“The ‘Modern Child’ in Global Contexts: insights from the Young Lives project”

EDITED COPY OF POWERPOINT GIVEN AT CONFERENCE:

The Modern Child and the Flexible Labour MarketTrondheim, 29th April 2009

byMartin Woodhead

Child and Youth Studies, the Open University, and Young Lives, Oxford University

m.woodhead@open.ac.ukPHOTOS HAVE BEEN REMOVED IN THIS COPY.

DETAIL OF THE RESEARCH REPORTED IN THIS PRESENTATION CAN BE FOUND IN:

“Access, equity and quality in early education and transitions to primary school: evidence from Young Lives research in Ethiopia, India and Peru”  

by Martin Woodhead, Patricia Ames, Uma Vennam, Workneh Abebe and 

Natalia Streuli 

Published by Bernard van Leer Foundation, 2009 (in press)  downloadable from www.bernardvanleer.org

Outline

1. Introducing Young Lives research2. Globalization and modern childhoods3. Education for All…and Early Education for All?4. Perspectives on early childhood and 

transitions to school from Young Lives in– Peru– Ethiopia– India (Andhra Pradesh)

1. YOUNG LIVES RESEARCH INTO CHILD POVERTY

Four countriesEthiopia, India (Andhra Pradesh), Peru, and Vietnam

Pro-poor sample  20 sites in each country selected to reflect country  diversity, rural-urban, livelihoods, ethnicity etc

Two age cohorts• 2000 children born in 2000-01 • 1000 children born in 1994-95

Five major survey rounds – all 12,000 children

All data archived

Some features of Young Lives

Child-focussed• children’s roles, agency and perspectives…in context 

Longitudinal• infancy to adulthood

Multi-dimensional/disciplinary• household, child development, health, social protection, education etc

Multiple methodologies• Quantitative and qualitative

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2. MODERN CHILDHOODS AND A STORY OF GLOBALISATION?

‘Modern childhoods’ are:–  constructed and contingent, 

variable and changing– not natural, inevitable or fixed– respond to particular 

social/economic/political circumstances, beliefs and ideologies;

– marked by diversity in discourses and practices, within and between societies

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Photo removed Childhoods travel…– in terms of discourses and  practices 

– strong influence from Minority to Majority World, North to South 

– wealthiest to least wealthy,  powerful to powerless

–  fuelled by development agencies

Globalisation has been fuelled by: 

• Normative accounts - the singularity of ‘the child’ in Child Development

• Standardised descriptions of children’s growth, milestones from dependency to autonomy, prerequisites for psycho-social health

• Export of psychometric tests of normality/deviation, abilities and disabilities

• Curricula and pedagogies

Example 1: ‘thinking locally…acting globally’?

The World Bank’s seven ‘Developmental Stages’. e.g. 1 to 2 years children ‘…enjoy stories and

experimenting with objects, walk steadily, climb stairs, run, assert independence…’

2 to 3.5 years children require opportunities ‘to engage in dramatic play, increasingly complex books, sing favourite songs, work simple puzzles…’ (www.worldbank.org). 

Example 2: Normal early childhoods…playing, learning…working?

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BUT Children’s “needs” are becoming more universal

UNCRC 1989 is a (near) universal regulative tool:

• the child’s right to development, to play, education

• UN Committee General Comment 7 2005, calls for a positive agenda for early childhood

Rapid economic growth in Majority World:

• encourages investment in schooled childhoods to compete in competitive labour market

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Young children as human capital?

   “Why should society invest in disadvantaged young children? The traditional argument …is made on the grounds of fairness and social justice. …equity considerations… There is another argument …based on economic efficiency. It is more powerful than the equity argument, in part because the gains from such investment can be quantified and they are large…” 

(James Heckman 2006)

The Challenges of globalised childhoods

• Access to services, quality, and equity• Recognising diversities/inequalities within countries, communities and families 

• Implementing policies in context-appropriate and sustainable ways

• Ensuring good governance• Ensuring respect for human rights as well human capital

3. EDUCATION FOR ALL…INCLUDING EARLY EDUCATION FOR ALL?

Basic primary education ….approx 85% of the world’s children , but with major regional, economic, gender disparities, and major quality issues  etc

Early childhood education is expanding fast1999-2005: 

20 million extra enrolments, especially:- S & W Asia (67% increase)- sub-Saharan Africa (61% increase)

(UNESCO, GMR, 2008)

Studying impact of these trends viaYoung Lives Early transitions sub-study (funded by 

Bernard van Leer Foundation)

Attendance at a preschool:–94% in Vietnam  –87% in Andhra Pradesh –84% in Peru–25% Ethiopia (58% urban, 4% rural)

(Caregivers’ report at Round 2 - since age three)

Early transitions research in Peru…Education “to become someone in life…”

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Themes from interview transcripts:On the importance of a schooled childhood

1. To be able to defend oneself: “…because we can read and we don’t get easily cheated out.”

2. To become a professional: “they can’t stay here…with a profession that takes her far…

3. To become different: “I … walk in the fields with sandals (ojotas). At least he will go with shoes (zapatitos) if he gets a good head with education”

4. To get away from the land: “I don’t want to work in the fields…I want to finish my studies.” (Crivello 2008)

…’becoming’ means accessing educated, urban childhoods, including through migration

Schooling childhoods in Peru

• Primary education enrolment – 96% 

 

• Growth in preschool –  1991 = 30% –  2006 = 68% (no gender differences)

–84% reported by Young Lives caregivers

Quality in preschools in Peru – institutionalised variability within government sector

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Attendance by Preschool type and poverty -rural sample in Peru 

Attendance by Preschool type and poverty –urban sample in Peru 

 

Becoming somebody…or being nobody?Interviews with 12 year olds: • 90% would like to complete either university (78%) or 

technical college (12%) (n = 674)Caregivers: • 92% want their children to complete either university 

(75%) or technical school (17%)BUT   • 60% Young Lives twelve year olds were over-age for their grade• 50% of children in Peru do not finish secondary school 

(Guadalupe 2002)• Peru achieved lowest educational achievement scores in PISA 

study of countries in Latin America

The challenges of progression in school?

Cecilia’s story, urban Peru 

 

Interviewer: Do you think it is going to be more difficult? Cecilia: Yes. More difficult than first grade.Interviewer: And is first grade more difficult than pre-school? Cecilia: Yes. […] A little bitInterviewer: What is going to be the most difficult thing? Cecilia: … not to fall behind.

Early transitions research in Ethiopia 

Education for All: Transforming a generation?

“Children with a good life have to have school bags”

12 year olds’ ranking (Ethiopia)• Family• Education• Good food, shelter• Material security• No poverty or sickness• Good behaviour• Respect from others• Leisure(Camfield and Tafere 2008)

based on group work: the ‘well-being activity: 

Great educational expectations…Ethiopia 12 year old survey 2006:

80% urban, 63% rural, aspire for university!!Reasons for moving up the ladder

‘Education’ (25.2% urban, 15.8% rural)‘Work harder’ (21.8%)

Reasons for moving down the ladder‘Not making money’ (51.3% urban, 29.5% rural) ‘Poor education’ (21.7% urban, 12.7% rural)

Only 6% of 12 year olds are not enrolled in schoolBUT

39% cannot read a simple sentence eg ‘The sun is hot’  

Ethiopia- challenges for basic education

• Overcrowded classrooms, inadequate buildings, few teaching materials, physical punishment, absent teachers

• Over-age children, repeated classes, irregular attendance, drop-out, hidden costs to parents, combining school with work

6 year old Beniam’s story:“I wont go to school …I cant

write…I don’t have the interest…I want to look after the cattle”

Beniam’s father:“Education is useful for the boy…(We) are running out of land to support [ourselves] in farming” …“there is weather pollution here” and “the water has dried up”.

The context for ‘modern childhoods’…work is still essential…even if no longer so ‘visible’

Ethiopia: 12 year olds• 40.5% believe ‘school only’ is best • 56.4% believe ‘combining school and work’ is best

“It make me happy having a job…and I can pay for school things…my shoes, bag and clothes”

A role for early childhood education – reinforcing inequalities? –urban sample in Ethiopia 

Ready for school? 

Early transitions research in Andhra Pradesh (India) – schooling reinforces 

diverse/unequal childhoods?

Primary Education in Andhra Pradesh (India) – impact of a growing private sector

• Primary education enrolment = 73% (2006)• Private sector = 36% of enrolments, and growing!– The attraction of English medium instruction

Early childhood services – combating poverty or amplifying inequalities?

1975 Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) national network of “Anganwadis” targeting most disadvantaged, including basic nutrition

BUTVariable quality, low funding, low levels of training, low regulation and supervisionAND Increasing switch to private sector:- English medium - teaching basic skills - Caste/class preferences

A government anganwadi – the main option for rural communities

Low resourcing, low quality …two anganwadis in Andhra Pradesh

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Growth of private kindergartens in urban centres, including for poorest households - Andhra Pradesh

Teaching the basics…the private choice?

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Expectations are high… but not for all

India AP Caregivers’ expectations for University• 64% for boys • 42% for girlsBUT • 54% of girls expect

University

The private ‘choice’ in rural Andhra Pradesh: Revanth’s mother:

“…If he goes (to private school) … he will become very wise - that is why we are sending him there…

“…We are ready to spend…There is no one (to help with payments). We take as debts…

“…Two of my girl children, attend school in the village... We are not paying for them ”

First steps into diverse school trajectories…and long term First steps into diverse school trajectories…and long term outcomes? outcomes? 

Govt Preschool            Govt Primary School

Home                          Private School, Kindergarten or Grade1

Govt Preschool                         Private School

But if fees increase….or household income falls

Private school                    back to Govt school?

Schooling and globalisation of modern childhoods

• Institutionalising childhoods…School for all (most!)…education for some?

• Promoting equity or inequity?• Aspirations versus realities…for 

early childhood and school?• Modern childhoods in context of 

daily (working) lives and prospects?• Impact of global economic 

downturn?• Quality, relevance, sustainability?• New models for childhood? 

For more information about Young Lives…

http://younglives.org.uk