The Impact of Parental Incarceration on

Children

Marla Hall, Gene Hayes, Ashley Carlson, Márcio Padilha

ADDS 202 – Christy

College of Southern Idaho

Fall/2009

Fact or Crap?

Fact or Crap?

Since 1991 children with incarcerated parents

has increased by more than 50 %.

Fact or Crap?

FactFact

Fact or Crap?

1.1 million incarcerated persons areparents to an estimated 1.5 million

children.

Fact or Crap?

Crap

It is estimated at 2.3 million

Fact or Crap?

Children of incarcerated parents are6 to 10 times more likely to end up in

prison than the average young people.

Fact or Crap?

Fact

Fact or Crap?

2% of children with incarceratedmothers will be put into foster care.

Fact or Crap?

Crap

10% do and 2% with fathers

Fact or Crap?

1 in 50 children in the US has a parent in prison.

Fact or Crap?

Crap

1 in 40 children do.

Fact or Crap?

Between 4 and 5 million children have a parent

under correctional supervision.

Fact or Crap?

Crap

More than 7 million do.

Fact or Crap?

Children of incarcerated parents are usually not with their parent at the time of there

arrest.

Fact or Crap?

Crap

Most children are with there parentat the time of their arrest.

Fact or Crap?

Children of incarcerated parents spendan average of 5 years 6 months separated

from there parent.

Fact or Crap?

Crap

They spend an average of 6 years 8months separated from them.

 

Fact or Crap?

An infant is not affected whena parent is incarcerated.

Fact or Crap?

Crap

The infant begins to bond with the primarycaregiver, which in turn causes many

problems when the parent returns even when incarcerated for only a short period

of time.

Magnitude

“On any given day in America, it is estimatedthat more than 1.5 million children have

a parent incarcerated in a state or federal prison. Several million more have grown up with a parent in prison during some part of

their formative years.”

(Stacey M. Bouchet, 2008)

Rising Numbers

From 1991 to 2007:

• 1.7 million children• 82% increase• w/ avg. age of 8 yrs.• 22% of children are under the

age of 5.

Racial Differences

African American Children: 9 time more likely

Hispanic Children: 3 times more likely

1:43 Am; 1:15 B; 1:42 Lat.; 1:111 W 2/3 of incarcerated parents are

non-white.

Rising Numbers

2007:

• 809,800 parents of US State & Fed Facilities

• 79% (809,800 was 50% of pop.)

• 122% increase in incarcerated mothers

• 76% increase in fathers

Offense Type

Fathers: Twice more likely to serve for a

violent crime.

Mothers: More likely to serve for drug-related

offenses and fraud.

Average Time Served

Fathers: serve on avg. 80-103 mo.

Mothers: serve 49-66 mo.

Higher numbers are federal averages; Lower are State

Visits

In many ways, prison visitingpolicies do not reflect the needs or best

interests of children.

Visits

• Visits calm child fears of parent's welfare• In 2004, over half of incarcerated (state

& federal) were never visited by their children

• More likely during first year• 8% of mothers were visited weekly• 18% monthly• 20% less than monthly

Parental Involvement

Parental involvement is important because Incarceration would carry different meaning and have different consequences for children who do or do not reside with their parents prior to incarceration.

37-46% of parent-prisoners had been physically present prior to incarceration.

65% mothers; 44% fathers.

When Parents are Incarcerated

Despite specific cases

(e.g. abusive parents) wherethe removal of a parent is beneficial,

children generally suffer when a parentis removed from the home.

When Parents are Incarcerated

When fathers go the mother takes over 90%

When mom goes Dad assumes responsibility only 28%-31% of the time.

Often grandparents

45% (fed) to 53% (State Inc.) Fewer than 10% of children (-mom) end

up in Foster Care.

Even parents involved in criminal activities can still steer children in pro-social directions

(Hirschi, 1969:94-97).

“Control and socialization theories tend to see children as situated in a struggle of

allegiances between family and peers, with the absence of a parent shifting the balance of this struggle in favor of antisocial peers”

(Hagan & Dinovitzer, 1999:126).

When Parents are Incarcerated

Down-Side of Foster Care

Law enforcement lack training concerning placement of children when arresting.

Kinship placements tend to be more stable.

10% of inc. mothers have a child in F.C. The average stay for a child w/ an inc.

mother is 3.9 years.

Down-Side of Foster Care

Children of Incarcerated mothers are:

More likely to “age out” of the foster care system

Less likely to reunify with their parents, get adopted, enter into subsidized guardianship, go into independent living or leave through some other means.

Reason Unification is Low

• The 1997 Adoption and Safe Families Act mandates termination of parental rights if a child has been in foster care for more than 15 of the last 22 months.

• Women typically serve 18 mo.

Pregnancy In 1994 6% of women arrested were

pregnant. Few prisons allow mothers to keep

infants Crucial Bonding is lost Leads to emotional and behavioral

problems A separation anytime within first year

leads to attachment disorders.

Of the Children

70% (w/ inc. mom) – emotional or psychological problems.

(75%) Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Social Isolation 50% problems in school (grades &

behavior) 1 in 5 witness & report flashbacks &

nightmares 38% are deceived on the facts

What came first?

Psychological Problems

• Separation from a parent for any reasonwill likely result in stress, sadness, and anger.

• However, while death is naturally occurring and final, incarceration is ambiguous; children may not know how to cope with the loss of a parent that is alive, but is emotionally, psychologically and physically absent.

• The trauma of a parental incarceration often triggered chronic sleeplessness, difficulties concentrating and depression.

(Miller 2006)

Psychological Problems • Other psychological affects include:

• Anxiety and hyper arousal

• Attention disorders

• Self-Image: Identification with incarcerated

parent, awareness of social stigma and low self-

esteem.

• Developmental regression

• Clearly, children are very much impacted by this

sudden and ambiguous change.

Behavioral Problems

One in five children had clinically significantinternalizing problems, and one in three hadclinically significant externalizing problems,

compared to roughly one in ten childrenin the general population

(Phillips and Gleeson 2007).

Behavioral Problems

• Internalizing Behaviors:• Depression, disordered eating and sleeping,

and emotional withdrawal.

• Externalizing Behaviors:• Aggression, developmental regression,

and acting out with impulsiveand disruptive behavior.

Behavioral Problems• Differences in older children:

• Older children are more likely to hold secure attachments with the incarcerated parent, which could mean that the child is aware of and understands the complexity of the situation.

• However, older children can display moreantisocial behavior, conduct disorders,and signs of anxiety and depression

Behavioral Problems• Differences in younger children:

• Younger children usually don’t understandthe complexity and significanceof having an incarcerated parent.

• Also, whereas older children are quit aware of the situation and begin to display internalizing and externalizing behaviors, younger children experience disorganized feelings and behaviors upon the confusion of their parent’s incarceration.

Behavioral Problems• Differences in genders:

• Males: Believed to suffer more from parental separation, as they are more likely to lose their same sex-parent, to face social expectations of “toughness”, and to display psychological vulnerability (Amato 1994).

• Although research has discovered mixed findings on the different reactions in genders, with some studies finding more severe antisocial reactions among boys and others finding worse affects among girls (Murray and Farrington 2007).

Costs

Financial problems are greatest for families

where the imprisoned family member

carried out responsible parenting roles

and for families who seek to help the

prisoner, provide care for his or her

children and

maintain parent-child relationships.

Economic consequences• When parents go to prison, most families:

• Experience financial losses• Incur additional financial expenses

• Poor Families:• Use their meager incomes to:

• Meet many, if not all, of the costs required to raise prisoners’ children.

• Subsidize prison operations by sending prisoners money to buy toiletries and food from the prison commissary

• Cover prisoners’ co-pays for health care• Pay for collect phone costs

Economic Consequences

Data from a national study of income dynamics

in the United States show that when resident

fathers go to prison, the family income

declines significantly during the

incarceration. Moreover, the family does not

resume/regain this pre-incarceration income

level in the first several years following the

father’s release

Stigma/Economic Consequences

• When their husband’s status as a convict became known, prisoners’ wives report to have been:

• denied housing• charged higher insurance rates• barred from advancement opportunities

Stigma/Economic Consequences

In some cities, individuals applying for an

apartment lease are routinely asked

whether anyone living in the household

has ever been arrested; if the answer is

“yes,”

they are told that no apartments are

available.

Stigma/Economic Consequences• Former prisoners:

• Are legally barred from many jobs and professions

• Cannot vote in many states

• Are unable to:

• Live in public housing• Take out certain types of loans• Receive food stamps if they have been convicted of

drug charges.

Community Resources

• Amachi MentoringProvides one-to-one mentors to children with parents who are incarcerated or recently released.www.amachimentoring.org

• Angel Tree/Angel Tree CampingProvides religious ministry, mentoring, and support to the children and families of prisoners. Distributes holiday gifts to children of prisoners and provides a children's camping program.www.angeltree.org

Community Resources

• Center for Children of Incarcerated ParentsProvides services in four components: informational, educational, family reunification, and therapeutic.www.e-ccip.org

• Fathers Behind Bars, Inc.Provides publications and technical assistance on self-help support groups for incarcerated fathers.fathersbehindbars2@msn.com

Community Resources

• Forever FamilyProvides gifts for children, group activities, after-school programs, mentoring and tutoring services, parent/child group activities, and supervised family visitations.www.takingaim.net

• Girl Scouts Beyond BarsProvides scouting activities for incarcerated mothers and their children. Provides family reunification support, support groups, mentoring to mothers and daughters by volunteers.www.gscm.org

Community Resources

• Long Distance DadsProvides training and technical assistance on parent education for incarcerated fathers. The Long Distance Dads curriculum is used in over 145 correctional facilities in 24 states of the USA as well as in Canada, Great Britain, and Africa. Provides extensive fatherhood resources and publications.www.fatherhood.org

Community Resources

• U.S. Dream AcademyProvides children in grades 3 through 6 daily after-school programming that includes online academic enrichment, healthy lifestyles instruction, homework assistance, values training, and mentoring. Provides video-visiting to support communication between prison and home.www.usdreamacademy.org

• Volunteers of AmericaProvides literacy and family strengthening programming for incarcerated parents and their children. Parents take a class then read and record books. The recordings are given to the children along with a book bag, personal tape player, and other supplies.www.voa.org

Community Resources

• Volunteers of AmericaProvides literacy and family strengthening programming for incarcerated parents and their children. Parents take a class then read and record books. The recordings are given to the children along with a book bag, personal tape player, and other supplies.www.voa.org

Research• Broken Bonds: Understanding and

Addressing the Needs of Children with Incarcerated Parents, La Vigne, N.G., Davies, E., and Brazzell, D. (2008).

This report by the Urban Institute reviews the current research on children with incarcerated parents, and offers recommendations on how to reduce the negative impact of parental incarceration. The authors of the report pay particular attention to the influence that supportive relationships with the incarcerated parent and other adults has on children’s outcomes.

www.urban.org/url.cfm?ID=411616

Research• Children with Parents in Prison: Child

Welfare Policy, Program, and Practice Issues, Seymour, C., and Hairston, C.F. (2000).

Explores challenges facing child welfare agencies serving children with incarcerated parents. Discusses the impact of parental incarceration on the child, considers current child welfare policy and practice, and discusses the shared interests of child welfare and advocacy groups for criminal justice and prisoner advocacy. Proposes suggestions for a comprehensive strategy for meeting needs of incarcerated parents and their children.

Research• Families Left Behind: The Hidden Costs of

Incarceration and Reentry, Travis, J., Cincotta, E.M., and Solomon, A.L. (2006).

Few studies have explored the impact of parental incarceration on young children or identified the needs that arise from such circumstances. Little attention has focused on how communities, social service agencies, health care providers, and the criminal justice system can work collaboratively to better meet the needs of the families left behind. This policy brief is intended to help focus attention on these hidden costs of our criminal justice policies.

www.urban.org/publications/310882.html

Research

•Focus on Children with Incarcerated Parents: An Overview of the Research Literature, Hairston, C.F. (2007).

This report provides an overview of major research findings on children whose parents are incarcerated as a means of further informing this developing area of research, practice, and policy. The findings and policy and program suggestions offered in this synthesis are based primarily on research published during the last 20 years.

www.aecf.org/childrenofincarcerated.aspx

Research

• Incarcerated Parents and Their Children, Mumola, C. (2000). This report is based on the 1997 Survey of Inmates in State and Federal Correctional Facilities.

The Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS) finds that incarcerated women are more likely than men to be parents and to have been the primary caregiver of their children prior to their arrest.

www.ojp.usdoj.gov/bjs/abstract/iptc.htm

Research• Parental Incarceration and Child Wellbeing

in Fragile Families In this policy brief, the authors highlight findings from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, conducted through Columbia University’s School of Social Work.

The study explores the extent to which children of incarcerated parents are at a greater risk for material hardship, family instability, and developmental challenges.

www.aecf.org/childrenofincarcerated.aspx

Research

• Services for Families of Prison Inmates A survey of state and federal departments of corrections. National

Institute of Corrections, February 2002.www.nicic.org/pubs/2002/017272.pdf

Research

• Serving Incarcerated and Ex-Offender Fathers and Their Families: A Review of the Field, Jeffries, J.M., Menghraj, S., and Hairston, C.F. (2001).

A review of materials developed and disseminated by programs serving prisoners or low-income fathers and their families.www.vera.org/publications/publications_5.asp?publication_id=20

Research

• Understanding the Experiences and Needs of Children of Incarcerated Parents: Views from Mentors

To better understand the experiences and needs of children with incarcerated parents, Urban Institute researchers collaborated with mentors from Big Brothers, Big Sisters to gather qualitative data through the use of focus groups with the mentors of children whose parents are incarcerated.

www.urban.org/url.cfm?ID=411615

General Resources

• What We Know Now that We Didn’t Know Then, Phillips, S.D., and Gleeson, J.P. About the Criminal Justice System’s Involvement in Families with Whom Child Welfare Agencies Have Contact.

Center for Social Policy and Research, Jane Addams College of Social Work, University of Illinois at Chicago, July 2007.

www.uic.edu/jaddams/college/research/What%20we%20know%20now.pdf

General Resources

• All Alone in the World: Children of the Incarcerated, Bernstein, N. (2005).

Award-winning journalist Nell Bernstein takes an intimate look at parents and children affected by U.S. incarceration policy. Described as “meticulously reported and sensitively written” by Salon, the book is “brimming with compelling case studies . . . and recommendations for change.”

General Resources• Children and Families with Incarcerated

Parents: Exploring Development in the Field and Opportunities for Growth, Bouchet, S. (2008).

This report summarizes the Annie E. Casey Foundation’s findings from consultative sessions with leading researchers, practitioners, advocates, policymakers, and funders on the current state of the field and the opportunities for growth and describes some of the Foundation’s recent investments on this issue and synthesizes what it has learned into potential opportunities for the field at large.

www.aecf.org/childrenofincarcerated.aspx

General Resources

• CW360º Spring 2008 issue.

Provides a comprehensive look at a prevalent child welfare issue—the children of incarcerated parents. This journal is published by the University of Minnesota, Center for Advanced Studies in Child Welfare.

http://cehd.umn.edu/SSW/cascw/research/cw360.asp

General Resources

• Family and Corrections Network

Provides information, technical assistance, and training on families of offenders, children of prisoners, parenting programs for prisoners, prison visiting, and the impact of the justice system on families. FCN’s website has over 100 articles, an e-mail list, a directory of programs, and links to offender family websites.

www.fcnetwork.org

General Resources

• Grantmakers for Children, Youth and Families Beyond the Bars: A new GCYF Learning Initiative on Children with Incarcerated Parents.

www.gcyf.org

General Resources

• When a Parent Is In Prison, by Howard Zehr and Lorraine Stutzman Amstutz; photos by Howard Zehr, design by Judith Rempel Smucker.

Exhibit can be borrowed from Mennonite Central Committee, U.S. Office on Justice and Peacebuilding and the Center for Justice and Peacebuilding at Eastern Mennonite University.

www.tngsecure.com/scripts/mcc/catalog/product_detail.php?pid=1002

Works Cited• Stacey M. Bouchet, P. (2008). Exploring Development in the Field

and Opportunities for Growth. Baltimore: Annie E. Casey Foundation.

•  Ziebert, R. (2006). No easy answers: The effects of parental

incarceration on children. Milwaukee: Alliance for Children and

Families.

• Children of incarcerated parents fact sheet. The Annie E. Casey

Foundation.

• Schirmer, S., Nellis, A., Mauer, M. (2009). Incarcerated parents and

their children: Trends 1991-2007. The Sentencing Project.

• Parke, R., Clarke-Stewart, K. A. (2002). Effects of parental

incarceration on young children.

Group Distribution

• Gene Hayes – “Crap or Fact?”

• Marla Hall – Statistics

• Ashley Carlson – Psychological &

Behavioral Problems

• Márcio – Stigma, Economic Consequences,

PowerPoint and Handouts.