The National The National Government and the 50 …...cooperative federalism. Why It Matters In this...

7
Consider these suggestions to manage extended class time: Discuss the nation’s obligations to the States with the class. For each obligation, have stu- dents decide whether they find the obligation to be a necessity for maintaining a federalist gov- ernment. List obligations on the chalkboard, and ask volunteers for historical examples. Lead a discussion on whether each obligation increases or decreases the power of the Federal Government. Point out that one of the main aspects of cooperative federalism is that the Federal Government gives money to the States in the form of grants. Have students create graphic organizers comparing characteristics of federal grants. Then ask them to consider how categorical grants can be used by the Federal Government to support an agenda, and to write a paragraph evaluating how this practice can affect the division of powers in a federal system of government. Block Scheduling Strategies Objectives You may wish to call students’ attention to the objectives in the Section Preview. The objectives are reflected in the main headings of the section. Bellringer Ask students whether they have ever paddled a canoe with someone. Have them discuss the roles of each canoeist, and lead them to conclude that cooperation is essential to success. Explain that in this sec- tion, they will learn about how the National Government and the States cooperate in governing the nation. Vocabulary Builder Ask for a defin- ition of the verb to grant. Elicit that grant means “give.” Then have stu- dents offer definitions for the terms in the Political Dictionary that con- tain the noun grant. Students should revise or add to their definitions as they read the section. 97 The National Government and the 50 States 2 Pressed for Time? Quick Lesson Plan 1. Focus Tell students that the Constitution gives the National Government a role in overseeing the conduct, safety, and welfare of the States. Ask students to discuss what they know about this role. 2. Instruct Ask students who is responsible for keeping the peace within the borders of your State. Lead a discussion of occasions when federal force may be used to restore order in a State. Then have students list other examples of the National Government’s extending aid to or power over States. 3. Close/Reteach Remind students of the constitutional relationship between the National Government and the States. Ask each student to write three questions and answers about that relationship. Then have students quiz one another. The National Government and the 50 States Objectives 1. Summarize the obligations that the Constitution places on the nation for the benefit of the States. 2. Explain the process for admitting new States to the Union. 3. Examine the many and growing areas of cooperative federalism. Why It Matters In this country, the power to govern is shared by the National Government and each of the 50 States (including their thousands of local governments). Given this fact, conflicts are inevitable—and cooperation is absolutely necessary. Political Dictionary enabling act act of admission grants-in-aid program revenue sharing categorical grant block grant project grant Union a Republican Form of Government.” 10 The Constitution does not define “Republican Form of Government,” and the Supreme Court has regularly refused to do so. The term is generally understood to mean a “representative government.” The Supreme Court has held that the ques- tion of whether a State has a republican form of government is a political question. That is, it is one to be decided by the political branches of the government—the President and Congress—and not by the courts. 11 H H ave you ever really focused on the words United States? The United States is a union of States, the several States joined together, the States united. The Constitution created and is intended to preserve that union. To that end, the Constitution (1) requires the National Government to guar- antee certain things to the States and (2) makes it possible for the National Government to do certain things for the States. The Nation’s Obligations to the States The Constitution places several obligations on the National Government for the benefit of the States. Most of them are found in Article IV. Republican Form of Government The Constitution requires the National Government to “guarantee to every State in this 10 Article IV, Section 4. 11 The leading case here is Luther v. Borden, 1849. This case grew out of Dorr’s Rebellion, a revolt led by Thomas W. Dorr against the State of Rhode Island in 1841–1842. Dorr and his followers had writ- ten and proclaimed a new constitution for the State. When they tried to put the new document into operation, however, the governor in office under the original constitution declared martial law, or tempo- rary rule by military authorities. The governor also called on the Federal Government for help. President John Tyler took steps to put down the revolt, and it quickly collapsed. Although the question of which of the competing governments was the legitimate one was a major issue in Luther v. Borden, the Supreme Court refused to decide the matter. After the Civil War, the “Republican Form of Government” figured prominently as laws were broadened to help recognize African American voting rights.

Transcript of The National The National Government and the 50 …...cooperative federalism. Why It Matters In this...

Page 1: The National The National Government and the 50 …...cooperative federalism. Why It Matters In this country, the power to govern is shared by the National Government and each of the

Customize forMore Advanced StudentsHave students conduct research to investigate thechanging role of the Speaker of the House. (Youmay wish to assign each student a specific speaker.)Ask students to summarize their research in briefreports and then lead a discussion on the changingrole.

Consider these suggestions to manage extendedclass time:■ Discuss the nation’s obligations to the Stateswith the class. For each obligation, have stu-dents decide whether they find the obligation tobe a necessity for maintaining a federalist gov-ernment. List obligations on the chalkboard, andask volunteers for historical examples. Lead adiscussion on whether each obligation increases ordecreases the power of the Federal Government.

■ Point out that one of the main aspects ofcooperative federalism is that the FederalGovernment gives money to the States in theform of grants. Have students create graphicorganizers comparing characteristics of federalgrants. Then ask them to consider how categoricalgrants can be used by the Federal Government tosupport an agenda, and to write a paragraphevaluating how this practice can affect the divisionof powers in a federal system of government.

Block Scheduling Strategies

Objectives You may wish to callstudents’ attention to the objectivesin the Section Preview. The objectivesare reflected in the main headings ofthe section.Bellringer Ask students whether theyhave ever paddled a canoe withsomeone. Have them discuss the rolesof each canoeist, and lead them toconclude that cooperation is essentialto success. Explain that in this sec-tion, they will learn about how theNational Government and the Statescooperate in governing the nation.Vocabulary Builder Ask for a defin-ition of the verb to grant. Elicit thatgrant means “give.” Then have stu-dents offer definitions for the termsin the Political Dictionary that con-tain the noun grant. Students shouldrevise or add to their definitions asthey read the section.

97

The NationalGovernment and the 50 States

2

Pressed for Time?

Quick Lesson Plan1. Focus Tell students that theConstitution gives the NationalGovernment a role in overseeing theconduct, safety, and welfare of theStates. Ask students to discuss whatthey know about this role.2. Instruct Ask students who isresponsible for keeping the peacewithin the borders of your State. Leada discussion of occasions when federalforce may be used to restore order ina State. Then have students list otherexamples of the National Government’sextending aid to or power over States.3. Close/Reteach Remind studentsof the constitutional relationshipbetween the National Governmentand the States. Ask each student towrite three questions and answersabout that relationship. Then havestudents quiz one another.

The National Government andthe 50 States

Objectives

1. Summarize the obligations that theConstitution places on the nation for thebenefit of the States.

2. Explain the process for admitting newStates to the Union.

3. Examine the many and growing areas ofcooperative federalism.

Why It Matters

In this country, the power to govern isshared by the National Governmentand each of the 50 States (includingtheir thousands of local governments).Given this fact, conflicts areinevitable—and cooperation isabsolutely necessary.

PoliticalDictionary

★ enabling act★ act of admission★ grants-in-aid program★ revenue sharing★ categorical grant★ block grant★ project grant

Union a Republican Form of Government.”10

The Constitution does not define “RepublicanForm of Government,” and the Supreme Courthas regularly refused to do so. The term is generally understood to mean a “representativegovernment.”

The Supreme Court has held that the ques-tion of whether a State has a republican form ofgovernment is a political question. That is, it isone to be decided by the political branches of thegovernment—the President and Congress—andnot by the courts.11

HHave you ever really focused on the wordsUnited States? The United States is a union

of States, the several States joined together, theStates united.

The Constitution created and is intended topreserve that union. To that end, the Constitution(1) requires the National Government to guar-antee certain things to the States and (2) makesit possible for the National Government to docertain things for the States.

The Nation’s Obligations to the StatesThe Constitution places several obligations onthe National Government for the benefit of theStates. Most of them are found in Article IV.

Republican Form of GovernmentThe Constitution requires the NationalGovernment to “guarantee to every State in this

10Article IV, Section 4.11The leading case here is Luther v. Borden, 1849. This case grew

out of Dorr’s Rebellion, a revolt led by Thomas W. Dorr against theState of Rhode Island in 1841–1842. Dorr and his followers had writ-ten and proclaimed a new constitution for the State. When they triedto put the new document into operation, however, the governor inoffice under the original constitution declared martial law, or tempo-rary rule by military authorities. The governor also called on theFederal Government for help. President John Tyler took steps to putdown the revolt, and it quickly collapsed. Although the question ofwhich of the competing governments was the legitimate one was amajor issue in Luther v. Borden, the Supreme Court refused to decidethe matter.

� After the Civil War, the “Republican Form ofGovernment” figured prominently as laws were broadenedto help recognize African American voting rights.

Page 2: The National The National Government and the 50 …...cooperative federalism. Why It Matters In this country, the power to govern is shared by the National Government and each of the

Reading StrategyDrawing InferencesTell students that the relationshipbetween the National Governmentand the States involves cooperation.Have them find evidence, as theyread, to support that statement.

Point-of-Use Resources

Guided Reading and Review Unit 1booklet, p. 29 provides students withpractice identifying the main ideasand key terms of this section.

Lesson Planner For completelesson planning suggestions, see theLesson Planner booklet, section 2.

Political Cartoons See p. 16 ofthe Political Cartoons booklet for acartoon relevant to this section.

Chapter 4 • Section 2

98

To make sure students understand the mainpoints of this section, you may wish to use thedouble web graphic organizer to the right.

Tell students that a double web compares andcontrasts information. Ask students to use thedouble web to outline the roles of the NationalGovernment and those of the State governments,and to show how these governments affect eachother.

Teaching Tip A template for this graphic organizercan be found in the Section SupportTransparencies, Transparency 2.

Organizing Information

Background NotePolitical TalkThe way that ordinary Americans haveused the term United States showshow popular attitudes toward the con-cept of federalism have changed overtime. From the birth of the nation untilthe Civil War, for example, people gen-erally used the name as a plural noun—saying “The United States are. . .” Thisusage emphasized the individuality ofthe States at a time when peoplethought of themselves primarily as citi-zens of their particular State. Sincethen, people have referred to thenation in the singular—saying “TheUnited States is . . .”—a usage stressingthe singularity of the Union rather thanthe separateness of the States.

Answer to . . .Interpreting Tables The communityappeals to local government; if itcannot respond, it appeals to firstState and then federal organiza-tions. This process demonstratesthat while States have particularresponsibilities, if they cannot meetthem the National Government hasthe responsibility to help.

would stand together if a foreign power attackedone of them. So, before the 13 States agreed togive up their war-making powers, each demandedan ironclad pledge that an attack on any singleState would be met as an attack on all States.

The federal system assumes that each of the50 States will keep the peace within its own bor-ders. Thus, the primary responsibility for curb-ing insurrection, riot, or other internal disorderrests with the individual States. However, theConstitution does accept that a State might notbe able to control some situations. It thereforeguarantees protection against internal disorder,or what the Constitution calls “domesticViolence,” in each of them.

The use of federal force to restore orderwithin a State has historically been a rareevent. Several instances did occur in the1960s, however. When racial unrest explodedinto violence in Detroit during the “long, hotsummer” of 1967, President Lyndon Johnsonordered units of the United States Army intothe city. He acted at the request of the gover-nor of Michigan, George Romney, and onlyafter Detroit’s police and firefighters, support-ed by State Police and National Guard units,could not control riots, arson, and looting

The only extensive use ever made of therepublican-form guarantee came in the yearsimmediately following the Civil War. Congressdeclared that several southern States did nothave governments of a republican form. Itrefused to admit senators and representativesfrom those States until the States had ratifiedthe 13th, 14th, and 15th amendments andbroadened their laws to recognize the votingand other rights of African Americans.

Invasion and Internal DisorderThe Constitution states that the NationalGovernment must also

“ protect each of them[States] against Invasion;

and on Application of the Legislature, or ofthe Executive (when the Legislature cannotbe convened) against domestic Violence.”

–Article IV, Section 4

Today it is clear that an invasion of any one ofthe 50 States would be met as an attack on theUnited States itself. This constitutional guaranteeis therefore now of little, if any, significance.

That was not the case in the late 1780s. Duringthat time, it was not at all certain that all 13 States

The Major Disaster Process

Step1

Step2

Step3

Step4

Step5

Step6

Local Government Responds. If overwhelmed, turns to the State for assistance.

The State Responds with State resources, suchas the National Guard and State agencies.

Damage Assessment by local, State, Federal, and volunteer organizations.

A Major Disaster Declaration is requested bythe governor, based on damage assessment.

FEMA Evaluates the request and recommendsaction to the White House.

The President Approves the request or FEMAinforms the governor it has been denied.

SOURCE: Federal Emergency Management Agency

Interpreting Tables The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) helpsState and local governments in the case of a natural disaster such as a hurricane.Explain the steps that lead to a community receiving federal disaster aid.How does this process illustrate federalism?

Page 3: The National The National Government and the 50 …...cooperative federalism. Why It Matters In this country, the power to govern is shared by the National Government and each of the

Heterogeneous GroupsReteaching Tell students that they areliving in a new territory that is search-ing for Statehood in the United States.Based on what they have learnedabout the admission process, havestudents create a graphic organizerthat illustrates the process of admis-sion to the Union that would have totake place in order for the territoryto become a State. Compare students’charts with how Alaska and Hawaiigained admission to the Union.

(Basic)

Point-of-Use Resources

Section Support TransparenciesTransparency 19, Visual Learning;Transparency 118, Political Cartoon

A C T I V I T Y

99

Chapter 4 • Section 2

Answer to . . .Interpreting Political CartoonsPossible answer: It suggests thatPuerto Rico should not be a State,as there is no room on the flag foranother star.

Have students read the passages under Admitting New States on this andthe following page and then answer the question below.

What would be the final obstacle to an area achieving Statehood?

A the failure of the President to sign an act of admission

B not receiving an enabling act from Congress

C not meeting certain requirements set by Congress

D opposition by the American people

Preparing for Standardized Tests

one restriction on that power. A new State can-not be created by taking territory from one ormore of the existing States without the consentof the legislature(s) of the State(s) involved.14

Congress has admitted 37 States since theoriginal 13 formed the Union, as the map on thenext page shows. Five States (Vermont,Kentucky, Tennessee, Maine, and West Virginia)were created from parts of already existing States.Texas was an independent republic beforeadmission. California was admitted shortly afterbeing ceded to the United States by Mexico. Eachof the other 30 States entered the Union onlyafter a longer period of time, frequently morethan 15 years, as an organized territory.

Admission ProcedureThe process of admission to the Union is usuallyfairly simple. The area desiring Statehood firstasks Congress for admission. If and when Con-gress chooses, it passes an enabling act, an actdirecting the people of the territory to frame aproposed State constitution. A convention prepares the constitution, which is then put to apopular vote in the proposed State. If the voters

in the city. In 1968, again at the request of thegovernors involved, federal troops were sentinto Chicago and Baltimore to help put downthe violence that erupted following the assassi-nation of Martin Luther King, Jr.

Normally, a President has sent troops into aState only in answer to a request from its governoror legislature. If national laws are being broken,national functions interfered with, or nationalproperty endangered, however, a President doesnot need to wait for such a plea.12

The ravages of nature—storms, floods,drought, forest fires, and such—can be moredestructive than human violence. Here, too, act-ing to protect the States against “domesticViolence,” the Federal Government stands readyto aid stricken areas.

Respect for Territorial IntegrityThe National Government is constitutionallybound to respect the territorial integrity of eachof the States. That is, the National Governmentmust recognize the legal existence and the phys-ical boundaries of each State.

The basic scheme of the Constitution imposesthis obligation. Several of its provisions do so, aswell. For example, Congress must include, inboth of its houses, members chosen in each oneof the States.13 Recall, too, that Article V of theConstitution declares that no State can bedeprived of its equal representation in the UnitedStates Senate without its own consent.

Admitting New StatesOnly Congress has the power to admit new Statesto the Union. As part of the National Govern-ment’s guarantee of respect for each State’s territorial integrity, the Constitution places only

12President Grover Cleveland ordered federal troops to put an endto rioting in the Chicago rail yard during the Pullman Strike in 1894despite the objections of Governor William Altgeld of Illinois. TheSupreme Court upheld his actions in In re Debs, 1895. The Courtfound that rioters had threatened federal property and impeded theflow of the mails and interstate commerce. Thus, more than a singleState was involved. Since then, several Presidents have acted with-out a request from the State involved. More recently, PresidentDwight Eisenhower did so at Little Rock, Arkansas, in 1957, andPresident John Kennedy did so at the University of Mississippi in1962 and at the University of Alabama in 1963. In each of thoseinstances, the President acted to halt the unlawful obstruction ofschool integration orders issued by the federal courts.

13In the House, Article I, Section 2, Clause 1; in the Senate, Article I,Section 3, Clause 1 and the 17th Amendment.

14Article IV, Section 3, Clause 1. Some argue that this provisionwas violated with West Virginia’s admission in 1863. That State wasformed from the 40 western counties that had broken away fromVirginia over the issue of secession from the Union. The consentrequired by the Constitution was given by a minority of the membersof the Virginia legislature—those who represented the 40 westerncounties. Congress accepted their action, holding that they were the only group legally capable of acting as the Virginia legislature at the time.

Interpreting Political Cartoons Whether or not Puerto Ricoshould become the 51st State has been the subject of continuingdebate. What does the cartoon suggest about the issue?

Page 4: The National The National Government and the 50 …...cooperative federalism. Why It Matters In this country, the power to govern is shared by the National Government and each of the

Extended Class PeriodsTime 90 minutes.Purpose Debate the issue of federalgrants-in-aid.Grouping Teams of four students.Activity Have half of the teams listarguments supporting federal grants-in-aid and the other half list argu-ments opposing them. Encouragegroups to use information obtainedfrom local education, health, trans-portation, law enforcement, andother agencies receiving these grantsto support their arguments. Roles Team leader, recorder, researcher,spokesperson.Close Ask for two teams to volunteerto debate the issue for the class. Havethe class evaluate the arguments ofeach team and vote on the “winner.”(If time permits, allow additionalteams to participate in a debate.)

Block Strategy(Average)

Point-of-Use Resources

Government Assessment RubricsClass Discussion, p. 26

Block Scheduling with LessonStrategies Additional activities forChapter 4 can be found on p. 21.

A C T I V I T Y

100

Chapter 4 • Section 2

Answer to . . .Interpreting Maps Answers will vary,but should accurately reflect dataabout the student’s State.

WA1889

ID1890

MT1889

ND1889

SD1889

WY 1890

CO1876

UT1896

OR 1859

NV1864

CA1850

AZ1912

NE 1867

NM1912

KS1861

TX 1845

OK1907

MO1821

AR1836

LA1812

IA 1846

MN1858 WI

1848 MI1837

IL1818

IN1816

OH1803

KY 1792

MS1817

TN 1796

AL1819

FL1845

GA1788

NC1789

SC1788

VA1788

PA 1787

NY1788

ME1820

NH1788

MA 1788RI 1790CT 1788NJ 1787DE 1787MD 1788WV 1863

VT1791

AK1959

PUERTO RICO

Acquired 1899

VIRGIN ISLANDS

Acquired 1917

GUAM

Acquired 1899

AMERICAN SAMOA

Acquired 1900HI 1959

SOURCE: Historical Statistics, Vol. 2

Territorial Expansion of the United States

KEY

Original Thirteen States

The United States, 1783

Louisiana Purchase, 1803

Ceded by Britain, 1818

Ceded by Spain, 1819

Adjusted by Webster-Ashburton Treaty, 1842

Texas Annexed, 1845

Oregon Territory, 1846

Ceded by Mexico, 1848

Gadsden Purchase, 1853

Purchased From Russia, 1867

Hawaii Annexed, 1898

Territories

Interpreting Maps Thirty-seven States have joined the original 13. When did your State join theUnion? How much of the nation’s present area did the United States cover at that time?

approve the constitution, it is submitted to Con-gress for its consideration. If Congress stillagrees to Statehood after reviewing the docu-ment, it passes an act of admission, an act creat-ing the new State. If the President signs the act,the new State enters the Union.

The two newest States, Alaska and Hawaii,shortened the usual process of gaining admis-sion to the Union. Each adopted a proposedconstitution without waiting for an enablingact, Hawaii in 1950 and Alaska in 1956. Bothbecame States in 1959.

Conditions for AdmissionBefore finally admitting a new State, Congresshas often set certain conditions. For example, in1896, Utah was admitted on condition that itsconstitution outlaw polygamy, the practice ofhaving more than one spouse at a time. In theact admitting Alaska to the Union as the 49thState, Congress forever prohibited that Statefrom claiming title to any lands legally held byany Native American.

Each State enters the Union on an equalfooting with each of the other States. Thus,

although Congress can set certain conditionslike those just described, it cannot impose con-ditions of a political nature on the States. Forexample, when Oklahoma was admitted to theUnion in 1907, Congress said the State couldnot remove its capital from Guthrie to anyother place before 1913. In 1910, however, theOklahoma legislature moved the State’s capitalto Oklahoma City. When this step was chal-lenged, the United States Supreme Court held,in Coyle v. Smith, 1911, that Congress can setconditions for a prospective State’s admission.But the Court also held that the conditions can-not be enforced when they compromise theindependence of a State to manage its owninternal affairs.

Consider one more example: PresidentWilliam Howard Taft vetoed a resolution toadmit Arizona to the Union in 1911. He did sobecause Arizona’s proposed constitution pro-vided that members of the State’s judiciarycould be recalled (removed from office) bypopular vote. This provision meant, said Taft,that a judge would have to keep one eye on thelaw and the other on public opinion. In

Page 5: The National The National Government and the 50 …...cooperative federalism. Why It Matters In this country, the power to govern is shared by the National Government and each of the

Point-of-Use Resources

Simulations and Data GraphingCD-ROM offers data graphing

tools that give students practice withcreating and interpreting graphs.

For career-related links and activities, visitthe Magruder’s American Governmentcompanion Web site in the Social Studiesarea at the Prentice Hall School Web site.PHSchool.com

101

Chapter 4 • Section 2

Make It Relevant

The Federal Government grants more than $330billion each year to State and local governments.Usually, federal officials base their decisions ongrant proposals submitted by State and local governments. Grant writers are the people whoreview the requirements of grant programs, gatherinformation, and prepare written proposals—which can run to hundreds of pages—that make

the case for their State or locality being awardedthe funds. With so much money at stake, a goodgrant writer is worth his or her weight in gold. Skills Activity Direct pairs of students to writemock grant proposals for funding a specific schoolprogram. Then have individual students write para-graphs explaining why they would or would not beinterested in a career as a grant writer. (Average)

Careers in Government—Grant Writer

Answer to . . .Critical Thinking The project is beingfunded with funds from all levels ofgovernment.

Make It Relevant

“Everyone is talking aboutthe rebirth of Detroit,” saysJaimee Callupe in a piece shewrote for the Detroit Free Press.She belongs to an organizationthat is helping to make positivechanges in the city. ThroughCity Year Detroit, Jaimee has“joined 50 other young people inthe effort to improve our city.”

Although City Year is part offederally supported AmeriCorps,City Year programs focus onlocal needs. Jaimee has beenspending her year of communityservice teaching and running anafter-school program as well asworking in gardens and demol-ishing abandoned buildings. She is happy to be part of hercity’s progress. Jaimee con-cludes her article by invitingothers to contribute: “If you’re17–24 and have time and incli-nation to make your communitybetter, … join us—you are verywelcome.”

Students Make a Difference

through the nineteenth century, States receivedgrants of federal lands for a number of purpos-es: schools and colleges, roads and canals, floodcontrol work, and several others. A large num-ber of the major State universities, for example,were founded as land-grant colleges. Theseschools were built with money obtained fromthe sale of public lands given to the States by theMorrill Act of 1862.

Congress began to make grants of federalmoney quite early, too. In 1808, it gave theStates $200,000 to support the militia. Cashgrants did not come to play a large role, how-ever, until the Depression years of the 1930s.Many of the New Deal programs aimed atbringing the nation out of its economic crisiswere built around grants of money.

Since then, Congress has set up hundreds ofgrants-in-aid programs. In fact, more than 500are now in operation. Dozens of programs function in a variety of areas: in education, masstransit, highway construction, health care, on-the-job training, and many others.

response to Taft’s concern, Arizona removedthe recall section from the document. In 1912Congress passed, and the President signed,another act of admission for Arizona. Almostimmediately after admission, however, the newState amended its new constitution to providefor the recall of judges. That provision remainsa valid part of Arizona’s constitution today.

Cooperative FederalismRemember, federalism produces a dual systemof government, one in which two basic levelsoperate over the same people and the same ter-ritory at the same time. As a result of this com-plex arrangement, competition, tensions, andconflict are a regular and ongoing part ofAmerican federalism. In short, the Americangovernmental system is much like a tug-of-war,a continuing power struggle between theNational Government and the several States.

The American federal system also involvesa broad area of shared powers. That is, inaddition to the two separate spheres of powerheld and exercised by the two basic levels ofgovernment, there are large and growingareas of cooperation between them. Theseareas include the funds that the FederalGovernment grants to the States as well as thevarious services that the States perform forthe Federal Government.

Federal Grants-in-AidPerhaps the best-known examples of this inter-governmental cooperation are the many federalgrants-in-aid programs—grants of federal moneyor other resources to the States and/or theircities, counties, and other local units. Many ofthese governments are regularly strapped forfunds; these grants often help them perform alarge share of their everyday functions.

The history of grants-in-aid programs goesback more than 200 years, to the periodbefore the Constitution. In the NorthwestOrdinance of 1787, the Congress under theArticles of Confederation provided for thegovernment of the territory beyond the OhioRiver. Looking forward to the existence ofnew States on that frontier, the Congress setaside sections of land for the support of pub-lic education in those future States. On

The Massachusetts CentralArtery project, known as the“Big Dig,” was the largest,

most complex, and technologicallychallenging public works project todate in American history. CriticalThinking How does this project illus-trate cooperative federalism?

Stateand localfunding41.5%

Federalfunding58.5%

PHSchool.com

Page 6: The National The National Government and the 50 …...cooperative federalism. Why It Matters In this country, the power to govern is shared by the National Government and each of the

Customize for…English Language Learners Organize students into small groups.Have each student create a visual ofan example of one of the types ofgrants—categorical, block, or project.Have each group exchange their visu-als with those of another group, thenwork together to determine whichtype of grant each visual represents.

Customize for…Less Proficient Readers Divide the class into three groups.Assign each group one of the threetypes of grants described in the sec-tion, categorical grants, block grants,and project grants. Have studentscreate a political cartoon of thegrant they have been assigned thatillustrates the way money is allocatedand spent in each case. Encouragestudents to share their drawings withthe class.

Point-of-Use Resources

The Living ConstitiutionFederalism, p. 8

Close Up on Primary Sources TheNorthwest Ordinance (1787), p. 68

Basic Principles of the ConstitutionTransparencies Transparencies 44-50,Federalism

102

Chapter 4 • Section 2

Federalism One example of the Federal Government usingcategorical grants to influence State law is theTransportation Equity Act for the Twenty-FirstCentury (TEA-21), which was passed in 1998. It created the Seat Belt Incentive Grant Program.This program allows States a share of $500 mil-lion over a five-year period if they meet certainstrict seat-belt requirements.

ActivityEncourage students to consider why the FederalGovernment would pass such an act, and discussthese reasons as a class. Have students conductresearch to find out the requirements for federalfunding. Then ask them to find out whether yourState has met at least four of the six requirementsnecessary to receive money from the grant.

Constitutional Principles

Answer to . . .Critical Thinking Students mightsuggest education, job training, or transportation.

Virtually no strings were attached to thismoney. In fact, Congress placed only one majorrestriction on the use of the funds. The moneycould not be spent for any program in which discrimination on the basis of race, sex, nationalorigin, age, religious belief, or physical disabilitywas evident. Otherwise, the “shared revenues”could be used very largely as the States and theirlocal units chose to spend them.

Needless to say, revenue sharing was quitepopular with and strongly supported by manygovernors, mayors, and other State and localofficials. It was opposed by the ReaganAdministration, however, and fell victim to thefinancial needs of the deficit-ridden NationalGovernment. Various efforts to revive revenuesharing among today’s cash-strapped State andlocal governments have not won significant sup-port in Congress, at least to this point in time.

Types of Federal GrantsToday, Congress appropriates money for threetypes of grants-in-aid. These include categoricalgrants, block grants, and project grants.

Over time, most grants have been categorical.Categorical grants are made for some specific,closely defined purpose: for school lunches or forthe construction of airports or wastewater treat-ment plants, for example. Categorical grants areusually made with conditions attached. These“strings” require the State to (1) use the federalmonies only for the specific purpose involved, (2) make its own monetary contribution, often amatching amount but sometimes much less, (3) provide an agency to administer the grant,

Grants-in-aid are based on the NationalGovernment’s taxing power. The Constitutiongives Congress that power in order

“ to pay the Debts andprovide for the common

Defense and general Welfare of the UnitedStates. . . .”

—Article I, Section 8, Clause 1

Today, these grants total some $275 billion, andaccount for about 25 percent of all State andlocal government spending each year.

In effect, grants-in-aid blur the division ofpowers line in the federal system. They make itpossible for the Federal Government to operatein many policy areas in which it would other-wise have no constitutional authority—forexample, in such fields as education, low-income housing, local law enforcement, andmental health.

Critics of grants-in-aid have long made thispoint. They also argue that the grants often giveWashington a major—and they say an unwar-ranted—voice in making public policy at theState and local levels.

Revenue SharingA quite different form of federal monetary aid,known as revenue sharing, was in place from1972 to 1987. Under this program, Congressgave an annual share of the huge federal tax rev-enue to the States and their cities, counties, andtownships. Altogether, those “shared revenues”amounted to more than $83 billion over theyears the program was in force.

� Federal monies help fund school lunch programs in schools across the country.Critical Thinking What examples of cooperative federalism affect your own life?

Page 7: The National The National Government and the 50 …...cooperative federalism. Why It Matters In this country, the power to govern is shared by the National Government and each of the

Point-of-Use Resources

Guide to the Essentials Chapter4, Section 2, p. 29 provides

support for students who need addi-tional review of section content.Spanish support is available in theSpanish edition of the Guide on p. 22.

Quiz Unit 1 booklet, p. 30includes matching and multiple-choice questions to check students’understanding of Section 2 content.

Presentation Pro CD-ROM Quizzesand multiple-choice questions

check students’ understanding ofSection 2 content.

Answers to . . .

Section 2 Assessment1. Obligations include a guaranteethat each State will have a republican,or representative, form of government,protection against invasion or naturaldisaster, and respect for the territorialintegrity of each State.2. An enabling act is an act byCongress that directs the people of a territory to propose a State consti-tution; an act of admission is thecongressional act which actually creates the new State.3. (a) A grant that can be used forbroad purposes by State and localgovernments, with few conditionsattached. (b) They function at theState level but are funded by theNational Government.4. They regulate national elections,oversee naturalization procedures, andhelp capture federal criminal suspects.5. Possible answer: They would dis-approve, because the grant gives theFederal Government power withinStates.6. Possible answer: Categorical grant,because providing daycare to poorworking parents is a type of narrowpurpose that is usually covered bycategorical grants.7. Possible answer: States are mostlikely to seek federal protection againstdomestic violence in cases of naturaldisaster.

103

Chapter 4 • Section 2and (4) obey a set of guidelines tailored to the par-ticular purpose for which the monies are given.

Block grants have come into wide use over thelast several years. They are made for much morebroadly defined purposes than are categoricalgrants, such as health care, social services, orwelfare. They are also made with fewer stringsattached, so State and local governments havemuch greater freedom in deciding just how andon what to spend block grant dollars. Beginningin the Reagan years, from the 1980s on, manyprograms once supported by separate and frag-mented categorical grants have been mergedinto broader block grants.

Congress also provides money for projectgrants. These are grants made to States, localities,and sometimes private agencies that apply forthem. The Department of Health and HumanServices makes many project grants—throughits National Institutes of Health, for example, tosupport scientists engaged in research on cancer,diabetes, neurological disease, and other medicalissues. Many State and local governments alsoapply for these grants to fund their job trainingand employment programs.

Other Forms of Federal AidThe National Government aids the States in sev-eral other important ways. For example, the FBIgives extensive help to State and local police.

The army and the air force equip and train eachState’s National Guard units. The CensusBureau’s data are essential to State and localschool, housing, and transportation officials asthey plan for the future.

Many other forms of aid are not nearly so vis-ible. “Lulu payments,” for example, are federalmonies that go to local governments in thoseareas in which there are large federal landhold-ings. These direct payments are made in lieuof—to take the place of—the property taxesthat those local governments cannot collect fromthe National Government.

State Aid to the National GovernmentIntergovernmental cooperation is a two-waystreet. That is, the States and their local units ofgovernment also aid the National Governmentin many ways.

Thus, State and local election officials conductnational elections in each State. These electionsare financed with State and local funds, and theyare regulated largely by State laws. The legalprocess by which aliens can become citizens,called naturalization, takes place most often inState, not federal, courts. Those who commit fed-eral crimes and are sought by the FBI and otherfederal law enforcement agencies are often pickedup by State and local police officers and then heldin local jails. And the examples go on and on.

Key Terms and Main Ideas1. What are three obligations that the Constitution places on

the National Government for the benefit of the States?2. Explain the difference between an enabling act and an act

of admission.3. (a) What is a block grant?

(b) How do block grants reflect cooperative federalism?4. In what ways do the States aid the National Government?

Critical Thinking5. Recognizing Ideologies If the Framers had been alive,

how do you think they might have reacted when, only a fewyears ago, several States had to raise the legal drinking ageto avoid losing a substantial portion of their federal grantsfor highway construction? Explain your answer.

6. Making Comparisons Suppose your State is to receiveincreased federal funding for a program to provide day carefor some working parents. Is this funding likely to come asa categorical grant, a block grant, or a project grant? Why?

7. Expressing Problems Clearly In what type of situationwould your State be most likely to need federal protectionagainst “domestic Violence?” Explain your answer.

PHSchool.com

For: An activity on StatehoodVisit: PHSchool.comWeb Code: mqd-1042

8. Direct students to access Web Code mqd-1042 atPHSchool.com. This Web Code will take studentsdirectly to the instructions and links needed to com-plete the section activity.