The Meaning and Measurement The Meaning and Measurement of Creativityof Creativity

IntroductionIntroduction

Definition and assessment of creativity have long been a subject of disagreement and dissatisfaction.Creativity can be identified with particular, specifiable features of products or person or thought processes.Creativity defined by the quality of the response that a product elicits form an observer.

Three general questions should be answered

What are we talking about?

How can we study it?

How does it work?

Previous Approaches to Creativity Definition

Earliest definitions of creativity focus on the creative process.

John Watson’s definition is perhaps remarkable ： “How the new comes into being: One natural ques

tion often raised is : How do we ever get new verbal creations such as a poem or a brilliant essay? The answer is that we get them by manipulating words, shifting them about until a new pattern is hit upon.”

Previous Approaches to Creativity Definition

Koestler(1964) proposed creativity involves a “bKoestler(1964) proposed creativity involves a “bisociative process”-the deliberate connecting of isociative process”-the deliberate connecting of two previously unrelated “matrices of thought” two previously unrelated “matrices of thought” to produce a new insight or invention.to produce a new insight or invention.Most explicit definitions have used the creative Most explicit definitions have used the creative product as the distinguishing sign of creativity.product as the distinguishing sign of creativity.Barron (1955) proposed to be judged as “originBarron (1955) proposed to be judged as “original”-particular group being studied and to some al”-particular group being studied and to some extent adaptive to reality.extent adaptive to reality.

Previous approaches to creativity measurement

Most empirical work on creativity has employed one of three assessment techniques.

An objective analysis of products.

Subjective judgments of products or persons as creative.

Vast majority-used creativity tests.

Creativity Test (I)Personality test-from creativity scalesPersonality test-from creativity scalesGough’s(1957)-California Psychological InvGough’s(1957)-California Psychological InventoryentoryCattell & Eber’s(1968)-Sixteen Personality Cattell & Eber’s(1968)-Sixteen Personality Factor QuestionnaireFactor QuestionnaireGough & Heilbrun’s(1965)-Adjective Check Gough & Heilbrun’s(1965)-Adjective Check ListListHeist & Yonge’s(1968)-Omnibus PersonalitHeist & Yonge’s(1968)-Omnibus Personality Inventoryy Inventory

Personality inventories

To assess traits characteristic of creative individuals

“How Do You Think?” test

GIFT-“Group Inventory for Finding Creative Talent”

“What Kind of Person Are You?” test

The first group of personality tests

Gough’s(1979) -Creative Personality Scale for the Adjective Check List12 samples came from in a variety fields1,701 subjects had already assessed by experts 300 adjectives that make up the full self-report ACL30 items-18 were positively related to creativity, and 12 were negatively weighted.

Typical of Personality tests

Torrance & Khatena’s(1970)-”What Kind of Person Are you?”

Subjects select adjectives to describe with in a forced choice format.

High creative individuals describe ： altruistic rather than courteous

curious rather than self-confident

self-starting rather than obedient

Creativity Test(II)

Biographical inventories-an intuitive Biographical inventories-an intuitive basis and rated (high, low or average)basis and rated (high, low or average)

Alpha Biographical Inventory-includes Alpha Biographical Inventory-includes several hundred itemsseveral hundred items

The Biographical Inventory- creativity The Biographical Inventory- creativity includes 165 items into five categoriesincludes 165 items into five categories

50-item biographical inventory made 50-item biographical inventory made from Taylor(1963)from Taylor(1963)

Creativity Test (III)

Behavioral assessment-similar as traditional intelligence tests.

Model for many creativity tests-Guilford’s structure -of-intellect theory

Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT) = Minnesota Tests of Creative Thinking

Torrance Test of Creativity Thinking

Oral, written, or drawn responses

It can be scored separately by category

Teachers given the tests in a group to children

Four criterion components : fluency, flexibility, elaboration, originality

Three categories : nonverbal tests, verbal tests using nonverbal stimuli, verbal tests using verbal stimuli

Other Creativity Tests

Wallach & Kogan tests include five subscales ： Instances, Alternate Uses, Similarities, Pattern Meaning, Line Meaning

Ghiselin, et. al.- Creative Process Checklist-designed to assess states of attention and affect in scientists at the moment of invention

Creative Person

What does it mean when someone scores high (or low) on a creativity test?

Is it appropriate to consider high scores as “creative person”?

Environmental influences on test performance (I)

Various social and environmental factors can influence test outcomes.

The study of Speller & Schumacher (1975)

The study of Manske & Davis (1968)

The study of Gough & Heilbrun (1965)

Suggestion of Wallach & Kogan(1965)

Environmental influences on test performance (II)

Difference tests sores under different conditions and time constraintsThe study of Higgins & Chairs (1980)Social and environmental influences on creativity are unlikely explained by single theoretical construct.Do not only assess stable individual differences in creative abilities and attitudes.Differences, social and contextual factor may play a crucial role in performance.

A Critique of Creativity Tests (I)

Some creative problems could hamper any empirical application.

Construct validity of many tests has been questioned.

Creativity tests assess narrow ranges of abilities.

Subjective scoring procedures in many of the creativity tests.

A Critique of Creativity Tests (II)

Several reasons in criticisms of tests.

Investigations of individual differences.

Social-psychological factors influence performance on test.

Validity problems of the tests used.

Objective Analysis of Products

Objective analysis of products used only Objective analysis of products used only infrequently to assess creativity.infrequently to assess creativity.

The study of Simonton(1980)The study of Simonton(1980)

This methodology has a clear operational This methodology has a clear operational definition.definition.

The assessment of creativity can’t be The assessment of creativity can’t be achieved by objective analysis alone.achieved by objective analysis alone.

Subjective Judgments (I)

The subjective assessment of person or productThe subjective assessment of person or products as creative has a much longer history.s as creative has a much longer history.

Galton ‘s(1870) Hereditary GeniusGalton ‘s(1870) Hereditary Genius

The study of Castle (1913)The study of Castle (1913)

The study of Cox (1926)The study of Cox (1926)

The study of J. Cattell (1903)The study of J. Cattell (1903)

The study of Roe (1952)The study of Roe (1952)

The study of Simonton (1977)The study of Simonton (1977)

Three dimensions of ratings

Some studies use subjective judgments of a particular product’s creativity such as Sobel and Rothenberg(1980) that given three dimensions to make rating:

Originality of sketches

Value of sketches

Overall creative potential of the art product

Subjective Judgments (II)

Still unanswered question about the use of subjective judgments.

Do judges man when they call something “creative”?

What features of products predict their response?

What phenomenological response states lead them to apply that label?

Subjective Judgments (III)

The study of Jackson & Messick (1965) suggested outstanding creativity composed of four aesthetic responses : surprise, satisfaction, stimulation, savoring.But there is little empirical work on their scheme.It has been demonstrated that judges can rate products according to “transformational power.”

Subjective Judgments (IV)

Many of the previously used subjective assessment metMany of the previously used subjective assessment methodologies present difficultieshodologies present difficulties ：：Subjective assessment procedures fail to differentiate bSubjective assessment procedures fail to differentiate between the creativity of the products and other construetween the creativity of the products and other construct.ct.

The meaning of interjudge reliabilty can be questioned The meaning of interjudge reliabilty can be questioned in studies.in studies.

Previous subjective assessment methodologies might be Previous subjective assessment methodologies might be inappropriate for use in social psychological research.inappropriate for use in social psychological research.

Subjective Judgments (IV)

Those assessment procedures judges rate single Those assessment procedures judges rate single products may be too sensitive to large and products may be too sensitive to large and stable individual differences in performance.stable individual differences in performance.The influence for domain-relevant and The influence for domain-relevant and creativity-relevant skills can be controlled or creativity-relevant skills can be controlled or eliminated.eliminated.Many researchers using subjective assessment Many researchers using subjective assessment fall prey to a difficulty also encountered by fall prey to a difficulty also encountered by those using creativity tests.those using creativity tests.

Subjective Judgments (V)

Methods as creative are not widely Methods as creative are not widely applicable, and cannot be used as sole applicable, and cannot be used as sole indicators of creativity.indicators of creativity.

Most of these tests are ill-suited to social-Most of these tests are ill-suited to social-psychological research because of their psychological research because of their sensitivity to individuals differences.sensitivity to individuals differences.

A Consensual Definition of Creativity (I)

An explicitly operational definition that impAn explicitly operational definition that implicitly underlies most subjective assessment licitly underlies most subjective assessment methodologies.methodologies.Most current definitions of creativity, the coMost current definitions of creativity, the consensual definition is based on the creative nsensual definition is based on the creative product.product.The identification of thought process or subThe identification of thought process or subprocess as creative must depend on the fruit process as creative must depend on the fruit of that process-a product or response. of that process-a product or response.

A Consensual Definition of Creativity (II)

Several assumptions are made about the nature of Several assumptions are made about the nature of creativity and creativity judgment:creativity and creativity judgment:Products or observable responses must be the Products or observable responses must be the hallmark of creativity.hallmark of creativity.Creativity in a product may be difficult to Creativity in a product may be difficult to characterize in terms of features, and phenomenology characterize in terms of features, and phenomenology of observer’s responses to creative products clearly.of observer’s responses to creative products clearly.One basic form of creativity and quality of products.One basic form of creativity and quality of products.Observers can say with an acceptable level of Observers can say with an acceptable level of agreement the degree of creativity.agreement the degree of creativity.

A Conceptual Definition of Creativity (I)

Conceptual definition of creativity Conceptual definition of creativity comprises two essential elements:comprises two essential elements:

Both a novel and appropriate, useful, Both a novel and appropriate, useful, correct or valuable response to the task at correct or valuable response to the task at hand.hand.

The task is heuristic rather than The task is heuristic rather than algorithmic.algorithmic.

A Conceptual Definition of Creativity (II)

Typically defined, algorithmic tasks are Typically defined, algorithmic tasks are those for which the path to the solution is those for which the path to the solution is clear and straightforward.clear and straightforward.

For heuristic tasks, the path to the solution For heuristic tasks, the path to the solution is not completely straightforward.is not completely straightforward.

That may be considered either algorithmic That may be considered either algorithmic or heuristic, depend on the particular goal or heuristic, depend on the particular goal and the level of knowledge of the performer.and the level of knowledge of the performer.

A Conceptual Definition of Creativity (III)

The determination of the label “algorithmic” The determination of the label “algorithmic” or “heuristic” depends on the individual or “heuristic” depends on the individual performer’s knowledge about the task.performer’s knowledge about the task.

The specification of tasks as algorithmic or The specification of tasks as algorithmic or heuristic raises an important question about heuristic raises an important question about the assessment of creativity.the assessment of creativity.

Creativity judges must have information Creativity judges must have information about the creator.about the creator.

A Conceptual Definition of Creativity (IV)

In presenting the consensual definition that In presenting the consensual definition that assessment of creativity must be culturally assessment of creativity must be culturally and historically bound.and historically bound.the operational and conceptual definitions the operational and conceptual definitions are closely related, although they are are closely related, although they are different function.different function.It is not yet possible to specify objectively It is not yet possible to specify objectively “novelty” or “appropriateness” or “novelty” or “appropriateness” or “straightforwardness” with any generality.“straightforwardness” with any generality.

UpdateUpdate

Morries Stein’s (1953) definition of creativity aMorries Stein’s (1953) definition of creativity as “that process which results in a novel work ts “that process which results in a novel work that is accepted as tenable or satisfying by a grohat is accepted as tenable or satisfying by a group at some point in time.”up at some point in time.”

This definition combines two of the key elemenThis definition combines two of the key elements of conceptual definition of creativity-novelty,ts of conceptual definition of creativity-novelty, and acceptability or appropriateness. and acceptability or appropriateness.

UpdateUpdate

Original edition: there was no direct tie Original edition: there was no direct tie between conceptual and operational between conceptual and operational definitions of creativity.definitions of creativity.

The conceptual definition rests on The conceptual definition rests on assumptions about what observers are assumptions about what observers are responding to when they identify a product responding to when they identify a product as highly creative.as highly creative.

The study of Phillips (1993) – a start dataThe study of Phillips (1993) – a start data

UpdateUpdate

It’s important to reiterate assumptions that It’s important to reiterate assumptions that served as foundations for original served as foundations for original definitions, and other theorists has asserted definitions, and other theorists has asserted the utility of the same assumption.the utility of the same assumption.There often appears to be a discontinuity in There often appears to be a discontinuity in the creativity of products.the creativity of products.Even products that differ enormously in Even products that differ enormously in their creativity levels could arise from the their creativity levels could arise from the same basic underlying process.same basic underlying process.

UpdateUpdate

In understanding the social psychological In understanding the social psychological conditions that can foster or inhibit creativity.conditions that can foster or inhibit creativity.

Creativity tests were unsuitable for most Creativity tests were unsuitable for most social psychological research on creativity, social psychological research on creativity, and might be unsuitable for most purposes.and might be unsuitable for most purposes.

It appears that many researchers are It appears that many researchers are beginning to favor reliable subjective beginning to favor reliable subjective assessments of the creativity of products.assessments of the creativity of products.