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THE NAVAJO NAT ION TAT IANA PAR ISFRONT AND BACK COVER IMAGE MINERAL AND COAL DEPOSITS FROM COAL MINE CANYON

CONTENTS

HISTORY THE LAND SEVEN GEOLOGIC WONDERS

ANTELOPE CANYON

MONUMENT VALLEY

COAL MINE CANYON

WINDOW ROCK

CANYON DE CHELLY NATIONAL MONUMENT

HORSESHOE BEND

PAINTED DESERT

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OPPOSITE PAGE IMG 1 CARVED OUT SANDSTONE FORMATION IN MONUMENT VALLEY

HISTORY

The Navajo Nation is the largest area of land governed by a Native American tribe in the United States of America. The previously named ‘Navajo Indian Reservation’ most-ly occupies northern Arizona, with smaller masses of land overflowing into the most western part of New Mexico, and southern Utah. In Navajo, the area legally defined as the Navajo Nation is called ‘Naabeehó Bináhásdzo’. Prior to this, Navajos had called this area of land ‘Diné Bikéya-ha’, which included the ‘Dinétah’- a name used to describe the traditional homeland of a Navajo. The legal name of the reservation has been a topic of constant debate ever since the Navajo Tribal Council started governing in 1923, including a more recent request to change the ‘Navajo’ in Navajo Nation into ‘Diné’. The use of ‘Diné’ was refuted by the council as they thought it signified the hardship that the Navajo people had been subjected to before The Long Walk.

A Navajo who inhabits the reservation today will tradi-tionally speak Navajo and English. The Navajo language, which is their mother-tongue, is called ‘Na-Dené’, which is a southern Athabaskan language. According to historical and archaeological evidence, the Athabaskan ancestors of the Navajos migrated from northwestern Canada and Alaska to the Southwest of the United States in 1400 AD. Already inhabiting the new land here were the Pueblo People- who were split into two main groups depending on their culture and beliefs. Tribes recognised today as Hopi and Zuñi, for example, were organised by matrilineal kinship systems, whereas Tanoan-speaking Pueblos were organised by a patrilineal kinship system.

The Ancient Pueblo People, or as the Navajo call them, the ‘Anaasází’ (‘Ancient Ones’), are believed to be the ances-tors of the Pueblo People, who date back to the 12th Centu-ry. They lived in small pit houses (which were semi-sub-ter-rainian structures) or in cliff dwellings (which were small sandstones houses built in caves under rock overhangs,

found in canyon walls). The largest and most well-pre-served cliff dwellings can be found at the Navajo National Monument- a protected reserve found in the northern part of the Navajo Nation. The Pueblo People carried on the tra-dition of living in these dwellings from their Anaasází’ an-cestors, while the Navajos were renowned for being ‘Takers of the Field’. This meant that they lived in hogans- dwell-ings made from mud and tree bark- which were generally constructed on flat plains of land. When the Navajos first came into contact with the Pueblo People they were very friendly towards each other, sharing their knowledge of pottery-making and farming, both skills which the Navajos practice in present day. It was only after the unrest between the Navajos and Americans that the Hopi and Navajos be-came isolated enemy tribes.

The Navajo’s and Hopi’s first encounter with foreigners was with the Spanish in the 16th Century. The Spanish started colonising unclaimed territories in the Southwest, slowly cre-ating friendly bonds with the natives of that area. Among the Spaniards were Roman Catholic priests, whose aim was to convert the Hopis and Navajos to Catholicism. Those who did not want to convert were enslaved by the Span-iards. The Hopis revolted, and slaughtered all of the priests. Leading up to the 19th Century there was a lot of unrest between the Navajos, Hopis, Spanish and Americans. The Americans and Navajo were involved in a perpetual cycle of pillaging each other’s land and livestock, killing many men along the way. Simultaneously, there were many years of discord between the Spanish and Hopis. After two decades of fighting, the US government confiscated and demolished the Navajos’ food sources, leaving them helpless and forcing them to surrender.

In 1864, the beginning of ‘The Long Walk of the Navajos’, also known as ‘The Long Walk to Bosque Redondo’ com-menced. The Navajos were forced by the government of the United States of America to walk, at gunpoint, from

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the northeastern part of Arizona to an area called Bosque Redondo, in Fort Sumner. The 300-mile trip killed over 200 people and left the remaining 9000 in an area no larger than 40 square miles, a small area of land for 9000 settlers to make a new life for themselves. Bosque Redondo had limited water and food resources; this made it vulner-able to natural disasters, which in turn depleted resources even further. Crop failures due to infestations, floods and drought plagued the camp, leaving the Navajos with even less to support pastoral life. Eventually in 1868, the ‘Long Walk Home’ began.

The Treaty of Bosque Redondo was created, which stated that the US government would establish schools for the Navajos in the ‘Navajo Indian Reservation’ as long as they attended. In addition to this they were granted permission to go back to their traditional homeland, which at the time amounted to 3.5 million acres. The borders of the reserva-tion were defined as the northern border of Arizona, the eastern border which ran through Fort Lyon, the southern border which ran through Fort Defiance, and the western border at longitude 109 30’. The once plentiful reservation was barren and infertile. This was due to the pillaging, which had taken place while the Navajos were at Bosque Redondo. This led to a small majority of Navajos re-estab-lishing their homes outside of the reservation- something which became commonplace as there were no physical boundaries.

With little to no crops, and dilapidated hogans, trading food and products became more important than ever. Trad-ing Posts- such as the Hubbell Trading Post- provided sup-plies to those who had been left with nothing after The Long Walk. The local tribes would gather at the posts to trade their handcrafted rugs, pottery and jewellery for oth-er goods such as food. Most of the trading posts established in the early 1900’s have been inactive for years; the Hubbell Trading Post was the only trading post which stayed open

until the mid 1990’s, when it was sold to the National Park Service, and kept open to the public until the present day.

In the years following The Long Walk, the Navajo Tribal Police were established to monitor the trading on and off the reservation. It was very common for the Navajos to leave the reservation to trade their goods, as many trading posts had closed. As it became commonplace, the land out-side the reservation was primarily utilised by the Navajos. This eventually led to the increase in size of the reservation to 16 million acres, roughly what it is today. Unfortunately with the expanding reservation, came the commercially-mo-tivated non-Navajo companies, who wanted to exploit the valuable land the Navajos occupied. The US government, without the permission of the Navajos, had given leases to non-Navajo mining companies and to farmers who needed more land for their livestock to graze on. In the subsequent years, the US government continued to exploit the reserva-tion, depleting natural resources, which re-ignited the unrest between the Navajos and Americans.

One example of this was the ‘Navajo Livestock Reduction’ of 1930- a motion which the US government introduced after claiming that the livestock had overgrazed the land, eventually making the reservation inhabitable. With little to no communication with the Navajos, the US government began to take away a large percentage of the livestock the Navajos owned, in the hope of allowing the over-grazed land to regenerate. Without admitting to or realising, a contributing factor to the over-grazing could have been a result from the grazing leases the US government had is-sued non-Navajo farmers previously.

Another way in which the US government restricted the Navajos, was in the 1940’s when they denied them welfare relief from World War II, due to the differences in their societal structures. Unbeknownst to the American govern-ment, the Navajo Code Talkers would eventually play an

integral role in World War II, by successfully relaying con-fidential information throughout the army using their na-tive language, ‘Na-Dené’. The Navajos were finally granted warfare relief, for the lack of food they endured, and the deserved recognition for their efforts in the War.

From the 1940’s to the early 1970’s, the US government continued to allow mining companies to mine in the reser-vation. In doing so without the necessary protective meas-ures, chemicals such as uranium contaminated the land and the people; the Navajos are still to receive compensation for this.

Due to the increased leasing of reservation land by the US government, the Navajos started to encroach on Hopiland- a reservation for the Hopi tribe located in the middle of the Navajo Nation. This caused the Hopis to appeal to the US government, in hopes of creating a legal boundary for the Hopi reservation, which would keep the Navajos out. The tribe were granted their request in the Navajo-Hopi Land Settlement Act of 1974, allocating them roughly 2 million acres of land. For the Navajos this meant a further reduc-tion in reservation land, leaving them with a total 27,000 square miles by 2013.

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Dinetah – © map Hannah Janssen

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MAP SHOWING THE NAVAJO AND HOPI NATIONS, REFFERING TO LANDMARKS IN NAVAJO

IMG 2 NAVAJO NATION COUNCIL CHAMBER A CHAMBER IN WINDOW ROCK WHERE THE TRIBAL GOVERNMENT MEET

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IMG 3 NAVAJO NATIONAL MONUMENT THE OLDEST AND LARGEST ANCIENT PUEBLO CLIFF DWELLING IN THE NAVAJO NATION

IMG 4 NAVAJO NATIONAL MONUMENT THE OLDEST AND LARGEST ANCIENT PUEBLO CLIFF DWELLING IN THE NAVAJO NATION

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IMG 5 HUBBELL TRADING POST IMG 6 AN OLD WAGON WHICH WAS USED TO TRANSPORT TRADING GOODS FOUND AT HUBBELL TRADING POST

THE LAND

The Navajo Nation- unlike the southern half of Arizona- has a fairly moderate climate due to its higher altitude. There are differing elevations in the reservation, with the plateau regions as low as 4000 ft above sea level, compared to the mountainous regions, such as the Chuska Mountains. More specifically Lukuchukai Mountain, the highest peak, exceeds 9,000 ft above sea level. The temperatures generally range from high 80’s F in the summer to below 0 F in the winter. It is not uncommon to have snowfall in the winter months which contributes to an average precipitation per annum of 5 inches in lower elevations and 25 inches in higher ele-vations. Flash floods are also common during the monsoon season, which begins in late July/August, giving the arid landscape a much needed respite.

The never-ending flat mesas and pine-covered mountain ranges are redeeming features of the reservation; this is namely because the Navajo Nation falls within the Colora-do Plateaus Province. In 1917, a man named Nevin Fenne-man published a paper called ‘Physiographic Subdivision of the United States’. In this paper he identifies the 8 regions, 25 provinces and 85 sections of differing physiology found in the United States. He later published more specific books; these discussed the differing physiologies found in the west-ern part of the US, and about differing physiologies in the eastern part of the US. The Intermontane Plateau is one of the eight regions highlighted in his book, which is divid-ed up into three different provinces: the Columbia Plateau Province, the Colorado Plateau Province and the Basin and Range Province.

The Colorado Plateau Province is situated in the Four Corners region of the Southwest (which encompasses north-eastern Arizona, north-western New Mexico, south-western Col-orado and south-eastern Utah). The Colorado River is the main drainage system for the Province, which branches off into smaller tributaries, including The Little Colorado River. The Province is generally made up of ‘high desert’ - arid

desert at higher elevations. Yet uncharacteristic of desert climates, the province also contains mountainous regions with dense pine forests. The Plateau is made up of seven sections, one of which is the Navajo Section; which in turn makes up most of the Navajo Nation. This section is known for its predominantly flat sandstone beds which are broken up by cuestas, canyons, valleys, and what is left of volcanic necks and buttes. The red colour of the sandstone is what the area is known for, lending itself to the reservation’s nick-name ‘Red Rock County’.

The Red Rock County together with the other sections which make up the province, combine to make a stable plateau, despite the north-south trending faults. This flat sedimen-tary rock has experienced little to no faulting or folding- something to which surrounding provinces have frequently been subjected. The Precambrian and Paleozoic history of the rock formations found in the Province have become increasingly evident due to annual bouts of wind and wa-ter, which cause erosion. Samples from the Grand Canyon found in a neighbouring section have shown that the oldest rocks, which are level with the Colorado River, are meta-morphic and igneous. These ‘Vishnu Basement Rocks’ are thought to date back to 1950 million years ago. On top of this basement layer are sedimentary rocks and basalt flows, which date back to 1300 million years ago. The presence of tensional tectonic forces below the basement layer resulted in the formation of faults. The continual process of faulting and other tectonic events created tilted blocks of land which eventually formed fault-block mountain ranges. In the sub-sequent years, natural erosion from wind and water took place which reduced the size of the mountain range. After multiple deposits of limestone, sediments from the moun-tains and sedimentary rock such as evaporites from lakes or oceans, the plateau started to level off creating a smooth surface.

During the late Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras, there were

more mountains created, but by a different force. The tectonic plates, instead of extending and creating a fault, moved towards each other, creating orogens. As one plate meets the other, subduction of the oceanic plate occurs while the Earth’s crust on the other plate breaks up into orogens, eventually forming mountains. Rivers and streams were redirected during the uplift, causing them to carve out formations such as Chinle valley- where Canyon de Chelly is located- and Kayenta- a town in the northern part of the Navajo Nation. Having gone through two periods of uplift, the Colorado Plateau- although being the largest and most stable block of crust between Montana and Mexico- was starting to show pre-existing faults which had formed in the Precambrian era.

With more uplift events during the Cenozoic era came the deposit of Chuska sandstone, which caps the Chuska Moun-tains on the western side of the Navajo Nation. In the latter part of the Cenozoic era, the tectonic plates began to tilt the Colorado Plateau, again redirecting streams and rivers, causing ‘headward erosion’. The erosion of the land from the increased gradient of the river stimulated the formation of mesas and buttes, such as Castle Butte. The severe uplift created pressure in the crust due to tensional tectonic forces, which surprisingly only affected the surrounding provinces. The Colorado Plateau remained intact, and seemed to be rising in elevation. This was due to the asthenosphere, a lay-er below the crust, cooling and expanding. This raised the Earth’s crust to almost a kilometre higher than the neigh-bouring Basin and Range Province. The land was thereafter plagued with ice ages in the Pleistocene epoch, which in-troduced alpine glaciers and pluvial lakes. Not much time passed before it started to warm up to a similar climate seen today in Northern Arizona.

The Colorado Plateau, through its rigorous changes in phys-iology, was discovered to have generous amounts of nat-ural resources and natural scenic beauties; it was therefore put under the protection of National Park Service. Natural

resources which can be found in the Province, of which a large proportion are located in the Navajo Nation, are petroleum, uranium and coal. Black Mesa and Coal Mine Canyon became the biggest providers for coal to the Nava-jo Generating Station, located in the northwest of the reser-vation. The 2250 megawatt power plant provides electrical power to a large proportion of citizens of Nevada, Arizona and California. It also provides a small amount of electrical power which is transferred into hydropower, that is used to pump the water from the Colorado River for the Central Arizona Project.

The Central Arizona Project is a vital waterway system which supplies water from the Colorado River in northern Arizona to the hotter, drier, southern Arizona. Before the construction of the Navajo Generating Station Power Plant in the late 1960’s, there was an increasing demand for elec-trical power in Arizona’s surrounding states. Plans for dams to be built along sections of the Colorado River, areas such as Marble Canyon and Bridge Canyon, had been refused by the National Park Service. This was in hind-sight a good decision, as the Navajo Bridge which crosses Marble Can-yon- and provides access to northwest Arizona- needed to be re-constructed only 10 years after the dam would have been built. The NPS instead came up with the idea of con-structing a power plant, but had no confirmed location.

Page, a small town in the northwest of the Navajo Nation, had been founded only a few years prior to these plans. Along with it came the construction of Glen Canyon Dam and a manmade reservoir called Lake Powell. The eventual location of the power plant- which is only 3 miles east of Page- meant that there was easy accessibility to a nearby town, via Highway 89, and a vast amount of readily avail-able surface water for cooling. One pitfall of the plan was that the station was to be located in the Navajo Nation, a protected National Park. Dangerous by-products such as SO2 and NOx were being released into the air, harming

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the citizens of the Navajo Nation and of Page. The EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) were forced to intro-duce the Clean Air Act, which stated that a large percent-age of equipment in the Power plant had to be updated. Although construction of the Navajo Generating Station seemed initially detrimental for the citizens of the Navajo Nation, it benefitted them in terms of annual revenue. Al-most 83% of the employees at the Navajo Generating Sta-tion are Navajos, whilst 93% of the mine employees – who provide coal for the station – are Navajos. This employment provides almost a quarter of the total revenue for the Nav-ajo Nation each year.

Page, although vicariously contributing to the Navajo Na-tion’s wealth, has not been included in the legal boundaries of the Navajo Nation since the mid 1950’s. The area of land on which Page was built was previously governed by the Navajos as part of the reservation. It wasn’t until the plans for the construction of the Glen Canyon Dam were con-firmed, that the border was moved to exclude Page from the reservation. The US government could see the potential for a large sum of money to be made through tourism, (with the upcoming plans for the Dam and resulting reser-voir) and therefore moved the boundary.

The dam was built to provide hydroelectricity to neighbour-ing states, and to control the flow of the Colorado River upstream. Lake Powell, was constructed to be able to hold the resulting large volume of water that the dam created, and is now the second largest artificial lake in the country. The dam, which extends North into southern Utah, was fully constructed by 1966, and was designed to prevent wa-ter shortages in months of serious drought. It proved to be successful in regulating water flow to areas with less water downstream, and provided electricity to the surrounding towns.

Environmentally, the construction of the dam, and

consequent formation of Lake Powell, has changed the ecol-ogy of the area. Due to its sheer volume, Lake Powell has significantly increased the precipitation in the air, which in turn has affected the humidity of the arid desert surround-ing it. In addition to this, Glen Canyon Dam traps a large amount of silt, which is slowly having a lasting effect on the canyons. Without the necessary dredging which is current-ly not in place, the dam has a life expectancy of roughly 500 years. From a citizen’s point of view, one advantage of the dam is that it prevents the destruction that flooding can cause. In reality, natural events such as flooding allow the area to regenerate itself, in a healthy cycle of life and death. Without periodical floods, the area has subsequently suffered from vegetation overgrowth- drastically changing the ecology of the area. As the ecology changes, rock slides and unexpected climate changes have resulted in a decline in revenue from tourism. Initially one main difference in the ecology was the huge decrease in native fish found in the Colorado River. Now, the native fish struggle to survive downstream of the dam due to the increase in temperature of the water by almost 10 F. The building of the dam has not only had a negative effect on the environment, but on humans as well. The large reservoir which feeds into the dam has become susceptible to thermal mass effect. The effect of thermal mass means the lake is unaffected by hot summer temperatures, forcing the water temperature to re-main at a chilly 47 F at the height of tourist season. With the influx of swimmers and boaters during summer months, the number of deaths due to hypothermia has increased significantly. Despite the casualties and negative environ-mental impacts, the dam and Lake Powell remain one of the most popular destinations for avid boating families and tourists to visit every year.

Tourists from countries across the world flood to see this man-made reservoir and dam juxtaposed with the natural scenic beauties surrounding it. The revenue generated from tourism in the whole of the Colorado Plateau Province

exceed that of the revenue from any natural resource which is found in the Province. Scenic beauties such as Horseshoe Bend, together with the land’s distinctive erosional features (some of which are of historical or cultural significance) are protected and preserved by the National Park Service.

The types of eroded features which can be found in the Navajo Nation include canyons such as Antelope Canyon and Marble Canyon, yardangs (carved out rock forma-tions) such as Window Rock, arroyos (dried up river beds) such as Grand Falls, hoodoos (spires of rock) seen in Coal Mine Canyon and monoliths (solitary large rock) found in Monument Valley. All of these features were created over time by a series of natural forces such as water and wind, creating a varied collection of natural wonders found in the Navajo Nation. Canyons, the most well-known of those features, have become one of the main attractions that the Navajo Nation has to offer for tourists, as they are so var-ied and unique in their size and colour.

The definition of a canyon is a deep ravine or gorge be-tween two cliffs or escarpments which has been carved out by erosion processes over time; one of these processes is riv-ers. Rivers naturally cut through surfaces if there is enough force behind them, and as they build up more momentum, they erode the surface until it reaches a baseline elevation. At this point, the river reduces the speed at which it cuts through the surface. This is unless the source water level becomes higher than the baseline elevation, at which point it will compensate by flowing faster, and erode the surfac-es even further. Rifts between mountains have also been known to instigate the formation of canyons. Mountains move away from each other due to the movement of tec-tonic plates beneath the crust, forming a crack in the litho-sphere. This crack will be filled with rainfall which drains off the mountain, and/or adjacent, nearby tributaries, which will erode the canyon further. The cliffs which form canyon walls will erode slightly from year to year, but will

generally hold their shape due to their composition of hard-er rocks- such as the iron-filled Navajo Sandstone.

Generally in hotter months, depending on the size of the canyon, the riverbed will be completely dry and full of deep sand. It isn’t until monsoon season (which starts in August), that canyons experience flash floods and long bouts of rain. This water present during the monsoon season aids the expansion of canyons in a process called frost wedging. This happens when water seeps into the cracks of rocks and freezes, making the rocks expand, eventually leading to large clumps of rock breaking off and falling into the river bed. For the most part, only deeper, larger canyons will have rivers which run through them year-round, which increases the occurrence of frost wedging. Conversely, slot canyons which are formed by the erosion of Navajo Sand-stone by flash floods and wind, will almost never experience frost wedging. During monsoon season, the water collects in the basins above the slot canyons, picking up speed as it flows toward the top of the canyon. The force of the water together with the sand (which it has picked up along the way) slowly erode away the walls of the canyon, widening the slot from year to year and giving it that smooth, flow-ing appearance.

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IMG 7 LUKUCHUKAI MOUNTAINS

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IMG 8 ROOF BUTTE THE HIGHEST PEAK OF LUKUCHUKAI MOUNTAINS 9575 M IMG 9 LITTLE COLORADO RIVER GORGE A GORGE WHICH THE LITTLE COLORADO RIVER HAS CARVED OUT

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IMG 11 CASTLE BUTTEIMG 10 LITTLE COLORADO RIVER GORGE A GORGE WHICH THE LITTLE COLORADO RIVER HAS CARVED OUT

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IMG 12 MARBLE CANYON THIS SECTION OF THE CANYON IS WHERE THE NAVAJO BRIDGE PASSES OVER THE COLORADO RIVER

IMG 13 THE NAVAJO BRIDGE BUILT TO ALLOW ACCESS BY CAR TO THE NORTHWEST PART OF ARIZONA

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IMG 14 WAHWEAP MARINA ON LAKE POWELL ONE OF THE LARGEST MARINAS ON LAKE POWELL IN PAGE

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IMG 15 GLEN CANYON DAM IMG 16 SUNSET OVER LAKE POWELL LOOKING INTO THE NAVAJO NATION

SEVEN GEOLOGIC WONDERS

Antelope Canyon- a world renowned slot canyon- is locat-ed just East of Page in the Navajo Nation. It has become one of the most famous slot canyons in the United States due to its vibrant colours and easy accessibility. It is split into two different sections, Upper Antelope Canyon and Lower Antelope Canyon. The Navajo name for Upper Antelope Canyon is ‘Tsé bighánílíní’, which means ‘the place where water runs through rocks’, and the Navajo name for Lower Antelope Canyon is ‘Hazdistazí’, which translates to ‘spiral rock arches’. These canyons make up the Navajo Sandstone formation, which is the youngest of the geologic formations that comprises the Glen Canyon Group.

The Glen Canyon Group is a group of geologic formations- which spans across Northern Arizona, Nevada, Colorado and Utah- making up a part of the Colorado Plateau Prov-ince. There are four formations in the group; each have been deposited on top of one another. Wingate Sandstone is the oldest formation- which lays underneath the Moe-nave Formation- both of which are home to many uni-dentified dinosaur and freshwater fish fossils. The Kayenta formation can be identified easily by its darker red/brown colour- often forming broken ledges- and is found above the Moenave Formation and below the Navajo Sandstone.

Navajo Sandstone is identifiable by its wide range of col-ours, spanning from white to light pink and all the way to dark red/brown. The different colours of the sandstone are a result of fluctuations in groundwater- which is dependent on the season. Minerals in the water- such as hematite, li-monite and goethite- fill the pore space within the quartz sand, giving it a pink/red colour. Other materials which accumulate with the sand, such as iron-oxide coatings, were initially deposited via the erosion of iron-bearing silicate minerals.

After the sand was buried for an extended period of time, large quantities of reducing fluid (which was composed of

ANTELOPE CANYONhydrocarbons and water) dissolved the iron coatings, bleach-ing the sandstone. The reducing fluids (which contained the iron in solution) mixed with the oxidising groundwater or rain, which led to the precipitation of the iron within the sandstone. Depending on the structure and porosity of the sandstone, varying amounts of minerals- such as hematite, limonite and goethite- are absorbed into the pores of the rocks. The varied concentrations of minerals and iron dictates the colour and formation of the stone. Common formations include spires, columns, fins, towers and flags. The amount of iron in the sandstone is disproportional to the amount of erosion it experiences. Therefore canyons which have sand-stone with large concentrations of iron will generally erode less, meaning they might be shallower and shorter in length.

Both Upper and Lower Antelope Canyon have attracted a sizeable amount of tourism to the Navajo Nation since permits started being issued in 1997. Both canyons cannot be entered unless you are with a Navajo guide and you have paid the required park fees. The upper canyon tends to be more popular for sightseers and photographers due to its easy accessibility and beams of light which enter from above. The lower canyon is much less popular due to the narrow passageways and metal staircases- installed for en-tering and exiting the canyon. Both canyons are commonly subjected to flash floods during monsoon season, which has resulted in a few deaths. Regardless of the casualties, both canyons are spectacularly vibrant in colour, with swirling patterns which signify the water erosion, making it one of the most beautiful and interesting destinations to visit in the Navajo Nation.

MONUMENT VALLEYMonument Valley is located in the northern part of the Navajo Nation, and is part of the Colorado Plateau. In Navajo it is called ‘Tsé Bii Ndzisgaii’, which translates to ‘valley of the rocks’. It is renowned for having several tall buttes, monoliths and monuments which stand on an arid valley floor. Some of the tallest buttes can reach up to 300 metres in height, lending to a very dramatic landscape, one which has been popularised by featuring as backdrops in several movies. These buttes, monoliths and monuments were carved out by rivers which use to sweep through the valley floor. What remains is siltstone and iron oxide, which gives the rocks their red colour. The buttes are clearly stratified, formed by a composite of three different layers. The bottom two layers are from the Cutler Formation- a rock formation which dates back to the Early Permian era, and spreads across northern Arizona. Both the Organ Rock Shale and then the de Chelly Sandstone are from the Cut-ler Formation, while the Moenkopi Formation- which is the top layer- was not laid down until the Middle Triassic era. Monument Valley- a protected area in the Monument Val-ley Tribal Park- is a popular tourist destination due to its unique collection of buttes, monoliths and monuments; a true representation of the extraordinary landscape found in the Navajo Nation.

COAL MINE CANYONCoal Mine Canyon is located on the border of the Navajo Nation and the Hopi Reservation. This six mile-long canyon was originally named ‘Honoo Jí’- meaning ‘saw-toothed or jagged erosion’- by the Navajos. The name was given to the canyon as it clearly describes the distinct geologic features within it, which include ‘saw-toothed’ hoodoos and ‘jagged’ spires and cliffs. The name ‘Coal Mine Canyon’ comes from the presence of coal and fossils in the canyon. The coal can clearly be seen in the array of vertically-stacked layers of rock, which all differ in colour. Among the colours are red, white and orange- pigments which are typical of those found in the Colorado Plateau. The stacked layers of colour-ed rock are evidence of three geologic formations found in the canyon- Dakota Sandstone, Cow Springs Sandstone and the Carmel Formation.

The oldest formation is the Carmel Formation, which was deposited in the Middle Jurassic era. It is composed of siltstone and mudstone, and is also known for containing many fossils. The Cow Springs Sandstone lays on top of the Carmel Formation and is mainly concentrated in north-ern Arizona- fading out before is reaches Utah- unlike the Carmel Formation and the Dakota Sandstone. Cow Springs Sandstone contains large amounts of coal and uranium de-posits- giving it a darker overall colour, compared to the lighter layers seen in the hoodoos. The Cow Springs Sand-stone is then topped by the Dakota Sandstone- which is predominantly made up of limestone and shale. The bright red colours are thought to have been a result of the shale partially burning from the underlying coal. All three layers stacked on top of one another, in a wide variety of colours, are comparable to the famous Bryce Canyon in Utah. The only difference is the lower elevation of Coal Mine Canyon, making it that much hotter than Bryce, ultimately exagger-ating and enhancing the different coloured strata. The fact that Coal Mine Canyon resides on the controversial Nava-jo-Hopi border- attracting less tourists- has meant that it is one of the best-kept secrets of the Navajo Nation.

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WINDOW ROCK

Window Rock is not only home to the tribal government of the Navajo Nation, but also to a geologic formation called a yardang. The Navajo Nation Council Chamber sits next to a World War II Memorial- which commemorates the work the Navajo Code Talkers did in the war- and also the yardang called Window Rock. A yardang is a rock which has been carved out by wind erosion. Most of them have smooth surfaces, in the form of hills or mounds, with exceptions such as Window Rock. Yardangs can range in size from large mega-yardangs to medium meso-yardangs and smaller micro-yardangs. Window rock is categorised as a mega-yardang as it exceeds 60 metres in width and 30 metres in height. Usually mega-yardangs are found in arid climates with strong winds, both of which epitomise the Navajo Nation. The strong winds eventually carved out the hole in the rock, as softer sedimentary rocks were easily eroded and harder rocks remained intact, forming a win-dow through the rock. This eroded feature was remarkable enough to have the Capital of the Navajo Nation named after it, in hopes of instilling pride within the natives for the land which they inhabit.

HORSESHOE BEND

Horseshoe Bend is a meander in the Colorado River which is shaped as a horse shoe. This meander is located 5 miles downstream of the Glen Canyon Dam, in Page. The main viewpoint is from a very high cliff, 300 metres above the water’s surface. Over 200 million years ago the surround-ing area up to the cliff edge was merely a sea of sand dunes, called ergs. The ergs were hardened by water- and the minerals in it- to form Navajo Sandstone. The major-ity of the rocks surrounding the horse shoe- shaped bend are Navajo Sandstone, intermittently dispersed with light-er-coloured rocks. These lighter coloured rocks resulted from the petrification of the sand dunes, which came about when the mineral calcite mixed with the rain and snow; bonding the sand grains together.

The bend was created by water erosion, which instigated when the Colorado Plateau went through a period of up-lift, 5 million years ago. The uplift increased the gradient at which the river bed lay, which increased the speed at which the river flowed. The river cut through the rock deep and fast, until it started to level out. The creation of this 180 bend in the river is a true geologic wonder- surrendering to natural forces such as water erosion- which will hopefully endure for years to come.

CANYON DE CHELLY NATIONAL MONUMENT

This monument was established in the early 1930’s, and is now under the protection of the National Park Service. It is most fa-mous for the Anasazi cliff dwellings and the pictographs and petroglyphs, which have been preserved since the Ancient Pueblo People inhabited the area. It is located in the southeast part of the Navajo Nation, next to a small town named Chinle. This canyon is made up of three different sections: de Chelly, del Muerto and Monument- when combined they encompass over 83,000 acres. It is one of the most visited National Monuments in the United States, owned and managed by the Navajos.

When the Navajos returned from The Long Walk, some of them returned to their homes in the canyon, while others decided to move to the surrounding mesas. Today only 30 Navajo families live in the canyon, of which the majority own houses above the canyon- which they inhabit during the wet season. They do not live in their ancestors’ traditional dwellings, but on the canyon floor, where they grow crops and let their sheep and cattle graze. Tall red cliffs- which make up the canyon walls- tower 400 me-tres above the cottonwoods and orchards. These red walls have been etched out by water which passes through the canyon dur-ing monsoon season, leaving windows through rocks and darker striations, which run down from the cliff top. The darker marks are the minerals in the water which have stained the sandstone and igneous rocks a variety of colours. Different concentrations of various minerals can dictate the colour of the sandstone, ranging from white to red to dark brown.

This collection of canyons are very sacred to the ‘Dine’ (Navajo people)- who call it ‘Tsegi’- as they feel connected to the land, and the history it represents. The history speaks for itself- shown by the well-preserved ancient ruins, carefully constructed in the canyon wall alcoves, and the pictographs and petroglyphs which are inscribed on the walls. The ancient ruins are not the only his-torically and geologically interesting formation in the canyon- a sandstone spire called Spider Rock is thought to be one of the most distinctive features the canyon offers. The spire reaches 750 ft- standing alone at the junction between Canyon de Chelly and Monument Canyon- which is the home of ‘Spider Grandmother’. The Navajos believe she was responsible for creating the earth and the stars in the sky. The combination of various geologic features- created in a spectrum of colours- combined with the history and spirituality the monument holds, truly makes Canyon de Chelly a unique canyon.

THE PAINTED DESERT

The Painted Desert is roughly 7,500 square miles, spanning from Cameron to Tuba City and east to Holbrook. The majority of the badlands desert is in the Navajo Nation, but also overlaps into The Petrified Forest National Park. This geologic overlap is evident as more often than not- amongst the hills of mudstone and siltstone- fragments of petrified wood are found on the desert floor. The Painted Desert is very distinct due to the stratified layers of easily erodible mudstone, shale and siltstone. The layers’ vibrant pigments come from the varying concentrations of iron and manganese- initially deposited by rainwater and floodwa-ter. Amongst the volcanic flow- capped mesas are the sil-ica-petrified logs from the Triassic era. The petrification of a terrestrial tree is the process whereby minerals such as silica, have replaced the organic matter. Usually this hap-pens when a tree or forest has been buried under sediment for a prolonged period of time, allowing the organic mat-ter to become petrified before it decomposes. The Chinle Formation- a formation which is part of the Colorado Pla-teau- was the site of volcanic activity millions of years ago. Eruptions, which released molten lava, cooled to form silicic volcanic ash. It was the silica in this ash which petrified the wood. The petrified wood is not the only insight into the history of the land which has been uncovered. Erosion of the soft sedimentary rocks- which is constantly changing the appearance of the desert- has revealed fossilised prehistor-ic plants and dinosaur tracks. This area is not only rich in scientific history, but also in beauty. The elegant stacking of the vibrant pink and red clay with the white limestone and orange sandstone, make it one of the wonders of the Navajo Nation.

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IMG 17 UPPER ANTELOPE CANYON IMG 18 RATTLESNAKE CANYON A SMALLER SLOT CANYON NEXT TO UPPER ANTELOPE CANYON

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IMG 19 UPPER ANTELOPE CANYON IMG 20 UPPER ANTELOPE CANYON THE SMOOTH CARVED OUT SURFACES CAN LOOK VERY DRAMATIC AS BEAMS OF LIGHT BOUNCE OFF OF THEM

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IMG 21 UPPER ANTELOPE CANYON THE WATER EROSION HAS LEFT INTERESTING PATTERNS AND TEXTURES IN THE ROCK THIS ONE RESEMBLES A HUMAN BACKBONE IMG 22 RATTLESNAKE CANYON WATER EROSION HAS LEFT STRIATIONS IN THE SMOOTH SURFACES OF THE ROCK

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IMG 23 OWL CANYON A SMALLER SLOT CANYON NEXT TO UPPER ANTELOPE CANYON AND RATTLESNAKE CANYON

IMG 24 THE THREE SISTERS IN MONUMENT VALLEY THREE SPIRE FORMATIONS WHICH SIGNIFY A CATHOLIC NUN FACING HER PUPILS

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IMG 25 WEST MITTEN BUTTE IN MONUMENT VALLEY SIGNIFIES SPIRITUAL BEINGS WATCHING OVER IMG 26 WEST MITTEN BUTTE IN MONUMENT VALLEY LOOKING OVER MERRICK BUTTE AND MITCHEL MESA

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IMG 27 THE VIEW OF MONUMENT VALLEY FROM ARTIST S POINT

IMG 28 THE VIEW OF MONUMENT VALLEY FROM ARTIST S POINT

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IMG 29 SANDSTONE FORMATION IN MONUMENT VALLEYIMG 30 WEST MITTEN BUTTE IN MONUMENT VALLEY LOOKING OVER ELEPHANT BUTTE

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IMG 31 COAL MINE CANYON

IMG 32 COAL MINE CANYON IMAGE SHOWING THE HOODOOS AND SPIRES FOUND IN THE CANYON

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IMG 33 COAL MINE CANYON IMAGE SHOWING THE LAYERS MADE UP OF THREE DIFFERENT GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS

IMG 34 COAL MINE CANYON IMAGE SHOWING THE LAYERS MADE UP OF THREE DIFFERENT GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS

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IMG 35 WINDOW ROCK A ROCK FORMATION CALLED A YARDANG FOUND IN THE CAPITAL OF THE NAVAJO NATION

IMG 36 WINDOW ROCK A ROCK FORMATION CALLED A YARDANG FOUND IN THE CAPITAL OF THE NAVAJO NATION

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IMG 37 HORSESHOE BEND IMG 38 VIEW OF CANYON DE CHELLY NATIONAL MONUMENT FROM THE NORTH RIM

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IMG 39 VIEW OF SPIDER ROCK SPIRE FROM THE SOUTH RIM OF CANYON DE CHELLY NATIONAL MONUMENT

IMG 40 VIEW OF SPIDER ROCK SPIRE FROM THE SOUTH RIM OF CANYON DE CHELLY NATIONAL MONUMENT

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IMG 41 SANDSTONE FORMATION IN CANYON DE CHELLY IMAGE SHOWS THE DIFFERENT COLOURED MINERALS WHICH RUN DOWN FROM THE

TOP OF THE ROCK

IMG 42 SANDSTONE FORMATION IN CANYON DE CHELLY IMAGE INCLUDES COTTON TREES AND SHOWS THE DIFFERENT COLOURED MINERALS WHICH RUN DOWN FROM THE TOP OF THE ROCK

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IMG 43 WHITE HOUSE RUINS IN CANYON DE CHELLY

IMG 44 WHITE HOUSE RUINS ANASAZI CLIFF DWELLINGS WITH PICTOGRAPHS BELOW

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IMG 45 OPEN PORES AND MINERAL STRIATIONS SEEN IN THE CANYON WALLS OF CANYON DE CHELLY IMG 46 WATER ERODED CANYON WALLS AND COTTON TREES IN CANYON DE CHELLY

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IMG 47 VIEW OF SPIDER ROCK SPIRE FROM THE SOUTH RIM OF CANYON DE CHELLY NATIONAL MONUMENT

IMG 48 THE PAINTED DESERT

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IMG 49 THE PAINTED DESERT

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With thanks to:

Lawrence CourtChristina ParisDavid Paris

TATIANA PARISStudent ID: 4198670

University of NottinghamBiological Photography and Imaging

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OPPOSITE PAGE IMG 50 CARVED OUT SANDSTONE FORMATIONS IN MONUMENT VALLEY