led to a decrease in the flow of water, which reaches the lower drainage areas in the state of Punjab in India and the Indus Valley in Pakistan. The benefits that the increased irrigation has brought to Haryana farmers are controversial, due to the effects that irrigation has had on agricultural life in the Punjab areas of both India and Pakistan.

The middle Ganga extends from the Yamuna River in the west to the state of West Bengal in the east. The lower Ganga and the Assam Valley are more verdant than the middle Ganga.

The lower Ganga is centered in West Bengal, from which it flows into India After joining the Yamuna, both rivers form the Ganges Delta.

The Brahmaputra rises in Tibet as the Yarlung Zangbo River and flows through Arunachal Pradesh and Assam, before crossing into Bangladesh.

[edit] Extent

As a large plain, the exact extent can vary from source to source. Roughly, the Indo-Gangetic Plain stretches across:

Kashmir in the north; the Punjab region of Pakistan and the Aravalli Range; Sindh in the west; the Himalayan foothills in the east; and the Vindhya- and Satpura Range, and the Chota Nagpur Plateau in the south. goes to northern portion of Gujarat

The fertile Terai region is the Nepalese extension of the Plain. The rivers encompassed are the Beas, the Chambal, the Chenab, the Ganges, the Gomti, the Indus, the Ravi, the Sutlej and the Yamuna. The soil is rich in silt, making the plain one of the most intensely farmed areas of the world. Even rural areas here are densely populated.

[edit] Geography

The Indo-Gangetic plains, also known as the "Great Plains," are large floodplains of the Indus and the Ganga-Brahmaputra river systems. They run parallel to the Himalaya mountains, from Jammu and Kashmir in the west to Assam in the east and draining most of northern and eastern India. The plains encompass an area of 700,000 km² (270,000 mile²) and vary in width through their length by several hundred kilometres. The major rivers of this system are the Ganga (Ganges) and the Indus along with their tributaries; Beas, Yamuna, Gomti, Ravi, Chambal, Sutlej and Chenab.

Extent of the Indo-Gangetic plain across South Asia.The great plains are sometimes classified into four divisions:

The Bhabar belt — is adjacent to the foothills of the Himalayas and consists of boulders and pebbles which have been carried down by the river streams. As the porosity of this belt is very high, the streams flow underground. The bhabar is generally narrow about 7-15 km wide.

The Terai belt — lies next to the Bhabar region and is composed of newer alluvium. The underground streams reappear in this region. The region is excessively moist and thickly forested. It also receives heavy rainfall throughout the year and is populated with a variety of wildlife.

The Bangar belt — consists of older alluvium and forms the alluvial terrace of the flood plains. In the Gangetic plains, it has a low upland covered by laterite deposits.

The Khadar belt — lies in lowland areas after the Bangar belt. It is made up of fresh newer alluvium which is deposited by the rivers flowing down the plain.

The Indo-Gangetic belt is the world's most extensive expanse of uninterrupted alluvium formed by the deposition of silt by the numerous rivers. The plains are flat and mostly treeless, making it conducive for irrigation through canals. The area is also rich in ground water sources.

The plains are one of the world's most intensely farmed areas. The main crops grown are rice and wheat, which are grown in rotation. Others include maize, sugarcane and cotton. The Indo-Gangetic plains rank among the world's most densely populated areas.

[edit] Fauna

Until recent history, the open grasslands of the Indo-Ganetic Plain was inhabited by several large species of animal. The open plains were home to large numbers of herbivores which included three species of rhinoceros (Indian rhinoceros, Javan rhinoceros, Sumatran rhinoceros). The open grasslands were in many ways similar to the landscape of modern Africa. Gazelle, buffalo, rhinos, elephants, lions, and hippo roamed the grasslands, the same way as they do in Africa today. Large herds of elephants, gazelles, antelopes and horses lived alongside several species of wild cattle including the now-extinct Auroch. In the forested areas there were several species of wild pig, deer and muntjac. In the wetter regions close to the Ganges there would have been large herds of Water Buffalo grazing on the riverbanks along with extinct species of hippopotamus.

So many large animals would have supported a large population of predators as well. Wolf, Dhole, Striped Hyena, Indian cheetah and Asiatic Lion would have hunted large game on the open plains, while tigers and leopards would stalk prey in the surrounding woods. In the Ganges there were large concentrations of gharial, mugger crocodile and river dolphin controlling fish stocks and the occasional migrating herd crossing the river.

[edit] Agriculture

Farming on the Indo-Gangetic Plain primarily consists of rice and wheat grown in rotation. Other crops include maize, sugarcane, and cotton.

The main source of rainfall is the southwest monsoon which is normally sufficient for general agriculture. The many rivers flowing out of the Himalayas provide water for major irrigation works.

[edit] Stressed water supplies

Due to a rapidly growing population (as well as other factors such as global warming which affects monsoon and Himalayan runoff), this area is considered at high risk for water shortages in the future. This area constitutes the land between the river Brahmaputra and Aravli mountain ranges, the famous river Ganges,Yamuna,Ghaggra,Chambal and Brahmaputra flow through the area.

Among the largest cities of the Indo-Gangetic plain are Ahmedabad, Ludhiana, Amritsar, Chandigarh, Delhi, Jaipur, jaisalmer, Kanpur, Lucknow, Allahabad, Varanasi, Patna and Kolkata in India, Dhaka in Bangladesh, Lahore, Faisalabad, Rawalpindi-Islamabad, Multan, Hyderabad and Karachi in Pakistan. In this region, it is hard to define where one megalopolis begins and one ends. The Indo-Gangetic plains, also known as the Great Plains are large floodplains of the Indus and the Ganga-Brahmaputra river systems. They run parallel to the Himalaya mountains, from Jammu and Kashmir in the west to Assam in the east and draining most of northern and eastern India. The plains encompass an area of 700,000 square kilometers (270,272 sq mi). The major rivers in this region are the Ganges and the Indus along with their tributaries–Beas, Yamuna, Gomti, Ravi, Chambal, Sutlej and Chenab.

The Indo-Gangetic plains, also known as the Great Plains are large floodplains of the Indus and the Ganga-Brahmaputra river systems. They run parallel to the Himalaya mountains, from Jammu and Kashmir in the west to Assam in the east and draining most of northern and eastern India. The plains encompass an area of 700,000 square kilometers (270,272 sq mi). The major rivers in this region are the Ganges and the Indus along with their tributaries–Beas, Yamuna, Gomti, Ravi, Chambal, Sutlej and Chenab.

The Indo-Gangetic plains, also known as the Great Plains are large floodplains of the Indus and the Ganga-Brahmaputra river systems. They run parallel to the Himalaya mountains, from Jammu and Kashmir in the west to Assam in the east and draining most of northern and eastern India. The plains encompass an area of 700,000 square kilometers (270,272 sq mi). The major rivers in this region are the Ganges and the Indus along with their tributaries–Beas, Yamuna, Gomti, Ravi, Chambal, Sutlej and Chenab.

Extent of the Indo-Gangetic plain across South Asia.

The great plains are sometimes classified into four divisions:

The Bhabar belt — is adjacent to the foothills of the Himalayas and consists of boulders and pebbles which have been carried down by the river streams. As the porosity of this belt is very high, the streams flow underground. The bhabar is generally narrow with its width varying between 7 to 15 km.

The Terai belt — lies next to the Bhabar region and is composed of newer alluvium. The underground streams reappear in this region. The region is excessively moist and thickly forested. It also receives heavy rainfall throughout the year and is populated with a variety of wildlife.

The Bangar belt — consists of older alluvium and forms the alluvial terrace of the flood plains. In the Gangetic plains, it has a low upland covered by laterite deposits.

The Khadar belt — lies in lowland areas after the Bangar belt. It is made up of fresh newer alluvium which is deposited by the rivers flowing down the plain.

The Indo-Gangetic belt is the world's most extensive expanse of uninterrupted alluvium formed by the deposition of silt by the numerous rivers. The plains are flat making it conducive for irrigation through canals. The area is also rich in ground water sources.

The plains are one of the world's most intensely farmed areas. The main crops grown are rice and wheat, which are grown in rotation. Other important crops grown in the region include maize, sugarcane and cotton. The Indo-Gangetic plains rank among the world's most densely populated areas.

The Indo-Gangetic plains, also known as the Great Plains are large floodplains of the Indus and the Ganga-Brahmaputra river systems. They run parallel to the Himalaya mountains, from Jammu and Kashmir in the west to Assam in the east and draining most of northern and eastern India. The plains encompass an area of 700,000 square kilometers (270,272 sq mi). The major rivers in this region are the Ganges and the Indus along with their tributaries–Beas, Yamuna, Gomti, Ravi, Chambal, Sutlej and Chenab.

Extent of the Indo-Gangetic plain across South Asia.

The great plains are sometimes classified into four divisions:

The Bhabar belt — is adjacent to the foothills of the Himalayas and consists of boulders and pebbles which have been carried down by the river streams. As the porosity of this belt is very high, the streams flow underground. The bhabar is generally narrow with its width varying between 7 to 15 km.

The Terai belt — lies next to the Bhabar region and is composed of newer alluvium. The underground streams reappear in this region. The region is excessively moist and thickly forested. It also receives heavy rainfall throughout the year and is populated with a variety of wildlife.

The Bangar belt — consists of older alluvium and forms the alluvial terrace of the flood plains. In the Gangetic plains, it has a low upland covered by laterite deposits.

The Khadar belt — lies in lowland areas after the Bangar belt. It is made up of fresh newer alluvium which is deposited by the rivers flowing down the plain.

The Indo-Gangetic belt is the world's most extensive expanse of uninterrupted alluvium formed by the deposition of silt by the numerous rivers. The plains are flat making it conducive for irrigation through canals. The area is also rich in ground water sources.

The plains are one of the world's most intensely farmed areas. The main crops grown are rice and wheat, which are grown in rotation. Other important crops grown in the region include maize, sugarcane and cotton. The Indo-Gangetic plains rank among the world's most densely populated areas.

The Indo-Gangetic plains, also known as the Great Plains are large floodplains of the Indus and the Ganga-Brahmaputra river systems. They run parallel to the Himalaya mountains, from Jammu and Kashmir in the west to Assam in the east and draining most of northern and eastern India. The plains encompass an area of 700,000 square kilometers (270,272 sq mi). The major rivers in this region are the Ganges and the Indus along with their tributaries–Beas, Yamuna, Gomti, Ravi, Chambal, Sutlej and Chenab.

Extent of the Indo-Gangetic plain across South Asia.

The great plains are sometimes classified into four divisions:

The Bhabar belt — is adjacent to the foothills of the Himalayas and consists of boulders and pebbles which have been carried down by the river streams. As the porosity of this belt is very high, the streams flow underground. The bhabar is generally narrow with its width varying between 7 to 15 km.

The Terai belt — lies next to the Bhabar region and is composed of newer alluvium. The underground streams reappear in this region. The region is excessively moist and thickly forested. It also receives heavy rainfall throughout the year and is populated with a variety of wildlife.

The Bangar belt — consists of older alluvium and forms the alluvial terrace of the flood plains. In the Gangetic plains, it has a low upland covered by laterite deposits.

The Khadar belt — lies in lowland areas after the Bangar belt. It is made up of fresh newer alluvium which is deposited by the rivers flowing down the plain.

The Indo-Gangetic belt is the world's most extensive expanse of uninterrupted alluvium formed by the deposition of silt by the numerous rivers. The plains are flat making it conducive for irrigation through canals. The area is also rich in ground water sources.

The plains are one of the world's most intensely farmed areas. The main crops grown are rice and wheat, which are grown in rotation. Other important crops grown in the region include maize, sugarcane and cotton. The Indo-Gangetic plains rank among the world's most densely populated areas.

The plains are one of the world's most intensely farmed areas. The main crops grown are rice and wheat, which are grown in rotation. Other important crops grown in the region include maize, sugarcane and cotton. The Indo-Gangetic plains rank among the world's most densely populated areas.

DECCAN PLATEAU

The Deccan Plateau (also called the (Great) Peninsular Plateau[1]) is a large plateau in India, making up the majority of the southern part of the country. It rises a hundred metres high in the north, rising further to more than a kilometre high in the south, forming a raised triangle nested within the familiar downward-pointing triangle of the Indian subcontinent's coastline.[2]

It extends over eight Indian states and encompasses a wide range of habitats, covering most of central and southern India.[3]

It is located between three mountain ranges: the Western Ghats form its western boundary, and the Eastern Ghats its eastern boundary. Each rises from their respective nearby coastal plains and nearly meet at the southern tip of India. It is separated from the Gangetic plain to the north by the Satpura and Vindhya Ranges, which form its northern boundary.

The Deccan Plateau lies south of the Indo-Gangetic plain. The Western Ghats Mountain Range is tall and blocks the moisture from the southwest monsoon from reaching the Deccan Plateau, so the region receives very little rainfall.[5][6] The eastern Deccan Plateau is at a lower elevation spanning the southeastern coast of India. Its forests are also relatively dry but serve to retain the rain to form streams that feed into rivers that flow into basins and then into the Bay of Bengal.[2][7]

Most Deccan plateau rivers flow from west to east. The Godavari River and its tributaries, including the Indravati River, drain most of the northern portion of the plateau, rising in the Western Ghats and flowing east towards the Bay of Bengal. The Tungabhadra River, Krishna River and its tributaries, including the Bhima River, which also run from west to east, drain the central portion of the plateau. The southernmost portion of the plateau is drained by the Kaveri River, which rises in the Western Ghats of Karnataka and bends south to break through the Nilgiri Hills at Hogenakal Falls into Tamil Nadu, then forming the Sivasamudram Falls at the island town of Shivanasamudra, the second-biggest waterfall in India and the sixteenth-largest in the world,[8] before flowing into the Stanley Reservoir and the Mettur Dam that created the reservoir and finally emptying into the Bay of Bengal.

The two main rivers which do not flow into the Bay Of Bengal are the Narmada and Tapti. They start in the Eastern Ghats and flow into the Arabian sea. All Deccan plateau rivers depend on the rains and dry up in the summers.

The climate of the region varies from semi-arid climate in the north to tropical in most of the region with distinct wet and dry seasons. Rain falls during the monsoon season from about June to October. March to June can be very dry and hot with temperatures exceeding 40°C regularly.

Deccan Plateau is also called as the Great Peninsular Plateau or the Peninsular Plateau. This is one of the largest plateaus in India which makes up most of the southern parts of the country. This plateau ranges in an elevation from 100 metres in the northern side to 1000 metres to the south. The Deccan Plateau is situated in between three mountain ranges and it also extends over eight of the Indian states. The uplands of this plateau make up a triangle cuddled within the renowned downward-pointing triangle of the coastline of the Indian sub-continent.

Deccan Plateau is a home to a large number and variety of habitats and it covers most of the marts of southern and central India. The western boundary of the Deccan Plateau is formed by the Western Ghats, and it eastern boundary is formed by the Eastern Ghats. Both rise from their respective closely-located coastal plains and roughly reach the tip of southern India. Both the ranges form the southward-aiming vertex of a triangle, which comprehends the plateau with the approximately west-southwest to east-north-east running Vindhya Mountain Range and Satpura Mountain Range shaping the third northern boundary of the Deccan Plateau. The northern ranges separate the Deccan Plateau from the densely populated riverine plains of the northern parts of India. Most of

the areas of the Indian state of Karnataka and Maharashtra and some parts of the state of Andhra Pradesh form the Deccan plateau.

This region of the Deccan Plateau is among the most geographically static landmasses of the entire world. The Deccan forms the catchment areas of some of the mighty rivers of India. The name ‘Deccan’ is an anglicized form of the Prakrit word ‘dakkhin’, which is derived from the Sanskrit word meaning ‘south’. The Deccan Plateau is situated to the south of the Indo-Gangetic plain. The mountain ranges of the Western Ghats are tall and block the moisture laden southwest monsoon from getting to the Deccan Plateau, and therefore this region gets very little rainfall. The location of the eastern Deccan Plateau is at a much lower elevation which spreads across India’s southeastern coast. The forests of this plateau are comparatively dry but serve to hold the rain in order to form streams which ultimately feed into rivers flowing into the basins and then into the Bay of Bengal.

The Godavari River along with its tributaries, which include the Indravati River, drains a majority of the northern areas of the plateau, ascending in the Western Ghats and flowing towards east to the Bay of Bengal. The Krishna River, the Tungabhadra River and its tributaries which include the Bhima River, which also runs from the western direction to the east, drain the plateau’s central parts. The Kaveri River drains the southernmost portion of the Deccan plateau, which rises in Karnataka’s Western Ghats and bends to the direction of south in order to move through the Nilgiri hills at Hogenakal Falls into the state of Tamil Nadu, thus making the Sivasamudram Falls at the island town of Shivanasamudra, which is also regarded as India’s second biggest waterfall and the World’s sixteenth largest, before flowing through the Stanley Reservoir and the Mettur Dam which formed the reservoir and lastly emptying its water into the Bay of Bengal. River Tapi and Narmada River are the two rivers which do not flow into the Bay of Bengal. They start their journey in the Eastern Ghats and empty into the Arabian Sea.

The rivers flowing in the Deccan plateau depend on rain water and it is for this reason they dry up in the summer season. Deccan plateau experiences a mixed climate. Here the climate varies from subtropical to the extreme north to tropical climate in a majority of the regions with distinct dry and wet seasons. The plateau experiences rain only at the time of monsoon or wet season from the month of June to October every year. The months from March to June are considered to be very dry hot at this region with temperatures going over 40°C on a regular basis.

The Deccan Plateau’s immense volcanic basalt beds were established in the massive Deccan Traps eruption, which took place towards the end of the Cretaceous period, roughly between 67 and 65 million years ago. Some paleontologists investigated and found that this eruption might have quickened the disappearance of the giant species like dinosaurs. The continuous volcanic activity which lasted for several thousand years at this region resulted in the formation of layer after layer and when the volcanic process came to an end, they left behind an area of highlands with distinctively vast stretches of flat areas on top resembling to that of a table. It is for this region that the region is also

called as Table Top. This volcanic hotspot which formed the Deccan traps is assumed to be positioned under the present day Reunion Island in the Indian Ocean.

Normally, the Deccan Plateau is formed by basalt layer which still extends up to Bor Ghat, in close proximity to Karjat. Basalt is an extrusive igneous rock. It is formed in the areas that are spreading, whereas granite is generally found in areas which are colliding. As both these rocks are found in the Deccan plateau, it thus specifies two different environments of formation. This plateau is also very rich in minerals. Some of the primary mineral ores available in this region are iron ore and mica in the Chhota Nagpur region, and gold, diamonds and other metals in the Golconda region.

The Deccan plateau in India is having a rich in history. The mineral wealth of this plateau led a number of lowland rulers, which include the Mauryan (who ruled from 4th to the 2nd century BC) and Gupta (who ruled from the 4th to the 6th century AD) dynasties, to fight over it. The Satvahanas (who ruled from 28 BC to 250 AD) came out to be the independent power in the Deccan during the first century BC. To the south of the Satvahanna kingdom, other three dynasties surfaced. They were the Cholas of Tanjore, the Cheras along the Malabar Coast and the Pandyas centered in Madurai. The Pandyas, Cheras and Cholas were frequently at war with each other. The interaction of culture in between these kingdoms and the northern region exposed the other parts of India to the south’s rich Sangam literature.

The Satvahanas, Pallavas, Kakatiyas, Eastern Chalukyas and the Vijaynagara kings ruled the region till the same became a part of Golconda’s Qutub Shahi kingdom. Later it went into the rule of Hyderabad’s Nizam Shahi dynasty. From the date of the independence of India in the year 1947 to till date, there is a repeated demand for the formation of a Telangana state, which will be separate from the state of Andhra Pradesh.

The people of the southern parts of India got top know the religious ideas from the people of the north, like the worship of the Vedic gods and the doctrines of Jainism and Buddhism. Several people also follow these religions, but a large number of people till today worshipped their gods and goddesses and exercised the religious ceremonies of their own. It is said that St. Thomas came to India in order to spread Christianity during the first century AD. The Saint spread the message of Christianity among the people living in the Malabar Coast and also in areas close to the present-day city of Chennai.

The states of India which cover the parts of Deccan plateau are Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. The state of Maharashtra covers a majority of the northern parts of the Deccan Plateau, and state of Chhattisgarh covers the northeast corner of the plateau. Andhra Pradesh state covers the east-central region of this Plateau, and the state of Karnataka covers the west central and a majority of the southern areas of the Deccan plateau, with the extreme south portion in the state of Tamil Nadu. The largest cities situated in the Deccan plateau are Karnataka and Bangalore. Some of the other major cities in the Deccan plateau are Hyderabad, the capital of the state of Andhra Pradesh, Aurangabad, Pune and Nagpur. Along the north and north-eastern edges of the hills of Deccan Plateau, the Bhil and Gond tribe live. These people speak

several languages. One of the languages spoken by these people is Urdu, which is also called as Dakhni or Deccani. The major crop grown in this region is cotton; however, rice, sugarcane and a number of other crops are also common.

Deccan plateau is also one of the major tourist attraction and some of the major attractions of this region include Aurangabad. This place has got its name from Aurangzeb, Mughal emperor. It is situated in Maharashtra. It is known for its internationally-acclaimed Ajanta caves and Ellora caves. Another major attraction is the Bibi-ka-Maqbara or the mausoleum of the wife of Aurangzeb and the caves of Aurangabad. Badami was the former capital of the Chalukyas. It is presently a small rural town in the state of Karnataka. This place is famous for its attractive cave temples, engraved into the cliff face of a red sandstone hill. Bidar was once the capital city of Bahamani dynasty of southern India. It is situated in the Karnataka state and famous for its historical monuments. One of the major tourist attractions of Bidar is the fort, which was constructed by Ahmad Wali Shah. A number of other major palaces inside the ramparts of the fort are the Rangin Mahal, the Solah Kambh Masjid or the 16-pillared mosque, the Gagan Mahal, the Takhat Mahal, the Diwan-e-Am and the Royal Pavilion.

Another major place of attraction is the Bijapur city. This is the capital city of the medieval India Adil Shahi rulers. It is located in the southern Karnataka state and famous among the tourists for the presence of several historical monuments. The magnificent and the largest dome in India and the worlds’ second largest one, known as the Gol Gumbaz, present in this city. Other historical monuments include the Ibrahim Roza, an attractive tomb constructed by Adil Shah II in memory of his queen and the remains of Gagan Mahal are something which is a must to be seen site of this place. The Sat Manzil or the seven-storied palace, Bara Kaman or the twelve arches, Jala Manzil or the water pavilion, the Taj Bawdi or the water tank, Mehtar Mahal, Upli Burj or the watch tower and Asar Mahal are some of the other attractions in Bijapur. Situated in the central region of the state of Karnataka, Hampi is famous as one of the world heritage sites where one can get to see the ruins which belong to the erstwhile Vijayanagara kingdom. The monolithic sculptures, temples and monuments, along with the rough landscape draw tourists in large numbers to Hampi. Another famous place of interest in the state of Karnataka is Hassan. It is also the headquarters of the district of Malanad. The original town was close to the village Channapatna. A Palegar by the name of Channa Krishnappa Naik constructed it in the 11th century. The name of Hassan has been derived from the Goddess ‘Hasanamba’ the main deity of this town. The temple of Goddess Hasanamba is opened once in a year at the time of the second Ashwayuja (October). A big jatra or fair is organized on this occasion. Some of the other temples of Hassan are Halebid, Belur and Sharavanabelagola. Shravanabelagola is a renowned Jain pilgrimage having a 17 meter high monolith of the Lord Bahubali. Once, Belur was the capital of the Hoysala kings. The construction work of the Chennakeshava temple took 103 years and is packed with sculptures and intricate carvings.

Some of the other major attractions of the Deccan plateau include Ooty. It is located in the middle of blue mountains of the Nilgiris in the state of Tamil Nadu. This is one of the townships of the erstwhile British Empire in India and a renowned hill station. The

picturesque Botanical Gardens, the Wenlock Downs, Ketty Valley and Doddabetta Peak are things worth seeing. In Karnataka state, Bengaluru considered to be the garden city of India. It presents some of the pleasant parks and a number of historical monuments. Belgaum is a little town in the state of Karnataka which is known for the presence of the Masjid Sata mosque and Jain temples. The Sunset Point and Watchtower provide a bird’s

eye view of the distant hills and the flat countryside. Kozhikode (Calicut) is situated in the state of Kerala, was known as a commercial trading city during ancient times. Vasco-da-Gama landed in Kappad, a place situated in close proximity to Calicut in the year 1498. The city is renowned as the center of timber industry and for boat building. Gulbarga is placed in the Karnataka state of India. This little town is well-known for its links with the Bahamani kingdom of medieval India. Lists of monuments dating from 13th to the 15th century are present here. The Gulbarga fort is one of the major tourist attractions of this region. The Jama Masjid was believed to have been constructed by Spain’s Moorish architect in the later parts of the 14th century on the lines of the famous Cordoba Mosque in the southern parts of Spain. Other places of interest include the impressive tombs of the Bahamani rulers,

the tomb of Khwaja Bande Nawaz (a renowned local Muslim saint), the Haft Gumbaz and the Sharana Basaveshwara temple.

Hyderabad was constructed around the Hussain Sagar Lake. This is the capital city of the state of Andhra Pradesh. The city was founded by Mohammad Quli Qutub Shah in the 16th century and afterwards it became the kingdom of the fabled Nizams of Hyderabad. Some of the prominent attractions are the Charminar, the Mecca Masjid, Birla Mandir, and Mahakali Temple, Salar Jung Museum, the Golconda Fort, etc. Bangalore and Mysore are generally called as twin cities. Mysore possesses a number of palaces, boulevards and parks as well as cultural centers and museums. The Vrindavan Gardens is the major attraction for the tourists visiting Mysore.

The reliable history of the Deccan Plateau only starts with the 13th century A.D. In the earlier history, the major facts demonstrated are the emergence and growth of the Maurya Empire and details of the invasion of the Scythic tribes known as the Pallavas, Sakas and Yavanas. Finally, the region witnessed the institution of the power of the Kshaharata satraps in western parts of India. Even if the area of the Deccan Plateau is vast, it mirrors a united taste and culture. The celebrations and festivals of Deccan Plateau have an exclusive similarity and this region of the country still has a beaming prominence in terms of industrial and geographical significance.

COASTAL PLAINS

Coastal plains are a geologic feature found around the world and on both the eastern and western coasts of India. Coastal plains are characterized by an area of flat low lying land that is situated adjacent to a water body often a sea or ocean. It is also of note that coastal plains are separated from the interior of the larger land mass by other unique features. Coastal plains have limited vegetation; however grasses and trees are not uncommon. The coastal plains of India are relatively expansive regions which contribute significantly to the geography of the region.

Eastern Coastal Plains

The eastern coastal plains are located on a wide stretch of land between the Eastern Ghats of India and the Bay of Bengal. This stretch of land stretches to 120 km in width at parts. The eastern coastal plains extend from Tamil Nadu in the south to West Bengal in the north. The eastern coastal plains have rivers draining into them and river deltas also occupy the valleys. The region of the eastern coastal plains is an expansive area and is divided into six regions. The six regions of the eastern coastal plains of India are the Mahanadi Delta, the Southern Andhra Pradesh Plain, the Krishna Godavari deltas, the Kanyakumari Coast, the Coromandel and the Sandy Coastal regions.

The eastern coastal plains are characterized by a temperature that exceeds 30 degrees Celsius and also experiences high levels of humidity. The rainfall of the region is also abundant in the region with rainfall amounts in excess of 1000mm annually with the amount usually approaching 3000mm. It is also of note that this region of the eastern coastal plains is subject to both northeast and southwest monsoon rains when these storms are in season.

Western Coastal Plains

The western coastal plain of India in contrast to the eastern coastal plain is located on a narrow strip of land. The western coastal plains are located in the west of India between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea. They extend from Gujarat in the north down 50 km to the south in Kerala and are characterized by numerous backwaters and rivers that flow into the region. These rivers that flow into the region lead to the forming of estuaries that are found in the western coastal plains of India. The storm activity here is considerably less than on the eastern coastal plains. The maximum storm activity on the western coastal plains occurs in the month of March. The western coastal plains are smaller than their eastern counterpart and the region is divided into three parts. The western coastal plains are divided into the regions of Konkan, Kanara, and the Malabar Coast.

The Eastern Coastal Plain is a wide stretch of land lying between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal. It stretches from Tamil Nadu in the south to West Bengal in the north. The Mahanadi, Godavari, Kaveri and Krishna rivers drain these plains and their deltas occupy most of the area. The temperature in the coastal regions exceeds 30 °C (86 °F) coupled with high levels of humidity. The region receives both the northeast and southwest monsoon rains. The southwest monsoon splits into two branches, the Bay of

Bengal branch and the Arabian Sea branch. The Bay of Bengal branch moves northwards crossing northeast India in early June. The Arabian Sea branch moves northwards and discharges much of its rain on the windward side of Western Ghats. Annual rainfall in this region averages between 1,000 mm (40 in) and 3,000 mm (120 in). The width of the plains varies between 100 and 130 km (62 to 80 miles).[28] The plains are divided into six regions — the Mahanadi delta, the southern Andhra Pradesh plain, the Krishna-Godavari deltas, the Kanyakumari coast, the Coromandel Coast and sandy coastal.

The Western Coastal Plain is a narrow strip of land sandwiched between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea, ranging from 50 to 100 km (30 to 60 miles) in width. It extends from Gujarat in the north and extends through Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and Kerala. Numerous rivers and backwaters inundate the region. Originating in the Western Ghats, the rivers are fast-flowing and mostly perennial, leading to the formation of estuaries. Major rivers flowing into the sea are the Tapi, Narmada, Mandovi and Zuari. The coast is divided into 3 parts namely, Konkan, which is situated in Maharashtra,Goa and northern parts of Karnataka; the Kanara in Karnataka and the Malabar Coast in Kerala. Vegetation is mostly deciduous, but the Malabar Coast moist forests constitute a unique ecoregion.

ISLANDS

loating in splendid isolation, cast of the Indian mainland is the archipelago of 572 emerald islands, islets and rocks known as Andaman & Nicobar Islands. This Union Territory is stretched over an area of more than 700 Km. from north to south with 36 inhabited islands. Once a hill range extending from Burma (Myanmar) to Indonesia, these undulating islands are covered with dense forests and endless variety of exotic flowers and birds. The topography of the islands is hilly and abounds in evergreen forests. The sandy beaches on the edge of meandering coastline are fringed with coconut-palms that sway to the rhythm of the sea. The sea around the islands offer excellent scope for water sports. The rare flora and fauna, underwater marine life and corals, with crystal clear water and mangrove-lined creeks, offer a dream-view of the rare gifts of nature. The clean and wide roads, free of filth as well as unpolluted fresh air attract any nature-lover, who seek absolute peace and tranquility in the lap of mother nature. Adventure tourism like trekking, island camping, snorkeling, scuba diving etc., are the real attractions. A visit to these islands is a memorable lifetime experience.

Mythologicaly, the name Andaman was presumed to be derived from Hanuman, who was known to the Malays as Handuman. Since Prehistoric times, these islands were the home of aboriginal tribes. The tribes of, the Andaman group of islands are the Great Andamanese, Onges, Jarawas, and Sentinatese, all of Negrito origin, while the tribes of Nicobars are the Nicobarese and Shompens, both of Mongoloid stock. The first settlement by the British took place in 1789, which was later abandoned in 1796. The second settlement was basically a penal settlement, taken up in 1858, after the First War of Independence, followed by the settlement of convicts, Moplas, some criminal tribes from Central and United Provinces, refugees from erstwhile East Pakistan, Burma and Sri Lanka as well as ex-servicemen.

In these islands people of all faiths - Hindus, Muslims, Christians, Sikhs etc., and of all languages like Hindi, Bengali, Malayalam, Tamil, Telugu, Punjabi, Nicobari etc., live together in complete peace and harmony. Inter-religion and inter-regional marriages are common. This amazing racial and cultural mix is correctly described as Mini-India.

Forests are the green extend over gold of the islands. The reserved and protected forests extend over 86% area of the territory and the forest cover is more than 92 %. About 50 % of the forests has been set aside as Tribal Reserves, National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries, which are inviolate. Luxuriant mangroves, perhaps the richest in the world, occupy nearly II. 5 % of the territory. More than 150 plant and animals species are endemic in nature. Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park is rich in corals, varieties of colored fishes, sea turtles etc., besides other marine life. It is a birds paradise - more than 271 varieties of birds inhabit the idyllic landscape, out of which 39 are endemic. Megapode, Swiftlet, Hornbill and Nicobar Pigeon are some of the specialties of the Andaman & Nicobar Islands.

akshadweep ( listen (help·info); Malayalam: ലക്ഷദ്വീപ് Lakṣadvīp, Mahl: ަލްކަޝީދުބ Lakshadīb), traditionally called in English the Laccadive Islands, the smallest union territory of India, is a group of islands 200 to 300 km off of the coast of the South West Indian state of Kerala in the Laccadive Sea. Their total land area is 11 sq   mi or 32 km². Ten of the islands are inhabited. Lakshadweep is the northern part of the erstwhile Lakshadweepa.

he people of all the northern islands speak a dialect of Malayalam. According to local folk beliefs, they descended from traders who were washed up on the islands during a particularly heavy storm. However, the people of Minicoy, the southernmost atoll, speak Mahl, a variant of Divehi, the language of the Maldives.

The islanders are ethnically similar to coastal Kerala's Malayali people, and were influenced by Arab traders. Inhabitants of Minicoy, the southernmost and largest island, closely resemble Maldivians. Most of the indigenous population is Muslim. The locals of all the islands except Minicoy call themselves the Div-i or the Aminidivi ("from the mother island"). Lakshadweep's ethnic groups can be classified as 84.33% Malayali, and 15.67% Mahl.

[edit] Main Languages

Malayalam (official) Mahl Jeseri (Dweep Bhasha)

[edit] History

Little is known about the early history of the Lakshadweep islands. There are references to the control of the islands by the Cheras in the Sangam literature Pathitruppaththu. A Pallava inscription of 7th century CE refers to the islands as Dveepa Laksham and lists

them as part of the Pallava domain. The oldest inhabited islands in the group are Amini, Andrott, Kavaratti and Agatti. It was earlier believed that the Lakshadweep islanders were originally Hindus who later converted to Islam in the 14th century. However, recent archaeological evidence has established that Buddhist settlements had existed in the islands as early as the 6th or 7th century. According to popular tradition, Islam was brought to Lakshadweep by an Arab named Ubaidulla in 41 AH (661 CE). His grave is located in the island of Androth. Muslim grave stones dated to 139 AH (756 CE) have also been discovered here. During the 11th century, the islands came under the rule of the third (or last) period Cholas.

In the 17th century, the islands came under the rule of Ali Rajahs/Arakkal Bheevi of Kannur, who received them as a gift from the Kolathiris.[3] The Portuguese took control to exploit coir production until the islanders expelled the Portuguese. The islands are also mentioned in great detail in the stories of the Arab traveller Ibn Batuta.

The Amindivi group of islands (Amini, Kadmat, Kiltan, Chetlat and Bitra) came under the rule of Tipu Sultan in 1787. They passed to British control after the Third Anglo-Mysore War and were attached to South Canara. The rest of the islands came under the suzerainty of the Arakkal family of Cannanore in return for a payment of annual tribute. After a while, the British took over the administration of those islands for non-payment of arrears. These islands were attached to the Malabar district of the Madras Presidency. In 1956, despite the fact that most of the Islanders were Malayalis, the States Reorganisation Act separated these islands from the mainland administrative units, forming a new union territory by combining all the islands.

[edit] Politics

The union territory is administered by an Administrator appointed by India's central government. Lakshadweep is under the jurisdiction of the High Court of Kerala at Ernakulam. The Territory also elects one member to the Lok Sabha. The panchayat raj system is implemented in the islands. There are dweep (island) panchyats and district panchayat in each island; each dweep panchayat has its own elected chairperson. Democracy is limited to Pachayats and the sole member of the Lok Sabha; most power resides with the Administrator.

[edit] Agriculture

Coconut is the main crop cultivated in the islands. Lakshadweep is India's largest producer of coconuts. About 2,598 hectares are under coconut cultivation and the productivity per hectare is 22,310. Coconuts cultivated in the Lakshadweep are also rich in coconut oil.

[edit] Economy

Lakshadweep's gross state domestic product for 2004 is estimated at $60 million at current prices. Coconut fibre extraction and production of fibre products is

Lakshadweep's main industry. There are five coir fibre factories, five production demonstration centres and seven fibre curling units run by the government of India. These units produce coir fibre, coir yarn, curled fibre and corridor mattings.

Due to its isolation and scenic appeal, Lakshadweep is emerging as a major tourist attraction for Indians. This brings in significant revenue, which is likely to increase. Since such a small region cannot support industries, the government is actively promoting tourism as a means of income.

The world’s first ever low temperature thermal desalination plant (LTTD) was opened in Kavaratti, one of the Indian Lakshadweep islands. The plant cost about INR 50 million (EUR 922,000) and will produce 100,000 litres/day of potable water from sea water. Production costs, currently INR 220-250/m³ (EUR 4.1-4.6/m³), are expected to go do down to INR 30-60/m³ (EUR 0.55-1.11/m³) as the capacity is increased.

LTTD technology involves flashing relatively warm sea water (28-30 deg Celsius) inside a vacuum flash chamber and condensing the resultant vapour using deep sea cold water (7-15 °C). The cold water for the Kavaratti plant is drawn at a depth of 350m some 400m from the shore.

The technology was developed by the National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT). It can not only be used to produce drinking water but also for power generation and air conditioning. In addition, the deep sea water contains extra nutrients for fish, an important source of food and income for the local population.

The government plans to set up desalination plants with a capacity of 10 million litres/per day on all islands and coastal areas.

Source: Gov of India Press Information Bureau, 23 May 2005

[edit] Islands, Reefs, Banks

One of the uninhabited islands in LakshadweepWorms-eye view of the lighthouse in Minicoy Island

Lakshadweep officially consists of 12 atolls, 3 reefs and 5 submerged banks, with a total of about 36 islands and islets. The reefs are in fact also atolls, although mostly submerged, with only small unvegetated sand cays above the high water mark. The submerged banks are sunken atolls.

Almost all the atolls have a northeast-southwest orientation with the islands lying on the eastern rim, and a mostly submerged reef on the western rim, enclosing a lagoon.

Two banks further north are not considered part of the group:

Angria Bank Adas Bank