1

The Misconception of Psychedelic Drugs

In his book, The Doors of Perception, Aldous Huxley writes about the “Mind at Large”.

Mind at Large is capable of remembering all that has ever happened to it and of perceiving

everything that is happening everywhere in the universe. Mind at Large exists within everyone,

but the brain filters the “useless” information in an attempt to put survival at the utmost

importance. Huxley gives an accurate philosophical description of the psychedelic experience

by relating it to his Mind at Large. Psychedelics offer an experience of “something more than,

and above all something different from, the carefully selected utilitarian material which our

narrowed, individual minds regard as a complete, or at least sufficient, picture of reality”

(Huxley 24). This profound experience of surpassing normal consciousness has been a part of

certain indigenous cultures for centuries. However, not until the mid-1900’s did psychedelics

gain the attention of researchers and the public, fueling the counter-culture movement of the

1960’s and 70’s. The continuing scientific research into the physical and psychological effects of

psychedelics has shown that there are little to no negative effects, and much potential for

psychotherapeutic use. Yet, despite this advancing knowledge, psychedelics are still viewed

negatively by lawmakers. The use of outdated propaganda to cover the underlying reason for

the prohibition of psychedelic drugs has led to the unquestioned belief by most of the public

that the use of these drugs is morally wrong. Lawmakers continue to defame and stigmatize the

use of psychedelics because of their ability to transform the user’s social values and open the

mind to ways of thinking beyond the influence of cultural behaviors.

2

The word psychedelic comes from the Greek psyche and delein, literally meaning mind-

manifesting (Savage et. al. 111). Psychedelics are part of a wider classification known as

hallucinogens; however they are separated from dissociatives and deliriants, such as

Phencyclidine (PCP) and Nutmeg, respectively. Hallucinogens separate themselves from other

substances like opiates and stimulants by producing subjective effects that are different from

ordinary consciousness, often compared to meditation, trance or dreaming. Common effects of

hallucinogens include changes in cognition and perception, hallucinations and alteration of

senses (Ebbitt). Specifically, psychedelics provide mystical experiences, defined by feelings of

unity and interconnectedness with all people and things, a sense of sacredness, feelings of

peace and joy, a sense of transcending normal time and space, ineffability, and an intuitive

belief that the experience is a source of objective truth about the nature of reality (Gale 471-

474). There are many different examples of psychedelic drugs, both natural and synthetic, yet

few are used widely. Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), or simply “acid”, was chemically

synthesized in 1938. Dr. Albert Hofmann accidentally discovered its mind-altering effects in

1943 and it has since become one of the most well-known and popular psychedelic drugs (Lee

and Shlain xvii). Dimethyltryptamine (DMT) is one of the most powerful known psychedelics,

capable of inducing states of complete transcendence of body, time, and space. This substance

is found in the Ayahuasca brew which is used by Central and South American cultures in

spiritual ceremonies (Rivier and Lindgren 102-111). Other common psychedelics include

Psilocybin, which can be found in over 200 species of mushrooms (commonly labeled as “magic

mushrooms”), and Mescaline, which can be found in the cacti such as Peyote. Since 1965, most

known psychedelic drugs have been federally regulated and made illegal to possess in the

3

United States (as well as most countries), restricting not only recreational use, but research as

well (U.S. Drug Control Timeline).

Psychedelics have a long history of spiritual use in many different cultures. Mescaline

has been used by Native American cultures such has the Huichol for thousands of years in what

is now southwestern United States and Mexico. Peyote specimens found in an archaeological

site in Texas date back approximately 5700 years through carbon dating and were found to

contain Mescaline (El-Seedi et. al. 238). Carvings found in Peru that date back to 1300 BCE

depict mythological beings holding the San Pedro Cactus, a plant containing Mescaline. In

addition, mushroom statues dating back to 1000 BCE found in Guatemala are believed to depict

psilocybin mushrooms. A pictograph created before the Spanish conquest of Mexico, known as

the Vienna Codex, depicts the ritual use of mushrooms by the gods. It is clear through evidence

that these natural psychedelics and their associated states of mind were valued religiously by

multiple cultures. When Spanish explorers defeated the Aztecs in 1521, the use of non-alcohol

intoxicants was forbidden and the long-standing reverence of psychedelic plants and

mushrooms was driven underground (Psilocybe Mushroom History). A modern example of the

cultural use of psychedelics is the use of Ayahuasca by the peoples of Peru, notably the Culinas.

Ayahuasca is a mixture of plants containing DMT, among other chemicals, as well as plants

containing an enzyme allowing DMT to be orally active. In 1972, Rivier and Lindgren observed

and participated with the Culinas and their cultural use of Ayahuasca. Not all in the society

participate, as the use is not necessarily considered prestigious. However, some drink the

Ayahuasca up to ten times a month (101-102). Physical health in this culture is seen to mimic

psychological well-being and repeated use of Ayahuasca is known to “strain out erroneous

4

conceptions, selfish vices and unworthy thoughts” (Henman). Cultures that have traditionally

used psychedelics fundamentally differ from most modern cultures in their collective individual

and communal values. Spirituality and community are viewed with higher importance than

many of the values in most modern cultures. The proliferation of European culture through the

Americas has caused a drift away from this spiritual nature toward more tightly-regulated,

nationalistic societies.

The effects of psychedelics on the brain are chemically complex and are not fully

understood scientifically; however, many continuous psychological effects of the experience

have been shown to occur. In a study conducted by MacLean, Johnson and Griffiths at Johns

Hopkins University, psilocybin mushrooms were shown to produce psychological effects for up

to one year. Lasting change was found in openness, one of the five core traits of personality,

which includes characteristics related to imagination, aesthetics, feelings, abstract ideas and

general openness to new ideas and concepts (1-8). Personality change is generally nonexistent

in adults, with divorce and career success/failure being the only common causes. The only

experimental, discrete event other than Psilocybin use shown to produce personality change

involves hundreds of hours of solitary meditation over three months (Sahdra et. al. 299).

Psilocybin mushrooms have also been shown to help reduce anxiety in advanced-stage cancer

patients by helping them deal with the existential demoralization that comes with the

realization of death (Grob, Bossis and Griffiths 304). The mental experiences gained through

consumption of Psilocybin have been shown to have large subjective meaning. “At 2 months,

the volunteers rated the psilocybin experience as having substantial personal meaning and

spiritual significance and attributed to the experience sustained positive changes in attitudes

5

and behavior consistent with changes rated by community observers” (Griffiths et. al. 268). LSD

has also been shown to have many beneficial effects. A single dose of LSD along with alcohol

treatment is associated with a decrease in alcohol misuse. Compared to a control group, the

group of individuals in the study given a single dose of LSD was 21 percent more likely to

improve at follow-up using a standardized assessment of alcohol misuse (Krebs and Johansen

994). In a large-scale study conducted in 1964, 113 patients were given a single dose of LSD.

Among these patients, 66% or more noted the following 12 months after their dosage: more

frequent and persistent feelings of happiness, more ability to handle hostility creatively and get

over it, more ability to love in general, generally decreased anxiety, increased self-esteem,

improved ability to communicate with others, less dependence on others' opinions, increased

interest in universal concepts (i.e., meaning of life, relation to the rest of life) and generally

improved relations with persons they work and live with. Seventy eight percent of subjects

noted their LSD experience as “the greatest thing that ever happened to me”. There were a

small amount of negative effects recorded. Twenty percent or less of patients noted more

tendency toward feelings of depression, more intense swings in feeling from high to low, more

daydreaming and introspection which interferes with getting things done and more

dissatisfaction with their present work (Savage et. al. 112-114). Savage et. al. summarizes their

study by noting that “…used wisely, it may be that the psychedelic experience offers us new

hope of enlightenment, new hope of self-realization, and new hopes of alleviating the

unhappiness displayed most obviously in the mentally ill” (120). Studies continue to show the

wide range of opportunities for psychotherapeutic use of psychedelics and their ability to

6

produce significant, lasting psychological effects in not only the mentally ill, but healthy

subjects as well.

The physiological effects of both psilocybin mushrooms and LSD have been studied

extensively and are generally minor. The side effects of mushrooms are not significant and may

include dizziness, nausea, weakness, changes in blood pressure, abdominal pain and dilation of

pupils. Psilocybin is rapidly metabolized (inactivated) by the enzyme MAO (mono amine

oxidase). Acetaldehyde, the primary metabolite of ethanol, produces MAO-inhibitors. Thus, the

combination of psilocybin mushrooms and alcohol may enhance both the desired effects of

mushrooms as well as the side effects. Most cases of hospitalization due to psilocybin are the

cause of combinations with other drugs, notably alcohol. The toxicity of psilocybin is low, with

an LD50 (amount that produced fatalities in 50% of subjects) of 280mg/kg. About 17kg of

mushrooms must be consumed by the average adult to reach this limit (Jerome 3-18). LSD is

also harmless except at extremely high doses. The estimate for the lethal dose of LSD is around

10mg, which is over 100 times the typical dose of 100μg. Possible side effects include prolonged

psychosis, flashbacks and continuing perceptual changes. A “bad trip” can result from improper

care and social setting during the experience, causing major fluctuations between different

moods and emotions. However, these effects are neither harmful nor lasting and are rare.

Neither psilocybin nor LSD show any signs of addiction or withdrawal symptoms, either

physically or psychologically (Abraham and Aldridge 1328-1332).

Knowing the physiological effects of these psychedelics forces one to question why they

are outlawed when much more harmful drugs like nicotine, alcohol and many pharmaceuticals

7

have become such a normal part of today’s society. 51.5% of people over the age of 21 in the

U.S. are regular consumers of alcohol, and nearly 26,000 die every year as a direct result of

consumption (not including accidents and homicides caused by alcohol) (Alcohol Use).

Cigarettes are the direct cause of 443,000 deaths per year in the U.S. (Tobacco Related

Mortality). 100,000 people each year die from taking pharmaceutical drugs as prescribed

(Perdomo). These deaths aren’t including the deaths due to abuse and overdose. The horrifying

reality is that the corporations that produce these drugs are significant contributors to political

campaigns and have large influence via federal lobbying. Alcohol producers contributed a total

of nearly $20 million dollars to federal lobbying pursuits in 2012 (Beer, Wine & Liquor). The

tobacco industry contributes even more with $78 million in 1998; however their lobbying has

dropped to $26.7 million in 2012 (Tobacco). The pharmaceutical industry has the most

influence of the three, totaling more than $234 million in federal lobbying in 2012

(Pharmaceuticals/Health Products). These numbers make it clear and obvious that these

industries have a large influence in federal policy, thus taking power over public opinion. Their

influence has spread beyond governmental policymaking and has created cultural values that

guide certain behaviors and beliefs.

Psychedelics have the ability to change an individual’s view on cultural behaviors and

social norms. Savage et. al. noted in their 1964 study that “LSD, properly administered, provides

an encounter which brings a sudden and profound liberation or enlightenment, a dramatic

freeing of the self from its habitual ways of viewing the world, an opportunity to see clearly

without distortion, without a defensive structure which limits and filters perception” (119). The

relationship between the psychedelic user and societal values is further explored in the

8

observations of the Culinas’ culture. Rivier and Lindgren note that the Culina Ayahuasca user

“notices that his way of life is changing while the traditional obligations of society are still

weighing upon him” (102). Simply by examining the psychological effects of a mystical

experience, one can determine the significant social effect of psychedelics on both the

individual and society as a whole. Psychedelics and the ability to explore consciousness have

instilled paranoia into governments and those that influence the regulation of the drug market.

The capability of psychedelics to open the mind is a threat to institutional values relating to

economics, individual aspirations and political beliefs.

“The man who comes back through the Door in the Wall will never be quite the same as

the man who went out” (Huxley 191). Huxley’s description of the psychedelic experience in The

Doors of Perception helped to publicize the knowledge of psychedelics. When LSD began its first

stages of research in the 1940’s and 50’s, the excitement in psychology was continuing to grow.

Mysteries of mental illnesses and consciousness could finally be unlocked through the studying

of the new drug. Continuing research has shown the variety of psychotherapeutic benefits of

psychedelic usage, in addition to the few and insignificant health effects. Unlike legal drugs like

nicotine and alcohol, psychedelics do not cause addiction and do not contribute to life-

threatening health problems. It can be seen through analysis of their psychological effects and

cultural use that psychedelics have the ability to transform views relating to cultural behaviors

and open the mind to ways of thinking beyond institutional values. Both government and the

institutions that have the power to influence the regulation of psychedelics – including alcohol,

tobacco and pharmaceutical corporations – are threatened by the widespread use of

9

psychedelics. This has led to their regulation and condemnation, creating an irrational public

belief that the use of these drugs is morally wrong.

10

Works Cited

Abraham, Henry David, and Andrew M. Aldridge. "Adverse Consequences of Lysergic Acid

Diethylamide." Addiction 88.10 (1993): 1327-334. Print.

"Alcohol Use." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease Control and

Prevention, 11 Jan. 2013. Web. 26 Apr. 2013.

<http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/alcohol.htm>.

Amsterdam, Jan Van, Antoon Opperhuizen, and Wim Van Den Brink. "Harm Potential of Magic

Mushroom Use: A Review." Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 59.3 (2011): 423-

29. Print.

"Beer, Wine & Liquor." Opensecrets.org. Center for Responsive Politics, Apr. 2013. Web. 05 May

2013. <http://www.opensecrets.org/lobby/indusclient.php?id=N02>.

Ebbitt, Alicia. "The Effects of Hallucinogenic Drugs on The Brain." Serendip Studio. N.p., 16 Jan.

2008. Web. 25 Apr. 2013.

El-Seedi, Hesham R., Peter A.G.M. De Smet, Olof Beck, Göran Possnert, and Jan G. Bruhn.

"Prehistoric Peyote Use: Alkaloid Analysis and Radiocarbon Dating of Archaeological

Specimens of Lophophora from Texas." Journal of Ethnopharmacology 101.1-3 (2005):

238-42. Print.

Gale, Richard M. "Mysticism and Philosophy." The Journal of Philosophy 57.14 (1960): 471-81.

Print.

Griffiths, R. R., W. A. Richards, U. McCann, and R. Jesse. "Psilocybin Can Occasion Mystical-type

Experiences Having Substantial and Sustained Personal Meaning and Spiritual

Significance." Psychopharmacology 187.3 (2006): 268-83. Print.

11

Grob, Charles S., M.D., Anthony P. Bossis, Ph.D, and Roland R. Griffiths, Ph.D. "Use of the Classic

Hallucinogen Psilocybin for Treatment of Existential Distress Associated with

Cancer." Psychological Aspects of Cancer (2013): 291-308. Print.

Henman RH. “Ayahuasca Use in a Religious Context.” Erowid.org. February 2009

Huxley, Aldous. The Doors of Perception. New York: Harper, 1954. Print.

Jerome, Lisa. Psilocybin: Investigator's Brochure. N.p.: n.p., 2007. Print.

Krebs, Teri S., and Pål-Ørjan Johansen. "Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD) for Alcoholism: Meta-

analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials." Psychopharmacology 26.7 (2012): 994-

1002. Print.

Lee, Martin A., and Bruce Shlain. Acid Dreams: The Complete Social History of LSD : The CIA, the

Sixties, and beyond. New York: Grove Weidenfeld, 1992. Print.

MacLean, Katherine A., Matthew W. Johnson, and Roland R. Griffiths. "Mystical Experiences

Occasioned by the Hallucinogen Psilocybin Lead to Increases in the Personality Domain

of Openness." Psychopharmacology (2011): 1-9. Print.

McKenna, Terence K. Food of the Gods: The Search for the Original Tree of Knowledge : A

Radical History of Plants, Drugs, and Human Evolution. New York: Bantam, 1992. Print.

Perdomo, Daniela. "100,000 Americans Die Each Year from Prescription Drugs, While Pharma

Companies Get Rich." Alternet. N.p., 24 June 2010. Web. 26 Apr. 2013.

<http://www.alternet.org/story/147318/100,000_americans_die_each_year_from_pres

cription_drugs,_while_pharma_companies_get_rich>.

12

"Pharmaceuticals/Health Products." Opensecrets.org. Center for Responsive Politics, Apr. 2013.

Web. 05 May 2013. <http://www.opensecrets.org/lobby/indusclient.php?id=H04>.

"Psilocybe Mushroom History." Erowid.org. N.p., Oct. 2011. Web. 06 May 2013.

<http://www.erowid.org/plants/mushrooms/mushrooms_history.shtml>.

Rivier, Laurent, and Jan-Erik Lindgren. ""Ayahuasca," the South American Hallucinogenic Drink:

An Ethnobotanical and Chemical Investigation." Economic Botany 26.2 (1972): 101-09.

Print.

Sahdra, Baljinder K., Katherine A. MacLean, Emilio Ferrer, Phillip R. Shaver, Erika L. Rosenberg,

Tonya L. Jacobs, Anthony P. Zanesco, Brandon G. King, Stephen R. Aichele, George R.

Mangun, B. A. Wallace, David A. Bridwell, Shiri Lavy, and Clifford D. Saron. "Enhanced

Response Inhibition During Intensive Meditation Training Predicts Improvements in Self-

Reported Adaptive Socioemotional Functioning." Emotion 11.2 (2011): 299-312. Print.

Savage, Charles, Ethel Savage, James Fadiman, and Willis Harman. "Lsd: Therapeutic Effects Of

The Psychedelic Experience." Psychological Reports 14.1 (1964): 111-20. Print.

Schultes, Richard Evans., Albert Hofmann, and Christian Rätsch. "Little Flowers of the

Gods." Plants of the Gods: Their Sacred, Healing, and Hallucinogenic Powers. Rochester,

VT: Healing Arts, 2001. N. pag. Erowid. 27 Mar. 2009. Web. 25 Apr. 2013. <erowid.org>.

"Tobacco." Opensecrets.org. Center for Responsive Politics, 25 Mar. 2013. Web.

<http://www.opensecrets.org/industries/indus.php?ind=A02>.

"Tobacco-Related Mortality." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Centers for Disease

Control and Prevention, 21 Mar. 2011. Web. 26 Apr. 2013.

13

<http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/fact_sheets/health_effects/tobacco_relat

ed_mortality/>.

"U.S. Drug Control Timeline". Erowid.org. N.p., June 2004. Web.

<http://www.erowid.org/psychoactives/history/history_article2.shtml>.