The Louisiana Purchase: A Dramatic Change for

Pointe Coupéeans 1803–1815

JULIE ESHELMAN-LEE

CREOLE WEST PRODUCTIONS

FORT COLLINS

Copyright © 2003 by Julie Eshelman-Lee All rights reserved

Published by Creole West Productions Fort Collins, Colorado

Printing sponsored by les Créoles de Pointe Coupée

New Roads, Louisiana

Cover designed by LJC (Linda) Shimoda for Creole West Productions in commemoration of the bicentennial of the Louisiana Purchase

For Jacqueline M. Saizan to whom I am indebted, immeasurably,

Merci mille fois

“If France does not seize this most beautiful part of America and set up a colony, […] the English colony which is becoming quite large, will increase to such a degree that, in less than one hundred years, it will be strong enough to take over all of America and chase away all other nations.”

—Pierre Le Moyne d’Iberville, (in Canada) his argument for establishing a French colony at the mouth of the Mississippi

1697

“On this important acquisition, so favorable to the immediate interests of our Western citizens, so auspicious to the peace and security of the nation in general, which adds to our country territories so extensive and fertile, and to our citizens new brethren to partake of the blessings of freedom and self government, I offer to Congress, and our country, my sincere congratulations.”

—Thomas Jefferson, his message to the Senate and House after the transfer of Louisiana to the United States

January 16, 1804

LOUISIANA PURCHASE: A DRAMATIC CHANGE FOR POINTE COUPÉEANS 1803–1815

CONTENTS

Bienvenue! Welcome ...........................................................................................................9 A Word From les Créoles de Pointe Coupée .....................................................................10 “Pointe Coupée and the Louisiana Purchase,” Brian J. Costello.......................................11 Preface and Acknowledgements ........................................................................................12 CHAPTER 1 POINTE COUPÉE TODAY......................................................................17

HISTORY REFLECTED IN THE PRESENT…..........................................................17 Glossary .....................................................................................................21

CHAPTER 2 A PLACE IN TIME...................................................................................22

A LOOK BACK… ......................................................................................................22 THE PLACE, ITS PEOPLE…....................................................................................24 ONE MAN’S ACCOUNT…........................................................................................27 LANGUAGE AND TRADITIONS…...........................................................................29 PLANTATIONS, SETTLERS, AND SLAVES…..........................................................31 MEMOIR TO THE FRENCH….................................................................................37

Glossary .....................................................................................................39 CHAPTER 3 FAREWELL TO HIS CATHOLIC MAJESTY:

A BITTERSWEET RETURN TO FRANCE’S EMBRACE ....................42 A DEAL IN PARIS…..................................................................................................42 PREPARING TO ACCEPT THE COLONY FROM SPAIN…....................................43 ANOTHER BUYER…THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA…................................46 IMMEDIATE CHANGE OF PLANS… ......................................................................51 THE OFFICIAL TRANSFERS…................................................................................55 A NEW BEGINNING…..............................................................................................56

Glossary .....................................................................................................58

CHAPTER 4 A PRIMER IN DEMOCRACY.................................................................61

4.1 Pointe Coupée’s Soldier of Politics .....................................................61 AN EDUCATED ADVENTURER…...........................................................................61 ESTABLISHED IN LOUISIANA… ............................................................................62 POLITICAL LIFE…...................................................................................................64

4.2 Territorial Government—A Temporary System..................................65 CITIZENS ACTIVE IN POLITICS… .........................................................................65 CONFLICT AND UNREST… ....................................................................................68 A TEMPORARY SOLUTION… .................................................................................70 A TERRITORY AND ITS CONCERNS…...................................................................73 LOUISIANA’S FIRST PUBLIC SCHOOL ESTABLISHED IN POINTE COUPÉE…76 POLITICAL DIFFERENCES BEGIN… ....................................................................79 COMING TOGETHER FOR STATEHOOD… ..........................................................80

4.3 Timeline of Events During Territorial Government ............................81 4.4 Development of a Constitution and Statehood ....................................85

STATEHOOD AND ITS CHALLENGES…................................................................85 STATEHOOD AT LAST… .........................................................................................89

Glossary .....................................................................................................90 CHAPTER 5 TOGETHER AS AMERICANS................................................................93

1812…........................................................................................................................93 COMING TOGETHER AGAINST THE BRITISH…..................................................95 EARLY 1800s IN THE NEW STATE OF LOUISIANA…...........................................98

Glossary ...................................................................................................100 Appendix A: Table of Contents for Pointe Coupée, Louisiana: A Unique Place, People

and Culture ..........................................................................................................101 Suggestions for Further Resources ..................................................................................104 About the Author .............................................................................................................107

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BIENVENUE!—WELCOME

Bienvenue! Welcome to a window into Pointe Coupée’s past. In commemoration of the 200th year since the Louisiana Purchase Treaty was signed in April 1803 and finalized on December 20, 1803, let’s take a moment to look back. We always hear very basic facts about the “Louisiana Purchase.” How it was purchased for $15 million at an average of four cents an acre. That it stretched from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains. That President Thomas Jefferson bought this vast territory from Consul Napoleon Bonaparte. The larger story is that this historical event is made up of a very detailed background with many fascinating facts. The events that led up to the purchase involved a very diverse group of people.

Take a peek into the window of a unique place located within the vast territory

known as la Louisiane. When President Thomas Jefferson purchased this territory for the young United States from Consul Napoleon Bonaparte of France, he, too, knew about a place located on the banks of the Mississippi River once called la Pointe Coupée.

The pages ahead take you to this place then and now. You will read praise from

les Créoles de Pointe Coupée, a group of people from the community dedicated to the preservation of the Créole culture, language, and traditions of Pointe Coupée. This organization has generously sponsored the printing of this publication as a tribute to Pointe Coupée in this bicentennial year of the Louisiana Purchase.

You will hear the words of one of Pointe Coupée’s dedicated community

members, devoted to historical and cultural preservation and keeping the stories of our elders alive. Brian J. Costello is a lifelong resident of False River, and descended from early founding families of Pointe Coupée. His passion for history was fueled by the stories of his elders. His background includes being founding President of Le Cercle Historique since 1992, chairman of the New Roads Lion Carnival since 1993, past writer for the Pointe Coupée Banner, an expert genealogist, and a historian and author of thirteen completed books. He shares with you his thoughts and words about Pointe Coupée and the Louisiana Purchase.

The journey continues in the following pages, stepping back in time, looking at

historical details about how this large real estate transaction played a significant role in the life and future of Pointe Coupée.

Vive la Louisiane…vive la Pointe Coupée!

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A WORD FROM LES CRÉOLES DE POINTE COUPÉE

It is with our pleasure that we sponsor the printing of Louisiana Purchase: A Dramatic Change for Pointe Coupéeans 1803–1815 and dedicate it to our community, past and present, in this bicentennial year of the Louisiana Purchase. We would like to extend a special dedication to Mr. Joseph Clifford Fabre, a dedicated Pointe Coupéean, a World War II veteran who was an interpreter in France during his service, a master mason by trade, a devoted member of les Créoles de Pointe Coupée, and very proud of his Créole heritage. Saddened deeply by his loss, we are blessed by what he gave to all of us. We offer a distinctive tribute to our youth in Pointe Coupée as we share with you this piece of our history—our place in the historical event of the Louisiana Purchase.

Les Créoles de Pointe Coupée was founded in 2001 by a diverse group of

community members of Pointe Coupée Parish for the purpose of preserving the Créole language and culture in Pointe Coupée. We preserve and celebrate our heritage with weekly classes taught by Heberne Edmond and Nickson Elidor. We also sponsor various events such as the annual Browse and Taste, and we celebrate our Pointe Coupée families and their histories—past and present—through events like our 1st Annual Créole Homecoming Fest held in October 2001. We look forward to continuing and building upon these events for the community for many years to come. As a result of our efforts, we have already received two awards of recognition from The Louisiana Créole Heritage Center in 2002. These are proudly on display at the Pointe Coupée Parish public library in honor of our community.

We invite all to join us in our preservation efforts of our Créole language and

culture in this bicentennial year of the Louisiana Purchase! Ronald A. Saizon, President Gail Hurst, Vice President Mary Alice Jackson, Secretary Christine Christophe, Treasurer On behalf of the all the members of les Créoles de Pointe Coupée

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POINTE COUPÉE AND THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE

When the flag of the United States was first hoisted over Louisiana soil in 1803, a bright new dawn of promise shone over one of the oldest settlements in the new American territory: Pointe Coupée.

Populated by indigenous peoples during prehistoric times, and explored by the

Spanish during the 16th century and by the French during the 17th century, Pointe Coupée became one of the first permanent European settlements in the entire Mississippi Valley in 1720 with the arrival of colonists from the province of Hainaut—now part of Belgium. The community received a steady influx of French settlers and African slaves throughout the 18th century. Together they established a prosperous agricultural community and center for trade, religion, and military affairs on the Mississippi River.

Throughout the French and subsequent Spanish periods of rule, however, Pointe

Coupée—like the rest of Louisiana—served merely as the pawn of foreign powers. A military commandant functioned as the link between people and crown, but the rest of the population had no voice in political and governmental matters. The brief switch back to French rule, under Napoleon, did little to change the lives of Pointe Coupéeans, but the sale of the vast Louisiana colony from France to the United States in 1803 would have a profound impact.

Americanization, while initially resisted by some elements of the tradition-bound

Créole population, guaranteed the success and future of Pointe Coupée. Trade increased, as the settlement was now part of the growing American nation, and agricultural production soared with the successful cultivation of cotton and sugar cane. A significant portion of the people—“white” males only—was now enabled to have a voice in a democratic government by participating in elections and holding public office. Though the abolition of slavery was still more than a half-century distant and universal suffrage even farther removed, the integration of Pointe Coupéeans of all ethnic and socio-economic backgrounds farther still, the Louisiana Purchase nonetheless stood as a harbinger of promise for Pointe Coupée.

Ever mindful of her rich and colorful past yet open to progress, ever vigilant in

her crusade to improve the lives of all of her children, the beautiful community that is Pointe Coupée joins the nation in the celebration of the 200th anniversary of the Louisiana Purchase. May the next century of American citizenship be the most glorious in the history of la Pointe Coupée!

Brian J. Costello

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PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

It is this portion of the manuscript I wrote first. The incredible journey into Pointe Coupée’s history and its place in Louisiana, nationwide and globally, evolves with the people I acknowledge. As the manuscript progresses, I continually return to this section, fondly recalling the experiences and memory of each individual. Their collective contribution became a pivotal tile to the historic mosaic, a journey in the past through the window of life at a magical place called Pointe Coupée. A part of each of them is in the contents of this publication.

The Louisiana Purchase: A Dramatic Change for Pointe Coupéeans 1803–1815

is a section of the text for a Web interactive local history curriculum for all middle school students in Pointe Coupée Parish, Louisiana, developed by Creole West Productions for the Pointe Coupée Parish Public School District. (See Appendix A for a description of the chapters in the curriculum text.) This Web curriculum will have features to include audio, video, and images to enhance the text, and will incorporate engaging activities to include the community. This project is currently soliciting final funding to complete and implement. When finished, it will also be shared with the community and beyond, disseminating the rich history of Pointe Coupée Parish across the nation, reaching across the world. In commemoration of this bicentennial year for the Louisiana Purchase, we have printed and made publicly available this section to honor the role that our ancestors in Pointe Coupée played in this historical event—one that led to the westward expansion and development of the United States while contributing its richly diverse population and unique culture.

With each step of my personal excursion as a descendant of founding families of

New France (Canada), the Louisiana colony, and the colonial settlement of Pointe Coupée—my deep cultural roots in middle North America—the history unveils. The expedition, much like the seasonal waters of the Mississippi, has its highs and lows. The tides rise up and down through each phase of discovery as the human and natural dramas unfold. The tides level as we come together, rise above, and learn from our past, and together embrace our Pointe Coupée heritage and culture in this 21st century!

By necessity, I continually rely on a number of resources to piece together the

story. To each and every one of those well-researched and documented sources I consult, I am indebted to their authors for the academic consideration, standards, and integrity adhered to with their publications. Their efforts are not in vain as the work stands the test of time, laying the foundation for further inquiry and discovery. Those consulted specifically for this publication are all appropriately noted in the endnotes in this publication. Also included are suggestions for further research in publications and Web resources.

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Although compiled, researched, and written by me, like most historical narratives

which are rarely the work of one individual, I would like to extend this opportunity to acknowledge others who were an integral part of the development of this book. One of the numerous personal rewards with a project like this is the opportunity to join a circle of individuals from vast backgrounds and disciplines sharing a common passion, sharing a common goal: bringing Pointe Coupée History Alive! To each and every one, I extend my sincerest gratitude, where words alone are insufficient to adequately express my appreciation. I look forward to our future journeys together, embracing what brought us together.

To my growing Pointe Coupée extended family, in Louisiana and nationwide, I

thank each and every one of you for your support, participation, and continual encouragement. Through my ongoing experiences with each one of you, the journey of coming home and tying together our common threads continues to be a life-changing endeavor. The positive support from the Pointe Coupée community overall is genuinely heartfelt as we pull the history together from our collective resources.

Brian Costello, George DeCoux, Randy DeCuir, and Glenn Morgan continue their

kindness, devotion, knowledge, and encouragement as we travel the road of discovery together as early founding family descendants, piecing together our story in Pointe Coupée and Louisiana. Speaking on behalf of a large number of people, we extend an extra thank you to Brian Costello for his devotion to Pointe Coupée, past, present, and future. He generously shares his knowledge with everyone, leaving a legacy of history through his prolific endeavor with his ongoing publications. He is truly one of the community’s honored storytellers—le raconteur—an honor he so willingly deserves and so humbly hesitates to accept.

Without the civil, notarial, court, and ecclesiastical records, we lose the story.

From these we find a wealth of information other than ordinary occurrences. It is with these collectively that we begin to see a historical diary of recorded life in Pointe Coupée. I extend my appreciation to Jacqueline M. Saizan, to whom this book is dedicated. She provided a bridge for the geographical distance to the Pointe Coupée Parish courthouse records, generously sharing her invaluable knowledge, tirelessly devoted to researching and providing record copies. My gratitude reaches to Honorable I.G. Olinde, past Pointe Coupée Parish Clerk of Court, for his consideration when researching the courthouse records. And, to Honorable Lanell Swindler Landry, current Pointe Coupée Parish Clerk of Court, I give much appreciation for her support with continuing the research process and utilizing the indexes, and her dedication to preserving the colonial records. The staff at the Pointe Coupée Parish courthouse continues to be very helpful and friendly as the research continues.

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The Diocese of Baton Rouge and the Archdiocese of New Orleans provide an

invaluable link to the records with the published volumes of the ecclesiastical acts for earlier Louisiana days. Grateful to the numerous people who have contributed to compiling and editing these volumes over the years, and especially to the team at the Diocese of Baton Rouge that continued the work of the late Una Daigre and Jack Pastorek for compiling Volume 1B, a landmark publication where the Catholic sacraments for the diverse group of people—free, enslaved and native—are recorded for Pointe Coupée Parish for the period 1727–1769.

Individually, ranging from genealogists, scholars, cousins, professional

researchers, archivists, librarians, historians, educators, colleagues, and friends, my extension of gratitude continues for your respective roles as experts and mentors along with your encouragement in both the process of the historical content and the Web interactive local history curriculum. Space does not allow adequate recognition as I extend only a token of my appreciation through this list: Claire Mire Bettag CGRS, CGL, Hendon Blaylock, Julie Bracewell, Michelle Bracewell, Janet Ravarre Colson, Joseph L. Cornelious, Ph.D., Mary Langlois Costello, Glynn Couvillion, Creole West Productions’ expertly talented team of Graphic Artist, Editor, and Web Developer without whom the vision would not be a reality, Barbara DeCuir, Winston DeCuir, Winston De Ville FASG, Mildred Duhe, Marquis de Endelegard, Stephanie Fabre, Gregory Grimes, Olinde S. “Toppy” Haag, Dr. and Mrs. Jack Holden, Thomas Honoré, Gail Hurst, les Créoles de Pointe Coupée, Ruth H. Laney, Donna M. at the Pointe Coupée Parish School Board, Penny Daigre Midboe, William D. Reeves, Ph.D., Sally K. Reeves, R. Jackson Rogers, Joseph Rougon, Elizabeth Jewell Rougon, Paul Roy, Ronald Saizon, Kathleen Saizon, Judi Rabalais Scola, Geraldine Porché West, Christopher Porché West, and Joanna Wurtele, whose name is last only alphabetically.

Further I extend my love and appreciation to my immediate circle of family—past

and present—grandfathers, grandmothers, aunts, uncles, and cousins for your unconditional encouragement and all you have done in connecting the pieces for the larger story. An extraordinary tribute reaches always to my aunt Carol Sealock. I am proud we are all family!

As always, continued love and appreciation for their embrace, ongoing unselfish

encouragement and generous pride reaches to my immediate family: my parents Ray and Alice Eshelman, my brothers Pete Eshelman and Tim Eshelman, and Alice Kurrus Eshelman, Catherine McMullen, and Charlie Ainsworth. To Kristin, Jentry, Peter, Eliza, and Hilary, I share my love and gratefulness for your interest and individual keen perspectives as the younger generation, our future. It continually reinforces the importance of completing the history projects.

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And, next to last but absolutely not least, to Felix, my husband, “Creative Editor”

for Creole West Productions, for his remarkable vision and interest in people and our histories, his unique creative and intellectual acumen, and absolute love, devotion, steadfast encouragement, and patience.

Finally, to all persons, before, now, and in the future who make a difference for

Pointe Coupée, and a heartfelt tribute to all our youth in Pointe Coupée Parish, today and tomorrow, may this foundation give you the impetus to sustain a bright future in Pointe Coupée!

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LOUISIANA PURCHASE: A DRAMATIC CHANGE FOR POINTE COUPÉEANS 1803–1815

1

POINTE COUPÉE TODAY

HISTORY REFLECTED IN THE PRESENT…

The history of each individual place in the United States is unique. Each tells the story of

its place, people, and culture. The combination of all the states, cities, towns, villages,

counties, and parishes in the United States completes our story as “Americans.” A part of

that story is a parish in the state of Louisiana located about 70 highway miles upriver

from New Orleans: Pointe Coupée Parish (pronounced: Pwent Koo Pay).

Pointe Coupée Parish is a thriving community today with a diverse population of

about 23,000 residents. The majority of its residents are descended from the original

native people, the earliest European settlers, and the Africans. Located in a sub-tropical

climate, it is surrounded by rivers and interwoven with bayous and channels. The

landscape is one of lush pastures, beautiful trees, old live oaks draped with Spanish moss,

magnolia trees, vast sugar cane and cotton fields, and usable oil and gas resources.

Farmers in Pointe Coupée cultivate a variety of crops, including pecans. In fact, the

community is the largest pecan producer in the state. All of this is nestled in an inland

peninsula.

Pointe Coupée’s lifeblood is the great Mississippi River with all of its riches and

challenges. Its force continually defines the boundaries, tributaries, and the natural

beauty—the landscape and wildlife—of the parish. The Mississippi River provides access

within the interior of the continent and to other countries through its mouth at the Gulf of

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Mexico. It provides the rich alluvial soil from which this agricultural community has

benefited for centuries!

CRÉOLE…a person of non-American ancestry, either European, African, or a blend thereof, who was born in a colony of the Americas… LOUISIANA CRÉOLE…born in the Louisiana colony…descended from those born in Louisiana during the colonial period… POINTE COUPÉE CRÉOLE…born in Pointe Coupée during the colonial period…descended from those born in Pointe Coupée during the colonial period…

Pointe Coupée is a Créole1 community steeped in culture, customs, and family.

One can still hear French spoken along with vestiges of the centuries-old local dialect, the

Créole patois. The cuisine is superb. As the great river constantly changes and evolves, so

does the community. Strengthened by its cultural foundation from a blend of indigenous

peoples, early eighteenth century French settlers, and the influence of people of African

descent, Pointe Coupée has a very diverse population.

The Pointe Coupée Créole culture endures in this twenty-first century with all of

its joie de vivre!—French for joy in life—and celebration of seasonal festivals, events,

and community affairs. Most notably, Mardi Gras continues to be well-recognized as it

moves into its eighty first year! This community, dedicated to its people and place, strives

to retain its uniqueness and to conserve the natural beauty and water resources. As the

community moves forward into the twenty-first century, it finds opportunities for more

tourism and commerce.

Pointe Coupée Parish is surrounded by three large inland waterways: the Old

River, the Atchafalaya River, and the Mississippi River. Further within this community’s

boundary lies a remarkable oxbow lake—la Fausse Riviere—formed centuries ago by the

Mississippi River. False River’s natural beauty graces the community with various water

sport opportunities. In the northern end of the parish, a smaller oxbow lake, Old River,

offers great fishing and recreation. The parish contains 15,360 acres of water; 75,000

1 Discussion of origin of term. See Gwendolyn Midlo Hall, The Development of Afro-Creole Culture in the Eighteenth Century. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1992. p 157.

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acres of pastures; and 150,000 acres of forests. A thriving agricultural community, Pointe

Coupée Parish is best known for its water and outdoor recreation activities and as a

historic tourist attraction. It also has a fine library and vocational-technical school. The

official flower is the Pink Perfection Camellia.2 This place and its people are very

welcoming. Bienvenue.

The city of New Roads is the commerce and banking center for the parish. It is

also the government seat where the parish courthouse is located. The parish is rounded

out with communities and villages within its borders. Livonia, Fordoche, and Morganza

have their own local governments. Pointe Coupée Parish hosts a newly renovated general

aviation park, False River Air Park, a port, and electric-generating and plastics industries.

A tour through the parish reveals beautiful landmarks, subtly reminding the

passerby of the history and of the beginnings of the parish. The natural beauty is

unsurpassed! Levees along the Mississippi River protect the banks and the community

from high water overflow and devastating flooding.

A moment spent waiting at the ferry landing to cross over to St. Francisville,

witnessing the regular barge traffic carrying grains, coal, and other goods, can

immediately pique one’s curiosity about the past. One might wonder about the story of

people in years past co-existing with the great Mississippi. Many landmarks, both natural

and manmade, have been lost or changed due to this great river. Progress and the

challenges of sub-tropical weather have changed or destroyed other pieces of the natural

and manmade past of Pointe Coupée.

The history, however, remains clearly alive in the community through its culture,

oral histories, successive generations of descendants, and dedication of community

members to writing and maintaining the record of history. The commitment to conserving

and preserving this history is paramount to the people of the parish. The story can be

pieced together from the public records, journals, diaries, newspapers, and publications.

2 Pointe Coupée Chamber of Commerce.

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The history comes alive when our elders share their oral histories. The twentieth century

history can be sustained through ongoing community participation and sharing.

Stepping back in time, we look to 1803 when President Thomas Jefferson of the

young United States of America realized his dream of westward expansion. To achieve

this he needed to acquire all the land west of the Mississippi River. The poste of Pointe

Coupée could be found within one of the Louisiana Créole communities west of that

great river. It is here where from this time forward, a dramatic change would commence

for the people of this region. Take a look back in this bicentennial year of the Louisiana

Purchase for a glimpse into this story.

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Glossary: Chapter One

[Pronunciation guides are in parentheses after selected words. Syllables in capital letters are those that should be stressed—that is, pronounced the most strongly.] abolition – The act of putting an end to slavery. alluvial soil (uh LOO vee ul) – Soil whose parts (clay, silt, sand, and gravel) have been

deposited as a result of running water. aviation – Having to do with aircraft. bicentennial – A 200th anniversary or its celebration. colonial – Refers to a colony—a distant territory belonging to or under the control of a

nation (in Louisiana’s case, either France or Spain). descendant (de SEN dant) – One who comes from an ancestor. ecclesiastical – Relating to a church. harbinger (HAR bin jer) – Messenger. indigenous people (in DI je nus) – People who originally lived in an area. oxbow lake – A crescent-shaped lake that forms when a river channel is cut off from the

main stream. paramount – Very important. pique (PEEK) – To stir up feeling in. renovated – Made like new again. subtly (SUH tlee) – Gently. sub-tropical – Relating to regions bordering on the tropical zone. successive – Following in order. suffrage – The right to vote. thrive – To grow or do well. tributary (TRI byoo ta ree) – A stream that flows into a larger stream or a lake. unsurpassed – In this sentence, the meaning implies it is not better anywhere else. vestige (VEH stij) – A tiny amount or visible sign of something lost or vanished.

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LOUISIANA PURCHASE: A DRAMATIC CHANGE FOR POINTE COUPÉEANS 1803–1815

2

A PLACE IN TIME

A LOOK BACK…

Stepping back in time to the early nineteenth century, we look to a thriving plantation

community upriver from the port of New Orleans, at the upper point of the lower

Louisiana Spanish colony. It is an inland peninsula surrounded by three rivers: the

meandering Mississippi River to the east, the Atchafalaya River to the west, and the Old

River to the north. Contained in its naturally marked river boundaries is a beautiful

oxbow lake, Fausse Riviere, which means False River. The upper and lower ends of

False River dwindle into channels, the lower end known as the Chenal—the French word

for channel. The upper channel, where wild birds roost in its marshy bottomlands, is

familiarly called Poullaillier—the French word for chicken coop. The inside, eastern

bank of False River is an area known as the Island. When the Mississippi River overflows

its banks, the two Chenals fill with water. During these times, a boat is needed for access

in and out.3 The whole region is intertwined with a series of bayous or streams.

A closer look at the natural features within its boundaries reveals an absolute

paradise! Diverse wildlife and flora are abundant. Many varieties of trees exist. Orange

groves are found as far north as Baton Rouge, but the climate in this community to the

north of Baton Rouge gets a bit cold for citrus crops.4 The trees thriving in this paradise

3 Brian J. Costello. The Life, Family and Legacy of Julien Poydras. New Roads, LA: Author, 2001. p. 5. 4 Pierre Clément de Laussat. Translated by Agnes-Josephine Pastwa, O.S.F., edited by Robert D. Bush. Memoirs of My Life. Baton Rouge, LA; Louisiana University State Press for the Historic New Orleans Collection, 1978.

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are cottonwoods, which line the banks of the rivers and streams, and age-old live oaks

draped with Spanish moss. Cypress trees thrive in the swamp areas—forests once thick

before being cleared for building lumber. Others include ash, elm, undergrowth canes,

gum trees, mulberry, hoop ash, plum trees, pecan, hackberry, honey locust, sycamore,

and swamp elder. 5 Nature’s orchestra is played by the current of the rivers, canals, and

streams; the melody of diverse song birds; and the groaning alligators.

Named Pointe Coupée, from Iberville’s first expedition in 1699, this inland

peninsula was about to experience a dramatic change for the future of its population. The

vast area in the colony of Louisiana was in the process of being officially transferred

back to France from Spain. At the same time, the United States of America began

diplomatic talks regarding their interest to purchase New Orleans. The immediate futures

of all of colonial Louisiana’s inhabitants were uncertain!

Pointe Coupée (pwent koopay)

French for “cut point”

place name Pwent Koupe*

*Dictionary of Louisiana Creole

Two hundred years ago, in 1803, the area known as Pointe Coupée was very

different than it looks today. Many structures and landmarks still remain. Some of these

structures are very visible to the passerby. Others are taken for granted as a part of the

familiar landscape. Many historical landmarks and structures have disappeared, destroyed

either by humans or flooding. Today, many of the people in this community are

descendants of the indigenous people, Franco-European settlers, and slaves of African

origins.

5 Charles Morgan. Field Notes 1806-1807, surveyor, Pointe Coupée; copy in possession of descendant Glenn Morgan, generously shared with this author. Field notes include names of trees which were landmarks for surveying acreage, and they include some notations of other timber on the properties survey. In addition, there was valuable survey information for the land claims for land owners in the community.

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Whether or not obviously visible to the eye, the parish has a very rich heritage. A

closer look into the window of history of Pointe Coupée reveals many fascinating aspects

of times gone by. Let us look into this window, two hundred years ago at the time of the

Louisiana Purchase. What were the place and its people like? Why were the Americans

so persistent in their efforts to purchase the vast territory, which was once again a French

colony of Louisiana? How did this affect the people in Pointe Coupée: Indians, free

population, and slaves?

THE PLACE, ITS PEOPLE…

To get a vivid visual image of Pointe Coupée and its beginnings to the early nineteenth

century, we have the benefit of a variety of records that document the place, people, and

some of their experiences. As we put together the information from each source, an

image appears like each individual brush stroke on a painting. Together these records,

brush strokes, paint a fairly close image. This image is as close as we can possibly

imagine without actually having been there ourselves.

A post on the Spanish side of the Mississippi, Pointe Coupée was fifty leagues

from New Orleans. New Orleans was the capital of the Louisiana colony. It was located

in the religious parish of St. Francis of Assisi. A Catholic church by this name, honoring

its patron saint, was built near the Mississippi River on the Pointe Coupée coast. The

parish, established in 1728, was one of the oldest in Louisiana. Items in the current St.

Francis chapel ring of times past for Catholic worshipers in Pointe Coupée: the bell

donated from original settlers, a chalice, and oil paintings. The statue of St. Francis was

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carved by Tunica people who converted to Christianity around 1740.6 The military post

and fort were nearby.7

Communication is kept up only by water between the capital and the distant settlements; three months being required to convey intelligence from the one to the other (from New Orleans to upper Louisiana) by the Mississippi. The usual distance accomplished by a boat in ascending is five leagues per day. The rapidity of the current, in the spring season especially, when the waters of the rivers are high, facilitates the descent, so that the same voyage by water, which requires three or four months to perform from the capital, may be made to it from twelve to sixteen days. The principal settlements in Louisiana are on the Mississippi…

Thomas Jefferson “Description of Louisiana” 1803

Envision the scene in 1803. Imagine standing on the levee of the Mississippi

River looking toward the vast, lush green pastures along Pointe Coupée Road. Further

notice where the tree-lined boundaries reach toward False River. The lines of trees mark

some of the same boundaries of the original plantations. Although the structures are

mostly gone, these boundaries give us a frame as we fill in the rest from the historical

records.

Further envision Pointe Coupée Road as a rough public road, which was well-

worn closer to the levee along the Mississippi River and where plantations lined the west

bank of the Mississippi leading to False River. The plantations were large properties

where neighbors and their families lived a distance from one another. Their fields were

full of crops—from corn to cotton. At this time, the people could use the relatively new

road, Chemin Neuf—which is French for new road, instead of the long water route to

travel to the False River community. The houses faced the river—their road. Water craft,

from large and small flatboats to chaloupes, lined the water’s edge in front of each

6 Brian J. Costello. The Catholic Church in Pointe Coupée: A Faith Journey. Avoyelles: Randy DeCuir and Associates, 1996. Also see individual baptisms for Tunica people in: Diocese of Baton Rouge Catholic Church Records (hereafter DBR) ,Volume 1b. Baton Rouge, LA: Diocese of Baton Rouge, 2002. 7 For a point of reference, the post and church were located in the area of the current-day St. Francisville ferry landing on Pointe Coupée’s side.

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habitation—a French word meaning home. Plantations stretched along the Mississippi

River, from as far north as Morganza and Raccourci-Old River south to the Chenal and

along the western side (outside) of False River. The inside, eastern bank of False River,

the area known as the Island, was dotted with families and their smaller farms; each

property was located relatively close to its neighbors.

Travel to the city of New Orleans on the Mississippi River could be done in

several days. This travel depended on the seasonal level of the water. The colonists had

traveled this route frequently since the early 1720s. This same great river served as the

direct route for trade and business with the Louisianans in the upper country of the

Louisiana colony. It also branched with other rivers for trade travel with the Americans to

the east. Communication and delivery by stage from Washington City (now known as

Washington, D.C.) to New Orleans covered a 1206-mile route. The general schedule was

to leave Washington City every Sunday at 9:00 A.M. and arrive in New Orleans almost

two weeks later, on Saturday at 9:00 A.M.8 The western edge of the Mississippi River

and the settlements present there formed the border of the most populous portion of the

area known today as the United States. Vast lands, largely unsettled except for strings of

settlements of various indigenous tribes, stretched westward from the Mississippi River

to the Pacific Ocean.

Horses, horse-drawn carriages, and various types of watercraft served as

transportation throughout the community—on the waterways, along rough, worn roads,

and on the new road to False River settlements. In the region of Pointe Coupée, people

were very busy with regular activity. They could be found traveling to attend services at

the St. Francis of Assisi church along the Mississippi or attending to various affairs with

the commandant of the post. They would travel along the Chemin Neuf to conduct

business with merchants, to socialize, or to visit other plantations. When on horseback,

they could travel between the plantations, cutting through neighbors’ properties where 8 Thomas Jefferson Papers - Series 1. General Correspondence, 1651-1827. “Post Office, List of Stages on the old Post Road from Washington, D.C. to New Orleans with notes.”

27

roads still do not exist today. Horse-drawn carriages would travel mostly on the publicly

accessible roads. They would travel to the Opelousas post, where a number of the

planters also had grazing land and herds of cattle.9

ONE MAN’S ACCOUNT…

A little over two decades earlier, an internationally known American botanist and

naturalist traveled throughout southeastern America, carefully studying all the natural

features and species, including the native people (the Indians). His travels brought him as

far west as the Mississippi River, where he stopped at Pointe Coupée, traveling no further

north in the Spanish colony. After his visit, he returned to the east—the Atlantic region.

This botanist and naturalist was William Bartram. His journal leaves an invaluable record

of his experience in Pointe Coupée, where the landscape would have hardly changed by

1803. His visit with one of the planters leaves an early oral history of Pointe Coupée’s

beginnings, as remembered by some who lived along the western edge of the Mississippi

River at the time he visited. After spending a few days in Baton Rouge, which was part of

the American colony of Great Britain at the time, Bartram and his companions decided to

venture to the Spanish side of the Mississippi River. In his words:

A day or two after our arrival we agreed upon a visit to Point Coupé, a flourishing French settlement on the Spanish shore of the Mississippi.

Early next morning we set off in a neat Cypress boat with three oars,

proceeding up the river; and by night got to a large plantation near the White Cliffs, now called Brown’s Cliffs in honour of the late governor of West Florida…having made our tour and observations on the White plains, we returned to the river at the close of day, and the next morning sat off for Point Coupé.

Along the route, which they leisurely took in two days, they came across a bear

crossing the river via a small island, swimming the rest of the way, and saw a lot of wild 9 A general chronological look at the original public records at the Pointe Coupée Parish Courthouse shows all transactions including court documents. It provides us, today, almost a journal of life and activity for the people in the past. These original records are our most valuable source of a window to the past. During this period, most of these records are in French and some are in Spanish.

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fowl wading in the shoal water covering the sandy points. These were geese, brant,

gannet, and the “great and beautiful whooping crane.” The travelers arrived at Pointe

Coupée in the evening.

We made our visit to a French gentleman, an ancient man and wealthy planter, who according to the history he favoured us with of his own life and adventures, must have been very aged; his hair was of silky white, yet his complexion was florid and constitution athletic.

This French gentleman continued to tell the story of his arrival in Louisiana, one

of the early settlers, and the early contacts with the Natchez Indians. These contacts

began friendly. After the area became rich and populated with the European settlers, the

encounters became hostile. He recalled the brutality of the massacre of 1729 with much

compassion. He explained that he and the other settlers descended the river until they

arrived at the place known as Pointe Coupée. This gentleman said they only had time to

bring very few belongings. For him it was one heifer calf, which he assured was the

mother of the herd he now possessed. This herd had over a hundred head of cattle.10

Bartram continues…

Here is now a very respectable village, defended by a strong fortress and garrison of Spaniards, the commander being the governor of the district.

The French here are able, ingenious and industrious planters: they live

easy and plentifully, and are far more regular and commendable in the enjoyment of their earnings than their neighbors the English: their dress of their own manufactures, well wrought and neatly made up, yet not extravagant or foppish; manners and conversation easy, moral and entertaining.11

10 This provides a valuable early oral history for Pointe Coupée. His recollections of historic events closely follow much evidence in numerous other records, notably those of the officials in Louisiana who were required to keep record for the king. His description was more detailed, and this is a summary of what he shared. 11 William Bartram. Travels Through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida, The Cherokee Country, The Extensive Territories of the Muscogulges, or Creek Confederacy, and The Country of the Chactaws. Originally printed in the United States of America, 1791, many paperback reprints. Part III Chapter VII.

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LANGUAGE AND TRADITIONS…

In the immediate area of Pointe Coupée, around 1803, there were an estimated four

thousand people.12 At this time, a number of the indigenous people and their individual

tribes, identified as “Indians” by the early Europeans, had migrated to other areas in

lower Louisiana and throughout areas of southern Louisiana. The Indians—Tunica and

Ofo—were gradually displaced by the settlement of the area that had been taking place

since the early 1720s. By 1780, they were moved to a village on Bayou Rouge Prairie and

then to other locations on the Avoyelles Prairie.13 A much smaller Indian group

remained. In their place was a diverse population by 1803.

POINTE COUPÉE’S DIVERSE POPULATION Créoles

Franco-European Free People of Color

(Descendants of the blend of European and African and/or Indian parents who were either born free because the mother was free or who were emancipated—freed—from status as a slave)

French Spaniards Indians

Enslaved people (A few were of Indian descent, most were of African origins—from Africa, others were from the

Caribbean and Louisiana—Créole slaves, and some were from the United States—American slaves.)

This diverse group of people included European descendants—now Créoles, a

large population of enslaved people, free people of color, a small group of Indians,

French, a few settlers from Spain, and newly arrived Americans.14 The slave population

12 1807 Census Evaluation des terres et Recemsement general de La paroisse pour servie a’La repartition de l’impot Territorial et a’ La perception de La taxe sur Les Esclaves 24 Aoust 1807. Found in the Original acts of Pointe Coupée Parish (hereafter OAPC) of the Clerk of Court, Pointe Coupée Parish, New Roads, LA OAPC# 2798, August 24, 1807. Also includes an estimate of the Indian people in the area. 13 Fred B. Kniffen, Hiriam F. Gregory, and George A. Stokes. The Historic Indian Tribes of Louisiana: From 1542 to the Present. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana University Press, 1987. p. 90. 14 Note: The “Indians” comprised a group of individual tribes, each unique with respect to the others. The “slaves” referred to a variety of peoples from various Indian tribes of the region to various ethnic African people from Africa. The group called Franco-Europeans referred to people from the area of Europe close to France. “Americans” referred to the citizenship of this group, which comprised a variety of ethnicities originally from North America, Europe, and Africa. In this text, we group them for simplicity, and without disrespect to each respective heritage.

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was very large, almost three to one to the free population. The free population was

comprised of both “white” people and people of color.15 Pointe Coupée was established

during the initial French regime near the Tunica village in the early 1720s. One of the

earliest settlements in the lower Mississippi Valley, it was a Créole community.

CRÉOLE Originally descendants of the original

French settlers, then later included descendants of the Spanish and even those of African origins—both free and enslaved.

The official language had changed from French to Spanish to English; although

during all the transitions, most inhabitants of Louisiana continued to speak French. Pointe

Coupéeans were multi-lingual residents. By 1803, the free people—Europeans and

people of color—and the enslaved people had lost use of the dialects they brought with

them from their native homelands. The free people spoke French, the Créole patois, and

some Spanish. Others could communicate the native tribal dialects and English.16 The

common language communicated by all groups was the unique Créole patois. This patois

evolved from the influences of both the French and African languages and became a

unique local language.17 The official records were written in French, and some were in

Spanish during the Spanish colonial regime.18 The organized religion was predominantly

Catholic, but there were also a few Protestant Americans in the community.

15 Derived from census information – 1785, 1807, 1810; detailed further in text. 16 For an example of settlers learning and communicating the tribal dialects in the colonial days, see the 1795 Slave Revolt trial proceedings in the Pointe Coupée Parish courthouse colonial records that refer to colonists who were called upon to translate for those Tunica women who testified for these proceedings. 17 Intense study has been documented on the Créole patois by Thomas Klingler, Ph.D. He collaborated on the Dictionary of Louisiana Creole. Bloomington, IN: University of Indiana Press, 1998, and authored If I Could Turn My Tongue Like That: The Créole Language of Pointe Coupée Parish, Louisiana. Baton Rouge, LA, 2003. 18 Evidence of the languages used in the records in Pointe Coupée can be found by examining the original documents at the Clerk of Court’s office archives, Pointe Coupée parish courthouse, New Roads, LA.

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CRÉOLE PATOIS patwah

Dialect; local,

non-standard language

The traditions and customs were mostly French. The cuisine was an adapted

version of what the slaves brought from Africa, combined with what they learned from

the Indians and how they were influenced by the Europeans in Louisiana. The cuisine

soon was called Créole.

LOUISIANA CRÉOLE CUISINE “Louisiana Créole Cuisine” is a term that includes many dishes famous around the world. Food preference and methods of cooking for these dishes were historically linked to each other, and they extend to all those countries that trace the pattern of the American slave trade. This path can be traced from West Africa to the Caribbean, down to the southeastern coast of South America, and finally back up to Louisiana. Once in the

New World, the slaves not only grew the produce but were responsible for preparing and cooking the dishes that fed slave owners and slaves for hundreds of years. The creations of these millions of cooks from

the slaves’ cultural memory of cooking in Africa and from the acculturated tastes and ingredients from indigenous peoples in the Caribbean, South America, and Louisiana came to be called Créole cuisine.

Sybil Kein. “Louisiana Creole Food Culture” in Creole: The History & Legacy of Louisiana’s Free People of Color.

PLANTATIONS, SETTLERS, AND SLAVES…

In the parish courthouse, general descriptions of a typical plantation of the early

nineteenth century in Pointe Coupée can be found in the numerous inventories of the

succession records. These inventories were taken by appraisers from the community,

after someone had died, for the benefit of distribution or sale of the estate. Some

descriptions reveal more detail than others. By studying numerous records, we get a

glimpse into a vision of what these plantations looked like.19 The building style and

architectural elements were a combination of what the colonists brought from Europe—

19 Original Acts of Pointe Coupée parish (OAPC), vendor and vendee records recorded by date titled “inventory” within succession filings, parish courthouse, New Roads, LA.; also see Poesch and Bacot, Louisiana Buildings 1720-1940. pp. 100-101.

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mainly France, adaptations they learned from the Indians,20 and materials available for

building. This architectural style became known as Créole.

CRÉOLE ARCHITECTURE Pointe Coupée Parish Museum and Tourist Center

A surviving example of two of the earliest types of construction used in Louisiana architecture. The original dwelling was two rooms wide by one room deep, built around a common chimney with fireplace in each room with a front gallery. The wall construction,

its most important architectural feature, can be seen exposed in the building today. The construction includes three half-inch by 10-inch hand-sawed timbers, stacked edgeway,

dovetailed at the four corners, and further secured with large wooden pegs fastening, vertically, one timber to another. Spaces between the dovetailed timbered walls were

filled with a mixture of mud and moss known as bousillage for weatherproofing.

Generously donated for use as a museum to the people of Pointe Coupée Parish through the Police Jury by Joanna Wurtele. Ms. Wurtele inherited the structure from her father, Allan Ramsey Wurtele, who in the early

20th century made a significant contribution to the mechanization of the sugar cane industry with his invention.

From a few of the buildings that exist today in Pointe Coupée, we can step back in

time and imagine the plantations and homes of Pointe Coupéeans in 1803. A few

examples include two plantation “master houses” dating to the late 1700s: Maison

Chenal, owned by Dr. and Mrs. Jack Holden, and River Lake, owned by the Caillet

family. Maison Chenal was moved from its original location and was the secondary

residence of Benjamin Poydras.21 River Lake stands in its original place, facing False

River, and takes its name from the beautiful lake it has faced since the 1790s.22 The

current Pointe Coupée Parish Museum and Tourist Center is a surviving example of a

smaller building—a Créole cottage.

The appraisers referred to the plantation simply as the plantation and habitation of

Sieur or Madame, and they would record the owner’s name. They would also record all

the structures, equipment, carriages, boats, and livestock. The horses, mules, oxen, and 20 Good insight into this influence of the indigenous people can be found in Jeffrey P. Brain. Tunica Treasure. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, papers of the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology. Volume 71, 1988. 21 For further architectural detail, see Jessie Poesch and Barbara SoRelle Bacot, Louisiana Buildings 1720-1940. 22 For further information about River Lake Plantation and its history see “Antoine Decuir and His Legacy: River Lake Plantation,” published article by this author. River Lake Plantation c. 1790 is one of the earliest, still surviving on lower False River. Published article by this author available at www.creolewest.com.

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other livestock were given unique first names in French. Finally, the appraisers would

take inventory of the slaves, one by one, noting their first name (most renamed by their

owners), age, skills, health, family members’ names, if considered one group, and value.

These were all the assets of the plantation. The total value of the estate was subject to

taxation and legal transfer. Upon death of the owner, the estate was either sold at auction

as a whole to its new owners, or divided among the heirs of the deceased.

The plantation was both a farm and a factory. Farms could be large or small, but

were different than plantations. Plantations were businesses with large capital

investments: land, slaves, and equipment and facilities for processing the crops for

immediate shipment to sell at market.

Along the rivers, natural levees provided the best place to build. Away from the

natural levees, the land sloped gently down to the back swamps. The French long-lot

system carried over from New France—Canada. These lots were deep and narrow parcels

with river frontage, each property having access to the river. Also, each property-owner

received a fair portion of the best-drained land closest to the water to use for crops. On

the bayous, land could generally be cultivated back to the twenty-arpent line, where the

property would then extend into the swamp. Along the Mississippi and False River, the

initial properties went back to the forty-arpent line with the properties facing the water’s

edge. In the nineteenth century, with improved techniques for drainage and hauling, land

was sold to the eighty-arpent line. The plantation house was always positioned at the

front of the property, facing the water.23

The plantation buildings included the “Master” house, other residences for

additional family and friends, the overseer’s house, and a number of slave cabins. The

kitchen was always located away from the house. This limited any danger to the other

structures in case of fire in the kitchens, which happened frequently. Other buildings

included the blacksmith shop, barns, carpenter sheds, and processing buildings for the

23 Poesch and Bacot. Louisiana Buildings 1720-1940. pp. 89-92.

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various crops. Also, there were pigeonniers (pigeon houses), garçonnières (apartments),

stables, carriage houses, hospitals, cotton gins, fences, a corncrib, a fattening pen, a

chicken coop, and a plantation store or warehouse.

The structures on these plantations were all built by the hands and skills of the

slaves: blacksmiths, carpenters, and skilled artisans. Most of the wood was harvested

from the thick woodland behind the plantations in the cyprière—the French word for

woods planted with cypress trees. The cypress planks were lumbered for building. The

structures were built during the off-season for the crop, when the slaves had more time to

devote to building rather than cultivation.24

Most of the activity was on the plantations themselves. Instead of nature’s

orchestra being drowned out by car and truck traffic, as it is today, the various sounds of

the place were more noticeable. The animals on the plantation—sheep and cattle—could

be found grazing. The oxen and mules were in the fields working together with the

slaves. Most pronounced, from dawn to dusk, was the distant murmur of the conversation

and songs shared by the slaves as they labored in the vast fields of the plantations. Their

voices could be heard until the sun set each day when they would return to their cabins,

or quarters, to ready themselves and their families for another day of intense and

demanding physical work.

SLAVE QUARTERS On the plantations in Pointe Coupée, the slaves lived in cabins or “quarters.”

These were generally one room wooden structures with dirt floors. A number of people would live together in these very small quarters.

The slaves were responsible for all of the labor required to maintain a plantation,

including their owner’s domestic and personal needs. Sundays were theirs to worship,

socialize, and tend to their gardens and small group of livestock, if they were allowed by

24 Don Didier, nineteenth-century art, furniture, and artifact historian and collector, personal communication, 1996.

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their owners to have livestock.25 The plantation owners generally were very active,

participating daily in managing and administering all the facets of operating the

plantation—their business and investment.

Within this pristine and beautiful natural setting was a very prosperous

agricultural community. The benefits of the area for settlement and agriculture were

numerous. Access to New Orleans was very important. The major highway—the

Mississippi River—made travel to this very important port for national and international

trade easily accessible. The soil, which was very rich alluvial soil, provided what was

needed for productive crops—both subsistence and cash crops. The swamps were rich

with cypress trees for lumber, providing a ready resource for all building needs. Relations

with the local Indians, the Tunica, were friendly.

The settlers also faced numerous challenges. Naturally, they dealt with frequent

flooding, hurricanes, adaptation to a sub-tropical climate, and disease. As the settlement

grew, difficulties arose among the diverse people. Confrontations with various Indian

tribes increased. The tribes had been displaced from their home and sacred grounds. The

growing slave population of men, women, and children of African origin, brought into

the colony and Pointe Coupée against their will, became increasingly more difficult for

the slave owners to manage.

Having become critically dependent on the slaves’ skills for the demands of

operating a plantation, the slave owners had to deal with a large population of people who

were brought to Pointe Coupée against their will. Merchants and other individuals also

were slave owners; however, they owned much fewer slaves. Their slaves provided more

25 Some of these “luxuries” were established by law or “code” by the monarchies who felt it was important to have strict codes about the management and treatment of slaves. In Pointe Coupée, some slave owners managed their slaves under what was later called “The Créole Plan.” Under this plan, the slaves would grow their own food, could be contracted out for labor elsewhere, keeping a small amount of profits, and could trade or sell their own crops. This was more practical for the slave owners, since the upkeep—clothing, food, and medical care—and the upfront investment of purchasing the slave was very costly. French people tended to be very practical and frugal with their money. There is a lot of debate about what this “plan” offered the slaves and its intentions.

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personal, domestic services. These slaves were taken from their home in Africa, from

their families and futures, for the benefit of the slave trade and the development of the

colony of Louisiana. The most valuable were strong, young, and skilled men. Women

who could provide children and more labor were also of value. In rebellion against their

circumstances, slaves tried many measures. They tried running away, refusing to work,

harming their masters, organizing revolts—all in an effort to eventually escape and

acquire their freedom.26

POINTE COUPÉE SLAVE REBELLIONS Slaves rebelled against their circumstances in Pointe Coupée. Two of the most noted

organized rebellions occurred in 1791 and 1795. In 1804, immediately after the Louisiana Purchase, members of the community sent a signed petition to Governor Claiborne

asking for military support for what they feared would be another slave revolt.

Others learned to make the best of their life as slaves, while at the same time, they

continually looked for the opportunity to have their personal freedoms and dignities

restored. Although we might think that some slaves consented to their owners’ wishes,

we must remember that because of the nature of slave and slave owner relationships, the

slave can’t freely consent to anything a slave owner demands. It is clear from the

historical record that Pointe Coupée slave owners had children with their slaves.27 The

slave owners could never fully trust or gain loyalty from their slaves. They always lived

with a sense of fear that their lives would be endangered by their slaves. The slave

owners lived in a continual state of uncertainty!

The slave owner and slave relationship is very difficult to explain in simple terms.

In the records, we have much understanding of the perspective of the slave owner. We

26 Slave rebellion and revolts started early in Pointe Coupée. The two most noted organized slave rebellions were in 1791 and 1795. In 1804, immediately after the Louisiana Purchase, slave owners petitioned the new governor for military protection because they were concerned about another slave revolt. 27 There are various examples in the original acts in the Pointe Coupée parish courthouse records in New Roads where slave owners emancipate slave children and their mothers and/or acknowledge the child’s natural parents. In succession records, there are examples where the parent acknowledges or emancipates his natural enslaved child or children. See also the church records at the Diocese of Baton Rouge for examples where parents acknowledge their natural enslaved children when baptized or later married.

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have less of a perspective from the slave’s point of view, except for the slave narratives—

their voice and experiences.28 In relationships where the slave owner and slaves shared

children, we have less record of what transpired. We have no idea how it affected their

marriages or other relationships. We know what the civil and religious laws were, and we

know that these laws were not followed, because there were numerous children of

European, African, and Indian descent.29

The settlers also had to deal with conflict with other unfriendly Indian tribes and

illegal trade in their region. They were subject to monarchical changes of power which

were based on the laws and interests of the governing monarch and which constantly

affected their trade and economy.

MEMOIR TO THE FRENCH…

In 1802, James Pitot, a naturalized American businessman living in New Orleans,

composed a memoir about Louisiana. He was interested in presenting his observations in

a report to officials in the French government and the business community. He wanted to

establish official business ties with France when it once again took over the colony.

Although the official news of the transfer from Spain to France was only a rumor in

Louisiana and America, many people were planning for this opportunity. In this memoir,

Pitot includes his observations of Pointe Coupée and its significance to Louisiana.

28 Slave narratives written or relayed directly by slaves or former slaves give a better insight into the experiences than the WPA narratives of the early 1900s. These WPA interviews were conducted by people who did not have the experiences of being descended from Africans; and they were asking directed questions—a method that skews the overall experience of the people being interviewed. For a more intimate look into the experiences of the lives of slaves in Pointe Coupée, oral histories from within families are the best source. 29 It is not effective to instill emotions of the twenty-first century towards judgment or analysis of the behavior of those in the past. We were not there, we do not really know how and what they were all feeling, and we are looking at a situation—the institution of slavery—from a twenty-first century perspective. Slavery has since been declared illegal. However, the institution of slavery had a tremendous impact on the people of North America, the United States, Louisiana, and Pointe Coupée. Many laws, conflicts, the Civil War, constitutional amendments, racial discrimination, the Civil Rights Movement, affirmative action programs, and racial profiling occurred as a result of slavery. These are all examples of the causes and effects of the overall misunderstanding in how people see each other as different today.

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Interestingly, by 1804 , James Pitot became mayor of New Orleans during the territorial

government. By 1812, he was the first judge of the newly created parish court of New

Orleans.

Pitot was traveling upriver from New Orleans. Here, he describes the

northernmost settlement of Lower Louisiana along the banks of the Mississippi River—

Pointe Coupée.30

I come now to the last settlement of Lower Louisiana along the banks of the Mississippi: Pointe Coupée, on the right bank facing the preceding district (New Feliciana), named thus because it is a point of land that was cut off from the left bank when the river changed its course many years ago. The district of the old bank is still as important as the one that now borders the river. They are separated by a swamp that nobody has attempted to fill up or drain, and the old river bed along the settlements of False River contains drainage water and seepage that connects it through the back country with the branches of the Bayou Plaquemines. This rich parish, like those which adjoin the city (New Orleans), has a rather large disproportion of whites and blacks, numbering about 2,000 blacks against 700 to 800 whites, and 60 to 80 free people of color. Before the cultivation of cotton, indigo still sustained the prosperity of that settlement, but soon it had shared the anxiety and misery of others, and several wealthy individuals there found themselves surrounded by unfortunates from whom they are able to buy up at a ridiculous price the lands and miserable slaveholdings. Fortunately, cotton has received from the soil and commerce the favors withheld from indigo, and there, more than any in any other section of the colony, plantation owners have made, by the high price of the new commodity they cultivated, up to 30% on their capital. That settlement, like those previously mentioned, is capable of important improvements and developments.

Bounded on the west by the Atchafalaya River that extends also to the

Mississippi at the thirty-first parallel, Pointe Coupée would be the first to enjoy the effects of the drainage that could be undertaken, and its communication with the interior would be easy and fast. Through thrift, good order, field hands, and encouragements, the government will then not only assure itself the possession of Lower Louisiana, but also its prosperity.

In spring of 1803, life as Louisianans and Pointe Coupéeans knew it was about to

change drastically.

30 James Pitot. Translated by Henry C. Pitot. Observations of the Colony of Louisiana From 1796 to 1802.Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press for Historic New Orleans Collection, 1979. pp. 122-3.

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Glossary: Chapter Two

[Pronunciation guides are in parentheses after selected words. Syllables in capital letters are those that should be stressed—that is, pronounced the most strongly.] acculturated (uh CUL che ray ted) – Borrowed from another culture (in this case, tastes

for certain foods were acquired from the native peoples). adaptation (a dap TAY shun) – Something that is changed to fit better in its

environment. appraiser – A person who sets a value of something—in this case, the value of the

plantations. arpent (AR pent) – A piece of land equal to about .85 acres. bayou (BAH yoo) – A creek, secondary waterway, or minor river that is a branch of

another river (such as the Mississippi River). botanist (BAH te nist) – A person who studies plant life. brutality – Violence. capital investment – Money put into something to make a profit. cash crops – Crops sold for profit. chalice (CHA lis) – The cup that holds wine or water and is used in the Catholic

religion’s act of Communion. chaloupe (French pronunciation: shah LOOP) – French term for a rowboat sometimes

using sails. coast – The land near a shore, what the land near the shore along the Mississippi River

was called. colonist – A person who lives in a colony—a territory belonging to or under the control

of a nation. Créole (more common pronunciation: CREE ole; French pronunciation: cray OLE) – A

person of non-American ancestry, whether European, African, or a blend thereof, who was born in a colony of the Americas. Since Louisiana was once a colony, these people are still referred to as Créoles in Louisiana.

Créole patois (more common pronunciation: CREE ole pa TWAH; French pronunciation: cray OLE pah TWAH) – The local non-standard language that developed between the French settlers and the African slaves in the early period of Pointe Coupée’s colonial development. These local languages develop so that all the people who speak separate languages have a common language to communicate. This Créole patois is still spoken among the elders in Pointe Coupée today.

dialect (DY uh lect) – A version of a language that differs from the main language in certain regions of a country.

40

diplomatic talks – Talks for the purpose of working out (negotiating) terms of a business deal.

estate – A person’s possessions and property. Franco-European settlers – People who immigrated to the Louisiana colony originally

from Europe near France. free population – The group of people who were free citizens or subjects who had

preferred civil, legal and religious rights. heir (AIR) – A person who receives assets (money or property) of someone who has

died. Indians – The name given to the original people of the Americas by the early European

explorers who thought they arrived in the West Indies and not the Caribbean. inhabitant (in HA bi tent) – A person living in the colony. invaluable – Something whose value is too great to estimate. league (LEEG) – Any unit of distance from about 2.4 to 4.6 miles. legal transfer – To change the legal ownership of a property to another person. levee (LEH vee) – High ground built up over years of flooding and silt deposits. long-lot system – The French settlers in North America divided land for settlements into

narrow strips, or long lots. This was useful so that every settler’s piece of land could be next to a waterway, since transportation depended on rivers.

lower Louisiana – The portion of the area of the state in 1803 just below present-day Natchez, Mississippi.

meandering (mee AN de ring) – Following a winding course. migrate – (MY grate) To move from one country or place to another. monarchical changes (mo NAR ki kul) – Changes decided on by the monarch—or the

ruler—of a country. naturalist (NA che re list) – A person who studies biology and the history of nature. naturalized – Given citizenship in a country. In this example, James Pitot was born in

France, but became an American citizen. Ofo Indians (OH fo) – A tribe or nation of peoples in the Louisiana region whose full

name was Ofogoula. patron saint – A saint who protects a person or place. peninsula (pe NIN syoo la) – A portion of land nearly surrounded by water and

connected with a larger body of land by an isthmus (a narrow strip of land connecting two larger land areas).

plantation – A planted area or an estate usually worked by laborers. populous (POP ye lus) – Populated with settlers. post – The place at which a soldier or guard is stationed. predominantly (pree DAH mi nant lee) – Mainly. Protestant (PRAH te stant) – A Christian not of a Catholic or Eastern church.

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slaves of African origins – Enslaved people who may have been taken directly from Africa purchased through a slave trade or slave descendants of ancestors originally taken from Africa.

subsistence crops (sub SIS tans) – Crops used for food by the grower. succession records (suk SEH shun) – After a person dies in Louisiana the estate follows

a process or order of settlement, or a succession. The succession records include all the legal steps and legal records to settle the estate for the heirs.

taxation – To collect taxes on income or property. Tunica Indians (TOO ni kuh) – A nation of people who originally had a village north of

Pointe Coupée when the French arrived in 1699. They were friendly with the French, eventually migrating closer to present day Pointe Coupée. Today they are located mostly near Marksville, LA where they have a Tunica-Biloxi Museum and casino.

42

LOUISIANA PURCHASE: A DRAMATIC CHANGE FOR POINTE COUPÉEANS 1803–1815

3

FAREWELL TO HIS CATHOLIC MAJESTY: A BITTERSWEET RETURN TO FRANCE’S EMBRACE

A DEAL IN PARIS…

Uncertainty increased for all Louisianans and Pointe Coupéeans. Governing powers of

their colony were about to change again. This time the transfers between Spain and

France were a matter of formality.

The Louisianans have seen themselves, with much regret, rejected for the second time from the bosom of their mother-country. At first, on their being made aware of the event, their interpretations of the cession and their comments on it showed

but too clearly the extreme bitterness of their discontent… Nevertheless, on the approach of the change of domination, partly from the love

of novelty; partly from the hope of those advantages which were depicted to them, and perhaps from a forced resignation to a fate which they could not avoid, they had become tolerably well disposed toward passing under the

Government of the United States.

Pierre Clément de Laussat, colonial prefect for France

1804

In the midst of this “formality,” Napoleon Bonaparte, consul of the French

republic, sold to the United States of America what was home for many generations of

Louisianans. Some families had been in the colony for nearly one hundred years. A series

of events and ceremonies had to be accomplished before the official transfer to the United

States. At the same time, the United States of America received official ownership of the

Louisiana territory. The inhabitants would experience a dramatic change in their futures.

43

In the beginning of 1803, Napoleon had already prepared to officially take control

of Louisiana from the Spanish. In 1800 he received the colony of Louisiana from Spain

through the Treaty of San Ildefonso. Negotiations were underway in France and Spain to

finalize some of the details of the treaty and make the official transfer. The French and

the Spanish kept this transfer a secret. They knew the Americans and the British would be

concerned about the effect on their countries. Bonaparte appointed Pierre Clément de

Laussat as colonial prefect of Louisiana. The Créoles were full of optimism. They would

once again be in the embrace of France, their mother country. This time it would be under

the capable political and military leadership of Napoleon Bonaparte. They were soon to

be citizens of France’s new republic.

Laussat and his family were sailing across the Atlantic Ocean when events in

France changed dramatically. Bonaparte was negotiating with the Americans in Paris

through his negotiators, Talleyrand and Barbé-Marbois. After the setbacks of his

prosperous sugar colony in Haiti and the brewing conflict in Europe with his enemy

Great Britain, Bonaparte decided to sell his empire in North America for the good of

France. He decided to sell all of la Louisiane. Bonaparte reached an acceptable offer for

his recently acquired Louisiana. On April 30, 1803, the deal was official. Laussat’s duties

immediately became more involved.

When Laussat arrived in Louisiana he had the great responsibility of taking

official possession of Louisiana from Spain. He had to set up affairs for the addition to

the republic of France; it was a very involved process. Unknown to him, the deal agreed

upon in Paris gave him yet another responsibility—to officially transfer the colony to the

United States of America.

PREPARING TO ACCEPT THE COLONY FROM SPAIN…

When Laussat arrived in Louisiana in early spring of 1803, he was not aware of what had

just transpired in France. Neither were the Louisianans. They were very excited about

being connected once again with their mother country. They felt that this time it would be

44

even better with Napoleon as their leader.31 Laussat had many duties in arranging all the

official requirements for the transfer from Spain to France. As the newly appointed

colonial prefect for Louisiana, he traveled throughout Louisiana in April and May to meet

the people and familiarize himself with the place. The Indians came to New Orleans to

meet with him. Laussat describes his experiences thoroughly in his memoir.

He felt very connected to the people of Louisiana. The feeling was mutual. They

all shared a love for France, a common ancestral homeland for most. Although the

Louisiana colonists officially swore an oath of loyalty to his Catholic Majesty, the king of

Spain, in 1769, they never completely trusted their Spanish leaders. The Louisiana

colonists’ mistrust of the Spanish regime began immediately in 1768 when Governor

O’Reilly arrived to take control of the new colony Spain had received from France

through the 1762 Peace Treaty of Paris.

Because Spanish leaders had not made a good impression leading the colony

immediately after the 1763 transfer, important French Louisianans led a movement to

appeal to the king of France to take back the Louisiana colony. The Créoles thought this

would be a good opportunity to convince the king of France to reconsider. The leaders of

this revolt, invited to dinner by O’Reilly, were immediately arrested, quickly tried, and

brutally executed to set an example for all other Louisianans.32

Laussat found the weather in the sub-tropical climate, much like spring weather in

Louisiana today, to be different from that in France. “The temperatures were pleasant,

although it would change rapidly over twelve, twenty-four, or forty-eight hours. One day

would be a typical spring day, followed by violent wind at night with the waters of the

31 These kinds of feelings surfaced when the men were organizing their territorial government and accepting positions as representatives. See series of correspondence in Letterbook of W.C.C. Claiborne. 32 Known as “The Revolt of 1769,” this event is documented in many sources. Nicholas de la Frenière was one of the leaders who was executed, and he was a distant relative of some Pointe Coupéeans.

45

river rising a foot. The wind blowing would be followed by light drizzle rain and then

cool and warm again.”33

During Laussat’s visits in April and May of 1803, he met Julien Poydras of Pointe

Coupée. While representatives of Napoleon Bonaparte were negotiating with

representatives of the president of the United States in Paris, Laussat became personally

acquainted with men in the city and country of lower Louisiana. Some of these same men

became leaders in the new territorial government of the United States. However, when

they met Laussat they were merely embracing their new leadership, completely unaware

of what lay ahead.

The Marqués de Casa Calvo, a brigadier general in the Spanish armies, was

sailing from Havana to aid the retrocession by Spain to France. At the time they didn’t

know about the deal being signed in France that would immediately change their lives.

This time of year was most interesting; the settlers flocked in from all posts. They called posts the establishments that were scattered in the remote areas of the colony and formed little groups. Farmers came into town to sell their produce and purchase supplies; traders brought in local raw materials and took back city products. People kept abreast of the situation and gathered news from all the tribes and clans. Each day brought new faces.

…From Pointe-Coupée came M. Podras (Julien Poydras), one of the most important and most enlightened cotton planters. He was accompanied by M. Destrehan (Jean Noël d’Estréhan) from the German Coast, the leading sugar producer in Louisiana.

…Having come into contact with Americans as well. I enjoyed entertaining them at my table. There were a good number of them present when M. Youngs (Samuel Young) of Pointe-Coupée a Pennsylvanian by birth and an opulent proprietor whose family was well established, told me boldly that he had no doubt the western states would one day form a nation independent from those in the east. It was then a common opinion that one did not conceal.

…Transportation between the country and the city is carried on by an active navigation service for several hundreds of leagues. Still, no river

33 Pierre Clément de Laussat. Memoirs of My Life. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press for the Historic New Orleans Collection, 1978. p 28.

46

anywhere has greater need for good towing lanes or, rather, for steamboats, so suitably invented for his country by the American Fulton34

Pierre Clément de Laussat, 1803

Laussat mentioned in his journal the “right of deposit,” noting that the

“Americans were highly incensed by this violation of a vested right.” The loss of this

right affected many Americans—more than 100,000 westerners who lived in Kentucky

and Tennessee, and the many thousands of settlers who lived in what is now Ohio. Under

the Pinckney Treaty of 1795, Spain officially recognized the southern and western

boundaries of the U.S. as the 31st parallel and the Mississippi River. Thus, the treaty

allowed the U.S. to gain access to the area now known as the states of Mississippi and

Alabama.35 The revocation of this right seemed to be caught in a rivalry between the

Louisiana Spanish intendant and governor. Laussat was concerned about restoring the

right back to the Americans.36 He didn’t know that, at this very moment, the United

States had restored the right of deposit because they had purchased Louisiana. Even

Thomas Jefferson37 had not yet received this news.

ANOTHER BUYER…THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA…

President Thomas Jefferson unofficially became aware of the cession from Spain back to

France in spring of 1802.38 Concerned about how this might affect their interests, the

officials of the United States were mainly interested in how to restore the original right of

34 Ibid., 23–4. This was a growing concern of the westerners of the United States. They had formed a coalition and were considering addressing their grievances to the government regarding their priorities and needs, which were not being fairly represented. 35 Folwell’s Laws of the United States, Volume II, Philadelphia, PA: 1796. 36 Laussat, Memoirs, 29. 37 Interestingly, during President Thomas Jefferson’s two terms as president, he continued to sign and refer to himself as Thomas Jefferson, signing Th. Jefferson. See examples throughout official and personal correspondence in the Thomas Jefferson Papers in the collection at the Library of Congress. 38 Stephen E. Ambrose. The Origins of Expedition: 1750–1802 from Dolores Egger Labbé, editor. The Louisiana Purchase Bicentennial Series in Louisiana History, Volume III, The Louisiana Purchase and Its Aftermath 1800–1830. Lafayette, LA: Center For Louisiana Studies University of Southwestern Louisiana, 1998. pp. 184–196.

47

deposit. This right, which had since been revoked by Intendant Morales of New Orleans,

gave the Americans ability to navigate the Mississippi River freely and to deposit their

trade goods in New Orleans without special taxes or fees. Since the officials of the United

States knew about the transfer, they would now have to negotiate with the new owner of

Louisiana—France. Ready to go to war if necessary,39 President Thomas Jefferson sent

Secretary of State James Monroe to Europe to negotiate.40

Having dispatched Monroe to Paris, he sent a letter to Livingston:

…the future destinies of our country hang on the

event of this negotiation, and I am sure they could not be placed in more able or more zealous hands

Jefferson to Livingston

February 3, 1803

Jefferson was talking with many influential people, including his friend DuPont

de Nemours of Delaware.41 A Frenchman, Nemours was also acquainted with the Ternant

brothers from France. Claude Vincent Ternant followed his half-brother, Jean, to North

America and Vincent eventually settled in Pointe Coupée, becoming a very successful

planter.

Representatives of the United States arrived in Paris, making an offer to

Bonaparte at just the right time. Bonaparte’s control of his prosperous sugar colony of St.

Domingue in Haiti (the French Caribbean island) was falling apart. He was also facing

serious conflicts in Europe with Great Britain. Between the money he needed and the fact

that he couldn’t give enough attention to affairs in North America, Bonaparte knew he

had to sell Louisiana. Representatives of France and the United States held discussions

from March to April, 1803, until they reached a satisfactory decision.

39 President Thomas Jefferson’s address to Congress 1/1803, Annals of Congress, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 40 Edward Alexander Parsons. The Original Letters of Robert R. Livingston 1801–1803 With a Brief History of the Louisiana Purchase. New Orleans, LA: The Louisiana Historical Society, 1953. 41 Thomas Jefferson Papers. Jefferson to DuPont de Nemours of Delaware, Feb 1803.

48

These powerful nations were negotiating a deal that would affect tens of

thousands of lives. In 1803, the Louisiana territory was filled with a uniquely diversified

population, including what was left of the local Indian tribes; a very large number of

slaves descended from Africa; and free men, women, and children—both “white” and

“people of color.” After living side by side for years, since official settlement began in

1722 until 1803, the combination of these people, their talents, the Catholic religion, and

various cultures shaped what is still uniquely Louisiana today.

1785 Census Taken By Spanish Government LOUISIANA COLONY

“White:” 14,215 Free people of color: 1,306 Slaves: 16,541 TOTAL 32,062

Slaves represented 52% of the total population.

POINTE COUPÉE “White:” 482 Free people of color: 4 Slaves: 1,035 TOTAL 1,521

Slaves represented 68% of the total population. Pointe Coupée was approximately 5% of

the estimated population of the Louisiana Colony.

At the time of the Louisiana Purchase, approximately 5,000 American Indians

inhabited the Orleans Territory. They were Houmas, Tunicas, Chitimachas, Attakapas,

Opelousas, Biloxis, Apalaches, Alabamas, Coushattas, Pascagoulas, Choctaws, and

Caddos. Their population had already tragically declined since the early European

exploration and settlement.42

Bonaparte originally wanted $22.5 million for la Louisiane. Livingston and

Monroe were authorized by Jefferson to offer only $8 million. The French negotiators

flatly refused the offer, claiming Napoleon was having second thoughts. The American

negotiators realized it could take three months to send communication and receive a

42 Daniel Usner, Jr., prior exhibit Historic New Orleans Collection, New Orleans, LA.

49

response by ship. They acted on their own, and an agreement was reached. On April 30,

1803, with the final stroke of pen on parchment, the Louisiana Territory was sold to the

United States.43

Fortunately for all involved, the sale and transfer from France to the United States

became a reality peacefully. When President Thomas Jefferson purchased the Louisiana

Territory from Napoleon Bonaparte of France, it was a real estate transaction that

changed the lives of the people of Louisiana and Pointe Coupée forever. It was a new

beginning for all people in this area of the North American continent. No blood was shed;

no battles were fought. The geographical size of the United States more than doubled.

The increase in population wasn’t very significant, except the Americans inherited a large

enslaved population—almost 50% of Louisiana’s people. Pointe Coupée had a large slave

population of about 70% of its people.

The United States purchased approximately 828,000 square miles of the

Louisiana Territory from France for $15 million, to be paid as follows: $11,250,000

million was paid directly to France, and the balance would be covered by the assumption

by the United States of French debts to American citizens.44,45 The exact territory and

number of square miles was not clear from the beginning. In 1803, Louisiana’s

geographic area included the middle center of the entire meandering Mississippi River

west to the Rocky Mountains.46 The West Florida parishes were not included in the

purchase. President Jefferson and the United States Congress knew immediately they had

43 A signed copy of the Louisiana Purchase can be seen in the permanent exhibit at the Historic New Orleans Collection, New Orleans, Louisiana. 44 As stipulated in the Louisiana Purchase Treaty and conventions. 45 640 acres is equal to one square mile. 828,000 square miles x 640 acres = 529,920,000 acres. $15,000,000 divided by 529,920,000 acres = $.03 per acre. 46 Many maps depict the geographical boundaries of the Louisiana Purchase. For good detail and clarity of the boundaries, see Territory of Louisiana Purchase – Louisiana Purchase ceded by FRANCE to the UNITED STATES by treaty of April 30, 1803, as asserted and maintained by the American Government. Map No. 4. (I.P. Berthrong and C.J. Helm) printer – The Columbia Planograph Co., Washington, D.C. copy at National Archives, Washington, D.C.

50

to resolve this very important detail. This issue, including Florida, took almost another

decade to settle.

Because technology wasn’t yet available, the negotiations took place in person in

France. Representatives of France and the United States negotiated on behalf of Consul

Napoleon Bonaparte and President Thomas Jefferson. President Thomas Jefferson, who

was still in the United States, received communication by ship that his representatives

had made the deal with France. Since it took five weeks for a letter to cross the Atlantic

two hundred years ago,47 he didn’t receive word until July 1803.

Although it was more land than Jefferson had originally wanted, he was pleased

that they purchased such a vast area for the United States. Now he had to go to Congress

to get approval for the money to pay for the territory west of the Mississippi River.

Jefferson’s deal was not authorized under the United States constitution. Such a

transaction should have required a vote from Congress, and he received Congressional

approval somewhat reluctantly. Ironically, because Congress didn’t have the money, it

had to borrow from an English banking firm, Baring and Co., to pay the French. This

meant the English were actually helping to underwrite one of Napoleon’s wars.48

President Thomas Jefferson had just purchased for the United States a very large

area of land and waterway he had never visited. Napoleon Bonaparte had just sold a

colony he had never visited. For decades Jefferson had carefully studied and envisioned

the possibilities of the Louisiana territory through maps and writings of others. From the

time he was Secretary of State under President Washington until 1802 when he learned

that the Spanish Intendant Morales of New Orleans had rescinded the right of deposit to

the Americans,49 Thomas Jefferson knew his country needed free access to and across the

47 Edward Alexander Parsons. The Original Letters Of Robert R. Livingston With A Brief History of the Louisiana Purchase 1801–1803. New Orleans: The Louisiana Historical Society, 1953. p 21. 48 Dr. Dolores Labbé, retired history professor at the University of Southern Louisiana in Lafayette, and editor of the Louisiana Purchase Bicentennial volume, quoted in Michael Depp, “The Louisiana Territory,” Louisiana Lifestyles, Winter 2002/2003. p. 59. See also Fusions exhibit at Historic New Orleans Collection, New Orleans, LA, which gives details of financing package for the Louisiana Purchase. 49 Communication of William Hulings to Claiborne in Letterbook of William Charles Cole Claiborne.

51

Mississippi River so the United States could expand to the Pacific Ocean. He strongly felt

no other nation should control the center of the continent or restrict the ability of the

United States to expand. He also knew there would be difficulty with some of the Indian

tribes that might cause the Americans trouble during the negotiations to purchase their

lands as the United States pursued its interest to expand westward to the Pacific Ocean.50

Napoleon Bonaparte had grand visions of conquest and empires, especially for

France to regain the valuable piece in North America—la Louisiane. His visions for his

empire in North America were never realized, forever gone after his defeat in Waterloo

years later.

IMMEDIATE CHANGE OF PLANS…

For the moment Jefferson felt a great sense of victory. The purchase more than doubled

the size of the United States, the transaction was handled peacefully, and, most

importantly, this enormous tract of land opened the country to western expansion and

settlement. They now had control of free navigation of the river and the valuable port of

New Orleans. Jefferson did not obtain official ratification by the United States Senate for

the purchase until October 30, 1803.

Louisianans and Pointe Coupéeans continued the daily activity of their lives with

much optimism in the embrace of their mother country, France. Pointe Coupéeans were

selling and purchasing land and plantations, tending to their crops and other affairs on

their plantations, and buying and selling slaves. They were preparing for marriages,

tending to affairs as merchants, and mourning the loss of those who had died. A few

slaves received their freedom, a long-felt wish of their ancestors, friends, and family who

also had been or were still enslaved people of Pointe Coupée. Specifically, those freed

were: Zenon by George Bergeron, Jeanne by widow Jean Baptiste Tounoir (Marie

50 See letters in the Thomas Jefferson Papers from about February 1803 through May 1803 to various individuals regarding the subjects of the Indians.

52

Decuir), Francois by Augustin Allain and his wife, Midar by Guillaume Andre, and

Adelaide by Antoine Patin.51

Laussat and the Louisianans were shocked about the Louisiana Purchase. Laussat

received an appointment by First Consul Napoleon Bonaparte, dated June 6, 1803, to

serve as the commissioner of the French government for the retrocession of Louisiana

from Spain to France, and then from France to the United States. This news didn’t arrive

until several months later.52 Laussat’s dreams of becoming a viable leader, aiding

France’s return to ownership of the Louisiana colony, were shattered. His future was

uncertain. The Louisianans had larger concerns. To be associated with the United States

of America as citizens of the new democracy was a complete change of plans. There were

numerous issues to address and resolve.

President Jefferson soon turned to the geographer of the United States, Thomas

Hutchins, to compile more precise boundaries of the vast territory he had just purchased

on behalf of the citizens of the United States. Hutchins had traveled to Louisiana almost

two decades prior, so he was very capable of updating this information for the

President.53 From his notes on the abstract of the title to the territory, Hutchins traced the

history of the territory from 1682. In 1803, Jefferson referred to Hutchins’ notes, and he

was still unclear. The French and Spanish had always used general language rather than

exact compass points and latitudes.54

In October 1803 President Thomas Jefferson presented his “Account of

Louisiana” to Congress. Some of the information he received was from Dr. John Sibley

of Natchitoches, who later became the United States Indian agent for the Louisiana-Texas

51 Various acts recorded in parish courthouse, as noted in the Index of Records 1803–1804 No. 13. including OAPC#’s 2210–2387, Clerk of Court, Pointe Coupée Parish courthouse,New Roads, LA. 52 Laussat, Memoirs, xviii. 53 Thomas Hutchins, map of the Apelousa (sic) River, c. 1770, Pennsylvania State Historical Society. See American Philosophical Society Collection in Philadelphia, PA. 54 Thomas Jefferson Papers, Series I General Correspondence, 1651–1827, “Thomas Hutchins, 1803, Louisiana Boundaries.” Library of Congress, American Memory. http://memory.loc.gov.

53

border area.55 The rest of his information came from his incredible collection over the

years of field travel journals and maps of explorers, adventurers, naturalists,

cartographers, and geographers. The sources Jefferson referred to dated from the early

1600s to the early nineteenth century. Some of the information was from geographers and

cartographers of the United States. Jefferson never visited the territory of Louisiana, or

any of the area west of the Virginia boundary on the North American continent. His

knowledge was from meticulous study of the travels and work of others.56

Although he did not have the benefit of the World Wide Web, he became very

well educated about a place he never visited through acquiring and studying the works of

others.57 The portion of the Louisiana Territory most heavily populated was nearer the

river and concentrated in the southern area of the vast territory. The balance of the land

westward to the formidable Rocky Mountains was occupied largely by various Indian

tribes. From 1803 until 1815 the situation on the undefined border between Spain and the

United States on the Louisiana-Texas frontier can best be described as tense.58 Upper

Louisiana, from just north of Pointe Coupée to where Minnesota is today, was less

populated.59

The people in the more populated portion were a blend of diverse cultures and

spoke various languages. There were Creoles, Acadians (exiles from Nova Scotia), and

55 Dr. John Sibley of Natchitoches later became the United States agent of Indian Affairs for the region. The information he gave Thomas Jefferson incorrectly led the president to include that there were “Acadians” in Pointe Coupée. Also see F. Todd Smith, “The Kakdohadacho Indians and the Louisiana-Texas Frontier, 1803–1815.” Southwestern Historical Quarterly, 95 (1991): pp. 176–204, included in Dolores Egger Labbé, editor. “The Louisiana Purchase and Its Aftermath 1800–1830. Lafayette, LA: Center for Louisiana Studies, University of Southwestern Louisiana, 1998. (The Louisiana Purchase Bicentennial Series in Louisiana History, Vol III) pp. 197–220. 56 http://www.lib.virginia.edu/speccol/collections/small/. 57 President Thomas Jefferson. “Account of Louisiana” Annals of Congress October, 1803. pp. 1501–1704. 58 F. Todd Smith. The Kadohadacho Indians and the Louisiana-Texas Frontier, 1803–1815 in Dolores Egger Labbé, editor. The Louisiana Purchase Bicentennial Series in Louisiana History Volume III The Louisiana Purchase and Its Aftermath 1800–1830. Lafayette, LA: Center for Louisiana Studies University of Southwestern Louisiana, 1998. 59 See Laussat papers at Historic New Orleans Collection, New Orleans, LA, for detailed report by Auguste Choteau on Upper Louisiana.

54

members of various Native American tribes speaking French, Créole patois, native tribal

dialects, Spanish, and English. A big adjustment was ahead for the Louisianans, Pointe

Coupéeans, and Americans. What would this democracy offer Louisiana and its

inhabitants?

The transaction was received with anxiety by both the Louisianans and

Americans—for the Louisianans, because their lives were to change as they became part

of a democracy; for the Americans, mostly the New Englanders, because they felt the

purchase of this great territory would alter their place in the Union. They were afraid of

receiving a smaller share of representation in their democratic government. The strongest

objection to the Louisiana Purchase, in addition to the large sum of money spent and the

uncertain territory purchased, was from the New England states who objected to the slave

representation.60

John C. Breckenridge of Kentucky and other westerners, on the other hand, saw

the economic benefits of expanding the nation. The western expansion of the United

States after 1783 began a rift in the Union between the eastern and western states,

expanding a division already begun between the north and south. The economic

prosperity of the southern states was driven by their agricultural economy dependent on

slave labor, allowing them to accumulate more wealth.

In his letter to John C. Breckenridge of Kentucky regarding the proposed

government for the new territory, Jefferson wrote:

The inhabited part of Louisiana, from Point Coupée to the sea, will of course be immediately a territorial government, and soon a State. But above that, the best use we can make of the country for some time, will be to give to the establishments in it to the Indians on the East Side of the Mississippi, in exchange for their present country, and open land offices in the last, and thus

60 See Thomas J. Farnham, “The Federal-State Issue and The Louisiana Purchase,” Louisiana History, 6 (1965): pp. 5–25, included in Dolores Egger Labbé, editor. The Louisiana Purchase and Its Aftermath 1800–1830. Lafayette, LA: Center for Louisiana Studies University of Southwestern Louisiana, 1998. (The Louisiana Purchase Bicentennial Series in Louisiana History, Volume III) p. 169. Also see Annals of Congress, 1789–1824, 42 vols. Washington, D.C.: 1834–1856 for arguments with Senators regarding Louisiana Purchase.

55

making the acquisition the means of filling up the eastern side, instead of drawing off its population…61

An Act of Congress on October 31, 1803, gave authority to the president to claim

the Louisiana Territory:

An Act to enable the President of the United States to take possession of the territories ceded by France to the United States, by the treaty concluded at Paris,

on the thirtieth of April last, and for the temporary government thereof.

(2 Stat. 245)

THE OFFICIAL TRANSFERS…

As late as November 1803, the deal seemed as though it may have some complications.

Jefferson mentioned to Robert Livingston in a letter that “Spain entered with us a

protestation against our ratification of the treaty…on the grounds that the First Consul

(Napoleon Bonaparte) had not executed the conditions of the treaties…and secondly, that

he had broken a solemn promise not to alienate the country to any nation…”62 This threat

never came to fruition.63

The Spanish had never transferred physical possession of the Louisiana colony to

the French, and they did so in a ceremony at New Orleans at the Cabildo on November

30, 1803. In a second ceremony at the same place, on December 20, 1803, the French

transferred physical and official possession of Louisiana to the United States of America.

At the end of official ceremonies at the Cabildo in New Orleans on December 20,

1803, there was a brief moment of pause. On the flagpole, the tricolor—the three-colored

flag—of France was being lowered, and the stars and stripes of the United States was

being raised. The very point in time when both met in the middle marks a short-lived

historic moment. Hope still glimmered, although now like a dying candle flame. In a

moment the futures of the Louisianans would be in the hands of the United States of 61 Thomas Jefferson Papers. To John C. Breckenridge, August 1803. (Ford edition, viii, 244). 62 Thomas Jefferson Papers. Letter to Robert R. Livingston, November 1803. (Ford edition, viii, 278). 63 Jefferson responded that their issue was with France and that the United States purchased in “good faith” from France. Spain did not pursue further. Thomas Jefferson Papers. Library of Congress.

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America—the Americans. As the stars and stripes reached the top it wavered in the

breeze. The tricolor was removed and folded. The Americans shouted with joy. The

Créoles wept.64 From that point on, Louisianans and Pointe Coupéeans would not have

much sense of comfort until they achieved their goal of full rights as enjoyed by all

citizens of the United States.

I…declare that the Government heretofore exercised over the said province of Louisiana, as well under the authority of Spain as of the French Republic, has ceased, and that of the United States of America is established over same; that the inhabitants thereof will be incorporated in the union of the United States; that, in the meantime, they shall be maintained and protected in the free enjoyment of their liberty, property and the religion which they profess; that all laws and municipal regulations which were in existence at the cessation of the late Government remain in full force…and I do hereby exhort and enjoin all the inhabitants and other persons within the said province to be faithful and true in their allegiance to the United States, and obedient to the laws and authorities of the same, under full assurance that their just rights will be under the guardianship of the United States, and will be maintained from all force or violence from without or within.

W.C.C. Claiborne—Given at the City of New Orleans

20th day of December, 1803, and of the independence of the United States, the 28th

A NEW BEGINNING…

The official transfer of the Louisiana Territory to the United States opened the doors for

the exploration Jefferson had envisioned for so long. It also helped to create the uniquely

diverse society of people found in America today, due in part to the inclusion of various

Indian tribes and French, Spanish, and African cultures that were predominantly French

speaking and Catholic. This vast land has a diversity not found in any other large country

today.65

64 Laussat, Memoirs. Laussat describes the melancholy and sadness expressed by tears of the Louisianans who were at the ceremony, and his own sadness as he witnessed the loss of Louisiana by France for a final time. 65 Trinidad is well-known for its diverse cultures living remarkably together.

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In May 1804, Lewis and Clark departed from the St. Louis area with

approximately forty enlisted soldiers, a slave named York, and all their necessary

equipment and provisions. Their journey up the Missouri River into uncharted lands,

across the Great Divide, and along the Columbia River to the Pacific Ocean took over a

year.66 Other explorers, including Zebulon Pike, William Dunbar, and George Hunter

explored other important river regions in Louisiana. The grander vision of Thomas

Jefferson and a number of Americans in the United States was to expand.

The leader of the American people, President Thomas Jefferson, was a very well-

educated, self-taught man. His family and his pursuit of knowledge were two of his

primary pleasures in life. He reflected that serving as president of the American

Philosophical Society was one of his greatest accomplishments.67 He was descended from

early founders of the Virginia colony, and his father was a surveyor. Jefferson was also a

surveyor and became a large collector of maps of the American continent. He was a

plantation owner, a meticulous account keeper, and he owned many slaves. One of the

founding fathers of the United States, noted for his brilliance in political matters and in

drafting the constitution, he was Ambassador to France after the American Revolution

and traveled in France and Italy while there. He brought back much knowledge from his

trip to Europe, and he was a master gardener, working on many hybrid plants and

concepts of cultivation.

The vision of the people of Louisiana was to establish themselves immediately in

their new government. The leader of lower Louisiana and Pointe Coupée, Julien Poydras,

was also a cultured, well-traveled, and very well-educated man with a fondness for

learning. He was a merchant and planter, and owned many slaves. After the transfer of

Louisiana to the United States, Pointe Coupée’s Julien Poydras took a lead role in

realizing the vision of Louisianans. 66 Corps of Discovery travels and experiences are well detailed in Lewis and Clark journals, The Definitive Journals of Lewis and Clark seven-volume set, University of Nebraska Press, 2003. 67 Dumas Malone. Jefferson The President: First Term 1801–1805. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1970. p. 177.

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Glossary: Chapter Three

[Pronunciation guides are in parentheses after selected words. Syllables in capital letters are those that should be stressed—that is, pronounced the most strongly.] 1762 Peace Treaty of Paris – This is the treaty that terminated the Seven Years War.

Known as The Treaty of Paris of Feb. 10, 1763, it was signed by Great Britain, France, and Spain. By the Treaty of Paris in 1763, France lost Canada and all claims to territory east of the Mississippi which was transferred to Great Britain. At the same time, Spain, in order to recover Cuba which Britain had taken, ceded Florida to Great Britain. New Orleans and Louisiana went to Spain, but with these exceptions, England now held the whole of North America east of the Mississippi.

31st parallel – A line that serves a boundary of several southern states. cartographer (car TAH gre fer) – A person who makes maps. colonial – Refers to a colony—a distant territory belonging to or under the control of a

nation (in Louisiana’s case, either France or Spain). colonial prefect – The title of a position for one who is in charge of colonial

administration, usually acting directly in charge at the colony, answering directly to the higher leaders in a monarchy.

consul of the French republic – This was Napoleon Bonaparte’s title when he sold Louisiana. France became a republic after the people of France denounced the monarchy and its leaders in the early 1780s.

continent – One of the great divisions of land (as North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, or Antarctica) on the globe.

decade – A period of ten years. diversified (deh VER si fied) – Having variety. fruition (froo IH shun) – Being real or complete. geographer – A person who studies the science of the location of living and nonliving

things on earth and the way they affect one another. incensed (in SENST)– Very angry. inhabitant (in HA bi tent) – A person living in the colony. intendant – A government official of a monarchy. memoir (MEM wahr) – A story of a personal experience. meticulous (meh TIH cyoo lus) – Extremely careful in small details. mutual (MYU choo ul) – Shared or enjoyed by two or more at the same time. Here, it

means they all felt the same way. naturalist (NA che re list) – A person who studies biology and the history of nature. oath – A solemn appeal to God or to some deeply respected person or thing to witness to

the truth of one's word or promise.

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Pinckney Treaty of 1795 – Also known as the “Treaty of San Lorenzo,” it was called “Pinckney’s Treaty” because it was negotiated by Thomas Pinckney who was The United States’ special envoy to Spain. This treaty opened up the Mississippi River to American navigation with “right of deposit” for depositing and selling goods in New Orleans and elsewhere.

prosperous – Having success or financial good fortune. regime (reh ZHEEM) – A form of government. republic – A government whose head of state is usually a president. retrocession – To transfer back. revocation – To put an end to by taking away or canceling. right of deposit – This allowed the Americans (those living east of the Mississippi River

in the American territories, or in the American states) to bring their goods to the piers in New Orleans. There they would sell them and then reload onto sailing ships to be delivered to others in or outside the North American region. This right was given initially without any special fees (normally someone from another country pays fees or “tariffs” to use ports not in their territory).

rivalry (RY vul ree) – Competition. slave representation – When counting numbers of people in the censuses, slaves were

included in the total population count (although only a fraction per person). They were counted for the areas where their owner resided. In the total population count, this would work to the benefit of those in the southern region when determining how many federal political positions would be established to represent that state. This angered the people in the northern areas because they did not have a high number of slaves and their total populaton numbers were then smaller; it seemed unfair.

transpired (tran SPY erd) – To come to pass, or to happen. Treaty of San Ildefonso – Signed at the royal residence of San Ildefonso, Spain, this was

a series of treaties including the one in 1796 which was an alliance of France with Spain against Great Britain in the French Revolutionary Wars leading to the “secret” Treaty of San Ildefonso of 1800. The treaty in 1800 was actually a draft confirmed later by two other treaties (March, 1801 and October, 1802) where Spain retroceeded (transferred back) possession of the Louisiana colony to France. They did not make this treaty public because the two countries felt the United States would act unfavorably.

underwrite – To guarantee financial support of. vested – An interest having a legal right to use something in the present or future. viable (VY uh bul) – Capable of succeeding. West Florida parishes – The parishes once part of the Florida Territory claimed by

Spain, which extended from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mississippi River, excluding the city of New Orleans. Most of present day Louisiana on the east bank of the Mississippi remained the Spanish territory of West Florida in 1805 with the international border along the Manchac (Iberville River). West Florida included the

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present-day parishes of East Baton Rouge, East Feliciana, West Feliciana, St. Helena, Livingston, Tangipahoa, St. Tammany and Washington.

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LOUISIANA PURCHASE: A DRAMATIC CHANGE FOR POINTE COUPÉEANS 1803–1815

4

A PRIMER IN DEMOCRACY

4.1 POINTE COUPÉE’S SOLDIER OF POLITICS

AN EDUCATED ADVENTURER…

The President of the United States having appointed me a councilor, I conceive it a duty to accept. If those who have great interest in the country should decline serving it when called upon, their conduct would be unwarrantable. I could offer many plausible excuses, such as age, insufficiency of talents, self interest &c. But in doing so I should not act the part of a patriot. A beginning must be made; we must be initiated into

the sacred duties of freemen and the practices of liberty.

Julien Poydras’ letter of acceptance to W.C.C. Claiborne for his appointment to the Territorial Council

1804

Louisiana’s political leader, Julien Poydras, was a very well-educated man. He continued

to learn throughout his life. At the time of his death in 1824, according to the inventory

taken by the appraisers during his succession, Julien had acquired quite an impressive

personal library. The books he owned covered a range of subjects including philosophy,

literature, dictionaries and encyclopedias, ancient civilizations and their governments,

capitalism, and volumes about the United States and its government. These books were in

French, English, German, and Spanish.68 Julien was a native of Nantes, France, and was

68 Original Acts of Pointe Coupée parish, Clerk of Court’s Office, New Roads, LA (hereafter OAPC) #1582, 7/22/1824, Inventory of the property depending on the estate of Julien Poydras.

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born in 1746. In Nantes, his family was known as a “cosmopolitan merchant clan of

traders and adventurers.”69

Poydras arrived in the province around 1774,70 immediately carrying on his

family’s tradition as adventurers and merchant traders. By 1776, the year the Americans

declared their independence from Great Britain, Poydras had already established himself

as an entrepreneur. He was a trader and merchant in partnership with another Pointe

Coupéean, Louis Diard. Operating from Pointe Coupée to New Orleans in their private

venture, Poydras marketed the goods Diard supplied, and they split the profits. They were

selling items they received in bulk by barge to Louisianans. These items included indigo

crops, guns, rum, and hats.71

ESTABLISHED IN LOUISIANA…

By 1803 at age fifty-seven, Poydras was well-established, wealthy, and influential as a

merchant and planter owning a large number of slaves. By 1807 Poydras owned 266

slaves in Pointe Coupée alone.72 He purchased and sold slaves from 1780 to 1823.73 At

the time, enslaved people were the most valuable investment—more valuable than

livestock, buildings, land, capital improvements for cotton and sugar plantations,

furniture, jewelry, china, crystal, or silver. He was one of the wealthiest men in the

United States and its territories, including the newly purchased Louisiana Territory. 69 La Verne Thomas III. Le Doux, A Pioneer Franco-American Family. New Orleans: Polyanthos, 1908. For a thorough biography of Julien Poydras and his family, see Brian J. Costello, The Life, Family and Legacy of Julien Poydras. New Roads, LA: 2001, author. 70 OAPC #1538, 12/30/1786, testimony of Julien Poydras, cultivateur et negt en ce poste, in interrogation of breakup of partnership between Dubourg and Tounoir, merchants of Pointe Coupée, where Poydras testifies he “has been in the province about 12 years.” 71 Louis Diard vs. Julien Poydras, No. 3552, 32 pp. Suit between Diard, plaintiff and Poydras, defendant regarding business dealings in merchandise from November 19, 1776 “Index of Spanish Judicial Records of Louisiana,” Louisiana Historical Quarterly (hereafter LHQ) 1931, Volume 14, Issue 3, pp. 610-613. 72 1807 Assessment of Lands and General Census of the Parish of Pointe Coupée Evaluation des Terres et Recensement General de la Paroisse de la Pointe Coupée OAPC# 2798, 8/24/1807, original document in French. 73 Poydras actively purchased and sold slaves while in Louisiana for forty-three years (1780 to 1823) as noted by copies of the bills of sale in his possession at the time of his death appraised in his inventory in 1824 OAPC #1582.

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Julien’s principal country residence and businesses were in Pointe Coupée. His

early travels as a merchant and trader took him up and down the Mississippi River in the

Louisiana colony. He speculated and sold plantations and land throughout the colony,

mostly in the areas of lower Louisiana, building his plantation empire in other parishes

and owning city properties in New Orleans.74

In today’s terms, Poydras can be compared to the owner of a very large

corporation with various business investments which he personally developed. Julien

made all the large decisions for his “corporation” and its investments. He was a merchant

with warehouses or stores, involved in many plantation operations and actively involved

in purchase and sales of land and slaves. He was well-read, he was a scholar of many

subjects, especially philosophy and government, he penned poetry, and he appreciated

art.75 He was a single man without children.76 Unlike his Créole friends and neighbors

who had large families and various business and plantation obligations, he had more time

to devote to a variety of interests. Because of his numerous and various enterprises, he

relied on others—some free, most enslaved—for the day-to-day operations of his

plantations. He relied on others to manage his financial affairs.77

Julien exposed himself to many of the opportunities of business and culture at the

time, taking a special interest in the new democratic government of his neighbors to the

east—the Americans. Pointe Coupée had two leading Americans who were planters in

74 1824 OAPC #1582, Inventory in succession records, Pointe Coupée Parish courthouse, Clerk of Court records, New Roads, LA. 75 Evidence that Poydras was well-read is proven in his inventory of books found in his personal library upon his death in 1824. OAPC #1582. His most famous poem, La Marcha de Galvez, was written after his fellow Louisianans defeated the British (1780s) under Bernardo de Galvez, and today has been composed by Dino Constantinides as a song commissioned by the Louisiana Bicentennial Commission. His appreciation for art is also seen in his collection including Audubon originals left upon his death. A thorough examination of this inventory, page by page, reveals all of his other effects and investments (1824 OAPC #1582, inventory in succession of Julien Poydras). 76 For a through genealogical description of Poydras’ family in Pointe Coupée, see Costello, The Life, Family and Legacy of Julien Poydras. 77 Julien Poydras’ letter to his brother Claude in France in 1796 regarding manager almost losing all his fortune due to poor management. Private and Commercial Correspondence of an Indigo & Cotton Planter, Julien Poydras’ collection.

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their community—Benjamin Farrar and Samuel Young.78 Both of these men were very

knowledgeable about the affairs of the United States, especially their American neighbors

closest to the Mississippi—the western frontiersman, traders and farmers east of the

Appalachian mountains.79 Fascinated by the intelligence and wisdom of the founding

fathers, “the Washingtons and the Franklins”80, Poydras could see numerous

opportunities for himself and those in his adopted homeland—Louisiana.

POLITICAL LIFE…

In early 1804, immediately after the transfer of Louisiana to the United States, Julien

Poydras took his first step toward becoming a representative of the citizens for the newly-

acquired American territory of Louisiana. Although numerous other men—planters and

merchants—had the wealth and interest of their business futures to consider, Poydras

became the voice for the people, a soldier of politics.

His familiarity with the English language and the philosophies and systems of the

young American government and its leaders benefited the interests of Pointe Coupéeans

and Louisianans quite well. Other friends and colleagues of Poydras and Pointe

Coupéeans stepped forward to become part of the new regime and to protect their

interests as Louisianans, some third and fourth generation Louisianans. The demands of

the planters and merchants and the time and energy required to assume public positions

and contend with politics affected how much people could or wanted to participate. Some

resigned after accepting appointments or elected offices to tend to their business affairs

and personal lives. Others found they were not suited for politics. To the Créoles,81 a

large part of their existence involved family, and the dedication to their large families

was a high priority. Julien Poydras, a single man, continued despite the demands of his 78 See records at Pointe Coupée Parish Clerk of Court’s archives. Farrar and Young arrived in Pointe Coupée in the early 1780s, establishing large plantation operations along lower False River. 79 Pierre Clément de Laussat. Memoirs of My Life. 80 See Julien Poydras’ speech. 81 The Louisianans were referred to as the “Créoles” by the Americans distinguishing themselves from the European descended-Catholic people of Louisiana.

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various plantations and investments. He learned the system of democracy and politics

along the way. Poydras became the “organ,” the voice for Louisianans and Pointe

Coupéeans.82

Poydras was already familiar with the Americans since his establishment at the

post of Pointe Coupée. He came in contact with Americans as a merchant and trader in

his early career in Louisiana and through his business in New Orleans. He became

familiar with Louisiana’s neighboring country and some of its prominent citizens through

his travels to America and specifically Philadelphia in 1795.83 His good relationship with

the people of lower Louisiana,84 his experiences with Americans, and his personal desire

presented the foundation for his becoming a leader of the new regime in Louisiana.

4.2 TERRITORIAL GOVERNMENT—A TEMPORARY SYSTEM

CITIZENS ACTIVE IN POLITICS…

Although Louisianans understood immediately the challenges they were facing regarding

their culture and place, they could understand the advantages of being part of the young

United States. It offered them more stability—they were no longer being subject to

changes beyond their control by powers in Europe. Through a representative government,

82 See Poydras’s speech in digital archive http://diglib.lsu.edu/tahil/louisiana/open.htm keyword search “Julien Poydras.” 83 Letters to brother Claude Poydras in France in 1796. See Private and Commercial Correspondence of an Indigo and Cotton Planter, 1794-1800. Louisiana State Museum Historical Center archives. Footnote to Poydras’ early travels to Philadelphia: It is curious when these two initially became acquainted and then became close friends, as exampled by Poydras’ bequest of $10,000 to Gallatin’s daughter upon his death in 1824. Gallatin was Secretary of Treasury at the time of the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, serving in that position from 1801-1814. He is credited for his triumph with the Treaty of Ghent in Belgium in 1814 (the treaty which officially ended the War of 1812) as one of the most able American commissioners. Later Gallatin was president of the Bank of New York, at about the time Poydras bought a two story brick townhouse and land in NY in 1820. At this time Gallatin had retired in New York, dying on Long Island in 1838. Earlier in the 1790s, Gallatin had resided in Pennsylvania and served in the legislature. He had taught French at Harvard. When did this friendship begin? See biography of Gallatin at United States Treasury archive. http://www.treasury.gov/education/index.html. 84 See Poydras’ comments of the people of lower Louisiana and its inhabitants in Pierre Clément de Laussat. Papers at Historic New Orleans Collection, New Orleans, LA.

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the Louisianans and Pointe Coupéeans would have a say in matters that affected their

lives and futures.

The terms of the purchase gave the inhabitants a guarantee of the enjoyment of all

the rights, advantages, and immunities of citizens of the United States, and the free

enjoyment of their liberty, property, and the religion they professed.85 The leaders of the

Louisianans worked tirelessly from the beginning for this right. In addition, they were

adamant that the Territory of Orleans be incorporated into the Union as a state, that they

form their own constitution, and that they retain the right of importation of slaves. This

right was completely outlawed in the Louisiana Purchase.86 The planters were very

distressed by this stipulation because their industry, agriculture, depended entirely on the

labor of the slaves. Another stipulation was that the official legal language of the

Territory of Orleans would be English, yet nearly all of the residents of Louisiana were

French-speaking.

Therefore, the people of Louisiana wrote a Remonstrance. This was written under

the leadership of Edward Livingston, an American resident of New Orleans, supported by

the Louisianans, and signed and supported by others. Three men were chosen to represent

the people of the Territory of Orleans and speak before Congress: Pierre Derbigny, Jean

Noël Destrehan, and Pierre Sauvé.87 These men were friends and colleagues of Pointe

Coupéeans.88

85 Article III, Treaty of Louisiana. 86 Article VII, Treaty of Louisiana. 87 These men were described, July 1, 1804 in the Territorial Papers pp 249-257: “Derbigny—a man (young) of talents but without fortune or connections. Genteel. Sober & industrious, but not very generally esteemed; his principles not free from suspicion & much attached to his native country; Destrehan—is a sensible man, rich and of extensive connections; his reputation is extremely fair, & his weight in the country considerable, in short he is one of the most respectable men in the Province; Sauvé—a French native, an amiable good man, a wealthy planter universally esteemed by his neighbors & will take little part in the agency. Speaks English.” 88 Although somewhat more separate today, historically the people of Louisiana were more connected through business and family relationships to others in the parishes up and down the river, to as far north as the Illinois country. A few examples of the many relationships of men and women in other parishes and Pointe Coupée: see 1) Will and Testament of Joseph Decuir 1822, donates to child of Pierre Sauvé; Sauvé executor for his estate;

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MEMORIAL, &c. We, the subscribers, Planters, Merchants and other inhabitants of Louisiana respectfully approach the Legislature of the United States with a memorial of our rights, a remonstrance against certain laws which contravene them, and a petition for that redress to which the laws of nature, sanctioned by positive stipulation have entitled us. …Persuaded that a free people would acquire territory only to extend the blessings of freedom; that an enlightened nation would never destroy those principles on which its government was founded… …With a firm persuasion that these engagements would soon be fulfilled, we passed under your jurisdiction with a joy bordering on enthusiasm, submitted to the inconveniences of an intermediate dominion without a murmur, and saw the last tie that attached us to our mother country severed with less regret. …(adjusting to) the sudden suspension of all those forms to which we had been accustomed, the total want of any permanent system to replace them, the introduction of a new language into the administration of justice, the perplexing necessity of using an interpreter for every communication with the officers placed over us…wavering between civil and common law, between the forms of French, Spanish and American jurisprudence…

Many Louisianans and Pointe Coupéeans participated in the process of their new

government. Although not inclined first to rebellion or confrontation, the Louisianans

became very active in the process for the establishment of their new government. They

actively voiced their desires to their appointed leaders through formally prepared

“Instructions” and “Remonstrances.” Although each individual name is not memorialized

in the historical records, their importance is no less valuable. In the “Instructions” to their

new Territorial Legislators in 1804, they provided specific directions for what they

wanted and did not want regarding the facets of their new self-government. One issue

was their concern about the practicality of traveling elsewhere to settle disputes or affairs.

2) J. Decuir owned property next door to Jean Noël Destrehan in the French Quarter in early 1800s; Decuir’s daughter married an Honoré-Destrehan, son of Jean Noël’s brother Jean Baptiste Destrehan of New Orleans—all Pointe Coupée Honoré descendants today are related to these families.

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INSTRUCTIONS Now he has to go several days’ journey, on Horse back, in spring, when the

paths are Impracticable; for as the roads, there are none: but at times when the journey cannot be made by land, a boat with oars must be hired at great

expense, to go fifteen or twenty leagues by water, and sometimes more, against a rapid current: to go where? To a place where there is no manner of

accommodation for any traveler; much less for a parcel of litigants, who assemble together to suffer hunger and wretchedness, and ruin one another with

costs, that very often answer no kind of purpose…

Louisianans to New Territorial Legislature, 1804

CONFLICT AND UNREST…

The beginning of 1804 brought much chaos, especially in the city of New Orleans.

Governor W.C.C. Claiborne, unfamiliar with either French or Spanish, had to hire

interpreters. Few Louisianans understood the English language. Claiborne’s immediate

responsibility was to organize the vast Louisiana territory into American democratic

systems. While doing so, he had to address the conflicts that erupted between the diverse

population and the Americans, caused by their views and misunderstandings of one

another. Claiborne had to immediately work on maintaining peaceful order. In the city,

fires were started, laws needed to be established for crimes and debtors, various actions

against the illegal trade, establishing fares for boats and customs fees for goods,

regulations needed to be established for taverns and billiard halls. Newspapers and banks

were also established.

The free Negro militia contacted Claiborne by letter right away requesting their

previous rights and status be maintained. The Ursuline sisters, too, were concerned about

the future of their order and work, and their freedom to continue to operate their Catholic

order. At the same time, Americans were migrating to the area daily. It was a difficult

period for all concerned during this initial stage of temporary government.

President Jefferson was considering how to handle the Indian population and how

to assimilate them into the American systems peacefully but not as citizens. the

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prohibition of the foreign slave trade was a larger issue to which the planter group of

lower Louisiana was extremely opposed. The purchase of the Louisiana territory with its

diverse inhabitants posed a threat to the people of New England. The American system

for representation was based on the population of the territories or states. Louisiana added

“slave representation.” This meant that for every slave, the population count was

increased three-fifths of one person.

Although enslaved people were not entitled to vote, their numbers increased the

representation factor.89 The citizens and political representatives, mostly from New

England, were strictly opposed. They felt this method was very unfair, especially to states

that did not have large populations of slaves.90 At this time, Pointe Coupée’s slave

population totaled 2,724 men, women, and children.91

In 1804, Jefferson asked Meriwether Lewis to put together an “estimate of Indian

Warriors in Louisiana.” Because Indians were not included in the census figures of the

Spanish, Jefferson was trying to estimate how many there were. More than likely, he was

concerning himself with the number of Indians he was going to have to negotiate with.

He was interested in acquiring their land for further expansion to the west. Lewis

estimated there were about 30,000 Indian warriors, which included those all the way to

the Rocky Mountain region. In this total, he estimated 25 Tunica warriors—the Indian

tribe residing closest to Pointe Coupée.92

89 Women also did not have the right to vote, although they were citizens and a number of them owned large properties. They did not receive the right to vote until early in the twentieth century. The first state to grant that right was Wyoming. Male people of color received this right 60 years prior. 90 See debates in Annals of Congress. See also Dumas Malone, Jefferson The President: First Term 1801-1804. 91 1807 Census Evaluation des terres et Recensement general de La paroisse pour servie à La repartition de l’impot Territorial et à La perception de La taxe sur Les Esclaves, 24 Aoust 1807. Translated with unofficial tabulation by Jacqueline M. Saizan. 92 Thomas Jefferson Papers Series 1, General Correspondence, 1651-1827. “M. Lewis to Thomas Jefferson, Estimates of Indian Warriors in Louisiana 1804.”

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A TEMPORARY SOLUTION…

The Americans considered that the Louisianans had been living under despotic rule. They

were subjects rather than citizens of their previous government. The officials of the

United States initially decided to provide a temporary government for the Louisianans. In

this government, authority was given to appointed officials. There was no provision for

Louisianans to vote or choose their own officials.93

Jefferson and the majority of Americans assumed that the settlers in lower

Louisiana94 were unprepared for self-government. Claiborne stated that he was concerned

about “Creole ignorance of the American political institutions, the English language, and

the widespread illiteracy.”95 Jefferson compared the citizens to children. He stated he felt

they were not yet capable of self-government. Jefferson manipulated the American

political system by sharing this view with key people. He knew they would pass it along

to the individual legislators who would be voting on the government for Louisiana.96

Despite the facts, in the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 Louisiana still operated under a

temporary government with appointed officials. This was true even though lower

Louisiana had a considerably higher population than was required for the second stage.

Working ahead of the process, Jefferson confidently requested Senator John

Breckenridge’s help in drafting a constitution for Louisiana.

On Saturday March 17, 1804, a bill for the government of Louisiana was passed

by the United States Senate by an overwhelming vote. It matched Jefferson’s ideas and

suggestions very well. The bill provided for the division of the country (the old Louisiana

93 An Act for the Organization of Orleans Territory and the Louisiana District, March 26, 1804, effective October 1, 1804 (Carter, Territorial Papers Volume IX, 202-213, with extensive note and references) in Dumas Malone Jefferson The President: First Term 1801-1805. p. 348. 94 Considering this portion only because the territory had been split—Territory of Orleans and the District of Louisiana. 95 Claiborne to Thomas Jefferson, September 29, 1803 (Carter, IX, 60), received October 23 in Dumas Malone. Jefferson The President: First Term 1801-1805. p. 349. 96 See in the Thomas Jefferson Papers collection (American Memory series at the Library of Congress http://www.memory.loc.gov the correspondence between Thomas Jefferson and DeWitt Clinton, Dec 2, 1803; Gallatin, Nov 9, 1803, also in Carter Territorial Papers IX, in Dumas Malone Jefferson The President: First Term 1801-1805. p. 350.

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colony), described generally as “ceded by France,” into parts. The lower and more settled

part was given the name Orleans. Some of the inhabitants objected afterwards to losing

the name of Louisiana. The upper portion, the District of Louisiana, was attached to the

Indiana Territory.97

This was the first time since 1608, with the establishment of New France, that the

trail down the Mississippi to the mouth at the Gulf had been officially divided into

sections. The people in lower Louisiana lost the identity of “Louisiana,” a name they held

close as their “place” since the late 17th century. In addition, they were cut away from the

vast territory which had been their French and Spanish Louisiana since 1682.

After first providing for the survey of the land west of the Appalachian

Mountains, the so-called Northwest Territory, Congress enacted the Northwest Ordinance

of 1787. This was the single most important piece of legislation in the Confederation

period. The Ordinance provided the means by which new states would be created out of

the western lands and then admitted into the Union. Governors and judges appointed by

Congress would rule a territory until it contained 5,000 free male inhabitants of voting

age. Then the inhabitants would elect a territorial legislature, which would send a non-

voting delegate to Congress. When the population reached 60,000, the legislature would

submit a state constitution to Congress. Upon its approval, the state would enter the

Union. The Northwest Ordinance with minor adjustments would remain the guiding

policy for the admission of all future states into the Union.98

Northwest Ordinance of 1787 A territory in the first stage was subject to laws selected by the governor and

judges from the laws of the original states. A territory should pass to the second stage of government, with an elective assembly, when its population

reached 5,000. The third stage, for statehood, required a population of 60,000.

97 Dumas Malone. Jefferson The President: First Term 1801-1805. p. 353. 98 For further reading: Merrill Jensen, The New Nation: A History of the United States during the Confederation, 1781-1789 (1950); John Porter Bloom, ed., The American Territorial System (1974); T.C. Pease, "The Ordinance of 1787," Miss. Valley Hist. Rev. 25 (1938): 167.

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In Claiborne’s letter to James Madison, then Secretary of State, in January 1804,99

he stated: “not one in fifty inhabitants appear to understand the English language.”

Claiborne also felt that most inhabitants were not well educated. Julien Poydras and

Leblanc de Villeneuve were two of the fifty who were very literate. Most literature about

Louisiana was written by travelers or by employees of the two governments—France and

Spain. Works composed by those living in Louisiana are credited to Julien Poydras and

Leblanc de Villeneuve, a distinguished French officer. Villeneuve had been in the

Louisiana colony since the 1750s. In 1780 Poydras wrote a poem on the military exploits

of Bernardo de Galvez and his efforts in the American Revolution: La Marcha de Galvez.

In 1803 LeBlanc de Villeneuve wrote Poucha-Houma based on a historical event.100

On December 4, 1804, Julien Poydras was elected President of the first

Legislative Council of the Territory of Orleans. This was the first step toward an

industrious political career. On that day, he delivered a speech to the Legislative Council

showing he was honored to be chosen. His speech opens:

GENTLEMEN, WE are invested with the most honorable, but at the same time the most difficult and important charge which exists on earth. Legislation is the direct source of all good and evil, physical and moral, which every nation in the world have experienced or can experience…we will endeavor to make as few laws as possible, and these so plain that everybody will comprehend them; and so interesting that every one of us shall be forced (as it were) to lend a hand in their execution…But remember, my beloved fellow citizens, that we are laboring for you; that you should fly to our assistance, and aid us with your knowledge…if we can attain this, all our wishes will be fulfilled.101

99 Official Letter Books of W.C.C. Claiborne, I, pp. 322-329. 100 Charles Gayarré. Belford’s Magazine. August, 1890, Vol V, No. 27 in Edwin Whitfield Fay. The History of Education in Louisiana. Ville Platte, LA: Provincial Press, 1999, (reprint of 1898 original), Appendix II, p. 252. 1804, Captain Alexandre LeBlanc de Villeneuve succeeded Poydras as civil commandant for Pointe Coupée. 101 Speech Julien Poydras delivered at New Orleans to legislative council December 4, 1804. LSU Special Collections, Butler Collection, Louisiana State University Library, Baton Rouge, LA.

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A TERRITORY AND ITS CONCERNS…

In addition to dividing the territory, members of Congress were eager for data on

Louisiana.102 During this year, many considerations were discussed and established by

Congress regarding the new territory of Louisiana. In their second session, the American

policymakers passed an “Act for Ascertaining and Adjusting the Titles and Claims to

Land, Within the Territory of Orleans, and the District of Louisiana.”103 Congress’ intent

was to validate all private land claims. The landowners in Louisiana had a difficult time

meeting the demands of the new rules of land ownership by the American government. A

good number of the landowners lacked clear written documentation. Many had acquired

their lands through heirship from previous generations or land grants. Still others

received theirs from the sale and trade from successions or between one another. There

were also a number of competing claims.

Inhabitants of the Territory of Orleans were also concerned about the prohibition

of the importation of slaves. President Jefferson objected to increasing the slave

population in the country. In response, they included this issue in their “Remonstrance of

the People of Louisiana”104 to both the House and the Senate. These members of

Congress were very surprised at how well it was drafted and worded. It showed that the

Louisianans were able to understand quite well how to negotiate in a democratic political

system. Their arguments were well-stated.105

In response, Congress passed the Act of March 2, 1805. This act granted self-

government by providing for a representative assembly. The inhabitants of Orleans

Territory were granted “ all the rights, privileges, and advantages” that were secured by

the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 and then enjoyed by the people of the neighboring

Territory of Mississippi. Slavery as it existed at the time in the new territory was 102 Annals of Congress. Eighth Congress, 1st Session. 103 Annals of Congress, Eighth Congress, 2nd Session. 104 Address of November 14, 1805, drafted by Dr. John Watkins and signed by Jean Noël Destréhan (Carter, IX, 521) Dumas Malone. Jefferson: First Term p. 362. 105 Annals of Congress, 8th Congress, 2nd Session, Jan 25, 1805 in Dumas Malone Jefferson The President: First Term 1801-1805. p 360.

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recognized. However, overall, the slave trade was not recognized. The prohibition of

importation and foreign trade of slaves in the act of the United States in 1804 was more

stringent than the corresponding provision in Mississippi. It remained in force despite the

strong objection by the leading free inhabitants106 Planters of Pointe Coupée and others in

the newly established Territory of Orleans had a large stake in whether or not they would

be able to continue to participate in the slave importation trade. Their industries and

plantations depended on slave labor.

In March 1805 President Thomas Jefferson was still dealing with issues of the

Americans who were opposed to expanding the United States into such a large territory.

In his second inaugural address, Jefferson addressed this issue.107

I know that the acquisition of Louisiana has been disapproved by some, from a candid apprehension that the enlargement of our territory would endanger its union. But who can limit the extent to which the federative principle may operate effectively? The larger our association, the less it will be shaken by local passions; and in any view, is it not better that the opposite bank of the Mississippi should be settled by our own brethren and children, than by strangers of another family? With which shall we be most likely to live in harmony and friendly intercourse?

Thomas Jefferson

The concerns of the Louisianans and Pointe Coupéeans were more specific. They

felt the act of creating a representative assembly was a temporary solution to please them.

They were not interested in easing into their self-representation system. They were

feeling each stride was a step closer to their main goal of becoming a state of the United

States with all the rights and liberties of other American citizens. Governor Claiborne

decided to personally visit some of the distant parishes to get a closer sense of the feeling

106 Dumas Malone. Jefferson The President: First Term 1801-1805. p 361. 107 Annals of Congress 2nd Inaugural Address, President Thomas Jefferson, March 1805.

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of the people. He traveled as far north as Pointe Coupée. In his report to James Madison

he commented that he received a friendly welcome from everywhere he visited.108

…besides everything political, civil and social was again to be modified and organized, in 1803, in a Commonwealth doomed to be so often distracted by a change of nationality. New laws, new principles, new rules of action, new springs of thought, new sources of sentiment and affection, even a new language, to be adopted; a transformation of customs and usages, and inevitable discords arising from such a state of affairs: the confusion resulting from the removal of old landmarks; an apprenticeship of liberty and self-government imposed by Congress and the President, which lasted nine years; next a laborious evolution into State sovereignty, leading to political and social struggles, and to race antipathies that ceased only by a gradual adaptation to logical sequences…

historian Charles Gayarré109

In the midst of political concerns in Louisiana, Governor Claiborne had his eye on

the situation arising with Aaron Burr. In 1804 he warned Poydras, civil commandant in

Pointe Coupée, about the concerns of the United States government. He was worried

about what was going on across the river in West Florida.110 There was a conspiracy to

set up a separate government in Spanish West Florida; just across from Pointe Coupée.

Vice President Aaron Burr left office in March 1805 under indictment in New York and

New Jersey for the murder of Alexander Hamilton in a fatal duel. He headed for New

Orleans and the new Territory of Orleans.

Popular rumors said Burr was going to revolutionize the Spanish colonies in West

Florida and Mexico. Other rumors stated he hoped to detach all of the southwest and

Louisiana from the Union and establish an empire with Mexico and West Florida. He

bought land along the Ouachita River in Lower Louisiana. His presence in the new

territory made the President and others in the United States concerned. They were afraid

that Burr would gain support from the Americans in the region and possibly also from the

discontented local inhabitants. These events never occurred in Louisiana. After a series of 108 Claiborne to Madison, 31st of May, 1805. in Charles Gayarré. History of Louisiana Vol. IV. Baton Rouge, LA: Claitor’s Publishing Division, 1974 limited edition reprint of 1903 original. p. 110. 109 Charles Gayarré. “Literature in Louisiana”, Belford’s Magazine , August 1890, Vol. V, No. 27 as Appendix II in Fay. The History of Education in Louisiana. Ville Platte, LA: Provincial Press, 1999 a reprint of the 1898 original. 110 Clarence Edwin Carter. Territorial Papers Volume IX.

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trials and indictments, Burr became a political exile and fugitive. There were rumors that

he would return. The city officials, Governor Claiborne, and the military prepared the

forces and the fort in New Orleans. Trials were held for suspected conspirators. None of

the French were accused and were very loyal to the United States during the crisis. This

amazed General Wilkinson and Governor Claiborne. General Wilkinson, in a letter to

Daniel Clark, noted that Julien Poydras was “be found to be loyal to the United States

government along with other leading Louisianans and Americans in New Orleans.”111

In 1806, the military post of Pointe Coupée closed. Surveyor Charles Morgan was

handed the keys by the last Commandant. The keys were last handed over after 1769,

when the post changed from the governing power of France to Spain. This time, in 1806,

the post was officially closing. A fixture of Pointe Coupée since the 1720s, it was the

center of the establishment from which the community branched out. After the military

post of Pointe Coupée was closed, the citizens purchased the property and items

belonging to the post. They purchased them from the American government, because all

public property and land was transferred to the United States along with the territory in

1803. The items purchased included the remaining four buildings at the fort, an old frame

structure of four or five rooms, a magazine, a guardhouse, and another building and its

40-arpent tract of land.112

LOUISIANA’S FIRST PUBLIC SCHOOL ESTABLISHED IN POINTE COUPÉE…

Louisianans and Pointe Coupéeans had a strong desire for culture and education. After

the Act for Public Education passed in 1805, William C. C. Claiborne, Governor of the

Territory of Orleans, gave the following speech in admiration of the Louisianans:

111 For a thorough article on the Burr conspiracy in the Orleans Territory see George Dargo, Jefferson’ Louisiana: Politics and the Clash of Legal Traditions. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975. and, article “ Burr’s Conspiracy and the Orleans Territory” by George Dargo in Dolores Egger Labbé. The Louisiana Purchase and its Aftermath 1800-1830 Volume III. The Louisiana Purchase Bicentennial Series in Louisiana History. Lafayette, LA: Center for Louisiana Studies, University of Southwestern Louisiana. Pp 223-250. 112 Brian J. Costello. A History of Pointe Coupee Parish Louisiana. p. 56.

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…this is the first word uttered by the people of Louisiana in its sovereign capacity on the subject of education. Without any regard whatever for the large and specious generalities here expressed, we may not yet see this document a genuine enthusiasm for what is better than education—culture. “ This act proposed a State school system, preparatory schools leading to a college. Provision also included education for girls, and the contemporary establishment of libraries in every county. Unfortunately the system depended on a board of regents which would have a political influence and funding from a lottery franchise. Proposed subjects included Latin, Greek, English, French and Spanish languages and sciences, philosophy and literature.

There were few attempts to establish public education under the French and

Spanish regimes. The formal education of Louisianans and Pointe Coupéeans was

provided by private tutors, or from private schools in France or the United States. One of

the earliest acts of the Legislative council of the Territory of Orleans created a public

university.113

Following this act, another on May 2, 1806 by the legislative council read as

follows: “An Act to Provide For the establishment of public free schools in several

counties of the territory.” Pointe Coupée was the first county to take advantage of this

act. By September 8, 1808, “The Establishment of Public Schools” was undertaken by a

“jury” or committee. Julien Poydras, Guillaume Andre, Baptiste Lanna, Narcisse

Carmouche, Dr. Jacques Vignes, Simon Croizet, Pierre Laurans, Baptiste Beauvais,

Arnaud Beauvais, Francois LeBeau, and Dr. Jacques Vitrac were on this committee.

Their goal was to establish five schools in Pointe Coupée, which was now a parish. There

would be one on the Pointe Coupée coast, two on False River, and two on the island. The

police jury was to give $300 a year to each school and $25 for each poor student. This

committee was to establish a curriculum of writing, grammar, morality, catechism, and

arithmetic. Catechism was included because the people in the parish were all Catholic

except for a few Protestant Americans. For additional funding, they were to collect a tax

113 An Act to Institute An (sic) University in the Territory of Orleans, approved April 19, 1805. Act printed in Edwin Whitfield Fay. The History of Education in Louisiana. Ville Platte, LA: Provincial Press, 1999. reprint of the 1898 original

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of four escalins for each slave from the slave owners of the parish. An escalin was a

Mexican coin valued at 12.5 cents.

The first directors were Julien Poydras (president), Simon Croizet, Dr. Jacques

Vignes, Arnaud Beauvais, and Joseph Joffrion. They were responsible for decisions to

build schools, administer discipline, and issue books. Other Pointe Coupéeans donated

buildings and a property for the schools. Baptiste Beauvais donated a house for L’Ecole

de la Pointe Coupee. Baptiste Porche donated a lot and cabin for a school in the Quarter

du Poullaillier..114

In 1809 Julien Poydras donated to the citizens of the island a 4 x 50-arpent tract of

land on the lower Chenal adjacent to one of his properties. In addition, he gave $50 to be

used for building a school and $115 a year for maintenance.115 In this same year,

Governor Claiborne made a comment about the public schools act in the parishes of the

Territory. “In Pointe Coupée provision had been made for the support of two schools, but

other parishes did not seem disposed to imitate so worthy an example.”116

Later, in 1811, Julien Poydras, Arnaud Beauvais, and Alexandre LeBlanc de

Villeneuve were appointed by the board of regents of the College of Orleans as

administrators of the public schools of Pointe Coupée.117 By 1812 the Pointe Coupée

Parish school system received another contribution. A school building on the land owned

by Narcisse Carmouche on False River was sold to the commissioners of the public

schools of Pointe Coupée Parish for $130. These commissioners—Julien Poydras,

Arnaud Beauvais, and John Henry Ludeling also purchased two tables, two benches, four

large chairs, and a small chair as part of the same transaction.118

114 1808 OAPC#3013. 115 Costello. The Life Family and Legacy of Julien Poydras. p. 41 noting source 1809 OAPC#3152 116 Ibid. p. 205. 117 Costello. The Life Family and Legacy of Julien Poydras. P 41 noting Judicial Court Records of Pointe Coupée 4th Judicial Court, Suit #429. 118 Ibid. p. 41. noting OAPC 1812 # 3513.

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POLITICAL DIFFERENCES BEGIN…

During this period, community members were very supportive of the schools.

However, they were becoming divided on other issues. In the month of November 1808,

the differences between the American and Créole people began to divide them. It appears

the Americans were opposed to Governor Claiborne’s appointment of Jacques Petrony as

sheriff. The governor made a personal effort to calm the differences by writing a letter to

Charles Morgan. In this letter he assured Morgan that his appointment of Petrony was

solely because he felt he was the most capable person for the position. It was not done out

of favoritism to one side or the other.119

In April of 1809, this issue grew into a more serious dispute. The community had

divided into two distinct factions over a feud between Parish Judge Dormenon and the

parish priest, L’Abbé de L’Epinasse. Both men were French by birth. This feud greatly

embittered the citizens, who were“ almost disposed to a petty civil war.” A majority of

the planters including Julien Poydras, now a delegate elect to Congress, supported the

judge. The priest’s supporters included a few respectable Créole families, almost all of

the women, and some Americans who had recently immigrated to the parish. The judge

and his supporters wanted the Priest removed; the priest and his supporters wanted the

judge removed. It was serious enough that Governor Claiborne personally went to Pointe

Coupée. In fairness, Claiborne felt he couldn’t support either side. However, he tried to

calm everyone down. The root of the issue seemed to be that the sheriff’s selection of

jurors was biased based on his relationship with the judge.”120

What man ever indeed, had ever more opportunities of acquiring a thorough knowledge of Louisiana and her inhabitants; or had more means of appreciating, or reason to esteem them, than I? In this point I surely yield to none: and hence it is to give authentic testimony of what is so intimately known to me, I abandon my private affairs, to devote my time to their dearest interests.

Julien Poydras Acceptance of Congress seat

1809

119 Charles Gayarré. History of Louisiana. Vol IV. p 201-2. 120 Ibid. p 210.

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COMING TOGETHER FOR STATEHOOD…

Despite their disputes, the community felt that admission of the territory as a state was

still the most important thing to be achieved. When a territory could prove through an

actual census that the number of its “free inhabitants” had reached 60,000, it could be

admitted as a state. The next official decennial Federal census would be in 1810. The

people of Louisiana knew their population figures had been underestimated so far. They

strongly felt they exceeded the requirement of 60,000. They began to work feverishly

toward attaining statehood. The first census taken in the new county of Pointe Coupée

was in 1807. Seventy-one percent of the population was enslaved. In 1808 and 1809, two

other censuses were taken. 121

1807 Census of County of Pointe Coupée “White” .........................................1,008 Slaves ............................................2,724 Free Persons of Color .........................20 Total Population ............................3,852

The first official federal census for the Territory of Orleans and Pointe Coupée

was taken in 1810. This was the first census to include territories.

121 1807 OAPC# 2798, Evaluation des terres et Recensement general de la paroisse pour servie a’ La repartition de l’ impot Territorial et a’ La perception de La taxe sur Les Esclaves 24 Aoust 1807, translated by Jacqueline M. Saizan with unofficial totals. Another census was taken in 1808, the original of which is at Tulane University, Special Collections, New Orleans, Louisiana. In the vendor/vendee records at the Clerk of Court’s office, Pointe Coupée parish, New Roads, LA, a notation mentions another census in 1809. The original record of this census is not with the original records; its location is unknown.

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Third Federal Census Population Statistics for the United States in 1810

United States Territory of Orleans Pointe Coupée

“White” Men 16-44 23,258 7,823 302 Total “White” Males 2,736,538 18,940 682 Total “White” Females 2,855,169 15,371 566 Total “White” Population 5,591,707 34,311 1,248 All Other Free Persons* 173,370 7,585 104 Total Free Persons 5,765,077 41,896 1,352 Slaves 1,130,781 34,660 3,187 Total 6,999,954 76,556 4,539

Percentage Slaves 16% 45% 70% Percentage of U.S.—Slaves 3% *The vast majority of “All Other Free Persons” were people of African or African-European descent. It also included a small number of people of Indian or Indian-European descent who lived in “white” settlements and paid taxes to “white” governments.

[Source: Robert Bruce L. Ardoin, compiler. Louisiana Census Records, Vol II Iberville, Natchitoches, Pointe Coupee and Rapides Parishes 1810 & 1820. Baltimore, MD: Genealogical Publishing Company, 1972]

4.3 TIMELINE OF EVENTS DURING TERRITORIAL GOVERMENT

From the moment of the transfer on December 20, 1803 to February 18, 1811, when

President James Madison signed into law a bill permitting the people of Louisiana to

form a constitution and state government, and for the admission of such state into the

Union, on an equal footing with the original states…,122 a series of important events took

place. Each step led to the final outcome of statehood. Following is a summary of the set

of events of this ever-important effort of the representatives of the people of Louisiana

and Pointe Coupée.

_________________________________

122 Warren M. Billings and Edward F. Haas, editors. In Search of Fundamental Law: Louisiana’s Constitutions 1812-1974. Lafayette, LA: The Center For Louisiana Studies, University of Southwestern Louisiana, 1993. p. 7. Eleventh Congress, third session, 1811.

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12/20/1803: Official transfer of Louisiana from France to United States. Pierre Clément de Laussat, representative of France; Mississippi Territory Governor, William Charles Cole Claiborne and Wilkinson, commissioners for United States.

President Thomas Jefferson appoints 29-year-old Claiborne territorial

governor of Orleans Territory. He is not the president’s first choice. The president wants Marquis de Lafayette and others, but his other choices aren’t available for the position.

1804: The Louisianans maintain a strong partiality for the French government.

They believe that after the close of Napoleon’s war with Britain, he will again look to regain Louisiana. Popular rumors suggest the Louisiana transfer to the United States was a political move by Napoleon. People believed he had all intentions of regaining it after conflicts with Great Britain.

Year opens with the traditional festive social season in New Orleans—

Mardi Gras ball season. Conflict between Créoles and Americans at the balls over which dance—the French minuet or the American jig—have preference. Obvious beginning of the clash between Louisianans and Americans.

The Louisiana Gazette, published by Philadelphian John Mowry is first

English publication for New Orleans. Julien Poydras among list of subscribers.

1/1804: Postmaster announces that mail now arrives from the U. S. every Monday,

and a mail stage leaves New Orleans every Tuesday morning. 1/14/1804: W.C.C. Claiborne sends a letter to Julien Poydras commissioning him as

civil commandant of the Pointe Coupée post with orders to surrender all archives and public papers. This appointment includes the same powers as district commandant under the Spanish government. Claiborne asks the new officer to preserve the record of all official acts.123

1/16/1804: Jefferson’s congratulatory address to Senate and House notifying Congress that the transfer took place and was peaceful.124

123 Letterbook of W.C.C. Claiborne. 124 Annals of Congress.

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1/17/1804: Signed by President Thomas Jefferson and Secretary of State James

Madison, the decree charged four of the most powerful men in Louisiana with the duty of organizing the new provisional government. Jefferson selected those with long histories in Louisiana to make the transition as smooth as possible: Joseph deVille Degoutin Bellechasse, Jean Baptiste Macarty, Jean Noël Destrehan de Tours, and Pierre Sauvé.125

2/1804: President Jefferson to Congress regarding “Louisiana Territory:” doubts

Louisianans’ ability to participate in self-government. Concerned that the Louisianans are not prepared to make judgments for themselves because they had historically lived under a monarchy. Sense that democracy and the rights that go with it were “high privileges,” argument for temporary government and privileges.126

2/25/1804: Julien Poydras sends two letters to Claiborne. Both dated 2/8/1804, first is

an evaluation of the public edifices at Pointe Coupée. The second asks for permission for leave of absence from his post as civil commandant to travel to New Orleans.

Claiborne responds, authorizing Poydras to name Captain Allain as deputy

commandant. The response is delivered by Captain Turner, who was on his way to Natchitoches along with an American flag.

March 1804: United States flag delivered to Pointe Coupée. 3/12/1804: Claiborne establishes bank by ordinance. The Louisiana Bank in New

Orleans is established. Julien Poydras becomes one of its directors. Other Pointe Coupée planters invest in shares.

Annuaire Louisianais, a French directory printed in New Orleans in 1809

shows Julien Poydras as president. Prior to the opening of this bank, trade was conducted with Spanish paper money—called Liberanza—and silver coins from Mexico.

3/26/1804: The United States establishes the Territory of Orleans by an act effective

October 1, 1804. “The Louisiana Purchase is divided into two parts, the

125 This original document is on long-term loan with the River Road Historical Society. 126 Annals of Congress, House of Representatives, 8th Congress, 1st Session, in A Century of Lawmaking for a New Nation: U.S. Congressional Documents and Debates, 1774-1875. p. 1073.

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upper portion is the District of Louisiana and the lower is the Territory of Orleans; the latter being all that portion of country ceded by France to the United States, under the name of Louisiana, which lies south of the Mississippi River at the thirty-third degree of north latitude and extending west to the western boundary of said cession, shall constitute a Territory of the United States, under the name of the Territory of Orleans.” The remainder of the Louisiana Purchase becomes the Territory of Louisiana with its capital at St. Louis. New Orleans is made the port of entry and delivery.

1804: Petition to Governor Claiborne by men and women of Pointe Coupée

requesting military support against a potential slave rebellion. 12/4/1804: Poydras elected president of first legislative council of Territory of

Orleans. Delivers his speech to the legislative council after Governor Claiborne’s address had been delivered.

1805: Temporary Pointe Coupée government established. Includes parish judge,

justices of the peace, a jury of twelve persons—later known as the Police Jury, and office of sheriff.

4/10/1805: Territorial Legislature designates counties of Orleans Territory: “6. The county of Pointe Coupée shall comprehend the Parish of St.

Francis.” Includes present-day parishes of Pointe Coupée, West Baton Rouge, and the northern portion of Iberville Parish.

4/19/1805: Julien Poydras approved as president of the Territorial Council. 1805: Geographical boundaries for inhabitants of Territory of Orleans narrowed

even further. Now residents of specific counties, the inhabitants write instructions to their representatives stating their feelings.

1805: Congress passes the 1805 land claim law: “An Act for Ascertaining and Adjusting the Titles and Claims to Land,

Within the Territory of Orleans, and the District of Louisiana. 1805: Claiborne warns Poydras, the civil commandant in 1804, about the

“insurgence” of Aaron Burr across the river in West Florida. 1806: Poste of Pointe Coupée closed December 1806. Keys to the fort given to

Charles Morgan, surveyor for county.

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1806-1807: Charles Morgan begins surveys for Pointe Coupéeans’ land claims. 1806: Pointe Coupée planters begin to invest in properties, vacant lots, and

townhouses in New Orleans, French Quarter, and near city. 5/2/1806 Legislative council passed “An Act to Provide For the establishment of

public free schools in several counties of the territory.” Pointe Coupée parish is the first county to take advantage of this act.

1807: Census of Pointe Coupée parish. 1808: Census of Pointe Coupée parish. 1808: First public school established in Pointe Coupée. 1809: Census of Pointe Coupée parish. Poydras elected to Congress, supporter of Claiborne. Speech of the Hon.

Julien Poydras to the Orleans legislature, delivered March 1, 1809. 1810: Third census of the United States. First to include territories included in

Louisiana Purchase. Reveals Orleans Territory has more than required 60,000 residents for consideration for statehood. Change from territorial to permanent state government.

4.4 DEVELOPMENT OF A CONSTITUTION AND STATEHOOD

STATEHOOD AND ITS CHALLENGES…

To be admitted to the Union, a state must submit a proposed constitution to the United

States Congress for approval. On February 18, 1811, President James Madison signed

into law a bill permitting the “people of Louisiana to form a constitution and state

government, and for the admission of such state into the Union, on an equal footing with

the original states…“127 Louisianans and Pointe Coupéeans were very pleased. The

efforts they had put forth for the past eight years were finally bringing them to where they

127 Warren M. Billings and Edward F. Haas, editors. In Search of Fundamental Law: Louisiana’s Constitutions 1812-1974. Lafayette, LA: The Center for Louisiana Studies, University of Southwestern Louisiana, 1993. p. 7; Eleventh Congress, third session, 1811.

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believed they should have been at the time of the transfer in 1803. They were now

citizens with full rights of self-government.

…an act to enable the people of the Territory of Orleans to form a constitution and State government and for the admission of said State into the Union on an equal footing with the original States, and for other purposes; In order to secure to all the citizens therof the enjoyment of the right of life, liberty and property, do ordain and establish the following constitution or form of government, and do mutually agree with each other to form ourselves into a free and independent State, by the name of the State of Louisiana.

State of Louisiana Constitution, 1812

Just a month earlier in January, the people of Louisiana were reminded of another

uncertain institution in their lives—slavery. In St. Charles Parish, St. John the Baptist

Parish, and Orleans Parish, downriver from Pointe Coupée, a large organized slave revolt

occurred. This was the largest slave revolt in history. It was a bloody and grueling event

in which many died. Eventually the slaves were stopped. Indians were hired to track

down the runaways in the swamps. Once all the living contributors to the revolt were

assembled, a trial was held at Destréhan Plantation, the home of Jean Noël Destréhan.

The accused parties were executed with bullets and then decapitated, their heads posted

on poles as an example for all other slaves.128

One of the last Acts of the Territorial Council on April 25, 1811129 was related to

this slave revolt. This act provided for bounty payments of the killing or execution of

slaves involved in the insurrection and burning of dwellings. This act of the legislature

was familiar to Julien Poydras, president of the Council. The last large slave revolt in

Louisiana was in 1795 on his Pointe Coupée plantation. This was also stopped. A large

trial took place. The parties involved in that conspiracy were hung and decapitated, their

heads placed on poles along the river as an example for other slaves.

Getting back to the business of achieving statehood, the members of the

legislative council began the process of authoring a constitution for Louisiana. Delayed 128 For detail of this revolt see Albert Thrasher, On To New Orleans! New Orleans, LA: author, 1995; see Act (in French and English) of Legislative Council 4/25/1811 for bounty payments for killing or execution of slaves; details of trial records at Destréhan plantation. 129 Acts of Legislative Council of the Territory of Orleans, 4/25/1811 in French and English.

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for a number of reasons, mainly the hot summer and the yellow fever outbreak, they

finally began their process on November 4, 1811. Meeting at a coffeehouse in the French

Quarter, the members began the very important process of developing a constitution for

their people. Julien Poydras was appointed president of the Convention, which included

delegates from each parish. The delegate for Pointe Coupée was Sebastian Hiriart.130 This

gathering and its purpose is a very significant point in Louisiana history. These men came

together with various feelings about the prospects of becoming a state. The endless hours

of debate and contemplation were about to begin. French- and English-speaking members

had to overcome the language barrier, interpreting for one another.

Poydras delivered a long address to the convention on November 18, 1811. His

speech, delivered in French, was read in English by James Brown. Expressing the opinion

of the great majority of the people in the territory, including his friends in Pointe Coupée,

he said:

A territorial government is execrable; it is a monstrosity in the annals of a free people, which should never have disfigured, and from which it should be forever erased.

In his poetic style, he continued, and compared the feelings of the people of the Territory

to those of

a navigator who, on the point of perishing, arrives at the port, the object of his hopes and of his fortune. 131

The members of the convention continued to meet regularly. While they were

working on the constitutional future for the people of the Territory of Orleans, a

remarkable milestone of transportation made history in New Orleans. In January 1812

the first steamboat, SS New Orleans, arrived in New Orleans from Pittsburgh.132 This

130 Hiriart married Celine (Marceline) Major in 1808, child(ren) baptized in Pointe Coupée per DBR records. He was a native of Bayonne, France. 131 Address of Professor Alcee Fortier, president of the Louisiana Historical Society. “Celebration of the Louisiana Centennial” in Louisiana Historical Quarterly 1912, Volume 5, Issue 1 p. 40; see speech of Julien Poydras 11/18/1811. 132 Owner of this steamboat was Nicholas Roosevelt, the great-great-great-uncle of Theodore Roosevelt.

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represented a symbol of progress and much opportunity for the economic future of their

place. So was the remarkable event occurring with the debate of the members of the

convention, as they drafted the constitution for the Territory of Orleans.

The members chose to use the Kentucky constitution as a basis, adding unique

acts pertinent to interests of the people of the Territory of Orleans. Major provisions

included: 1) a governor not directly elected by the people but by the two highest

vote-getters from the legislature; 2) in order to vote, a free “white” male had to own a

certain amount of land; 3) the governor would appoint all state officials and judges; 4)

specific acts concerning the distribution of the powers of government, which included

who could be a representative, the division of senatorial districts, and election of police

jury by citizens of the county; 5) compensation of public officials; and 6) sessions for the

Supreme Court and locations of the jurisdictions.

Pointe Coupée was considered one district electing one Senator. It was considered

in the eastern district for appellate jurisdiction. The Supreme Court for this district would

be held in New Orleans during certain months. New Orleans was chosen to be the seat of

government.

The last item addressed by the members was the name to adopt for their new state.

A Créole gentleman rose to suggest that in honor of the great President Thomas

Jefferson, “in gratitude for the cession of Louisiana to the United States,” the name

should be the “State of Jefferson.” Immediately, St. Denis, a descendant and prominent

man from the founding families of the colony, stood up. In his French manner, he replied,

“we do that and I’ll load a barrel of powder and blow this convention up!” Needless to

say, the subject was dropped, and the name Louisiana was chosen. The constitution was

adopted, and the constitutional convention adjourned.

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STATEHOOD AT LAST…

On April 8, 1812, the United States Congress passed an Act to enter the Territory of

Orleans as the eighteenth state in the Union. Written in both French and English, this

constitution was referred to as “We, the Representatives of the People.” The new state of

Louisiana was to be official April 30, 1812—exactly nine years from the date France and

the United States of America signed the deal known as the Louisiana Purchase!

WE, the Representatives of the People of all that part of the Territory or country ceded Under the name of Louisiana, by the treaty made at Paris, on the 30th day of April 1803, between the United States and France…

State of Louisiana constitution, 1812

DONE in Convention, at New Orleans, the twenty second day of the month of January, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and twelve, and of the independence of the United States of America, the thirty-sixth.

J. POYDRAS President of the Convention

………… Sebastian Hiriart

Of the County of Pointe Coupée

NOUS les Représentans du Peuple de toute cette partie du Territoire ou pays cédé sous le nom Louisiane, par le traité fait à Paris, le 30 Avril 1803, entre les Etats-Unis et La France…

L’Etat de la Louisiane Constitution, 1812

FAIT en Convention à la Nouvelle-Orléans, le Vingt-deuxième jour du mois de Janvier, De l’an de notre seigneur mil-huit-cent-douze Et la trente sixième année de l’Indépendance Des Etats-Unis d‘Amérique.

J. POYDRAS Président de la Convention

………… Sebastian Hiriart

Du Comté de la Pointe Coupée

For nine years after the day of signing the Louisiana Purchase in Paris on April

30, 1803, the people devoted their efforts to a new self-government and all the rights to

be enjoyed with this luxury. The convention requested that Congress add the Florida

parishes to the new state. Congress honored this request.133 The Louisianans were once

again joined together, now as Americans, with their neighboring parishes, retaining their

name Louisiana!

133 State Museum Web site: http://lsm.crt.state.la.us/cabildo/cab5.htm.

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Glossary: Chapter Four

[Pronunciation guides are in parentheses after selected words. Syllables in capital letters are those that should be stressed—that is, pronounced the most strongly.] adjacent (ad JAY sent) – Next to near, or having a border in common. adjourn (ed JERN) – To bring to a close. ascertain (a ser TAIN) – To find out. assimilate (u SIM i late) – To take something in and make it part of something. biased (BY est) – To be in favor of one thing over another. catechism (CAT e kism) – A summary of religious teachings in the form of questions

and answers. cede (seed) – To give up, especially by treaty. compensation – Payment. comprehend – To include. consideration – An issue given thought before a decision is made. conspiracy – Agreeing secretly to do an unlawful act. conspirator – One who is part of a conspiracy. constitution – A basis of government or fundamental law. In 1812, Louisiana’s

constitution’s purpose was to “secure to all citizens, the enjoyment of the rights of life, liberty, and property.”

contemplation – Thinking about something steadily. data – Facts about something. decapitated (dee CAP i tay ted) – To have one’s head cut off. decennial (de SEN ee ul) – Happening every 10 years. delegate (DE le get) – A person with power to act for another; a representative. delegate elect – Chosen to be a delegate, but not yet one. despotic rule (de SPOT ik) – Someone who rules in a cruel, harmful, or unjust way. disposed – To be ready and willing. documentation – Evidence in the form of documents. edifice (ED i fis) – Building. emigrate – To leave a country or region to live elsewhere. exile (EK zyle) – Being forced to leave one’s country or home, or doing so voluntarily. facet (FA set) – Aspect. faction – A group acting together within a larger body. favoritism – Unfairly favorable treatment of some to the neglect of others. feverishly – With great emotion or activity; hectic. free Negro militia – These were “free men of color” who were enlisted in the Spanish

militia and requested the same rights to be part of the military be granted to them after

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the Louisiana Purchase and lower Louisiana became Orleans Territory. Members of this militia fought with General Andrew Jackson in the Battle of New Orleans.

fugitive (FEW ji tive) – One who is running away. inaugural (in AWE gyoo rul) – Relating to the ceremony where a new president is put

into office. indictment (in DITE ment) – To charge a person with a crime. industrious (in DUS tree us) – Constantly occupied. insurrection (in su REC shun) – Rebellion; fighting against authority. jurisdiction – The limits or territory within one’s authority. legislator (LE ji slay ter) – A person who makes laws. legislature (LE ji slay cher) – A governmental body that makes laws. literate (LI ter it) – Able to read and write. manipulate – To manage skillfully. milestone – An important point in progress or development. monarchy (MAH nar kee) – Total rule by one person, as a king or queen. Northwest Ordinance of 1787 – This was a law for the government of the Territory of

the United States for expansion north of the Ohio River and east of the Mississippi River. It stated the terms of settlement and that this area would eventually become part of the United States. When these areas were settled, they were territories until they met the requirements set by this ordinance to become a state and adopt their new state constitutions. Before this ordinance, this area had been forbidden to development, mainly because the British crown did not want to spend its money on wars with the “Indians” who had already occupied this area.

overwhelming – Extreme. partiality (par shee A li tee) – A special liking. pertinent – Having to do with the matter being discussed. policy – A course of action to guide people in making decisions. policymaker – A person who sets policies. Poste of Pointe Coupée – During the French and Spanish colonial periods in Louisiana,

the larger occupied settlements had postes or forts. In Pointe Coupée, the fort was located near the present-day St. Francisville landing, which was managed by a commandant and his soldiers for protection for the region. The commandant also handled the more ordinary civil and criminal affairs because of the distance to travel to New Orleans for the ordinary affairs.

prohibition (pro hi BI shun) – To forbid something. Remonstrance (re MON strans) – Citizens would formally express their desires about a

particular official issue to government authorities through a written document called a “remonstrance.”

revolutionize (re vul OO shun eyes) – To change greatly or completely. right of importation of slaves – This referred to the rights to trade (buy or sell) slaves

outside the geographical boundaries of the United States. In 1807, the United States

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government put a halt on importing slaves from outside the United States, namely European, Caribbean, and African slave traders, allowing slave trade to take place only within the United States. This was an effort to slow down the number of slaves brought to the United States through the trans-Atlantic slave trade. This was not accepted well by the planters who depended on slave labor for their profits in agriculture.

secure – To acquire or get something. slave representation – When counting numbers of people in the censuses, slaves were

included in the total population count (although only a fraction per person). They were counted for the areas where their owner resided. In the total population count, this would work to the benefit of those in the southern region when determining how many federal political positions would be established to represent that state. This angered the people in the northern areas because they did not have a high number of slaves and their total population numbers were then smaller; it seemed unfair.

stipulation (sti pyoo LAY shun) – Something required as part of an agreement. stringent (STRIN jent) – Strict in following rules. succession – The process of settling one’s estate after they die. Ursuline sisters – The Ursuline Academy of New Orleans was founded in 1727 by the

Ursuline Sisters. Its primary purpose was the education of single girls from early childhood through secondary school. It is Roman Catholic in character.

validate – To make legally binding.

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LOUISIANA PURCHASE: A DRAMATIC CHANGE FOR POINTE COUPÉEANS 1803–1815

5

TOGETHER AS AMERICANS

1812…

All seemed to be relatively calm. The fury of establishing a state government was over.

The effects of the large slave revolt in St. Charles, St. John the Baptist, and New Orleans

parishes in 1811134 seemed not to affect the morale of the enslaved people in Pointe

Coupée. However, serious caution rose for the slave owners. Recognized as the largest

slave revolt, it was well organized with over 500 slaves, but stopped by government

officials. Both slaves and Louisianans suffered grueling deaths. Conspirators were

executed in front of the plantation of Jean Noël Destréhan in St. Charles Parish. He was

family and a close friend to many Pointe Coupéeans.

Pointe Coupéeans were also busy adjusting to the new positions in their local

government and how these different offices applied to their everyday lives. They were

adjusting to their American neighbors and the hostilities which seemed to continue

between the two. A few years later, political rivalry was arising in Pointe Coupée. Two

leading citizens fought in a duel. Arnaud Beauvais was wounded in a duel with Charles

Morgan.135

The most important lingering issue for Pointe Coupéeans was documenting their

land claims for their new government. Some of these properties had been in their families

for generations. Others were properties bought for expanding their particular interests—

134 For a detailed account of this revolt, one of the largest in the country, see Albert Thrasher, On To New Orleans! 135 Julie Eshelman-Lee. Our Family History: A Louisiana Homecoming. Roanoke, IN: Author, 1996. p. 66.

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some speculation for future businesses. It was hurricane season. A terrific hurricane

struck New Orleans on September 19 and 20, 1812. The people felt as though a similar

storm struck when lands they claimed were denied. There were some abuses with false

claims, but the properties claimed were denied mostly for lack of reliable documentation.

The people had been through much change and disruption. An issue as sensitive as

ownership of their properties would create greater unrest.

The secretary of the treasury, Albert Gallatin, was forced to admit that his land

claim commissioners had not had much success with the land claims for the territories in

Louisiana. They realized that few residents of Louisiana possessed the documentation

necessary to validate their claims. In 1812 Gallatin went before Congress to make

suggestions.

As a result, in 1813 the “Committee on Private Land Claims” was established on

the motion of Thomas B. Robertson of Louisiana136. It had jurisdiction over matters

relating to private land claims.137

136 Robertson moved to the Territory of Orleans in 1807. He was appointed secretary of the Territory of Louisiana by President Jefferson and served from 1807 to 1811. He held many political offices, and his final was governor of Louisiana from December 18, 1820, until his resignation on November 15, 1822. He was attorney general of Louisiana in 1822, and he was judge of the United States Court for the District of Louisiana from 1825 to 1827. 137 Records of the Commission on Private Land Claims, 14th–62nd Congresses (1816–1911) system to petition Congress; committee abolished in 1911.

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COMING TOGETHER AGAINST THE BRITISH…

As remembered by Bernard Marigny, leading citizen of New Orleans, well acquainted with Pointe Coupée planters and merchants:

…the ladies formed committees to provide all that was necessary for the wounded and to care for them; private hospitals were established (in New Orleans). From the houses of the citizens came bed linen, lint and clothing, in fact everything that could be useful under such circumstances… From all the parishes the inhabitants could be seen coming with their hunting guns, for in this city, as I have already said, there were not enough guns in the magazines of the United States to arm the citizens… But at that time of year, the couriers although pushed forward by the Committee of Defense, took some time to reach the Attakapas, Lafayette, Opelousas and Avoyelles as well as Pointe Coupée and Natchitoches. When the proclamation of the Legislature had been received in these parishes more than a thousand Creoles, strong men, great hunters, were already on the road to New Orleans when they received the news of the winning battle of the 8th of January 1815…

Bernard Marigny “Reflections on the Campaign Of General Andrew Jackson in Louisiana in 1814 and 1815”

Another storm was brewing in their new country to the east. Just two months after

statehood was approved for Louisiana, the United States declared war against Great

Britain. By August of 1814 the British had captured Washington and burned the Capitol,

the White House , and other public buildings. Peace negotiations began that same month

between U. S. and British envoys in Ghent, Belgium. Albert Gallatin, Julien Poydras’

friend, is credited with his expertise as one of the American Commissioners successful in

this negotiation.138

The war continued on North American soil as the British invaded the United

States from Canada. By the end of November 1814, the British fleet and army were

sailing for New Orleans. Louisiana had just been admitted the eighteenth state in spring

of 1812. It was now facing the challenge of British invasion. By December 1814, General

Andrew Jackson had arrived in New Orleans, imposing martial law and recruiting troops

to help him in his fight against the British. Although the Louisianans and the Americans

were still adjusting to one another, they came together as fellow citizens when called to

protect their nation and their home.

138 United States Treasury archives, biography of Albert Gallatin.

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Among the many to congratulate Jefferson on the acquisition of Louisiana was a

future president of the United States and the “hero” general of the Battle of New

Orleans—Andrew Jackson. In the summer of 1803 Jackson wrote “Every face wears a

smile, and every heart leaps with joy.” Jefferson’s reply: ” The world will here see such

an extent of country under a free and moderate government as it has never yet seen.”139

Eleven years later General Jackson was called to protect this great country and its people

with unwavering support from the Louisianans.

“The Battle of New Orleans took place on January 8, 1815 during the War of

1812 between Great Britain and the United States on the Plains of Chalmette. This was

approximately ten miles south of New Orleans on the east bank of the Mississippi River.

Two armies faced each other. About eight thousand soldiers of the British army appeared

expecting to capture their way straight north to New Orleans. They were then to head up

the Mississippi Valley to join the British troops coming from Canada, looking to

command all of the rivers of the Mississippi Valley and the lakes. The American army

consisted of about four thousand frontiersmen, militiamen, regular soldiers, free men of

color, Indians, pirates, and townspeople. They were strung along a line from the

Mississippi River to a cypress swamp, crouched behind a millrace ditch that had bales of

cotton placed atop its northern edge.“140

In 1805 Governor Claiborne made a proclamation for military companies in the

parishes. This authorized the formation of a military company in Pointe Coupée.141 Pointe

Coupéeans organized to serve their country as new citizens of America. The “Company

of Volunteers of Pointe Coupée” was formed. This cavalry unit—soldiers on horses—

139 Jackson to Thomas Jefferson, August 7, 1803 (LC 23114-23115); Thomas Jefferson to Jackson, Sept 19, 1803 (LC, 23309) in Dumas Malone. Jefferson The President: First Term 1801-1805. Boston: Little Brown and Company, 1970. p. 348. 140 Robert V. Remini. The Battle of New Orleans. New York, NY: Viking, 1999. p. 5-6. 141 Clarence Edwin Carter. Territorial Papers Volume IX.

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was annexed to the 9th Regiment of the Louisiana Militia. Initially, Benjamin Poydras

was captain, and Zenon LeDoux was lieutenant.142

Captain LeDoux’s Company, Cavalry, Louisiana Volunteers Recognized for Service in Battle of New Orleans

Chesse, Jr. ........................ Private LeDoux, Athanase ............Private DeCoux, Hypolite ............ 2nd Lieutenant LeDoux, Veu ....................Corporal Decuir, Baptiste................ Private LeDoux, Villeneuve..........Private Frederic, Veu.................... Private LeDoux, Zenon.................Captain Janis, Charles ................... Corporal Patin, Antoine ...................Private Labbe, Baptiste................. Sergeant Patin, H. ............................Cornet Labbe, Celestin................. Corporal Porche, Augustin ..............Private LaCour, Jr......................... Private Porche, Jh, fil ....................Private LaCour, C......................... Sergeant Poydras, Benj. LaCour, Charles ............... Private Samson, Therence.............Private LaCour, Leufroy............... Private Swindler, Dorsy................Sergeant LaCour, Zenon ................. 1st Lieutenant Victor (slave) ....................Servant Langlois, Baptiste............. Private Vignes, J. B.......................Private Lecoux, Valery................. Private

In 1814 men from Zenon LeDoux’s company left the parish.143 These sons,

brothers,and fathers valiantly took the great risk of possibly sacrificing their lives for

their family and friends. Their families bravely prepared to continue in their absence.

They anxiously awaited the safe return of their soldiers and news of the status of their

newly acquired freedoms as Americans. Let’s take this opportunity to honor Pointe

Coupéeans who served in the Battle of New Orleans as new Americans. Let’s also

remember families and friends not on the battlefield who supported the same fight against

a British takeover.

Captain Zenon Le Doux, the men of his company, and others in Louisiana served

with much dedication alongside the Americans. Despite the clash between the French

Louisianans and the Americans, both shared a common dislike for Britain and any

possibility that they would become an English colony. It was the second time in thirty-

142 Brian J. Costello. A History of Pointe Coupee Parish Louisiana. p. 61. 143 Marion John Bennett Pierson, compiler. Louisiana Soldiers in the War of 1812. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana Genealogical and Historical Society, 1963, reprinted Baltimore, MD: Genealogical Publishing Company, 1999. See publication for complete listing of all soldiers in Louisiana.

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three years that the men of Pointe Coupée had fought victoriously and quickly against the

British. The first time was during the American Revolution aiding the Americans. They

fought together the second time as Americans.

EARLY 1800s IN THE NEW STATE OF LOUISIANA…

Immediately following the series of historical events that led to the Louisiana Purchase in

1803, the people experienced progress, prosperity, and adjustment. It paved the way for

expansion into the western frontier. The Lewis and Clark expedition of 1804 gave us

knowledge and answers to many questions about the region west of the Rocky

Mountains. The Lewis and Clark expedition traveled through upper Louisiana’s older

French Créole establishment, working with Louisiana Créoles as they planned their trip

across the United States. It was in these upper Louisiana communities that some

prominent Pointe Coupéeans had originated before migrating to Pointe Coupée after

1763.144 Lewis and Clark’s expedition was the first American government-sponsored

exploration. However, it followed in the footsteps of other less publicized, but important,

explorations. Native Americans, Europeans, and other Americans had trekked and

recorded their experiences prior to the notorious travels of Lewis and Clark. These prior

explorations provided the basis of knowledge for their expedition. From their arduous

trek through largely uninhabited territory just acquired by the United States, they brought

back invaluable geographic, cultural, and scientific information, including scientific

samples.

More specifically, Louisiana experienced a great deal of political, cultural, and

economic uncertainty and adjustment. In twelve short years, from mid-1803 to the end of

1815, the people of Louisiana made great strides as Americans. Led by Pointe Coupéean

Julien Poydras and other influential and capable Louisianans, statehood was achieved by

1812. Louisiana became the eighteenth state of the United States of America.

144 One of these families was the LeJeune family. General John Arthur LeJeune, whom Camp LeJeune is named after, is a descendant with many LeJeune descendants in Pointe Coupée today.

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In 1815, Louisianans, Pointe Coupéeans, and Americans pulled together as

Americans, sharing a military victory for their United States. This military victory

provided assurances of the cohesiveness and their ability to defend the newly expanded

area of the United States against European powers. American flags waved to symbolize

membership as United States citizens. One of the last symbols of Spanish influence for

Louisiana could be seen in the tympanum. This was the triangular gable above the

entrance at the Cabildo in New Orleans. It wasn’t until 1821 that the Spanish coat of arms

was replaced with the American eagle. The cultural and religious clash between the

Louisianans and their new fellow American citizens continued.

The port of New Orleans continued to grow and serve all Americans as a

successful trade center. Louisiana’s cotton and sugar industries, including that of Pointe

Coupée, thrived with the benefit of the talents and the extremely difficult physical work

of the large number of enslaved African descendants owned by slave owners in Louisiana

and Pointe Coupée. The indigenous people—various tribes of Louisiana Indians—

became more and more displaced. The Mississippi River became an extremely busy

water highway for trade within the interior of the country. Its natural wonders and

habitats of diverse species became more exploited. This happened much quicker as a

result of human use and abuse than natural changes through climate and geological

forces.

Looking back, we embrace the geological marvel that was this area’s lifeblood

from the beginning—the Mississippi River.

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Glossary: Chapter Five

[Pronunciation guides are in parentheses after selected words. Syllables in capital letters are those that should be stressed—that is, pronounced the most strongly.] arduous (AR djoo us) – Extremely difficult. cohesiveness – To stick together. conspirator (cun SPEER a tor) – One who is part of a conspiracy. displaced – Removed from a usual place. envoy (ON voy) – A representative sent by one government to another. exploited – To make use of unfairly for one’s own advantage. jurisdiction – Power or authority to apply the law. lingering – Remaining. martial law – The law applied by military forces in occupied territory or in an

emergency. notorious (no TOR ee us) – Widely and unfavorably known. proclamation – Announcement of something. trek – To travel. unrest – A disturbed state or condition. valiantly – Done with courage.

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APPENDIX A: TABLE OF CONTENTS FOR

POINTE COUPÉE, LOUISIANA: A UNIQUE PLACE, PEOPLE AND CULTURE © 2003 JULIE ESHELMAN-LEE

Foreword—Brian J. Costello Preface, Acknowledgements, and Sponsor Recognition Introduction

Pointe Coupée Today Why Study Louisiana and Pointe Coupée History?

PART I LOUISIANA PURCHASE: A DRAMATIC CHANGE FOR POINTE COUPÉEANS 1803–1815

1 A PLACE IN TIME A LOOK BACK… THE PLACE, ITS PEOPLE… ONE MAN’S ACCOUNT… LANGUAGE AND TRADITIONS… PLANTATIONS, SETTLERS, AND SLAVES… MEMOIR TO THE FRENCH…

2 FAREWELL TO HIS CATHOLIC MAJESTY: A BITTERSWEET RETURN TO FRANCE’S EMBRACE

A DEAL IN PARIS… PREPARING TO ACCEPT THE COLONY FROM SPAIN… ANOTHER BUYER…THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA… IMMEDIATE CHANGE OF PLANS… THE OFFICIAL TRANSFERS… A NEW BEGINNING…

3 A PRIMER IN DEMOCRACY 3.1 POINTE COUPÉE’S SOLDIER OF POLITICS

AN EDUCATED ADVENTURER… ESTABLISHED IN LOUISIANA… POLITICAL LIFE…

3.2 TERRITORIAL GOVERNMENT—A TEMPORARY SYSTEM CITIZENS ACTIVE IN POLITICS… CONFLICT AND UNREST… A TEMPORARY SOLUTION… A TERRITORY AND ITS CONCERNS… LOUISIANA’S FIRST PUBLIC SCHOOL ESTABLISHED IN POINTE COUPÉE… POLITICAL DIFFERENCES BEGIN… COMING TOGETHER FOR STATEHOOD…

3.3 TIMELINE OF EVENTS DURING TERRITORIAL GOVERNMENT 3.4 DEVELOPMENT OF A CONSTITUTION AND STATEHOOD

STATEHOOD AND ITS CHALLENGES…

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STATEHOOD AT LAST…

4 TOGETHER AS AMERICANS 1812… COMING TOGETHER AGAINST THE BRITISH… EARLY 1800s IN THE NEW STATE OF LOUISIANA…

PART II POINTE COUPÉE’S UNIQUE PLACE, PEOPLE, AND CULTURE: ITS FOUNDATION

5 NATURAL FEATURES AND FIRST INHABITANTS: WATERWAYS, LANDSCAPE, AND NATIVE SPECIES

6 ORIGINAL PEOPLE: FIRST SETTLERS 7 GENESIS OF RECORDED HISTORY 1542–1699 8 BILOXI TO POINTE COUPÉE: A TRINITY OF CULTURES 1699–

1722

PART III CULTURAL AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN COLONIAL POINTE COUPÉE 1722–1803

9 ESTABLISHING A FOOTHOLD IN LA LOUISIANE 1722–1763 10 50 LEAGUES FROM NEW ORLEANS IN THE COUNTRY: PUNTA

CORTADA 1763–1803

PART IV POINTE COUPÉE DEVELOPED, DIVIDED AND REDEFINED 1815–1950

11 ANTEBELLUM PROSPERITY AND COMPROMISE 1815–1861 12 REBELLION AND FREEDOMS 1861–1865 13 REDEFINING SOCIETY AND ECONOMY 1866–1900 14 CIVIL RIGHTS, TECHNOLOGICAL INNOVATION, AND

ECONOMIC RECOVERY IN THE 20TH CENTURY

PART V 21ST CENTURY RENAISSANCE FOR POINTE COUPÉE: COMING TOGETHER TO PRESERVE ITS UNIQUE PLACE, PEOPLE, AND CULTURE

15 CUSTOMS, CULTURE, AND CELEBRATIONS 16 OPPORTUNITY FOR TODAY AND TOMORROW

“No History is Ever Concluded…” Julie Eshelman-Lee

“What is the Future For Pointe Coupée” Anthology of statements by current community political and civic leaders, and community members in all areas of expertise regarding future for Pointe Coupée

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Glossary Appendices Suggested Resources Bibliography Index About The Author Endnotes

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SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESOURCES

William Bartram. Travels Through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida, The Cherokee Country, The Extensive Territories of the Muscogulges, or Creek Confederacy, and The Country of the Chactaws. Originally printed in the United States of America, 1791.

Many paperback reprints. Writings of a naturalist who traveled all throughout the southeast for the American government, traveling as far as the Mississippi River and visiting Pointe Coupée. Also refer to Bartram’s map that traces his travels and shows Pointe Coupée along the Mississippi River.

Henry Marie Brackenridge. Views of Louisiana, Together With a Journal of a Voyage Up the Missouri River in 1811. Chicago, IL: Quadrangle Press, 1962.

Reprint of a nineteenth century edition. Travel journals describing Louisiana, with mention of Pointe Coupée region.

Clarence Edwin Carter. Territorial Papers of the United States, 1787–1845. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1934.

Various volumes containing a selection of papers on relevant materials on the history of the territories and on the President of the United States; the Secretaries of State, Treasury, and War; the Attorney Generals; the Postmaster Generals; the military leaders in the territories; and lesser officials such as judges, receivers, and registers of land offices. Papers may also include petitions and documents relating to land titles and other documents and letters relating to the territories. See: Volume 9 Territory of Orleans, 1803–1812; Volume 13–15 Territory of Louisiana, 1803–1821.

Brian J. Costello. The Life Family and Legacy of Julien Poydras. New Roads, LA:Author, 2001.

A thorough, documented biography of the life of Julien Poydras. Brian J. Costello. A History of Pointe Coupee Parish, Louisiana. New Roads, LA: Author, 1999.

See chapter on American period for further information about Pointe Coupée from 1803–1815.

Alcee Fortier. A History of Louisiana. Volumes I–IV. New York: 1904.

History of Louisiana books with mention of Pointe Coupée, written by nineteenth century Louisiana author; closer to the period of the Louisiana Purchase giving a more contemporary perspective.

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Sylvia Frey, editor. The Louisiana Purchase: A History in Maps, Images and Documents on CD-ROM. Distributed by Louisiana State University Press for Deep South Regional Humanities Center at Tulane University, 2003.

See the accompanying online Louisiana Purchase Timeline Curriculum http://deepsouth.tulane.edu/lptl_curriculum/home.htm.

Charles E. Gayarré. History of Louisiana: The American Domination. Vol. IV. Baton Rouge, LA: Claitor’s Publishing Division, 1974.

Reprint of 1901 original. History of Louisiana books with mention of Pointe Coupée, written by nineteenth century Louisiana author closer to the period of the Louisiana Purchase giving a more contemporary perspective; contains index in back of volumes for references for Pointe Coupée references and its people.

History Education Video. Living the Louisiana Purchase.

This teaching tool is available to all eighth-grade Louisiana History classes in the state of Louisiana. The film is produced by The Historic New Orleans Collection and the New Orleans Museum of Art.

Dolores Egger Labbé, editor. The Louisiana Purchase and Its Aftermath 1800-1830. Lafayette, LA: Center for Louisiana Studies, University of Southwestern Louisiana, 1998.

Volume III of the Louisiana Purchase Bicentennial Series in Louisiana History. Compilation of documented essays that reflect a good overview of the Louisiana Purchase and its impact; useful for the references to Julien Poydras throughout articles using the index in the back of the volume.

Alfred E. Lemmon, John T. Magill and Jason R. Wiese, editors. Charting Louisiana: Five Hundred Years of Maps. New Orleans, LA: Historic New Orleans Collection, 2003.

Very useful perspective of Louisiana history through copies of original maps which charts the history, includes a narrative.

Louisiana Public Broadcasting. Louisiana: A History, 2003.

Video series, see Part One “Episode I: This Affair of Louisiana,” and Part Two “The New Americans.” Also an accompanying book titled Louisiana: An Illustrated History, 2003. General resource for Louisiana Purchase history.

François Xavier Martin. The History of Louisiana. Gretna, LA: Firebird Press Book, 2000.

Reprint of out of print original. History of Louisiana books with mention of Pointe Coupée, written by nineteenth century Louisiana authors closer to the period of the Louisiana Purchase. Gives a more contemporary perspective.

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Cecil Morgan, compiler. The First Constitution of the State of Louisiana. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press for the Historic New Orleans Collection, 1975.

In both English and French, gives complete 1812 State Constitution of Louisiana with good description of events leading to adoption and the men involved.

West Feliciana Historical Society. 11757 Ferdinand Street, St. Francisville, LA.

Now on permanent exhibit a copy of the original 1810 West Florida Republic constitution. The Florida Parishes were excluded from the Louisiana Purchase, but the region was subsequently annexed to Louisiana. 800.789.4221.

WEB RESOURCES

http://diglib.lsu.edu/tahil/louisiana/open.htmTeach American History in Louisiana project: LOUISIANA PURCHASE. Louisiana State University and East Baton Rouge Parish schools district, in partnership with Historic New Orleans Collection, Louisiana State Archives and Tulane. Resource for digital archive of original documents pertaining to the Louisiana Purchase.

http://www.louisianahistoricalsociety.org

Louisiana Historical Society Web site with searchable database for all the Louisiana Historical Quarterlies [requires an annual membership to the society to access]. Very valuable resource for Louisiana and Pointe Coupée history. Search keywords: “Pointe Coupée,” Pointe Coupée post,” “Julien Poydras,” “Public schools.”

http://memory.loc.gov

Library of Congress, American Memory site. Search the database for the wealth of records about the Louisiana Purchase found in the Thomas Jefferson Papers and Annals of Congress. Suggested keywords: “Pointe Coupée,” “Louisiana,” “Louisiana Purchase,” “Louisiana Treaty,” “Account of Louisiana.”

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Julie Eshelman-Lee is Director of Creole West Productions and an independent historian, specializing in Louisiana and Pointe Coupée Parish history. A descendant of early founders of Louisiana and Pointe Coupée Parish, with deep cultural roots in Louisiana, Julie continues the family tradition of the importance of education. Mirroring the model of her Pointe Coupée ancestors, including those who were private instructors and dedicated to the Pointe Coupée public school system in the late 19th century, she is currently devoted to developing Web interactive local history curricula for middle school students in Louisiana and nationwide, bringing our histories and communities together as we embrace our common thread—“our place.” Julie is dedicated to implementing the model program in Pointe Coupée where historically the first public school in Louisiana was established in 1808—one of the early priorities of the Orleans Territory legislation.

For any further information, questions, or comments, or to purchase, view, and download this

publication in color on the Internet, please feel free to contact the author at director@creolewest.com.