The Nervous System - iwansaing.files.wordpress.com · The difference between the CNS and PNS is...

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The Nervous System By IWAN SAIN, S.Kp, M.Kes Poltekkes Makassar Jurusan Keperawatan

Transcript of The Nervous System - iwansaing.files.wordpress.com · The difference between the CNS and PNS is...

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The Nervous System

By IWAN SAIN, S.Kp, M.Kes

Poltekkes Makassar Jurusan Keperawatan

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Learning Objective #1

• Explain the anatomical and/or functional distinctions between the following divisions and subdivisions of the nervous system:

–Central nervous system

–Peripheral nervous system

• Somatic nervous system

• Autonomic nervous system

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The difference between the CNS andPNS is anatomical…

• Central Nervous System (CNS) The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord

• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) The peripheral nervous system consists of all of the other nerves outside of the CNS

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The direction of the message

• We have nerves that carry information to the CNS and from the CNS.

• The nerves that carry information to and from the CNS carry different information and enter the spinal cord at a different location.

• Tell me more….

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To or from the CNS????• Afferent nerves carry sensory impulses to the Center

through the dorsal side of the spinal cord– somatic afferent nerves carry messages from skin, muscles,and

joints to the CNS– visceral afferent nerves carry messages from organs to the CNS

• Efferent nerves carry impulses from the CNS to organs, muscles, glands– somatic efferent neurons carry voluntary signals to skeletal

muscles– autonomic efferent neurons carry involuntary signals to

smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, and glands

There are two types of efferent autonomic neurons…• The sympathetic nervous system• The parasympathetic nervous system

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SEL-SEL SISTEM SARAF

• Sistem saraf dibangun oleh dua jenis sel yaitu :

– Neuron

– Neuroglia.

• Sel-sel neuroglia merupakan sel yang terbanyak

dengan fungsi utama : mendukung neuron

fungsi utama sistem saraf.

• Neuron pada umumnya tidak bermitosis

(nonmitotic). Neuroglia bersifat mitosis dan

dapat memperbanyak sel.

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Neuron

• Menurut perkiraan ada 12 milyar neuron dalam SSP. ¾ dari neuron tersebut terletak dalam korteks serebri, tempat informasi ditransmisikan melalui sistem saraf.

• Tda:– Badan sel Pusat metabolisme

neuron (nukleus & sitoplasma

– Dendrit menerima impuls

– Akson menyampaiakan impuls

• Karakteristik Neuron– excitability

Kemampuan menerima impuls

– conductivitykemampuan menstransmisi impuls kebagian-bagian sel

– kemampuan mempengaruhi neuron, sel otot, dan sel-sel kelenjar.

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Neuroglia

• Disebut juga sel glia meberikan dukungan, nutrisi, dan melindungi neuron.

• 5 –10 kali lebih banyak dari pada neuron, oleh karena itu sebagian besar membentuk massa otak dan spinal cord.

• Jenis sel-sel glia : oligodendroglia, astrosit, sel ependimal, dan mikrogliamasing2 mempunyai fungsi spesifik.

• Oligodendroglia hasilkan myelin yang menutupi serabut-serabut dalam SSP dan terutama ditemukan pada white matter pada CNS

• Astrosit pada grey matter membentuk impuls diantara neuron & pagositosis

• sel ependimal terdapat pada ventrikel otak dan berperan dalam sekresi cairan otak

• Mikroglia makrphag

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SARAF DAN GANGLION

• Akson dan dendrit berkumpul bersama sebagai serabut saraf. Berkas serabut saraf dengan penbungkusnya disebut saraf.

• Ganglion adalah sekelompok badan sel.

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PEMBUNGKUS SERABUT SARAF

• Didalam SSP, beberapa serabut diselimuti oleh selubung lipoprotein yang disebut selubung myelin.

• Serabut saraf perifer diselimuti oleh neurilema dibentuk oleh sel-sel schwann

• Konstriksi periodik dari selubung neurilema ini disebut nodus ranvier.

• Nodus yang demikian menghasilkan konduksi impuls-impuls yang lebih cepat.

• Axon pada CNS kurang bergenerasi dibanding dengan PNS.

• Jika sebuah serabut saraf dipotong, bagian distal sampai badan sel akan mati. Bagian yang masih menempel kebadan sel akan beregenerasi.

• Pada neuron-neuron perifer, neurilema sendiri memberikan saluran yang dapat diikuti oleh serabut yang berergenerasi sehingga serabut ini dapat melekat kembali kepenghubung anatominya.

REGENERASI SARAF

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SINAPS

• Adalah struktur yang terdapat diantara neuron. Impuls ditransmisi dari neuron ke neuron yang lain dan pada organ tubuh yang berhubungan.

NEUROTRANSMITTER

• Adalah agen kimiawi yang berperan dalam mentransmisi impuls melalui sinaps.

• Beberapa neurotransmitter bersifat mengeksitasi menyebabkan peningkatan permeabilitas Na pada membran postsinaps menyebabkan potensial aksi sel neuron.

• Terdapat juga neurotransmitter bersifat menghambat : Menyebabkan peningkatan permebilitas ion K dan Cl potensial aksi menurun.

• Pengaruh eksitasi (menggiatkan) dan menghambat neurotransmitter bergantung pada jenis ion pada membran possinaps yang dipengaruhi oleh neurotransmitter. Neurotransmitter yang bersifat menggiatkan : acetylcholine, norepinephrine, dopamine, glutamate, dan histamine.

• Neurotransmitter yang pada umumnya menghambat : Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) dan glycine.

• Serotonin menghambat dan mengontrol tidur, lapar dan mempengaruhi kesadaran.

• Neurotransmitter dipengaruhi oleh obat-obatan atau toksin. Enkephalin dan Endorphin menghambat nerurotransmitter ditemukan banyak di CNS dan PNS yang menghambat persepsi nyeri.

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Learning Objective #2

• Describe and give the functions of the following parts of the brain…

–Notice the many that are listed in the supplemental reading

–PLEASE, read the supplemental information on this topic and learn it well!!!!

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General Terms of the CEREBRUM• Hemisphere: you have two hemispheres in your brain…

a right and a left side– A fissure divides the right from the left side

• Lobe: the brain is divided into 4 major lobes that are defined by their location and function

• Sulcus: a sulcus is a groove in the brain

• Gyrus: a gyrus is a raised area on the brain

• White matter: the myelinated nerves are ‘white matter’

• Gray matter: the unmyelinated nerves are ‘gray matter’

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CEREBRAL CORTEX

• Cerebral Cortex:

– The cerebral cortex is the outermost layer

of the cerebrum

– It contains gray matter

– The cerebral cortex is associated with the

conscious mind, awareness, and thought

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The lobes and their functionsThere are 4 lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital lobes• The frontal lobe contains the following:

– A precentral gyrus that is associated with motor function motor– A premotor Cortex that helps control patterned muscle movements– The Broca’s area (left side) which is the speech motor control

• The parietal lobe contains:– A postcentral gyrus which is associated with somatosensory

perception

• The temporal lobe is associated with– The Wernicke’s area (left side): understanding language– The primary auditory area– The sense of smell (olfactory)

• The occipital lobe– Contains the primary visual area

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How does the brain communicate?

• The brain needs to communicate with the peripheral body

• The brain needs to communicate with itself…in one hemisphere or between hemispheres!

• How does it carry that message???

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The brain communicates by using tracts inthe white matter of the cerebrum

• Commissures allow the cerebrum to connect corresponding areas of two hemispheres– (major example is corpus callosum)

• Association tracts (fibers) allow the brain to carry signals within one hemisphere

• Projection tracts (fibers) enter and leave cerebrum. The projection tracts tie the cerebral cortex to rest of the nervous system

• Can we tie the anatomy and physiology together?

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Another important part of thecerebrum…The Basal Nuclei (ganglia)

• The basal nuclei are located deep within white matter

– The basal nuclei monitor movements and regulate intensity of movements

• If you have Parkinson’s Disease the basal nuclei are not functioning properly due to a lack of dopamine

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What about our emotions, whatcontrols that?

• The Limbic System is the physiological area that overlaps several anatomical areas…it is not in any one spot

• The limbic system is associated with your emotional state

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What is the job of the thalamus?

• The thalamus is located at core of brain, just below cerebrum and acts as a relay center for all sensations with the exception of olfaction

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What about the hypothalamus?

• The hypothalamus is located below thalamus• It controls physical expression of emotions

(contains part of limbic system)• It is associated with homeostasis and controls:

– Hunger– thirst / water balance– body temperature– endocrine hormone system

• The hypothalamus also controls sleep / awake cycle by controlling RAS (reticular activating system)

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Just below the cerebrum…the brain stem

• The brainstem contains three anatomical structures:

– Midbrain

– Pons

– Medulla oblongata

Let’s look at each one individually…

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Brain Stem: the midbrain

• The Midbrain

–It is located between thalamus and pons

–It contains cerebral aqueduct

–It controls visual and auditory reflex movements

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Brainstem: the pons•Pons

– A major job of the pons is to control the rhythm of breathing

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Brainstem: the medulla oblongata

• The medulla oblongata is the most inferior part of brainstem– There is a cardiac center located in the medulla

oblongata that controls heart rate and blood pressure

– There is a respiratory center in the medulla oblongata that controls rate and depth of breathing

– The medulla oblongata also controls swallowing, coughing, sneezing, hiccupping

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Within the brainstem:The Reticular Formation

• Reticular Formation is a functional system in central core of brainstem that has two main jobs:

– It controls unskilled movements

– It contains Reticular Activating System (RAS)

• The RAS controls alertness

• The RAS also filters out unimportant stimuli

• If the RAS is blocked by hypothalamus it will lead to sleep

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What things can cause sleep?

• To allow for sleep, you need to decrease the neural activity in the RAS

• What can effect neural activity in the RAS?

– An increase in serotonin will decrease RAS activity and cause sleep

– Alcohol consumption can decrease RAS activity and cause sleep

– Sedatives can decrease RAS activity and cause sleep

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The anatomy and physiology of thecerebellum

• The cerebellum is located at the back and bottom of brain

• It receives information from joints, tendons, and muscles and subconsciously coordinates movements and balance

– Allows us to be graceful! ☺

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Learning Objective #3

• Discuss the function of the reticular formation in the cycle of sleep and wakefulness, including the role of serotonin

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Learning about sleep

• Review HYPOTHALAMUS and RETICULAR FORMATION sections of Objective 2

• Sleep centers in hypothalamus inhibit RAS by releasing serotonin

– Serotonin is needed for sleep

– A decrease in serotonin can lead to

– insomnia (the inability to sleep)

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Learning Objective #4

• Discuss the cerebrospinal fluid in terms of:

– Composition

– Site of production

– Functions

– Location and pathway of circulation, including ventricles, interventricular foramina, cerebral aquduct, subarachnoid space, central canal, arachnoid villi, and superior sagittal sinus

– Blood brain barrier

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Cerebrospinal Fluid• The composition of cerebrospinal fluid:

– Its composition is similar to plasma, except contains less protein and more of the electrolytes Na+ and Cl-

• What about the production of CSF?– All of the CSF is replaced ~ every 8 hours…a very fast turn

around!– The CSF is produced by choroid plexus of the lateral

ventricles

• What is the job of the CSF?– The CSF fills ventricles in brain and cushions and protects

CNS– In addition, it carries some nutrients– It can also carry chemical signals for the CNS

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How do we prevent bacteria and other foreignbodies from getting into the brain tissue?

• We have a blood-brain barrier

– Epithelial cells of capillary walls in the brain are joined by a tight junction

• The tighter the junction, the less permeable

– The blood-brain barrier protects the brain by helping to ensure stable levels of brain chemicals and keeping out bacteria

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Learning Objective #5

• Describe in general terms the location and composition of the spinal cord and associated structures.

• Include the following structures:

– White matter

– Gray matter

– Spinal nerves (dorsal and ventral roots)

– Dorsal root ganglion (spinal ganglion)

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Spinal Nerves/Ganglia

• We have dorsal and ventral roots that connect with eachother to form nerves. The nerves can become interlaced to produce plexus.

• There are 4 sets of plexus you need to know the location of:

– Cervical plexus is located in the neck

– Brachial plexus is located in the upper arm

– Lumbar plexus is located in the curve of the back

– Sacral plexus is located in the gluteal region

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Learning Objective #6

• Describe the general distribution and function(s) of the twelve cranial nerves

– See the supplemental reading on table #1

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Learning Objective #7

Give the functions of the following nerves• Axillary• Ulnar• Phrenic• Median• Radial• Musculocutaneous• Splanchnics• Obturator• Femoral• Common peroneal• Tibial• SciaticSee the supplemental reading on table #2

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Learning Objective #8

• Explain the role of reflexes in the control of movement and posture

• Include:

– Function of stretch reflex

– Flexor (withdrawal) reflex

– Crossed extensor reflex

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REFLEXES

• Review ‘neural mechanisms’ for reflex arc structures

• Reminder: although brain does not control reflex actions, it is informed

– The brain is informed but not involved

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There are several differenttypes of reflexes!

• The three reflexes you will be responsible for are the:

– Stretch reflex

– Flexor (withdrawal) reflex

– Crossed extensor reflex

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The Stretch Reflex

• The receptor is muscle spindle

• During a stretch reflex, the muscle contracts in response to overstretching

• It’s job is to prevent muscle tearing

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Flexor (withdrawal) Reflex

• For example: If you feel a painful stimulus on your hand, you will pull your hand back from painful stimulus

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The Crossed Extensor Reflex• This can include the flexor (withdrawal) reflex if

you step on something painful!

• The crossed extensor reflex causes contraction of flexor muscles / relaxation of extensor muscles on one side of the body and causes relaxation of flexor muscles / contraction of extensor muscles on opposite side of the body

• Examples of the crossed extensor reflex are– Walking

– maintaining balance while withdrawing a foot from a painful stimulus

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Learning Objective #9

• Explain the role of the autonomic nervous system, and compare its sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions with respect to:– Areas of origin of nerves fibers from the spinal

cord, the anatomic distribution of nerve fibers, and ocation of the ganglia

– Chemical transmitters released at pre- and postganglionic endings

– General effects of the two divisions on organs of the

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The autonomic nervous system

• We cannot control the happenings of the autonomic nervous system! It is all involuntary.

• There are two major subdivisions of the autonomic nervous system

– The sympathetic nervous system

– The parasympathetic nervous system

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Learning Objectives #10 and 11

• A little information before we begin #10 and 11– Sensory and motor pathways allow

communication back and forth between CNS and body structures.

– Pathways involve tracts: groups of nerves in white matter

– Most neurons in tracts cross over (decussate): carry signals from opposite side of body

– Most pathways consist of two or three neurons

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Learning Objective #10

• Discuss the following ascending pathways in terms of location and the type of sensory information carried

– Anterior (ventral) spinothalamic tract

– Lateral spinothalamic tract

– Fasciculi gracilis and cuneatus

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Ascending Pathways

• Ascending means ‘up’…it makes sense that it would carry sensory information to the CNS

• There are 3 neurons in an ascending pathway

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Non-specific Ascending PathwaysWhat is going on in those 3 neurons?

• The 1st order neuron - enters spinal cord

• The 2nd order neuron - crossover in spinal cord

• The 3rd order neuron – connects the thalamus to sensory cortex

• Examples of ascending pathways are the:

– Lateral Spinothalamic Tract

• It senses pain and temperature

– Anterior (ventral) Spinothalamic Tract

• It senses crude touch

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Specific Ascending Pathways• The 1st order neuron - enters spinal cord,

ascends in white matter

• The 2nd order neuron - crossover in medulla oblongata

• The 3rd order neuron - thalamus to sensory cortex

• Examples of specific ascending pathways– Dorsal Tracts (fasciculus cuneatus and fasciculus

gracilis)• They carry information about discriminative touch to the

brain

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Learning Objective #11

• Describe the direction of neuron signals of the following descending pathways, and discuss the functions of these pathways.

– Pyramidal (corticospinal) tracts

– Extrapyramidal (multineuronal) system

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What do the descending pathways do?

• Descending pathways carry motor information away from the CNS (uses efferent neurons)

• There are 2 Neurons in a descending pathway

– Upper Motor Neurons leave the brain

– Lower Motor Neurons leaves the CNS entirely (even the spinal cord) and carries a message to our muscle

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Tell me more about thedescending pathways

• What are some examples?

– The Pyramidal (Corticospinal) descending pathway:

• carries voluntary motor signals to skeletal muscles to control skilled movements

– The extrapyramidal descending pathway:

• Carries motor signals for balance and coordination

• The signals originate in midbrain of brainstem

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Learning Objective #12

• Explain the role of the following brain structures in controlling movement and posture:

– Cerebral cortex

– Basal nuclei (ganglia), including the effects ofdamage

– Cerebellum

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The many parts of our CNS that help control movements

• Cerebral Cortex– precentral gyrus initiates movements

• Basal Nuclei (Ganglia) : part of white matter of cerebrum– monitors and controls intensity of movements

• Cerebellum– receives signals from various movement receptors– subconscious coordination– If you injure your cerebellum you will see a loss of– coordination

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Learning Objective #13

• Define and/or explain

– There are many…see the module packet

– Many are defined in the supplemental reading (memorize them)

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The coverings in the CNS:The Meninges

• There are 3 connective tissue coverings of CNS– Dura Mater- closest to the bone

– Arachnoid- between the dura and pia

– Pia Mater- closest to the CNS tissue

• All three of them cover and protect the CNS

• There is a space below the arachnoid referredto as the subarachnoid space. It contains CSF!

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Learning Objective #14

Describe the cause and resulting dysfunction in the following disorders of the nervous system• Cerebral palsy• Concussion• Paralysis• Paraplegia• Quadriplegia• Meningitis• MS• Hydrocephalus• Parkinsonism (Parkinson’s disease)• Poliomyelitis

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Selected Disorders

• Aphasia - difficulty speaking

• Paraplegia - paralysis of lower section of body

– NOTE: related term is hemiplegia = paralysis of one side of the body

• Multiple Sclerosis - nervous system disorder caused by demyelination

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Selected Disorders

• Hydrocephalus: a buildup of CSF that causes pressure

• In a skull that has not sutured itself together, you will see a ‘swelling’ associated with the increased pressure

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Sensasi Somatic Indra Taktil

Oleh :

IWAN SAIN

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SENTUHAN (TAKTIL)

Reseptor sentuh terletak didekat kulit

Reseptor tekanan terletak lebih dalam

dijaringan

Getaran dirasakan sebagai sinyal yang

berulang secara cepat yg mengaktifkan baik

rseptor sentuh maupun tekanan

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RESEPTOR TAKTIL

Semua reseptor taktil adalah mekanoreseptor

yg berespon thd perubahan bentuk dan

penekanan fisik depolarisasi potensial

aksi kordaspinalis otak

Kepekaan dan kecepatan mengirim impuls

tergantung pada jenis reseptor taktil serta jenis

serat saraf yang menyalurkan sinyal

kekordaspinalis dan otak

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SERAT SARAF PERIFER YG

MENYALURKAN INFORMASI TAKTIL

Sensasi taktil di bawa ke korda spinalis melalui neuron sensorik jenis:

Serat tipe A (beta) ;

Serat tipe A (delta)

Serat tipe C

Serat Tipe A mengandung mielin, penyaluran potensial aksi cepat, terlokalisasi dan tajam (pinpoint) Serat tipe C sebaliknya.

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Transmisi Infromasi Taktil di Korda

Spinalis

Serat tipe A

Informasi taktil Akar dorsal saraf spinal korda spinalis serat A sistem lemniskus-kolumna dorsalis menyeberang ke kiri dan kenan dibatang otak thalamus korteks serebrum

Serat Tipe C

Informasi taktil yg lokalisasinya kurang baik serat saraf tipe C korda spinalis daerah retikularis dibatang otak serat saraf di anterolateral thalamus korteks serebrum

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Jenis-jenis reseptor Taktil

Ujung saraf bebas rangsangan yg dipersepsikan sebagai nyeri

Badan Meissner pd bagian-bagian tubuh yg tdk ditutupi rambut t.u pada bibir dan ujung jari diskriminasi tajam yg berkaitan dengan lokasi dan sentuhan

Reseptor taktil berujung lebar berkaitan dg badan meissner pd daerah-daerah yg berambut informasi sentuhan yg kontinue

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Lanjutan...

Reseptor end organ rambut setiap folikel rambut memiliki reseptor sentuh rambut dilengkungkan potensial aksi

End organ ruffini dalam kulit dan jaringan dibawahnya berespon thd perubahan bentuk dan memebrikan informasi tentang posisi sendi dan gerakan

Badan pasini terletak dibawah kulit dan jaringan tbh lainnya seperti penis, klitrois, dan puting susu berespon terhadap sentuhan dalam atau getaran berfrekuensi rendah beradaptasi

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SENSASI NYERI

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PENGERTIAN

Nyeri : Merupakan kondisi berupa

perasaan yang tidak menyenangkan

bersifat sangat subyektif karena

perasaan nyeri berbeda pada setiap

orang dalam hal skala atau tingkatannya,

dan hanya orang tersebutlah yang dapat

menjelaskan atau mengevaluasi rasa

nyeri yang dialaminya.

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1. Mc.Coffery (1979), nyeri adalah sebagai suatu keadaan yang mempengaruhi seseorang yang keberadaannya diketahui hanya jika orang tersebut pernah mengalaminya.

2. Wolf Weifsel Feurst (1974) mengatakan bahwa nyeri merupakan suatu perasaan menderita secara fisik & mental atau perasaan yang bisa menimbulkan ketegangan.

3. Arthur C.Curton (1983), Mengatakan bahwa nyeri adalah merupakan suatu mekanisme produksi bagi tubuh, timbul ketika jaringan sedang dirusak, dan menyebabkan individu tersebut bereaksi untuk menghilangkan ransangan nyeri.

4. Scrum Mengartikan nyeri sebagai suatu keadaan yang tidak menyenangkan akibat terjadinya ransangan fisik maupun dari serabut syaraf dalam tubuh ke otak dan diikuti oleh reaksi fisik, fisiologis, dan emosional.

Defenisi Nyeri

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FISIOLOGI NYERI

Munculnya nyeri berkaitan erat dengan reseftor dan adanya ransangan. Reseftor yang dimaksud adalah Nociceptor, merupakan ujung ujung syaraf sangat bebas yang memiliki sedikit bahkan tidak memiliki myelin yang tersebar pada kulit dan mukosa, khususnya pada visera, persendian, dinding arteri, hati dan kandung empedu.

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Reseptor Nyeri

Reseftor nyeri dapat memberikan respon akibat adanya stimulasi atau adanya ransangan. Stimulasi tersebut dapat berupa zat kimia seperti histamin, bradikinin, prostaglandin dan macam macam asam yang dapat dilepas apabila terdapat kerusakan pada jaringan akibat kekurangan oksigenasi. Stimulasi yang lain dapat berupa Termal, listrik ataupun mekanis.

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Selanjutnya, stimulasi yang diterima oleh reseftor

tersebut ditransmisikan berupa infuls-infuls nyeri ke

sumsum tulang belakang oleh dua jenis serabut yang

bermyelin rapat atau serabut A (Delta) dan serabut

lamban (serabut C). Serabut –serabut aferen masuk ke

spinal melalui akar dorsal (dorsal root) serta sinaps

pada dorsal horn. Dorsal horn terdiri dari atas beberapa

lapisan atau laminae yang saling bertautan. Diantara

lapisan dua dan tiga terbentuk subtantia glatinosa yang

merupakan saluran utama infuls.

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Kemudian, infuls nyeri menyebrangi sumsum

tulang belakang pada interneuron dan

bersambung ke jalur spinal asendens yang

paling utama, yaitu jalur Spinothalamic tract

(STT) atau jalur spinothalamus dan

spinoreticular tracc (SRT) yang membawa

informasi tentang sifat dan lokasi nyeri.

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Dari proses transmisi terdapat dua jalur mekanisme terjadinya nyeri, yaitu jalur opite dan jalur nonopiate. Jalur opiate ditandai oleh pertemuan reseftor pada otak yang terdiri atas jalur spinal desendens dari thalamus yang melalui otak tengah dan medula ke tanduk dorsal dari sumsum tulang belakang yang berkonduksi dgn nociceptor infuls sufresif. Sistem supresif lebih mengaktifkan stimulasi nociceptor yang ditransmisikan oleh serabut A. jalur nonopiate merupakan jalur desenden yang tidak memberi respons terhadap naloxone yang kurang banyak diketahui mekanismenya ( Barbara C. long 1989)

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KLASIFIKASI NYERI

Klasifikasi nyeri secara umum dibagi menjadi dua bagian yaitu nyeri akut dan kronis.

1. Nyeri Akut merupakan nyei yang timbul secara mendadak dan cepat menghilang, yang tidak lebih dari 6 bulan dan ditandai adanya peningkatan tegangan otot.

2. Nyeri kronis merupakan nyeri yang timbul secara perlahan lahan, biasa berlangsung dalam waktu yang cukup lama yaitu lebih dari 6 bulan.

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KLASIFIKASI NYERI

BERDASARKAN LOKASINYA

Nyeri yang timbul berdasarkan lokasinya dapat dibedakan menjadi 6 bagian yaitu :

1. Nyeri superfisial

2. Nyeri somatik dalam

3. Nyeri Viseral

4. Nyeri Alih

5. Nyeri sebar

6. Nyeri bayangan ( Fantom)

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Nyeri Superfisial : Biasanya timbul akibat stimulus

terhadap kulit seperti laserasi, luka bakar dll. Nyeri jenis

ini biasanya memiliki durasi yang pendek, terlokalisir, dan

memiliki sensasi yang tajam

Nyri Somatik dalam ( Deep somatik pain) adanya nyeri

yang terjadi pada otot dan tulang serta struktur penyokong

lainnya. Umumnya nyeri bersifat tumpul dan distimulasi

dengan adanya peregangan dan iskemia.

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Nyeri Viseral : Nyeri yang disebabkan oleh adanya

kerusakan organ inernal. Nyeri yang timbul bersifat

difus dan durasinya cukup lama. Sensasi yang timbul

biasanya tumpul.

Nyeri sebar (radiasi) adalah sensasi yang meluas dari

daerah asal ke jaringan sekitar. Nyeri jenis ini biasanya

dirasakan oleh klien seperti berjalan/bergerak dari

daerah asal nyeri ke kesekitar atau ke sepanjang bagian

tubuh tertentu. Nyeri bersifat intermitten atau konstan.

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Nyeri pantom adalah nyeri khusus yang dirasakan oleh klien yang mengalami amputasi. Nyeri oleh klien dipersepsi berada pada organ yang telah diamputasi seolah olah organnya masih ada.

Nyeri Alih (referred pain) adalah nyeri yang akibat adanya nyeri viseral yang menjalar ke organ lain, sehingga dirasakan nyeri dibeberapa tempat atau lokasi. Nyeri jenis ini dapat timbul karena masuknya neuron sensori dari organ yang mengalami nyeri kedalam medulla spinalis dan mengalami sinaps dengan serabut saraf yang berada pada bagian tubuh lainnya. Nyeri yang timbul biasanya pada beberapa tempat yang kadang jauh dari lokasi nyeri.

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KLASIFIKASI NYERI

BERDASARKAN ORGAN

Nyeri organik adalah nyeri yang diakibatkan adanya kerusakan (aktual atau potensial) organ. Penyebab nyeri umumnya mudah dikenali sebagai adanya cidera, penyakit atau pembedahan terhadap salah satu atau beberapa organ.

Nyeri Neuorogenik adalah nyeri akibat gangguan neuron, mis Neuralgia. Nyeri ini dapat terjadi secar akut maupun kronis.

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Nyeri psikogenik adalah nyeri akibat dari

berbagai akibat psikologis. Gangguan ini lebih

mengarah pada gangguan psikologis dari pada

gangguan organ. Nyeri ini umumnya terjadi

ketika efek-efek psikogenik seperti cemas dan

takut pada klien.

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STIMULASI NYERI

A.Mekanis : Istimulasi diterima oleh reseftor nyeri mekanosensitif :

1. Trauma pada jaringan tubuh, mis bedah akibat adanya kerusakan jaringan atau iritasi secara langsung pada reseftor.

2. Gangguan pada jaringan tubuh.mis edema akibat penekanan pd reseftor nyeri

3. Tumor. Dapat menekan reseftor nyeri

4. Iskemia pada jaringan

5. Spasme otot

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B. Termis / suhu : Istimulus diterima oleh

reseftor nyeri termoreseftor

Panas/dingin yang berlebihan yang

dapat menyebabkan kerusakan

jaringan

C. Kimia : Istimulus diterima oleh reseftor

nyeri chemosensitif :

Ischemia jaringan menyebabkan ransangan pd

reseftor nyeri karena tertumpuknya asam asam

laktat/brakinin dijaringan.

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BEBERAPA TEORI TTG NYERI

Ada beberapa teori tentang terjadinya ransangan nyeri diantaranya (Barbara C.Long 1989) : 1.Teori Pemisahan (Specifity theory).

Ransangan sakit masuk ke medulla spinalis (spinal cord) melalui cornu dorsalis yang bersinaps di daerah posterior, kemudian naik ke traktus lissur dan menyilang digaris median ke sisi lainnya, dan berakhir di korteks sensoris tempat ransangan tersebut diteruskan.

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2.Teori Pola (Patter theory) Ransangan nyeri

masuk melalui akar ganglion dorsal kemedulla

spinalis dan merangsang aktivitas sel T. hal ini

mengakibatkan suatu respon yang merangsang ke

bagian yang lebih tinggi, yaitu korteks serebri,

serta kontraksi menimbulkan persepsi dan otot

berkontraksi sehingga menimbulkan nyeri,

persepsi dipengaruhi oleh modalitas respons dari

reaksi sel T.

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3.Teori pengendalian gerbang ( Gate control theory). Nyeri

tergantung dari kerja serat saraf besar dan kecil yang keduanya

berada dalam akar ganglion dorsalis. Rangsangan pada serat saraf

besar akan meningkatkan aktivitas subtansiagelatinosa yang

mengakibatkan tertutupnya pintu mekanisme sehingga aktivitas sel

T terhambat dan menyebabkan hantaran rangsangan ikut

terhambat.Rangsangan serat besar dapat langsung merangsang

korteks serebri. Hasil persepsi ini akan dikembalikan kedalam

medulla spinalis melalui serat eferen dan reaksinya mempengaruhi

aktivitas sel T. Ransangan pada serat kecil akan menghambat

aktivitas subtansia gelatinosa dan membuka pintu mekanisme, shg

merangsang aktivitas sel T yg selanjutnya akan menghantarkan

rangsangan nyeri

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4.Teori Transmisi dan Inhibisi yaitu adanya stimulus

pada nociceptor memulai transmisi inful-lnfuls saraf,

sehingga transmisi infuls nyeri menjadi efektif oleh

neurotransmitter ayng spesifik. Kemudian, inhibisi

infuls nyeri menjadi efektif oleh infuls-infuls pada

serabut-serabut besar yang memblok infuls-infuls pada

serabut lamban dan endogen opiate sistem supresif.

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FAKTOR-FAKTOR YG MEMPENGARUHI

NYERI

Pengalaman nyeri setiap individu sangat bervariasi, dan

nyeri pada setiap orang dapat dipengaruhi oleh beberapa

hal :

1.ARTI NYERI : Arti nyeri pada setiap orang memiliki

banyak perbedaan dan hampir sebagian orang

mengartikan nyeri sesuatu hal yang negatif, seperti

membahayakan, merusak dan lain2, keadaan ini

dipengaruhi oleh berbagai faktor seperti usia, jenis

kelamin, latar belakang sosial budaya, lingkungan dan

pengalaman.

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2. Persepsi nyeri.

Persepsi neyri adalah merupakan penilaian yang sangat subyektif tempatnyapada korteks (pada fungsi evaluasi kognitif). Persepsi ini dipengaruhi olehfaktor yang dapat memicu stimulasi Nociceptor.

3. Toleransi nyeri :

Toleransi ini erat hubungannya dengan intensitas nyeri yg dapatmempengaruhi kemampuan seseorang menahan nyeri. Faktor yang dapatpeningkatan toleransi nyeri antara lain : Alkohol, obat2an, hipnotis, gesekandan garukan, pengalihan perhatian, kepercayaan yg kuat, sedangkan faktoryg dapat menurunkan toleransi antara lain kelelahan, rasa marah, bosan,cemas, nyeri yg tak kunjung hilang, sakit dsb.

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4.Reaksi terhadap nyeri :

Reaksi terhadap nyeri merupakan bentuk respon seseorang terhadap nyeri, seperti ketakutan, gelisah, cemas, menangis, dan menjerit.

Semua ini merupakan bentuk respon nyeri yang dapat dipengaruhi oleh beberapa faktor antara lain arti nyeri, tingkat persepsi nyeri, pengalaman masa lalu, nilai budaya, harapan sosial, kesehatan fisik dan mental, rasa takut, cemas, usia dll.

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INDRA KHUSUS

Dosen : Iwan, S.Kp, M.Kes

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Sistem Penglihtan

By Iwan, S.Kp, M.Kes

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STRUKTUR MATA EXTERNAL

Struktur mata eksternal adalah kelopak mata dan bulu mata.

Kelopak mata tersusun oleh kulit tanpa lemak subkutis.

Kelopak mata sangat elastis dan mudah diregangkan, seperti terlihat pada taruma tumpul dan edema orbita.

Batas kelopak mata berakhir pada plat tarsal, terletak pada batas kelopak. Batas ini mengandung banyak kelenjar kecil, ductus, batang rambut, dan bulu mata.

Hubungan antara kelopak mata atas dan bawah dinamakan kantus.

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Lanjutan…

Pada bagian luar, kantus lateral terletak di aspek temporal lateral mata.

Pada bagian dalam, kantus medial mengandung puncta, suatu muara yang memungkinkan air mata mengalir kebagian atas sistem lakrimal.

Rongga elips antara kelopak mata terbuka disebut fissura palpebra

Sisi bawah kelopak mata dilapisi oleh konjuktiva palpebra,

Posisi kelopak mata sebagian dikontrol oleh dua saraf kranial yaitu saraf III untuk membuka kelopak mata dan saraf VIIuntuk menutup kelopak mata.

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SISTEM LAKRIMAL

Menjaga lingkungan lembab untuk mata bagian eksternal anterior.

Ada dua macam airmata yang biasanya diproduksi:

Air mata pelumas mengandung lemak, air dan mukosa.

Air amata aqueus dihasilkan sebagai respon emosi dan iritasi dan hanya mengandung air.

Kelenjar pada mata yaitu:

Kelenjar lakrimal memproduksi air mata berair, terletak dibagian anterior lateral atap orbita bagian atas.

Kelenjar lakrimal asesorius menjaga mata bagian anterior tetap lembab. Terdiri atas kelenjar zeis (sebasius) dan moll (siliriasis) yang terletak dalam batas kelopak mata. Kelenjar meibon terletak pada satu barisan sepanjang tarsus kelopak mata (kerangka lebar kelopak mata) dan berperan dalam komponen minyak dan air mata.

Pengeluaran air mata meliputi: air mata sistem pengaliran air mata sinus nasalis puncta kanalikuli atas dan bawah sakkus/ductus lakrimalis sinus nasalis.

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OTOT MATA

Gerakan mata dikontrol oleh enam otot ekstra okuler yang dipersarafi oleh saraf kranial III, IV dan VI.

Otot-otot penggerak bola mata adalah:

Musculus rektus lateralis melakukan abduksi

Musculus rektus medialis melakukan adduksi

Musculus rektus superior mengangkat bola mata dan adduksi

Musculus rektus inferior melakukan depresi dan abduksi

Musculus oblik superior menggerakkan mata kearah lateral inferior

Musculus oblik inferior menggerakkan mata kearah superior dan ke lateral

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SUPLAI DARAH

Suplai darah mata berasal dari cabang arteri karotis interna, cabang retina oftalmik, arteri retina sentralis dan koriokapilaris

Bagian mata yang seharusnya avaskuler adalah lensa dan kornea

Kornea menerima nutrisi dari :

Oksigen yang larut dalam air mata

Humos aqueus

Bagian kecil dari pembuluh darah kecil sekitar limbus korneosklera

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BOLA MATA

Bola mata dilapisi oleh 3 lapisan

primer : sklera, uvea

(mengandung koroid) dan

retina. Ketiga lapisan tersebut

berperan dalam bentuk mata

yang bulat ketika berisi humor

vitreus substansi seperti

gelatin antara lensa dan retina

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SKLERA

Bagian putih mata

Dibagian posterior memiliki lubang yang dilalui saraf

optikus dan pembuluh darah retina sentralis

Dibagian anterior berlanjut menjadi kornea

Permukaan anterior sklera diselubungi secara longgar

dengan konjugtiva:

Konjugtiva palpebramelapisi sisi bawah kelopak mata

merupakan kelanjutan dari konjugtiva bulabaris

Konjugtiva bulbaris menyelubungi sklera anterior

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UVEA

Lapisan tengah yang mengandung pigmen tersusun atas:

Koroid lapisan vaskuler yang memberikan darah kelapisan epitel berpigmen retina dan retina sensoris perifer

Iris bagian anterior traktus uvea dan membagi ruangan antara kornea dan lensa dan memberikan warna khas pada mata, ditengah-tengah iris terdapat pupil. Pupil akan berubah ukurannya ketika beradaptasi dengan cahaya dengan berkontraksi dan berdilatasi

Badan silier mengandung serabut otot yang menyebabkan kontraksi dan relaksasi zonula lensa, yang berperan dalam menjaga tekanan intra okuler (TIO) dengan mensekresi humor aqueus. TIO normal 12 – 21 mmHg

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RETINA

Retina adalah lapisan dalam pada bola mata yang merupakan jaringan delapan lapis, semitransparan, tipis yang melapisi bagian dalam bola mata. Bagian terdalam bola mata mengandung sel ganglionik dan fotosensitif retina sensoris.

Pada lapisan luar, bagian satu lapis adalah epitelium berpigmen. Retina mengandung vena dan arteri yang memberi asupan darah terentang mulai dari saraf optikus, dibagian posterior sampai bagian atas anterior berigi (ora serrata) dekat badan silliar

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RETINA (Lanjutan)

Batang dan Kerucut

o Retina mengandung dua jenis sel fotosintetis adalah batang dan kerucut

o Sel batang (terletak tertutama pada aspek perifer retina) bertanggung jawab untuk penglihatan perifer, ketajaman pandangan pencahayaan rendah, dan membedakan bentuk dan batas benda

o Sel kerucut (terletak lebih kesentral dengan konsentrasi tertinggi terdapat pada makula lutea) bertanggung jawab thd pembedaan warna dan penglihatan tajam. Dan sel ini hanya terdapat di fovea sentralis

o Asupan darah ke makula secara ekslusive melalui koroid

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RETINA (Lanjutan)

Diskus Optikus

Ditempat inilah retina sensoris berkonvergensi membentuk saraf optikus

Tidak memilki sel fotosintesis Titik buta

Retina distimulasi oleh cahaya yang masuk melalui kornea, lensa dan humor vitreus

Derajat ketajaman visus bergantung pada kejernihan refraksi (alur) cahaya dan bentuk bola mata

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RETINA (Lanjutan)

Proses Melihat

Impuls Retina terjadi urutan

reaksi kimia dan hubungan neurologis

impuls ke epitel berpigmen

mentransfer ke Saraf optikus

kiasma optikus korteks visual di

lobus oksipital

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STRUKTUR RUANG ANTERIOR

Iris

Pupil berbentuk bulat, reguler, dan mempunyai ukuran dan respon terhadap cahaya yang sama pada kedua mata

Lensa kristalina struktur transparan, tak berwarna, avaskuler, dan bikonveks

Badan Sillier

Humor aqueus diohasilkan dikamera posterior oleh badan sillier

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STRUKTUR RUANG POSTERIOR

Ruang posterior merupakan segmen kecil yang dibatasi dibagian depan oleh sisi posterior. Dan bagian posterior oleh humor vitreus. Badan sillier, zonula sillier, aspek posterior lensa, dan humor aqueus berada dikamera posterior

BADAN VITREUS

Dibatasi pada bagian anterior oleh lensa dan badan sillier dan bagian posterior oleh retina

Badan vitreus harus avaskuler dan tidak mengandung partikel

Humor vitreus akan mengerut sesuai pertambahan usia dan pada keadaan dehidrasi berat, serta dapat mengakibatkan terlepasnya retina

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Gbr. Anatomi Mata

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Gbr. Anatomi Mata

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REVIEW SISTEMPENDENGARAN

BY IWAN, S.Kp

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1. TELINGA LUAR

Aurikula

(pinna)

Meatus

auditorius

externus

Bagian-bagian Telinga

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TELINGA TENGAH

Membran timpani

Rongga timpani

Tuba eustachius

Tulang-tulang pendengaran

- Malleus

- Inkus

- stapes

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TELINGA DALAM

1. Labirin bertulang

Koklea

Vestibulus

Kanalis semisirkularis

2. Labirin membranosa

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Gelombang suara

Getaran membran timpani

Diteruskan kemaleus, inkus dan stapes

Vestibulus perilympfe endolympfe

Meatus akustikus eksternum

Ujung saraf VIII dipersepsikan otak

INI ADALAH MEKANISME MENDENGAR

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Keseimbangan

Nervus vestibuler

perubahan kedudukan cairan endolymfe

sel rambut melengkung/berubah

potensial aksi

kanalis semisirkularis + aparatus vestibularis

Gerakan refleks

Gerakan refleks mempertahankan keseimbangan

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RUANGAN PADA KOKLEA

Pipa teratas ada jendela lonjong

Pipa terbawah ada jendela bundar

Pipa tengah saluran koklea /cairan endolimfe

Berisi cairan perylimfe

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Gbr. Anatomi Telinga

AURIKULA

Kanalis Auditoriuseksterna

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REVIEW SISTEM PENCIUMAN

By Iwan, S.Kp

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HIDUNG

Terdiri atas bagian eksternal dan internalBagian eksternal menonjol dari wajah dandisangga oleh tulang hidung dan kartilagoBagian internal hidung adalah rongga berlorongyang dipisahkan menjadi rongga hidung kanandan kiri oleh pembagi vertikal yang sempit, yangdisebut septumRongga hidung dilapisi dengan membranmukosa yang sangat banyak mengandungvaskular yang disebut mukosa hidung

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Lanjutan Hidung

Permukaan mukosa hidung dilapisi oleh sel-sel goblet yang

mensekresi lendir secara terus menerus dan bergerak ke

belakang ke nasofaring oleh gerakan silia

Hidung berfungsi sebagai saluran untuk udara mengalir ke

dan dari paru-paru

Hidung juga berfungsi sebagai penyaring kotoran dan

melembabkan serta menghangatkan udara yang dihirup ke

dalam paru-paru

Hidung juga bertanggung jawab terhadap olfaktori

(penghidu) karena reseptor olfaktori terletak dalam mukosa

hidung, dan fungsi ini berkurang sejalan dengan

pertambahan usia

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MEKANISME SENSASI BAU

Reseptor sel-sel olfaktorius yg melapisimembrane mukosa hidung

Sel-sel olfaktorius mengandung silia depolarisasi

Depolarisasi karena terikat oleh zat-zatkimia yg sesuai bau tertentu dari udara

Depolarisasi sel-sel ini pembentukanpotensial aksi dilobus olfaktorius otak

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PENGECAPAN

By Iwan, S.Kp

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PENGECAPAN

Reseptor pengecapan papil pengecap (taste buds)

Taste buds terdapat pd lidah

Reseptor berespon thd rasa manis, pahit, asam, dan asin

Depolarisasi papil-papil pengecap pengaktifan saraf kranialis V, VII, IX, dan X Thalamus korteks serebrum

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ThanKs…

SeE yoU NexT time….

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JARINGAN OTOT

KONTRAKSI OTOT

MEKANISME REFLEKS

AKTIVITAS REFLEKS

MEKANISME GERAK TUBUH

By Ns. Iwan, S.Kp, M.Kes

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Jaringan Otot

Jaringan otot tersusun atas sel-sel otot

yang fungsinya menggerakkan organ-

organ tubuh. Kemampuan tersebut

disebabkan karena jaringan otot mampu

berkontraksi. Kontraksi otot dapat

berlangsung karena molekul-molekul

protein yang membangun sel otot dapat

memanjang dan memendek

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Jenis-Jenis Otot

Jaringan Otot PolosJaringan otot polos mempunyai serabut-serabut

(fibril) yang homogen sehingga bila diamati di

bawah mikroskop tampak polos atau tidak

bergaris-garis.

Otot polos berkontraksi secara refleks dan di

bawah pengaruh saraf otonom.

Bila otot polos dirangsang, reaksinya lambat.

Otot polos terdapat pada saluran pencernaan,

dinding pembuluh darah, saluran pernafasan.

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Jenis-Jenis Otot

Jaringan Otot Jantung/Miokardium

Jaringan otot ini hanya terdapat pada lapisan

tengah dinding jantung.

Strukturnya menyerupai otot lurik, meskipun

begitu kontraksi otot jantung secara refleks

serta reaksi terhadap rangsang lambat.

Fungsi otot jantung adalah untuk memompa

darah ke luar jantung

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Jenis-Jenis Otot

Jaringan Otot LurikNama lainnya adalah jaringan otot kerangka karena

sebagian besar jenis otot ini melekat pada kerangka tubule.

Kontraksinya menurut kehendak kita dan di bawah pengaruh saraf sadar.

Dinamakan otot lurik karena bila dilihat di bawah mikroskop tampak adanya garis gelap dan terang berselang-seling melintang di sepanjang serabut otot. Oleh sebab itu nama lain dari otot lurik adalah otot bergaris melintang.

Kontraksi otot lurik berlangsung cepat bila menerima rangsangan, berkontraksi sesuai dengan kehendak dan di bawah pengaruh saraf sadar.

Fungsi otot lurik untuk menggerakkan tulang dan melindungi kerangka dari benturan keras.

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Otot Lurik (lanjutan)

Miofibril

Sub unit dari masing-masing serat otot

Sebuah sel otot dibentuk dari banyak miofibril

Miofilamen

unit fungsional sel otot

Sub unit dari miofibril

Terdiri atas protein-protein kontraktil yang tebal

dan tipis

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Sarkomer

Miofilamen yang berkelompok bersama kedalam suatu

pola berulang

Setiap sarkomer mengandung filamen tebal dan tipis

Filamen tebal terletak didaerah central sarkomer yang

terdiri dari ratusan salinan protein kontraktil miosin

Filamen tipis melekat pada bagian tepi sarkomer yang

terdiri atas tropomiosin, troponin, dan aktin

Daerah sarkomer yang hanya terdiri filamen tebal

disebut zona H, bila hanya terdapat filamen tipis disebut

zone I. pita A adalah tempat filamen tebal dan tipis

saling tumpang tindih. Sedangkan garis Z adalah tepi

sarkomer tempat aktin melekat.

Setiap sarkomer terentang dari garis Z kegaris Z lainnya

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Jembatan-Silang

Adalah kepala miosin yang membentuk

tonjolan-tonjolan kecil yang terbentang dari

filamen miosin

Satu molekul miosin terdiri dari 6 rantai

Dua rantai berat berpilin bersama untuk membentuk

sebuah ekor panjang dengan dua kepala globular

Empat rantai ringan bergabung, pada setiap dua

rantai membentuk satu kepala, dengan sebuah

kepala miosin, kepala-kepala tersebut membentuk

tonjolan-tonjolan kecil yang terbentang dari filamen

miosin

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Kontraksi ototTerjadi apabila jembatan silang miosin berikatan dengan

tempat-tempat spesifik diprotein aktin

Bila pengikatan ini terjadi maka sebuah molekul ATP

yang terdapat dikepala miosin akan terurai oleh enzim

miosin ATPase dan terjadi pembebasan energi

Energi tersebut digunakan untuk mengayunkan

jembatan silang filamen aktin dan miosin bergeser

satu sama lain pemendekan otot (kontraksi)

Selama kontraksi, panjang filamen aktin da miosin tidak

berubah, tetapi pita I dan Zona H memendek

Setiap kontraksi otot melibatkan siklus berulang

pergeseran filamen dan menimbulkan tegangan pada

otot untuk bekerja

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Penggabungan eksitasi-kontraksiPenyampaian potensial aksi oleh neuron

motorik ke serat otot rangka neuron melepaskan asetilkolin (Ach) ke taut neuromuskular Ach berdifusi ke end plate berikatan dengan receptor channel Na terbuka ion-ion Na masuk kedalam sel depolarisasi potensial aksi disalurkan keserat otot depolarisasi serat otot menyebar keserat via tubulus transversus yg berjalan antara pita A da I.

Bila bagian dalam sel positif ion-ion kalsium dibebaskan dari kompartemen intrasel (retikulum sarkoplasma) kadar kalsium intra sel meningkat kontraksi otot

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Peran Kalsium Intrasel pada Iniasi Kontraksi OtotSewaktu serat otot rangka berada dalam keadaan

istirahat kepala miosin dihambat untuk berikatan dengan filamen aktin.

Tanpa mengikat aktin, ATP miosin tdk dapat diuraikan dan otot tidak berkontraksi.

Kepala miosin dihambat untuk berikatan dengan molekul aktin karena adanya dua protein lain yang membentuk filamen tipis : tropomiosin dan troponin.

Tropomiosin diperkirakan terletak diatas molekul aktin pada keadaan istirahat dan menghambat pengikatan jembatan silang miosin suatu tempat diaktin.

Troponin melekat kemolekul aktin dan tropomiosin serta troponin juga memilki tempat ikatan untuk kalsium.

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Peran Kalsium Intrasel pada Iniasi Kontraksi

Otot (lanjutan)

Bila konsentrasi kalsium intrasel meningkat berikatan

dengan troponin pergesaran posisi troponin pada

molekul tropomiosin pergeseran posisi tropomiosin

terhadap aktin terbukanya tempat aktif untuk

mengikat miosin terbuka pengikatan miosin dengan

tempat aktif aktin ATPase miosin diaktifkan dan ATP

diuraikan menghasilkan energi jembatan silang

terayun filamen-filamen bergeser satu sama lain

otot berkontraksi

Semakin banyak jumlah jembatan silang yang

berhubungan dan terayun pada suatu saat semakin

besar tegangan yang dihasilkan oleh otot

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Peran Kalsium Intrasel pada Iniasi Kontraksi Otot (lanjutan)Setelah setiap ayunan jembatan silang molukel ADP

dibebaskan dari miosin memungkinkan molukel ATP kedua berikatan dengan miosin.

Sewaktu ATP baru terikat jembatan silang dibebaskan dari aktin.

Apabila kalsium intrasel masih tetap tinggi ATP baru akan diuraikan dan jembatan silang kembali terayun.

Penggabungan eksitasi-kontraksi terjadi apabila konsentrasi kalsium intrasel meningkat dari konsentrasi molar istirahat sebesar kurang dari 10-7 menjadi 10-5

Selama potensial aksi yang lazim, konsentrasi kalsium adalah sekitar 2 x 10-4 molar, sekitar 10 kali kadar yang diperlukan untuk kontraksi maksimun otot

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Relaksasi otot

Sewaktu kalsium dipompa kembali ke dalam

retikulum sarkoplasma serat otot melemas

Pemompaan kalsium adalah suatu proses aktif

yang terjadi di membrane retikulum

Sarkoplasma. Proses ini menggunakan energi

yang berasal dari penguraian molekul ATP yang

lain

Sewaktu kadar kalsium turun sampai sekitar

10-7, maka troponin dan tropomiosin kembali

menghambat pengikatan aktin serta miosin dan

kontraksi otot berhenti

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Kelelahan Otot

Apabila sumber-sumber ATP diotot habis

kelelahan

Apabila otot kekurangan oksigen

kelelahan lebih cepat terjadi

Apabila tejadi kelelahan otot otot

bergantung pada glikolisis anaerob dan

energi cadangan (simpanan glikogen)

Glikolisis anaerob asam laktat

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Kontraksi Isometrik

Adalah kontraksi dimana terjadi ayunan

jembatan silang dan terbentuk tegangan,

tanpa pemendekan otot

Terjadi sewaktu mencoba mengangkat

suatu beban yang memerlukan tegangan

yang lebih besar daripada tegangan yang

ia hasilkan

Tidak terjadi kerja mekanis, tegangan

terbentuk tetapi otot tidak memendek

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Kontraksi Isotonik

Terjadi saat memendek karena

mengangkat beban tetap.

Terjadi kerja berupa pengangkatan beban.

Contoh mengangkat berat

Sebagian besar kontraksi otot mencakup

periode isotonik dan isometrik

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Serat “kedut” Cepat

Adalah serat besar yang dapat menghasilkan tegangan besar setiap kali berkontraksi

Fast twitch febers melepaskan kalsium dengan sangat cepat dari retikulum sarkoplasma

Serat-serat ini kurang memerlukan vaskularisasi karena kurang mengandalkan diri pada fosforilasi oksidatif

Serat ini tampak putih karena kurang vaskularisasi

Serat-serat ini cepat lelah dan predominan pada otot atlit angkat beban dan pelari cepat

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Serat Kedut Lambat

Berukuran kecil, sangat tervaskularisasi dan terutama tergantung pada fosforilasi oksidatif sebagai sumber ATPnya

Otot dengan serat kedut lambat tampak merah karena vaskularisainya yg tinggi dan adanya protein mioglobin, mioglobin berikatan dan menyimpan oksigen diserat kedut lambat

Serat kedut lambat memiliki daya tahan lama dan predominan pada otot-otot yg diperlukan untuk menghasilkan tegangan jangka mis. Otot punggung

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Jenis-Jenis Otot

Jaringan Otot Jantung/Miokardium

Jaringan otot ini hanya terdapat pada lapisan

tengah dinding jantung.

Strukturnya menyerupai otot lurik, meskipun

begitu kontraksi otot jantung secara refleks

serta reaksi terhadap rangsang lambat.

Fungsi otot jantung adalah untuk memompa

darah ke luar jantung

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Aktifitas Refleks

Pada gerak refleks, impuls melalui jalan pendek atau jalan pintas, yaitu dimulai dari reseptor penerima rangsang saraf sensori ke pusat saraf diterima oleh set saraf penghubung (asosiasi) tanpa diolah di dalam otak langsung dikirim tanggapan ke saraf motor untuk disampaikan ke efektor, yaitu otot atau kelenjar. Jalan pintas ini disebut lengkung refleks.

Gerak refleks dapat dibedakan atas refleks otak bila saraf penghubung (asosiasi) berada di dalam otak, misalnya, gerak mengedip atau mempersempit pupil bila ada sinar dan refleks sumsum tulang belakang bila set saraf penghubung berada di dalam sumsum tulang belakang misalnya refleks pada lutut

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Mekanisme refleks

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Mekanisme refleks

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Troponin

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