The Hidden Life of Renaissance Art

CLAREGIBSON

THE HIDDEN LIFE OF

RENAISSANCE ARTSecrets and Symbols in Great Masterpieces

124 Allusion and Allegory

Primavera Sandro Botticelli

c.1478, tempera on panel, Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence, Italy

One of the most famous works of Renaissance art, Primavera (the Italian word for “spring”) is also one ofthe most puzzled over, for many have sought a deeper level of meaning than an initial identification of

this image as a Classically inspired allegory of the season of spring would suggest. In fact, there may be at leasttwo, both of which hinge on the central figure of Venus—the Roman goddess of love and beauty whose Greekcounterpart was Aphrodite—who raises her hand as though welcoming the viewer into her realm.

The first possible additional explanation is that Primavera is an allegory of young love and sexual awakening, forspring is the time of year when the natural world starts to spring to life, the birds and bees pair off, and single

young men and women’s thoughts traditionally turn to courtship and marriage. Indeed, it is believed thatthis painting was commissioned to be hung at the Medici villa at Castello, outside

Florence, to commemorate the marriage, in 1482, of Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de’Medici (1463–1503) to Semiramide Appiani, daughter of the ruler of Piombino.

The second is that although Primavera depicts a pagan scene peopled with Greco–Romandeities, it is, in fact, a Neoplatonist celebration of such ideal Christian virtues as spiritual love, liber-

ality, and charity, qualities to which humans should aspire in the hope of being rewarded, throughGod’s grace, with a life that resembles heaven on earth. That said, if this was the intended message,it was more likely to have been aimed not at the future bridegroom, but at the bride-to-be, who isalmost certainly represented by the middle Grace, whose head has been turned by the handsome

Mercury (Hermes), the messenger of the Greco-Roman gods and guide and protectorof those undertaking the potentially perilous journey between this world and the

next. Equally, however, the hidden meaning may again simply allude to the maritaljoys into which the innocent young bride is about to be initiated.

See also Sacred and Profane Love (pages 102–04), The Medici Family (pages 159–60).

As the son of Maia,Mercury is associatedwith the springtimemonth of May. Here he

uses his caduceus to dispersethe clouds that must neverbe allowed to cast a shadowover this enchanted garden,or to obscure divine love’sglorious beauty. Botticellihas used artistic license in depicting the snakes

(symbols of healing andharmony) that usually

entwine themselves aroundthe caduceus as dragons. Asthe staff carried by heralds,the caduceus denotes peace,as well as a link between thelower and higher realms, orearth and heaven.

His helmet and sword signify Mercury’s readinessto protect the gentleoccupants of this heavenlyhaven from interlopersintent on causing harm.They also imply masculinematurity and strength.Mercury’s winged bootssymbolize his fleetness offoot, as well as his ability to fly from one plane ofexistence to another.

That the trees in this orangegrove bear delicate blossomsat the same time as juicyfruits demonstrates themagical power of love. Being both white andfragrant, orange blossomsrepresent chastity andbeauty, while the orangesthat, once fertilized, theyproduce symbolize fecundityand plenty (i.e., a largefamily of children), which iswhy brides traditionally woreorange blossom in their hair.

Allusion and Allegory 125

Oranges may beequated with thegolden apples of

Classical mythology, notablythose that grew in the gardenof the Hesperides, andconsequently often denoteparadise. Their presence inthis painting may also referto the Medici bridegroom,partly through a verbal punon his family name, theorange sometimes beingcalled malus medicus (Latinfor “medicinal apple”) inRenaissance times, and partlythrough a visual allusion tothe red balls adorning agolden shield that comprisedthe Medici coat of arms.

In Greco–Roman mythology,the three Graces (Gratiae, asthey were known in ancientRome, or Charites, as theGreeks called them) were the lovely attendants ofVenus/Aphrodite.

In both Classical andRenaissance times, they weretypically portrayed dancing,holding each other’s hands as they described a delicatecircle. Along with gracefulnessand loveliness, they represent the giving, receiving, andreturning of a grace, be it a gift, a benefit, or God’sgrace, and consequentlyliberality. According to artistic convention, one Grace is depicted with her back to the viewer;symbolically, this denotesthat giving awaysomething beneficial willcause it to be returnedtwice over (as signified by thetwo Graces facing the viewer).The Greeks named theindividual Graces Aglaia,Euphrosyne, andThalia, but they weregiven alternativeappellations inRenaissance Italy,

such as Chastity (Castitas),Beauty (Pulchritudo), andLove (Amor) or Sensuality(Voluptas).Here, Love (or Sensuality)and Beauty

may be pictured gentlyencouraging Chastity’sgrowing desire for Mercury.

Lustrous pearls areattributes of the sea-bornVenus (and by extension,

the Graces).


Venus’s cherubic son, Cupid(also known as Amor, orEros), the personification of love, wears a blindfold, for love is blind. Tauteninghis bowstring, he aims hisflaming arrow at the central Grace; when itstrikes its target, she will beinflamed with burning desirefor Mercury.

In depicting her wearing agamurra, the fashionabledress of the day, Botticellihas made Venus appearpregnant, the ideal bodyimage for even unmarriedwomen to aspire to, for ithinted at their ability to bear many children. BothVenus and Mercury’s reddrapery signify sexualmaturity.

The halolike semicircle ofblue sky that frames Venus’shead creates a subtle linkwith those female Christianfigures that are equated withdivine love, especially theVirgin Mary. The shape ofthe leaves silhouetted againstthe sky identifies them asmyrtle, an evergreen plantthat was sacred to Venus andthat graced the heads ofRoman brides and grooms,for it represented desire,fertility, and eternity, andthus everlasting marital love.

Roses were consideredsacred to Venus andrepresented love, beauty,and flowering femininity.

Spring’s influence has notyet touched the trees thatbow before the irresistibleforce of Zephyr’s passion, forthe creative union of Zephyrand Chloris has not yet takenplace. These trees have beenidentified as laurels, and maybe a pun on the Latinversion of Lorenzo’s name—Laurentius —for their ownLatin name is Laurus.

Botticelli portrays theerstwhile Chloris as havingblossomed into Flora,making the connectionexplicit through the flowersthat spill from the nymph’smouth to decorate the dressof her new incarnation,whose exquisite garbresembles that of aFlorentine bride. Garlandedwith blooms, the goddess offlowers and spring gathersup her gown to form anapron with which to hold the roses that she scatters at Venus’s feet.

His wings and blue-huedskin help to identify theairborne figure flyingthrough the trees as Zephyr(whose alternative nameswere Zephyrus, Zephyros,and Favonius), the westwind that brings warm,fragrant, dew-laden breezesto Mediterranean regions inspring. Zephyr is depictedclutching Chloris, a Greekmeadow nymph whom hepursued and ravished inApril and then married inMay, whereupon Chloris wastransformed into Flora, ametamorphosis described inthe Roman poet Ovid’s Fasti.


Minerva Chasing the Vices from theGarden of Virtue

Andrea Mantegna

1499–1502, oil on canvas, Musée du Louvre,Paris, France

Although some of the characters in this action-packed scene are recognizably figures drawn

from Greco–Roman mythology, their juxtaposition on the canvas does not correspond to any specific Classicalstory. That each of these figures represents an archetypal figure or quality, and that the remainder appear to begrotesque figments of the artist’s imagination, point to this painting being an allegorical image.

Decoding the symbolic messages hidden within this canvas, translating the text that can be discerned at variouspoints, and then attempting to form a clear picture of the painting’s message from all of these clues must havebeen a delightfully absorbing task for Isabella d’Este (1474–1539), who commissioned this work from Mantegnafor her studiolo, or study, in the ducal palace in Mantua. The daughter of Ercole d’Este, the duke of Ferrara, and,from 1490, the wife of Francesco II, the Gonzaga duke of Mantua, Isabella was a remarkable woman, and notjust on account of her high social status, although this admittedly equipped her with the education, spendingpower, and interest in the arts that made her one of the leading patrons—male or female—of her age. In creat-ing this thought-provoking allegory for her perusal, Mantegna (a favored painter at the Gonzaga court), guided

by the court poet Paride da Ceresara, paid tribute to Isabella’s learning, strong-mindedness, and moral rectitude by comparing her to the Greco–Roman god-dess Athena/Minerva in her martial aspect of Pallas. Not only was Mantegna

explicitly likening the influential lady with the Classical epitome of wisdom and thedefender of just causes, but he was clearly suggesting that this pure, noble, and vigorous

personage would wage active war on such interloping vices as Avarice, Ignorance, andIdleness, be it within her own mind or at her court, for the enclosed garden may represent any

area over which Isabella ruled supreme, be it metaphorically or literally.

See also The Neoplatonist Philosophy (pages 96–98), The Este Family (page 159).

The hybridtree–woman is

reminiscent ofDaphne, who, inGreek myth, was

the daughter of the River Ladon.Daphne had swornto remain chaste,but caught Apollo’slustful eye. Losingground as she fledfrom the sun god,she cried out to

her father to save her fromviolation, whereupon she wastransformed into a laurel tree.Here representing VirtusDeserta (Latin for “DesertedVirtue”), the arms of thisarboreal personification ofChastity are portrayed as olive,rather than laurel, branches,for the olive was sacred toAthena/Minerva andsymbolized such positivequalities as prosperity,knowledge, and peace.

A legend is spelled out inthree different languagesand scripts: in Latin (top),Greek (middle), and Hebrew(bottom). Many influentialBiblical and Classical secular

and philosophical texts werewritten in these ancienttongues, which is why theywere valued by humanistscholars, and therefore also by Isabella.


Translated into English, themessage scrolling around thetree–woman reads: “Come,divine companions of thevirtues, who are returning tous from the heavens, and drivethese repulsive, monstrousvices from our home.”

Athena/Minerva charges»into action wearing hercharacteristic accoutermentsof war: a helmet from whicha flamboyant panache flares;a breastplate decorated withthe gorgoneion (the snake-haired head of the GorgonMedusa); a shield (the aegis);and a spear.

Athena/Minerva’s spearheadlies on the ground, evidenceof the force with which shehas launched her attack onthe vices. Scholars believethat this detail is also areference to the brokenlance presented to Isabellaby her husband after theBattle of Fornovo, suggestingthat she had been hisinspiration on the battlefield.

The Latin inscription that canbe discerned behind thearmless figure is OTIA SI TOLLAS

PERIERE CUPIDINUS ARCUS,which is taken from theRoman poet Ovid’s workRemedy for Love, and means:“If you destroy idleness,Cupid’s bows will perish.”


The airborne members of a swarm ofamoretti (literally, “little loves” in Italian) look atAthena/Minerva withconsternation. These cupids—love personified—typicallyattend Aphrodite/Venus, theGreco–Roman goddess ofcarnal, or profane, love. Theirbutterfly wings may be areference to Psyche, Cupid’swife, whose name means“butterfly” in Greek.

The offspring that thedismayed fleeing femalefigure clutches have inheritedtheir mother’s cloven hoovesand furry legs, although theirears are not yet as pointed ashers. Their physical featuressuggest that the familymembers are related to thesatyrs, and that they thereforehave a rampant animal naturefrom the waist downward.

The Latin wordOTIUM, whichcan be seen

parallel with thearmless figure’snavel, identifies it as being the viceof Idleness, and,indeed, no handsequals no work.Idleness is beingled by a vice

whose name windsaround her forearm, whichneeds no translating: INERTIA.

A second group of amorettihave owlish faces. The owl,signifying wisdom, is anattribute of Athena/Minerva,so it is unclear whether theyare on the side of thisgoddess or that of theirtraditional mistress,Aphrodite/Venus.

The one-breasted, simian character representsvanity, stupidity, and the“monkey” that lust makes ofhumankind. The Latin wordsfor “malice,” “fraud,” and“undying hatred” are inscribedon some of the pouches andribbons that hang off thiscreature’s body, suggestingthat it spreads these vices—and others—wherever it goes.

White roses signify chastity.

Her bow and quiver full ofarrows (which respectivelysymbolize the crescent moonand the shafts of light that itradiates) identify the womanin blue as Artemis/Diana,the virgin Greco–Romangoddess of the moon andhunting who was famouslyprotective of her chastity.The green-robed womansprinting alongside her,sheathed sword in hand, maybe the personification of thevirtuous Chastity, whosemortal enemy is Lust.

Lemons and orangesrepresent fruitfulness andplenty, demonstrating thatsweet rewards are the resultof taming nature andcultivating an orderlygarden—in other words, ofkeeping tight control of one’sbaser instincts and desires.

Her beauty and brazen nudityidentify the woman beingcarried away on the centaur’sback as the goddessAphrodite/Venus, who adoresand encourages indolence andthe pleasures of the flesh.

Idyllic landscapes populatedby naked people denote theinnocence of the mythicalGolden Age, a time ofharmony and plenty, beforehumankind was corrupted.


Their myrtle wreaths, whichwere worn by bridal couplesin ancient Roman times, hintat newlyweds, a suggestionthat is underlined by theburning hymeneal torches(signifying the flames ofconjugal passion) held by theamoretto next to this cowed-looking pair. Had the vicesstarted to corrupt them?

Like the centaur (ahuman–horse hybrid)alongside him, the satyr (ahuman–goat fusion)symbolizes the merging of thehuman power of rationalthought with violent animalinstincts, which all too oftenprevail. Both mythicalcreatures therefore symbolizebrute sexuality, unbridledlibidinousness, andlicentiousness. The boar or pigbehind the satyr similarlyrepresents the vice of Lust.

When translatedfrom the Latin, the

message fluttering from thewall on the side of the gardenthat has been taken over bythe vices reads: “And you, Odivine ones, help me, motherof the Virtues.” Isabella wouldhave understood that this cryfor help came from Prudence,the fourth, and original,cardinal virtue, who has been imprisoned by this brick structure.

Their headbands give theirnames: INGRATITUDO,IGNIORANCIA, and AVARICIA,in other words, the vices ofIngratitude, Ignorance, andAvarice (or Greed, a deadlysin). Ignorance isrepresented as being tooobese to walk, her unseeingeyes associating her withPloutos, the blind Greekbestower of wealth, whileher crown both links herwith a character with asimilar name, Pluto, theGreco–Roman ruler of theunderworld, and signals“Ignorance rules.”

Having been pushed out of their garden by the vices,

three of the cardinal, ornatural, virtues observe

the unfolding mêléefrom the vantage point

of a cloud, on whichthey will descend once it

is safe to do so. Originallynamed (in his workThe Republic) by theGreek philosopher

Plato (c.427–348 BC) as thequalities that ideal citizensshould possess, Prudence,Justice, Fortitude, andTemperance were laterconfirmed as cardinalvirtues by the Churchfathers, who explainedthat they could beacquired by adhering to the Gospels.

Mantegna has depictedhis trio of virtues bearingtheir traditional attributes.Justice holds her sword ofauthority and the scales thatsignify her impartiality.Fortitude demonstrates herstrength by shouldering apillar similar to that which the

Old Testament strongmanSamson pulled down, buryingthe Philistines in rubble, aswell as a club that links herwith the Greco–Roman heroHerakles/Hercules, who, likeher, wore a lion’s pelt drapedaround his shoulders. Hertwo pitchers—one containingwater, and the other, wine—enable us to recognizeTemperance, who representsmoderation in all things,including alcoholic

intake.

The AmbassadorsHans Holbein the Younger

1533, oil on panel, National Gallery, London, England

Its title, its subjects, its contents, and the artist who createdthis picture together speak volumes about the royal courts

of sixteenth-century Europe, when learning was prized, whendynastically obsessed monarchs despatched ambassadors toone another to serve as spies, and when the Reformation ini-tiated by Martin Luther (1483–1546) was starting to trans-form the religious and political face of Europe.

Having arrived in England the previous year, the German-born Holbein had a name to make for himself in 1533, and,indeed, would end his days in the employ of King HenryVIII (1491–1547). In the meantime, he worked hard to cre-ate, and fulfill, the increasing demand for his extraordinarilylifelike portraits, of which one of the most complex was thisdouble depiction of two Frenchmen: Jean de Dinteville(c.1503–55), a diplomat sent to Henry’s court by the Frenchking, Francis I (1494–1547), and his friend, Georges deSelve (c.1508–41), the Roman Catholic bishop of Lavaurand occasional ambassador to the Holy Roman emperor,Vatican, and Venice. In portraying these sleek, well-dressedmen amid rich furnishings and a wealth of scientific andmusical instruments and books, Holbein painted a flatteringpicture of a pair of prosperous, educated men in theirprime, who possessed exquisite taste, enquiring minds, andimportant positions in society.

There are at least two further, deeper levels of meaning,however. One may allude to the tense situation in Europe, forthis was the momentous year in which King Henry divorcedhis Catholic wife, Catherine of Aragon, and married theProtestant Anne Boleyn (their daughter, Elizabeth, would beborn later that year). In a related move, it was also in 1533 thatHenry renounced the supremacy of the pope and proclaimedhimself head of the Church of England. The other is evenmore profound, for certain clues communicate the uncompro-mising message that no matter how privileged we are, deathcomes to us all, and that if we wish to enjoy an eternal after-life in heaven, rather than allowing ourselves to be diverted byultimately transient earthly distractions, we should remainmindful of the central, and simple, Christian message.

See also The Reformation (page 17), Power and Prestige (page 157).

200 The Renaissance World

202 The Renaissance World

The crucifix hangingon the wall (onlypartially visible, attop left) seemsalmost incidental tothis display of luxuryand learning. Itsignifies salvation,

and thus the hope that deathis not the end, as long as onebelieves in Christ.

A figure—29—can bediscerned amid the decorativedetail ornamenting deDinteville’s sheathed dagger.This is his age. It may besheathed, denoting peace, but the presence of thedagger suggests that deDinteville is a man of actionwho is ready, willing, and ableto mount an armed defenseor offense if threatened.

De Dinteville is dressed richly and warmly (surviving letters record that he detested the chilly Englishclimate). He appears to bewearing the medallion ofL’Ordre de Saint-Michel(the Order of Saint Michael), France’s first order of chivalry, denoting his membership of a selectband of French nobles whoenjoyed their king’s trust.

A map of the heavens, or ofthe planets and constellations,is represented on the celestialglobe on the top shelf. As well as signifying heavenlyconcerns, the globe maysymbolize astronomy, one ofthe seven liberal arts. Scholarshave ascertained that the

latitude is set to that ofRome, rather than London,suggesting that this is where

the men’s spiritual loyalties lie.

Like many of the otherobjectsjostling forposition

next to it,the sundial is an instrumentof measurement. Because italso reflects the passing oftime, the sundial can, likethe hourglass or clock, implyageing and death.

As befits his status as a“man of God,” de Selve isdressed more soberly thanhis secular friend, albeit noless expensively. His elbowrests on a book—a symbol of learning—on whosecompacted leaves his age—

25—has been inscribed.

Too good to be trampled on,this costly rug would havebeen imported from the

East. It signifiesboth spending powerand contact with far-flung places.

“As above, so below,” and ifthe top shelf refers toheaven, the bottom shelfrepresents the Earth, as isemphasized by the terrestrialglobe. It is possible to zoomin on the map shown here,into Europe, then intoFrance, and finally, to focuson Polisy, where deDintville’s château, or castle,was located, and which wasthus the center of his world.Next to the globe is a pair ofdividers that may denote theliberal art of geometry, ormay literally signify division.

The open book in front of thelute is a Lutheran (Protestant)hymnal, and it may not be acoincidence that “lute” (Lautein German) sounds rather likethe German pronunciation ofLuther (“lut-ter”). Although its inclusion was likely todisplease devout Catholics like de Selve (who yearned to heal Europe’s ever-widening religious schism),the texts that can be madeout—the hymn Veni SancteSpiritus (Latin for “ComeHoly Spirit”) and the TenCommandments—arenondenominational, and therefore hint at the universality of certain fundamental Christian beliefs.

The bookmark indicates that de Dintville is in theprocess of reading this book,and that he has got as far asthe section headed “Dividirt,”German for “Divide.”Published in 1527 by theGerman mathematician PeterApian, the book’s title, whentranslated from German intoEnglish, is A New andReliable Instruction in AllCommercial Calculations.

Holbein may have made useof the symbolism relating toshapes in his portrayal of theflooring materials, for one ofde Dintville’s feet rests on asquare (which is equated withthe Earth), while the other has been planted on a circle(which represents theheavens). Was Holbein subtlyreferring to life and death? Or was he suggesting that theFrench ambassador had a footin both camps, i.e., the Frenchand English courts?

The lute symbolizes theliberal art of music, as well as harmony. Look closely,however, and you’ll see that a string has broken, a detailthat hints at discord, the causeof which may be suggested by the book in front of it.Similarly, the set of flutes tothe right is incomplete.

Once you realize that thestrange, distorted image in the foreground is actuallyan anamorphosis, or adramatically foreshortenedskull, an unmistakablesymbol of death, it is evidentthat Holbein has included amemento mori, or a reminderthat we must all die, in hisworldly portrait. The skull

can be made outonly when viewedfrom the bottomright, or withthe help of an opticalinstrument,but the artisthas accorded it a very prominentposition. Making

such a vital feature of this portrayal

an anamorphosisfurthermoreraises all sorts of questionsrelating toenduring truths

and ephemeralmatters, and to

how we perceive,

or misperceive, them. The Ambassadors thereforecontains a veiled warningthat during our limited time on earth, we shouldrecognize what is trulyimportant, consequentlycomport ourselves accordingto Christian principles, andin this manner, live each dayas though it were our last.

The Hidden Life of Renaissance Art

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