the harvard ichthusMy beggar’s hands reach out to you Like napkins stained by foul refuse. My...

fall 2012 volume 8, number 3

6

12

19

25

3

17

34

38

40

poetry

Why Obey?Aaron Gyde

When Things Stop Making SenseStephen Mackereth

Christianity and the GazeKelly Maeshiro

Why Is There Winter In Narnia?Nick Nowalk

Why Jesus?Mako Nagasawa

Why Pray?Margaret Eichner

Why Wait? An Analysis of Christian Ethical Perspective on Premarital SexTeng-Kuan Ng

Why Friendship?Wesley Hill

Why Ask Why?Kelly Maeshiro

Benjamin Lopez (Inside Cover)

features

opinions

last things

the harvard ichthus

A Prayer with Cold HandsI lift my eyes to you enthronedIn your great hall of golden stoneI look upon you with the eyesOf a man searching for a home.My beggar’s hands reach out to youLike napkins stained by foul refuse.My prayers are crumpled sheets and IMust burn them all or choose to die.

To you I lift up my eyesO you who are enthroned in the heavens!Behold, as the eyes of servantsLook to the hand of their masterAs the eyes of a maidservantTo the hand of her mistressSo our eyes look to the lord our God,Till he has mercy upon us. Have mercy upon us, O Lord, have mercy upon usFor we have had more than enough of contemptOur soul has had more than enough of the

scorn of those who are at easeof the contempt of the proud

Psalm 123: Our Eyes Look to the Lord Our God

Look at me, my Lord, look at me!For I fear that I am old andSoon all that will be left of me

Will be my cold handsStill waiting for mercy.

fall 2012 3the harvard ichthus2

the harvard ichthus

a student journal of christianthought at harvard college

staff: Susie Yi ‘13; Margaret Eichner ‘14; Conner

Dalton ‘15; Dabin Hwang ‘15; Karl Krehbiel ‘15;

Stephen Albro ‘16; David Paiva ‘16

the harvard ichthus is made possible in part by contributions from the Cecil B. Day Foundation,the Undergraduate Council, the Memorial Church, and

generous alumni

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Veritas Christo et Ecclesiae

editor-in-chief:

design editor:

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features editor:

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editors:

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faculty advisors:

Roshni Patel ‘13

Jade Luo ‘13

Leeann Saw ‘13

Aaron Gyde ‘14

Jihye Choi ‘14

Andrew Garbarino ‘13

Kelly Maeshiro ‘14

Richard Lopez ‘15

Nathan Otey ‘15

Stephen Mackereth ‘15

Eva Seo-Kim ‘14

Minjeong Kim ‘15

Benjamin Lopez ‘15

Christopher Hopper ‘13

Allie Wunderlich ‘13

Galt MacDermot ‘14

Bryan Padilla ‘15

David Fulton ‘16

Jacob Pritt

Prof. Jonathan Walton

Prof. Mark Ramseyer

Prof Wesley Jacobsen

��Keep AskingHe that looks on a plant, or the parts of the bodies of animals, or any other works of nature, at a great distance where he has but an obscure sight of it, may see something in it wonderful and beyond his comprehension, but he that is nearer to it and views them narrowly indeed understands more about them, has a clearer and distinct sight of them, and yet the number of things that are wonderful and mysterious in them that appear to him are much more than before, and, if he views them with a microscope, the number of the wonders that he sees will be much increased still, but yet the microscope gives him more of a true knowledge concerning them. (Jonathan Edwards)

So it is with the divine. And yet, the beauty in mystery has been tarnished. Perhaps by

acknowledging mystery, we risk acknowledging a meaning in life that surpasses our immediate observations. We are scared to pursue that which we cannot fully understand. We live in a world where nothing seems worth living for and nothing seems worth dying for – a world where truth is relative, where meaning and purpose are but hollow terms mocking our naïve hope K?8K�JFD<K?@E>�@E�K?@J�NFIC;�D8KK<IJ�2<�YE;�FLIJ<CM<J�KI8GG<;�@E�;8PKF;8P�existences, so incredibly disconnected from any wider understanding of life. In the absence of a story that connects us to what is going on around us, we YE;�K?8K�8EP�JFIK�F= �P<8IE@E>�=FI�GLIGFJ<�@J�HL@:BCP�I<GC8:<;�9P�8�=I<EQ@<;�8E;�arbitrary pursuit of desires. The Christian faith leads us elsewhere.

In this edition of The Ichthus we invite you to pursue the mystery that <EM<CFG<J��?I@JK@8E@KP�2<�GFJ<�8�J<I@<J�F= �HL<JK@FEJ��N?P�N<I<�N<�:I<8K<;��2?P�;F�N<�<O@JK��E;�N?P�@J�FLI�<O@JK<E:<�JK8@E<;�9P�G8@E�8E;�JL==<I@E>�@= �"F;�@J�@E;<<;�>FF;��2?P�?8M<�?FG<�FI�AFP�8K�8CC��E;�F= �K?<��?I@JK@8E��N<�DLJK�8JB��N?P�?8M<�=8@K?��2?P�%<JLJ��2?P�F9<P��8E;�N?P�GI8P��0E;FL9K<;CP��we will fail to provide wholly satisfactory answersH that is not our intent. -8K?<I��N<�?FG<�KF�GIFMFB<�PFL�KF�9<>@E�KF�8JB�HL<JK@FEJ�2<�?FG<�KF�:FDG<C�PFL�KF�:FEJ@;<I�K?<�K8EK8C@Q@E>�DPJK<IP�K?8K�@J�@E?<I<EK�@E�D8EXJ�M<IP�9<@E>

But make no mistakeH the existence of mystery in the Christian faith does EFK�;@D@E@J?�K?<�I<8C@KP�F= �@KJ�KILK?�(PJK<IP�@J�EFK�<HL@M8C<EK�KF�Y:K@FE�-8K?<I��the mystery and unfathomable sense of awe generated by the Christian faith 9<KK<I�I<M<8C�K?<�JGC<E;FI�F= �K?<�KILK?�K?8K�%<JLJ��?I@JK��"F;XJ�JFE��GIFM@;<J�LJ�with a story that transcends this world, transcends history, and gives meaning to our lives and hope for the future. The history of Christ is the enigmatic story whose meaning transcends that which can be bound up in raw prose and whose truth has marvelous implications for a human experience that runs ;<<G<I�K?8E�K?<�JGFB<E�NFI;�$K�@J�@E�K?@J�JKFIP�K?8K�N<�I<8C@Q<�?FN�9<8LK@=LCCP�%<JLJX�C@=<�8E;�;<8K?�D8B<�J<EJ<�F= �FLI�FNE

No eye has seen and no ear has heard and no heart has entered this mystery, except by which God has revealed it unto man and allowed faith to become known. The word of God reveals mysteries more glorious and NFE;<I=LC�K?8E�NFLC;�FK?<IN@J<�9<�I<8C@Q<;�

Might I remind you, that increased knowledge rarely leads to decreased DPJK<IP��I8K?<I�K?<�:FEKI8IP�$E;<<;��PFL�D8P�9<�C<=K�N@K?�DFI<�HL<JK@FEJ�K?8E�8EJN<IJ�$= �PFL�8I<�J<8I:?@E>�=FI�KILK?��9LK�8I<EXK�JLI<�@K�:8E�9<�=FLE;��$�GI8P�F= �PFL��B<<G�J<8I:?@E>��E;��@= �PFL�8I<�8JB@E>�N?P��8E;�8I<�JK@CC�LEJ8K@JY<;��$�pray of you, keep asking.

(8P�PFL�J<<B�K?<�BEFNC<;><�F= �"F;XJ�DPJK<IP��N?@:?�@J��?I@JK��@E�N?FD�8I<�?@;;<E�8CC�K?<�KI<8JLI<J�F= �N@J;FD�8E;�BEFNC<;><��FC��

Roshni Patel, Editor-in-Chief

FIF;F�� :FEY;<EK� K?8K� K?<� *E<�Ring had no power over him,

was determined to destroy it. Frodo drew the Ring out of his pocket again and looked

at it. It now appeared plain and smooth, without mark or device that he could see. The gold looked very fair and pure, and Frodo thought how rich and beautiful was its color, how

perfect was its roundness. It was an admirable thing and

altogether precious. When he took it out

he had intended to Z@E>� @K� =IFD� ?@D�into the very hottest part of K?<� YI<� �LK�now he found that he could not do so, not

without a great struggle. He

weighed the Ring in his hand, hesitating, and forcing himself to remember all that Gandalf had told himH and then with an effort of will he made a movement, as if to cast it away – but he found he had put it back in his pocket.

"8E;8C= � C8L>?<;� >I@DCP� U3FL� J<<�� CI<8;P� PFL� KFF��!IF;F��:8EEFK� C<K� @K� >F��EFI�N@CC� KF�;8D8><� @KX� �'FI;�F= � K?<�Rings, Book 1, p 59)

J.R.R. Tolkien has undoubtedly captivated the heart F= �D8EP�@E�?@J�(@;;C<� 8IK?�J8>8��/?<�'FI;�F= �K?<�-@E>J�/FCB@<EXJ� 89@C@KP� KF� I<JFE8K<� N@K?� ?@J� 8L;@<E:<� C@<J� @E� ?@J�K8C<XJ�8GG<8C�KF�?LD8E�E8KLI<�@KJ<C=�*E<�F= �/FCB@<EXJ�DFJK�powerful developments lies in his presentation of evil. Evil is the deprivation and the perversion of all that is goodH yet, he manifests the horror of evil most vividly through a DFJK�9<8LK@=LC�8IK@=8:K��K?<�*E<�-@E>�"FCCLD��?8M@E>�9<<E�corrupted by possessing the Ring, hates good things like sunlight and moonlight, and good food like elvish lembas bread and hobbit fare. Similarly, both the Ringwraiths and .8LIFE�?8M<�CFE>�J@E:<�CFJK�K?<@I�FE:<>FF;�G?PJ@:8C�9F;@<J�and become ghostly in their pursuit of the ring. Bilbo, 8=K<I� GFJJ<JJ@E>� K?<� -@E>� =FI� 8� K@D<�� =<<CJ� WJKI<K:?<;� K?@EX�like butter over too much bread. And when the Ringwraith

WHY JESUS?Mako Nagasawa


provides a solution in the person of his own son, Jesus �?I@JK� %<JLJX� C@=<� @J�8� I<K<CC@E>�F= �&@E>��8M@;XJ� JKFIP��N?@:?�N8J�K?<�=8@C<;�8KK<DGK�8K�I<K<CC@E>�$JI8<CXJ�JKFIP��N?@:?�N8J�K?<�=8@C<;� 8KK<DGK� 8K� I<K<CC@E>��;8DXJ� JKFIP� �(K� �� 'B� �� LK�%<JLJ� @J�JL::<JJ=LC� @E�9FK?�I<J@JK@E>�K<DGK8K@FE�8E;�living in right relation with God. By doing so, Jesus bends human nature back into the love of the Father, realigning it N@K?� K?<�N@CC� F= �"F;� �"F;� U:FE;<DE<;� J@E� @E� K?<� Z<J?V�F= ��?I@JK� �-FD�� K?IFL>?FLK� K?<� C@=<�F= � %<JLJ�S� K?IFL>?�%<JLJX� G<IJFE8C� ;<:@J@FEJ�� DFD<EK� 9P� DFD<EK�� EFK� KF� J@E��C@D8:K@:8CCP��8K�?@J�;<8K?��K?<�Z<J?��K?<�WFC;�J<C=��K?<�9F;P�F= �J@EX��-FD��@J�:IL:@Y<;��

0EC@B<�!IF;F��N?F� KI8>@:8CCP�>@M<J� @EKF� K?<� K<DGK8K@FE�of the Ring at the very end, Jesus is steadfast. Jesus bore the corrupted state of human natureH he made it part of himself. So Jesus went to his death to destroy that which needed KF� 9<� ;<JKIFP<;�� J@E� /?LJ� %<JLJ� G<I=<:K<;� ?LD8E@KP� 98:B�to how it always should have been through his life, death, and resurrection. In his resurrection, Jesus emerges as a E<N� B@E;� F= � ?LD8E� 9<@E>� S� 8�"F;JF8B<;� ?LD8E� 9<@E>��His human nature is fully reconciled with a radically loving, holy God . Accordingly, Jesus shares the Spirit of his new humanity to anyone who comes into a living and dynamic

relationship with him. A remedy for the fallenness of humanity is possible only in Jesus. This is how, as we read in (8KK?<NXJ�9@IK?�E8II8K@M<��%<JLJ�NFLC;�WJ8M<�?@J�G<FGC<�=IFD�K?<@I�J@EJX��(K� ��

!IFD�K?<@I�J@EJ��)FK�ALJK�=IFD�K?<@I�GLE@J?D<EK��FI�=IFD�K?<� :FEJ<HL<E:<J� F= � K?<@I� J@EJ�� 9LK� =IFD� K?<� ?FII<E;FLJ�nature of sin itself, from the underlying problem that infects our originally good human nature. Just as the Ring twisted and corrupted Gollum, the Ringwraiths, Sauron, and to some degree even Bilbo and Frodo, so living in sin twists and corrupts the very souls of humans. Sin is evil independent F= �@KJ�:FEJ<HL<E:<J��/?@J�D<8EJ�K?8K�"F;�:8I<J�M<IP�DL:?�about this present world, and everything we do in it. Jesus G?PJ@:8CCP�I<;<<D<;�K?<�?LD8E@KP�F= �FE<�J@EJ:8II<;�?LD8E�being – his own – and thus brought through his Spirit an offer KF� <OK<E;� ?@J� E<N� ?LD8E@KP� KF� <M<IPFE<�� YE8CCP� 9I@E>@E>� 8�true opportunity for redemption to all sinners.

Frodo could not let the ring go, and neither can we, without Jesus.

Mako Nagasawa is a senior staff member of Harvard Radcliffe Christian Fellowhisp.

JK89J�!IF;F��"8E;8C= �EFK<J�K?8K�!IF;F�?8J�9<>LE�KF�W=8;<X�into shadow. That which is good, or should have remained good, becomes twisted when it comes in contact with the evil associated with the Ring.

M@C��9<�@K�@E�K?<�-@E>�FI�@E�K?@J�NFIC;XJ�D8E@=<JK8K@FEJ��J<<DJ�KF�FG<I8K<�@E�KNF�I<8CDJ��FE<�FLKJ@;<�F= �D8E�8E;�one inside of man. Temptation, perhaps, is the force that links these two realms, for it is in succumbing to temptation K?8K� K?<� <OK<IE8C� GI<J<E:<� F= � <M@C� @J� @EK<IE8C@Q<;� M<E�Frodo, armed with courage and determination, cannot I<J@JK� K?<� K<DGK8K@FE� F= � K?<�-@E>��CC� 8CFE>� ?@J� AFLIE<P�he knew and saw its evil, yet, in the end, not even he :FLC;�;<JKIFP�@K�/F�I<:F>E@Q<�K?8K�N?@:?�@J�EFK�>FF;��8E;�KF�P<K�9<�;<:<@M<;��8E;� KF�P<K�G8IK8B<� @E�<M@C�� K?@J� @J� K?<�corruption of human nature. This corruption was itself born in temptation. Adam and Eve were wholly aware that they were not to eat the fruit of the “tree of the BEFNC<;><� F= � >FF;� 8E;� <M@CV� �"<E� �� C<JK� K?<P� ;@<�And yet, they were deceived by the serpent, by the tree K?8K�N8J�U>FF;�=FI�=FF;R8E;�8�;<C@>?K�KF�K?<�<P<JV��"<E��8E;�9P�K?<�GIFD@J<�K?8K�K?<P�:FLC;�BEFN�>FF;�8E;�evil for themselves. What is man to do with his disastrous MLCE<I89@C@KP�KF�K<DGK8K@FE��

God diagnosed the corruption of the human heart early FE�@E�D8EXJ�?@JKFIP��"<E�� 8E;�K?<�*C;�/<JK8D<EK�D8B<J� @K� :C<8I�"F;XJ� GI<J:I@GK@FE� =FI� @J�#@J� KI8EJ=FID8K@FE�

F= �?LD8E�?<8IKJ�(FJ<J��8M@;��%<I<D@8?��8E;� Q<B@<C� J8P�� W/?<� 'FI;� N@CC� :@I:LD:@J<� PFLI�?<8IKX��K��W�I<8K<�=FI�D<�8�:C<8E�?<8IKX��+J� � � �� W$�X� "F;� J8PJ�� WN@CC� NI@K<�(P� C8N�LGFE�K?<@I�?<8IKJX��%<I�� :=�� S� ��"F;�GIFD@J<J��W$�N@CC�>@M<�PFL�8�E<N�?<8IKX�9P�GLKK@E>�K?<�.G@I@K�@E�PFL�� QB�� S� �� /?<J<� 8I<� EFK� J@DGCP� <DGKP� JK8K<D<EKJ��9LK� K@D<� 8E;� K@D<� 8>8@E�� K?IFL>?FLK� K?<�*C;�Testament, God offers man the chance to live in proper relation to him and thereby restore goodness and the purpose for which man was created. But even with the offer, mankind I<JGFE;J�8J�K?<�=8CC<E�:I<8KLI<J�K?<P�8I<��*E<�need no look no further than the Israelites, "F;XJ� FNE� :?FJ<E� G<FGC<�� N?F�� <M<E� @E� K?<�D@;JK� F= � "F;XJ� =8@K?=LCE<JJ� 8E;� >FF;E<JJ��repeatedly fall into temptation and rebellion against God. The Hebrew Scriptures contain a :C<8I�;@8>EFJ@J��D8E�:8EEFK�FM<I:FD<�<M@C�FE�his own.

2?8K� @J� K?<� JFCLK@FE� KF� D8EXJ� D@J<I89C<�JK8K<��+<I?8GJ�/FCB@<E�:8E�?<CG�LJ�8EJN<I�K?@J�Tolkien points to this necessity of restoring the broken stories of past failures to undo the

:FEJ<HL<E:<J� F= � J@E� $E� /?<� 'FI;� F= � K?<� -@E>J�� .8ILD8E��K?<� ?<8;� F= � K?<� N@Q8I;J�� 9<KI8PJ� K?FJ<� ?<� N8J� <EKILJK<;�to protect by allying with Sauron. Gandalf, an honest and =8@K?=LC�N@Q8I;��K8B<J�FE�.8ILD8EXJ�FC;�D8EKC<�8E;�J8PJ��W$�8D�.8ILD8E��.8ILD8E�8J�?<�N8J�D<8EK�KF�9<X� ��I8>FIE�8CJF�@J�N?8K�$J@C;LI��8�=FID<I�&@E>��J?FLC;�?8M<�9<<E��2?<I<8J�$J@C;LI�fell into temptation and J<@Q<;� K?<� -@E>��bringing doom to the human race, Aragorn resists temptation and releases the Ring @EKF� !IF;FXJ� ?8E;��thus demonstrating the strength to right that which was wrong and bring hope back to humanity. Thus Gandalf and Aragorn exemplify the importance of returning the world to what it should have been all along. Yet, these are but dim illustrations of the one who was able to G<I=<:KCP�I<JKFI<�D8EXJ�JK8K<�F= �NI<K:?<;E<JJ

$E� K?<�D@;JK� F= �D8EXJ� ?FG<C<JJ� JKIL>>C<�N@K?� J@E��"F;�

/F� I<:F>E@Q<� K?8K�which is not good, and to yet be deceived, and to yet G8IK8B<�@E�<M@C��K?@J�is the corruption of human nature.


Aaron Gyde

Religion is hard because obedience is hard. All religious and moral codes prescribe some sort of action, and this action is often different than the natural tendencies

F= �K?<�:F;<XJ�8;?<I<EKJ��?I@JK@8E@KP��;<JG@K<�@KJ�:<EK<I<;E<JJ�on grace, is no exception to this religious mandate for obedience, and Christian obedience does not come easily.

All humanity, prideful in nature, rebels against the thought that each person has duties and obligations to others and to God. Certainly other reasons for not following the Christian God exist, but today I will examine one in particular—the desire not to obey. Even for those who profess belief in a god, and even the Christian one at K?8K�� K?@J� HL<JK@FE� F= � F9<;@<E:<TN?P� F9<P�T@J� N<@>?KP� M<E� FE<� N<CC� 8:HL8@EK<;� N@K?� �?I@JK@8E@KP� D@>?K� 8JB�� U$= �salvation is by grace and through faith, why then should I F9<P�V1� � /?@J� 8IK@:C<� J<<BJ� KF� 8EJN<I� K?8K� HL<JK@FE� 2?@C<�the Christian tradition has developed many explanations and DFK@M8K@E>�:C8@DJ�KF�:FEM@E:<�9<C@<M<IJ�KF�F9<P��$�YE;�D8EP�JL:?�:C8@DJ�LEG<IJL8J@M<�$�J?8CC�<O8D@E<�8�=<N�:C8@DJ�$�YE;�unsuccessful and then present one that I see as having merit.

Before delving into the claims concerning obedience, ?FN<M<I�� $� YIJK� N8EK� KF� J<K� K?<� JK8><� 9P� @EM<JK@>8K@E>�the importance of beliefs that concern obedience. As

aforementioned, adherence to a religion means, at the very least, accepting certain claims and beliefs. These religious 9<C@<=J� 8I<� DL:?� DFI<� J@>E@Y:8EK� K?8E� 8EP� FK?<I� 9<C@<=J�FE<� D@>?K� ?FC;T<M<E� 98J@:� J:@<EK@Y:� 9<C@<=J� C@B<� >I8M@KP��Morality and religion do not only concern schemes of understanding the physical world, but also speak to the right, 9<JK�� DFJK� =LCYCC@E>�� DFJK� I<N8I;@E>� N8P� KF� C@M<� FLI� M<IP�real and tangible lives—and this is of utmost importance.

$E�K?@J�C@=<��K?<�:FEJ<HL<E:<J�F= �?FC;@E>�9<C@<=J�@E��?I@JK�and Christianity are both extremely low and extremely high. 'FN�9<:8LJ<��?I@JK@8E@KP�J8PJ�J8CM8K@FE�:FD<J�9P�>I8:<�K?IFL>?�faith in God, not by works as the basis of righteousness. 2 But K?<�:FEJ<HL<E:<J�F= �9<C@<= �8I<�8CJF�HL@K<�:FJKCP�/?<��?I@JK@8E�"F;�8JBJ�F= �#@J�=FCCFN<I�=FI�EFK�ALJK�DFI<�>FF;�NFIBJ�K?8E�98;��EFK�ALJK�K<E�G<I:<EK�F= �K?<@I�@E:FD<J�8E;�9<@E>�E@:<�KF�K?<�poor, but He asks His followers to commit their entire lives to ?@D�8J�8�C@M@E>�J8:I@Y:<��-FD� �� %<JLJ�J8PJ�K?8K�U@= �8EPFE<�would come after me, let him deny himself and take up his :IFJJ�;8@CP�8E;�=FCCFN�D<V��'B��?I@JK@8EJ�8I<�KFC;�KF�>@M<�up everything for Christ, who gave up everything for them. All wants, desires, interests and pursuits apart from Christ FL>?K� KF� 9<� :FLEK<;� 8J� >8I98><� �+?@C� �� M<IPK?@E>T=8D@CP�� N<8CK?�� ?FEFI�� JK8KLJT@J� EFK� ALJK� NFIK?C<JJ�� 9LK�

IT IS SO HARD TO BELIEVE BECAUSE IT IS SO HARD TO OBEY.

-SOREN KIERKEGAARD

1 For the purposes of this piece, I will assume salvation is by grace through faith, a common Christian perspective, though also that, as CS '<N@J�GLKJ�@K�@E�Mere Christianity, “[To have Faith in Christ] means, of course, trying to do all that He says. There would be no sense in saying you trusted a person if you would not take his advice. Thus if you have really handed yourself over to Him, it must follow that you are trying to

obey Him. But trying in a new way, a less worried way. Not doing these things in order to be saved, but because He has begun to save you already. Not hoping to get to Heaven as a reward for your actions, but inevitably N8EK@E>�KF�8:K�@E�8�:<IK8@E�N8P�9<:8LJ<�8�YIJK�=8@EK�>C<8D�F= �#<8M<E�@J�8CI<8;P�@EJ@;<�PFLV��/?LJ�F9<;@<E:<�@J�8E�@DGFIK8EK�I<JLCK�F= �K?FL>?�EFK�cause of salvation.

WHY OBEY

8:KL8CCP�:8E�F9JKIL:K�8�=FCCFN<IXJ�GLIJL@K�F= ��?I@JK��'B� ��?I@JK@8EJ�8I<�:8CC<;�KF�9<�F9<;@<EK�@E�<M<IP�G8IK�F= �K?<@I�lives with everything they have. Considering how high the standard is, there is little wonder that it is so hard to obey.

/?<��?I@JK@8E�C@=<�@J�EFK�ALJK�89FLK�9<C@<=J�89FLK�K?<�GI<J<EK��but also revolves around a hope for future glory in being united with Christ in eternal life. Certainly, any sort of afterlife NFLC;� 8;ALJK� K?<� :FEJ<HL<E:<J� F= � 9<C@<= � @E� 8E;� =FCCFN@E>��?I@JK�+8J:8CXJ�N8><I��FE<�F= �K?<�LE:FEM@E:@E>�DFK@M8K@FE8C�tools of belief and obedience Christianity has developed) JL>><JKJ�K?8K�J@DGCP�9<:8LJ<�K?<�;@==<I<E:<�@E�8=K<IC@=<�HL8C@KP�between following God and not following God is so much greater if God exists than the difference between following and not following God if God does not existH hence, all reasonable people would hedge their bets and choose to believe in and obey God. Perhaps you may YE;� K?@J� 8� :FEM@E:@E>�argument for belief and obedience. I do not. I thus begin an investigation 8J� KF� K?<� :FEJ<HL<E:<J� 8E;�motivations of obeying God in this life.� I will look to a few different claims regarding obedience 8E;� <OGFJ<� K?<� ;@=Y:LCK@<J� N@K?�these claims that an honest Christian thinker must correct.

/?<� YIJK� :C8@D� $�N@CC� <O8D@E<�is that God has an inherent right KF� :FDD8E;� F9<;@<E:<� "F;XJ� I@>?K� :FLC;� JK<D� =IFD� #@J�supreme power,� His omniscience,5 or, more plausibly, His property right over all things given His role as their creator. �<=FI<� PFL� ;@JD@JJ� 8� GIFG<IKP� I@>?KJ� 8::FLEK� F= � "F;XJ�

authority as out of hand, consider that this is how we think about property rights in other situations. A creator, inventor or producer may use and demand of his creation whatever he wishes, however he wishes. Broadly speaking society extends GIFG<IKP� I@>?KJ� F= � FNE<IJ?@G� =IFD� GIF;L:<IJ� FM<I� F9A<:KJ�8E;� K?@E>J�/?<I<� 8I<� C@D@KJ�N?<E� K?<�F9A<:K� @J� J<EK@<EK�� F= �course, but rights exist even for owners over their pets, and even in some sense parents over their children. Christians D@>?K�M<IP�N<CC�9<C@<M<�K?8K�K?@J�UFNE<IXJV�FI�U:I<8KFIXJV�I@>?K�to command is the basis of our obedience. Paul expresses this JFIK�F= �J<EK@D<EK�@E�-FD8EJ��U�LK�N?F�8I<�PFL��*�D8E��KF�

8EJN<I�98:B� KF�"F;��R#8J�the potter no right over the clay, to make out of the same lump one vessel for honorable use and another =FI�;@J?FEFI89C<�LJ<�V��-FD�� +<I?8GJ� FE� JFD<�level the idea that God can command by nature of being Creator is indeed the root of �?I@JK@8E�F9<;@<E:<��9LK�$�YE;�that answer unsatisfying. The

above verse, while true and inspired Word of God, feels too much C@B<� UALJK� 9<:8LJ<V�to be where I end my investigation.

"F@E>� ALJK�slightly further, one may claim that we obey God because obedience

@J� NFIJ?@G� *9<P@E>�"F;� I<C@EHL@J?<J� K?<� IFC<� F= � ;<:@J@FE� D8B<I� KF� #@D� 8E;�K?LJ� ;<DFEJKI8K<J� I<JG<:K� 8E;� ?FEFI�� I<Z<:K@E>� K?<� EFK@FE�that His interests and opinions are more important than our own. But this claim that obedience is a form of worship

2 For a more thorough explanation of grace and other theological con:<GKJ��J<<�"IL;<D��28PE<��8E;�&� I@B�/?F<EE<J�Systematic Theology. 5"I8E;�-8G@;J��(@:?6��4FE;<IM8E��+8LC�J8PJ�K?8K�@= ��?I@JK�?8J�EFK�9<<E�I8@J<;�K?8E�N<�8I<�8DFE>�K?<�DFJK�G@K@89C<�F= �D<E�� FI� �� $= ��?I@JK@8EXJ�FECP�?8M<�8�>8D9C<IXJ�?FG<�=FI�resurrection to a glorious afterlife with Christ, than Christianity is a bold worthlessness.��/?I8JPD8:?LJ�8I>L<J�8�J@D@C8I�M@<N�@E�+C8KFXJ�Republic.��FDG8I89C<�KF�K?<�U@DG8IK@8C�JG<:K8KFIV�F= ��;8D�.D@K?XJ�Theory of Moral Sentiments.�� O�� R'<M� �� )LD��R<K:��"F;�:8CCJ�FK?<IJ�KF�9<�?LD9C<��@<�U@= �DP�G<FGC<�N?F�8I<�:8CC<;�9P�DP�name humble themselves, and pray and seek my face and turn from their

wicked ways, then I will hear from heaven and will forgive their sin and ?<8C�K?<@I�C8E;V��?I�� -<@EB<��/FEP�U2?P�*GI8?�8E;��I8;�+@KK��<J<IK<;�"F;��E;�2?P�3FL�.?FLC;EXK�V�Desiring God��<J@I@E>�"F;�(@E@JKI@<J�� *:K�� 2<9��*:K�� ?KKG��NNN;<J@I@E>>F;FI>�9CF>�GFJKJ�N?PFGI8?8E;9I8;G@KK;<J<IK<;>F;8E;N?PPFLJ?FLC;EK��.�'<N@J�<M<EKL8CCP�:8D<�98:B�KF��?I@JK@8E@KP�8E;�9<:8D<�8�>I<8K�K?<FCFgian.��*E<�8CJF�DLJK�I<:FE:@C<�K?@J�J<C=>CFI@Y:8K@FE�F= �"F;�N@K?�K?<�G<IJFE�of Jesus Christ. Jesus, who Christians believe is God who became man, N8J�JF�?LD9C<�8J�KF�;@<�=FI�K?<�J@EJ�F= �?LD8E@KP��J<<�+?@C��*E<�D@>?K�be susceptible to thinking there is a incongruity between God the Father and God the Son.


;F<J� EFK� ?<CG� LJ� @E� FLI� HL<JK� KF� YE;� I<8JFEJ� KF� F9<P�$K� ALJK� DFM<J� LJ� KF� HL<JK@FE� N?P� N<� FL>?K� worship Him.

The simplest reason God commands (though still not

an explanation of why he can command) worship is to

bring Him honor and glory. If God commands worship for

K?<� =8:<M8CL<� GIF;L:K� F= � NFIJ?@G�� GI8@J<� 8E;� ?FEFI�� K?<E�naturally one can conclude that God desires His own honor.

.:I@GKLI<�:FEYIDJ� K?@J� K?IFL>?FLK� K?<��@9C<��"F;�I<>LC8ICP�pursues His own name.��*E<�D@>?K�CFFB�8K�K?@J�KI8@K�F= �"F;�8E;� J<<�#@D� KF� 9<� 8� GIFL;�� >CFIPJ<<B@E>� 8E;� ?PGF:I@K@:8C�egomaniac.��/?@J�8GG8I<EK�LE>FF;E<JJ�F= �"F;�@J�8�J<I@FLJ�stumbling block not only for obedience, but also for the very

9<C@<= �@E�"F;��I8;�+@KK��*GI8?�2@E=I<P�8E;�PFLE>��.�'<N@J�all claim to have walked away from Christ because they saw

K?<� �?I@JK@8E� "F;� 8J� 9<@E>� J<C=GIFDFK@E>8 Any Christian

K?@EB<I�DLJK�JFD<?FN�I<:FE:@C<�"F;XJ�J<C=>CFI@Y:8K@FE��8E;�the resulting command to obey, with the goodness of God.9

A second unhelpful explanation of obedience comes from

the assumption that God either used or somehow created and

then used a sort of standard external to His arbitrary will to set

the rules that He commands us to follow. � If, however, God used

some external standard of goodness to create rules to which

He commands obedience, then goodness can be known apart

from His commandsH that is, according to this view, we need

only understand this external standard to know what is good.

(FI8C� G?@CFJFG?P� ?8J� 8KK<DGK<;� KF� YE;� 8� JK8E;8I;� F= �good and bad for thousands of years. From

ancient philosophers like Plato,11 to more

DF;<IE� D<E� C@B<� #8IM8I;XJ� FNE� %F?E�Rawls12, man has constantly been trying

to be good without God. Many have

8KK<DGK<;�KF�YE;�K?<�JFLI:<�F= �DFI8C@KP�apart from God. In fact, Christianity

claims that the

YIJK�8:K�F= �;@JF9<;@<E:<�N8J�D8EB@E;XJ�J<<B@E>�8=K<I�>FF;E<JJ�without God. � The commandment that Adam and Eve

KI8EJ>I<JJ<;�J?FIKCP�8=K<I�:I<8K@FE�N8J��U�E;�K?<�'*-��"F;�commanded the man, saying, ‘You may surely eat of every tree

of the garden, but of the tree of the knowledge of good and

evil you shall not eat, for in the day that you eat of it you shall

JLI<CP�;@<XV��"<E�� <IK8@ECP��J<<B@E>�N?8K�@J�KIL<�8E;�right and good is not something God condemns—after all, the

�@9C<�J8PJ�U�I8N�E<8I�KF�"F;�8E;�#<�N@CC�;I8N�E<8I�KF�PFL�V��%8J��@DGCP@E>�K?8K�JL:?�GLIJL@KJ�N@CC�9<�JL::<JJ=LC�@E��?I@JK�$EJK<8;��"F;XJ�:FDD8E;�@E�"<E<J@J��JL>><JKJ�K?8K�K?<�GLIJL@K�of goodness and truth will be fruitless without Him. Thus,

from the Christian perspective, any account of why we should

obey needs to explain why we cannot be good without God.

Third, assuming that God exists, one must still answer

K?<�HL<JK@FE�F= �N?P�FE<�NFLC;� =FCCFN�#@D��:8J<�:8E�9<�made that even if God exists and gives a purpose for each

?LD8E�� FE<XJ� G<IJFE8C� 9<JK� @EK<I<JK � would be a stronger,

DFI<�DFK@M8K@E>� =FI:<� K?8E� 8EP� 8GG<8C� KF� 8� ?8Q@CP� ;<YE<;�UGLIGFJ<V�=FI�FE<XJ� C@=<�FI�8EP�89JKI8:K�DFI8C�UI@>?KE<JJV15

(FJK� =LE;8D<EK8CCP�� K?<� 8I>LD<EK� >F<J�� EFK?@E>� 9LK� FE<XJ�own wants and desires can really motivate one to act. � This

is not a claim that sociopaths are the only sane people, but

I8K?<I�� K?8K� LGFE� I<Z<:K@FE�� <8:?� G<IJFE� :8E� J<<� K?8K� FE<XJ�personal desires � explain actions. For clarity, I do not see

this as a controversial claim and see evidence for this view

=IFD�K?<�;<YE@K@FEJ�F= �K?<�NFI;J��;<J@I<J�8I<�K?<�DFK@M8K@FEJ�for actions, therefore personal desires are the motivations

for the actions of individuals. If this is so, no matter how

good, righteous, holy, and perfect any sort of being or moral

law is, humans cannot be motivated to act in accordance

unless they see it as commensurate with their own desires.18

'<JK�FE<�K?@EB�K?8K�K?@J�J<CYJ?E<JJ�@J�JF�@EKL@K@M<CP�8�DFI8C�Z8N�@E�?LD8E�9<@E>J��

C<K�D<�8IK@:LC8K<�8�J@DGC<�;<=<EJ<�F= �J<CYJ?E<JJ�!@IJK��8:K@E>�@E� 8::FI;8E:<�N@K?� FE<XJ� ;<J@I<J� @J�DFI<� 8� =8:K� K?8E� 8� Z8N�of human beings. Any moral system that actually gets people

to follow it must (not ought, must) not run counter to the

personal desires of human beings. Secondly, some sense of

J<CYJ?E<JJ�@J�EFK�E<:<JJ8I@CP�NIFE>��$�?8M<�KNF�8I>LD<EKJ�KF�JLGGFIK�K?@J�JL>><JK@FE��I>LD<EK�FE<�@J�@EKL@K@M<��@= �8EP�person only has one period of existence, be

@K� 89FLK� �� P<8IJ�FI�9<� @K� 8E� <K<IE@KP��it makes sense for each to pursue

that which he or she thinks

will most satisfy him or her.

Each only has one life to

live and each must live

UK?<� >FF;� C@=<V� 8J� 9<JK�?<� FI� J?<� J<<J� YK� EF�matter what. This does

not mean one should

be simply hedonistic or

ever abuse others—being

nice is still likely to happen,

8E;� HL@K<� F=K<E� KFFT9LK� K?<�=LE;8D<EK8C� I<8JFE� =FI� K?<� J<CYJ?�to be nice is never alienated from their

own desires and their own happiness. Argument

KNF�@J� K?8K� K?<��@9C<�K<8:?<J�K?8K�J<CYJ?E<JJ� @J�8�DFK@M8K@FE�=FI�=FCCFN@E>�"F;��$�I<=<I�PFL�98:B�KF�K?<�HL@:B�JB<K:?�K?8K�"F;�@J�A<8CFLJ�=FI�#@J�FNE�E8D<��8E;�$�N@CC�<C89FI8K<�9<CFN

In sum thus far, since people simply do not act consciously

or willfully against their desires, there is no motivating force of

DFI8C@KP��EFK@FE�F= �>FF;E<JJ��FI�:FDG<CC@E>�:C8@DJ�F= �UFL>?KV�

FI� UJ?FLC;V� 8G8IK� =IFD�FE<XJ� J<C= � @EK<I<JK19 There may be

8E�FI;<I<;�JKIL:KLI<�KF�K?<�LE@M<IJ<��G<I?8GJ�<M<E�8��@M@E<CP�given purpose for each person, but no motivating force for one

to follow it. The Christian thinker who wants to provide an

account of obedience that is motivationally compelling must

account for the fact that any time someone is moved to act one

can point to a desire the person has regarding themselves.��

Fortunately, for the Christian,

however, there is an answer to all the

8=FI<D<EK@FE<;� ;@=Y:LCK@<J� $K�is a simple yet profound way

F= � K?@EB@E>�� K?<� �?I@JK@8EXJ�happiness and satisfaction,

that is, what I call their

G<IJFE8C� J<C=@EK<I<JKJ��are one and the same

N@K?�"F;XJ�>CFIP�K?IFL>?�K?<��?I@JK@8EXJ�F9<;@<E:<

In a vey basic sense,

Christian obedience is in

<8:?� D8EXJ� @EK<I<JK� 9<:8LJ<�<8:?�N@CC�9<�AL;><;�=FI�?@J�FI�?<I�

actions one day. After all, Paul in a

HL@K<� ;I8D8K@:� G8JJ8><� JK8K<J� F= � %<JLJ��“He will punish those who do not know God

8E;�;F�EFK�F9<P�K?<�>FJG<C�F= �FLI�'FI;�%<JLJV��/?� ��21

While I do see merit in thinking about obedience as preventing

future punishment,22 I believe there are more profound

reasons for Christian obedience plainly evident in this life.

God calls us to obeyH however, He also provides reasons

=FI� K?<� :FDD8E;J� #<� >@M<J� LJ� $E� �<LK<IFEFDP�� (FJ<J�

��/?@J�G8KK<IE�F= �K?@EB@E>�@J�:FDDFE�8DFE>�DFI8C�G?@CFJFG?<IJ��9LK�<JG<:@8CCP�N<CC�8IK@:LC8K<;�@E�)8KLI8C�'8N�K?<FI@JKJ �+C8KFXJ�;@8CF>L<�Euthyphro�8IK@:LC8K<J�K?@J�HL<JK@FE�F= �N?<K?<I�N?8K�K?<�gods command is good or gods only command that which is already good.

12 Rawls developed A Theory of Justice that relies on claims of impartial@KP�9<KN<<E�<8:?�8E;�<M<IP�G<IJFEXJ�@EK<I<JKJ�-8NCJX�:C8@D�8K�8:?@<M@E>�Justice or goodness without God was recently articulated by HCHAA, the

Harvard Community of Humanists, Atheists, and Agnostics, in a debate at

#8IM8I;�FE�.<GK<D9<I�� *K?<I�<OGC8E8K@FEJ�F= �N?8K��;8D�8E;� M<�N<I<�;F@E>�@E�;@JF9<P@E>�this commandment are plausible. If what the serpent says is in fact their

motivation than they were trying to be like God in wisdom. At the very

least Adam and Eve were attempting to set up their own system of moral@KP�J<G8I8K<�=IFD�"F;XJ ��P�UG<IJFE8C�9<JK�@EK<I<JKV�$�9IF8;CP�D<8E�8E�@E;@M@;L8CJ�LK@C@KP�8CFE>�the lines of John Stuart Mill. As a concept it is basically whatever gives an

@E;@M@;L8C�8�J<EJ<�F= �?8GG@E<JJ��J8K@J=8:K@FE��8E;�=LCYCCD<EK ��*E�K?<�;<98K<�FE�.<GK�� J<<�=FFKEFK<� ��#�!��#8IM8I;��FCC<><�!8@K?�@E��:K@FE�8I>L<;�DFI8C�U>FF;V�:FD<J�=IFD�G<FGC<�=FCCFN@E>�K?<�GLIGFJ<�"F;�?8J�FI;8@E<;�=FI�LJ�$�YE;�K?@J�LE:FEM@E:@E>�9<:8LJ<�@K�9<>J�K?<�HL<JK@FE�N?P�8EPFE<�J?FLC;�=FCCFN�8�IFC<�K?8K�8EFK?<I��<M<E�"F;��;<YE<J�=FI�K?<D� ��<IK8@ECP�K?<I<�8I<�I<8JFEJ�K?8K�DFK@M8K@FEJ�<O@JK��@<�N?@DJ��GI<;@:K@FEJ�

of desired ends, etc). Motivations are only the results of these reasons,

however, motivations rather than the underlying reasons are what directly

compels an agent to action.

��$�8D�9IF8;CP�;<YE@E>�G<IJFE8C�;<J@I<J�JF�8J�KF�@E:CL;<�N@J?<J�=FI�FE<XJ�FNE��8E;��@= �:8I@E>�89FLK�FK?<IJ��K?<E�8CJF�FK?<IJX��D8K<I@8C�8E;�GJP:?Flogical well being

18 This is a Humean understanding of values, desires and motivations. See

�8M@;�#LD<XJ�An Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals. ��/?@J�@J�N@K?@E�K?<�G?@CFJFG?@:8C�J:?FFC�F= �<>F@JD�$�9<C@<M<�)FQ@:B�8E;�EFK�8�=<N�FK?<I�C@9<IK8I@8EJ�YK�N@K?@E�K?@J�DFI8C�=I8D<NFIB�/?<�B<P�thought from this school of thought is that no one else can tell another

N?8K�KF�;F�FI�EFK�;F��FE<XJ�J<C=@EK<I<JK�@J�K?<�FECP�KILCP�DFK@M8K@FE8C�=FI:<��/?@J�@EK<I<JK�NFLC;�I@>?KCP�@E:CL;<�8E�<K<IE8C�G<IJG<:K@M<�N@K?�"F;XJ�I<N8I;J�8E;�GLE@J?D<EKJ�8J�N<CC�8J�K<DGFI8C�8E;�J?FIKK<ID�@EK<I<JKJ21 However, Christians commonly, though not exclusively, consider Jesus

8J�?8M@E>�G8@;�K?<@I�;L<�GLE@J?D<EKJ�=FI�;@JF9<;@<E:<�N@K?�#@J�:IL:@YOion.

22 Fearing punishment is part of fearing God. This is considered good

�+IFM�� 9LK�@J�@E:FDGC<K<��J�K?<��GFJKC<�%F?E�NI@K<J�U/?<I<�@J�EF�fear in love, but perfect love casts out fear. For fear has to do with punishD<EK��8E;�N?F<M<I�=<8IJ�?8J�EFK�9<<E�G<I=<:K<;�@E�CFM<V�� %E�� /?LJ��ALDG@E>�8�C@KKC<�8?<8;�@E�DP�8I>LD<EK��8EP�K@D<�K?<��?I@JK@8E�=<8IJ�"F;��he or she ought feel compelled to transition to loving God.

Any moral system

that actually gets people to follow it must (not ought, must) not run counter to the personal

desires of human beings.


<OGC8@EJ�K?8K�UK?<�:FDD8E;D<EKJ�8E;�JK8KLK<J�F= �K?<�'FI;R58I<6�=FI�PFLI�>FF;V��<LK� �� CC�"F;XJ�:FDD8E;D<EKJ�are for the good of His people.�� If this is the case, then LCK@D8K<CP��"F;XJ�:FDD8E;D<EKJ�:8EEFK�9<�:FEKI8IP�KF�FLI�9<JK� @EK<I<JK� #FN�D@>?K� K?@J� 9<�� $E� FE<� J<EJ<�� ?I@JK@8EJ�must trust God to be omniscient and loving and wanting the best for us, but Jesus explains further. In John chapter �� %<JLJ� JLDD8I@Q<J� K?<� <EK@I<� '8N� 8E;� K?<� +IFG?<KJT� 8CC�F= � "F;XJ� :FDD8E;J�� U3FL� J?8CC� CFM<� K?<� 'FI;� PFLI� "F;�with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your D@E;�/?@J�@J�K?<�>I<8K�8E;�YIJK�:FDD8E;D<EK��E;�8�J<:FE;�

@J�C@B<�@K��3FL�J?8CC� CFM<�PFLI�E<@>?9FI�8J�PFLIJ<C=�*E�K?<J<�KNF�:FDD8E;D<EKJ�;<G<E;�8CC� K?<�'8N�8E;� K?<�+IFG?<KJV��(K� �� 'FM<� @J� F=K<E� ;<YE<;� @E:FII<:KCP� 8J� J@DGCP�8E� <DFK@FE�� 9LK�� ALJK� G<I=FID@E>� 8:K@FEJ� N@K?FLK� <DFK@FE�<HL8CCP�D@JJ<J� K?<�GF@EK� $� :FEK<E;� K?8K� CFM<� @J� 8E� <DFK@FE�K?8K�DFK@M8K<J�8:K@FE�%<JLJ� @J�EFK�=FI><KK@E>�"F;XJ�:FEJK8EK�command for his people to obey Him, and he is surely not JLDD8I@Q@E>� 8CC� F= � K?<� '8N� 8E;� K?<� +IFG?<KJ� 9P� FLI� CF=KP�G<I:<GK@FE�F= �K?<�<DFK@FE�N<�:8CC�UCFM<V�'FM<�@J�8�DFK@M8K@FE�When one loves, he or she combines, even replaces, his or her FNE�;<J@I<J�8E;�I<8JFEJ�=FI�8:K@E>�N@K?�FK?<IJX�;<J@I<J�*E<XJ�>F8C�K?LJ�J?@=KJ�=IFD�FE<XJ�FNE�J<C=@EK<I<JK��KF�K?<�@EK<I<JKJ�F= � FK?<IJ� 'FM<� @J� K?<� M<?@:C<� F= � KI8EJ=FID<;�DFK@M8K@FEJ�

Scripture suggests that the motivation to obey stems from loving and treasuring God. As aforementioned, Jesus says that a summary of all commandments is to love God with all our strength, soul, and mind. John Piper explains, U*LI� F9<;@<E:<RGIFM<J� K?8K� "F;� @J� FLI� KI<8JLI<� /?@J� @J�good news, because it means very simply that the command KF�F9<P� @J� K?<� :FDD8E;� KF�9<�?8GGP� @E�"F;V�� Christian obedience to Christ is, on a basic level, a pursuit after a �?I@JK@8EXJ� FNE� ?8GG@E<JJ� 8E;� ;<C@>?K� /?@J� ;<C@>?K� @E�"F;�is not simply some wishful thinking by Christians, but is articulated in scripture. As argued in Romans 8, if one believes that God loves His people so much as to send His

son to die for them, it only also makes sense to believe that He will withhold from His people no good thing, and will command them nothing but what is best for them. Piper further claims, “The commandments of God are only as hard to obey as the promises of God are hard to believe. The Word of God is only as hard to obey as the beauty of God is hard to :?<I@J?V25�*9<;@<E:<�@J�EFK�JFD<K?@E>�K?8K�I<JKI@:KJ�=I<<;FD�8E;� :I<8K<J� J8;E<JJ� $= � FE<� 9<C@<M<J�"F;XJ� GIFD@J<J� 89FLK�His love and that His commands are good for His followers, it is clear that obedience brings happiness, satisfaction 8E;� =LCYCCD<EK� N?<E� �?I@JK@8EJ� KILCP� ;<C@>?K� @E� K?<� 'FI;

*9<;@<E:<� KF� "F;� 9P� CFM@E>� #@D�� 8E;� 9P� <OK<EJ@FE�CFM@E>�FK?<IJ��@J�EFK�8E�8C@<E8K@FE�F= �K?<��?I@JK@8EXJ�@EK<I<JKJ��but rather a truer calculation of his or her desires to glorify God and serving others because God has made it such that #<�N?F� CFM<J�#@D�N@CC�9<�9C<JJ<;� @E�8CC� K?@E>J� �-FD��

0E;<I� K?@J� J@DGC<� 9LK� GIF=FLE;� LE;<IJK8E;@E>� F= �"F;XJ�:FDD8E;J�8E;�K?<��?I@JK@8EXJ�F9<;@<E:<� KF� K?<D��8CC�K?<�8=FI<D<EK@FE<;�;@=Y:LCK@<J�:8E�9<�I<:K@Y<;�!@IJK��"F;XJ�8LK?FI@KP�KF�:FDD8E;�@J�EFK�D<I<CP�9P�Y8K�FI�@E?<I<EK�8LK?FI@KP��rather, it comes, at least in part, due to our own good that comes from following His commands. Therefore, if one trusts and believes in the promises of God that His commands are >FF;��K?<I<�FL>?K�9<�EF�F9A<:K@FE�KF�F9<;@<E:<�.<:FE;��"F;�is very relevant to the pursuit of that which is good because He has the power and ability and beauty to satisfy in ways, if you truly believe His word, that nothing else can. Third, this account of the motivating force behind obedience is indeed :FDD<EJLI8K<�N@K?��@E;<<;�JK<DJ�=IFD��<8:?�G<IJFEXJ�;<J@I<J�=FI� ?@J� FI� ?<I� FNE� ?8GG@E<JJ�� J8K@J=8:K@FE� 8E;� =LCYCCD<EK�

The Christian loves and obeys because he or she BEFNJ� K?8K� CFM@E>� F9<;@<E:<� C<8;J� KF� FE<XJ� FNE�?8GG@E<JJ��J8K@J=8:K@FE� 8E;� =LCYCCD<EK� #FN<M<I�� K?@J� D<8EJ� K?8K�Christian motivations are, at least to some degree, out of personal gain. There is something discomforting about that.�� Something about seeking personal gain feels to

��3FLI�@J�@E�K?<�GCLI8C��9LK�9<:8LJ<�N<�?8M<�FE<�.G@I@K�@E��?I@JK��-FD�� K?<I<�@J�I<8JFE�KF�9<C@<M<�K?@J�@J�EFK�ALJK�8�:FCC<:K@M<�J<C=@EK<I<JK��9LK�8CJF�8E�@E;@M@;L8C�J<C=@EK<I<JK��%F?E�+@G<I��U/?<�+C<8JLI<J�F= �"F;��/?<�+C<8JLI<�F= �"F;�@E�*9<;@<E:<V��J<IDFE��<K?C<?<D��8GK@JK��?LI:?��(@EE<8GFC@J��()��(8I:?��(+��YC<��?KKG��NNN;<J@I@E>>F;FI>�I<JFLI:<C@9I8IP�J<IDFEJ�K?<GC<8JLI<F=>F;@EF9<;@<E:<��8::<JJ<;�*:KF9<I�� 25 Ibid.��$�K?@EB�K?@J�;@J:FD=FIK�:FD<J�=IFD�8�K<EJ@FE�N@K?@E�K?<��@9C<�%<JLJ�says that “Greater love has no man than this, that someone would lay

;FNE�?@J�C@=<�=FI�?@J�=I@<E;JV��%E� �� 8E;�+8LC�J8PJ�?<�N@J?<J�?<�N<I<�:LK�F== �=IFD��?I@JK�K?8K�$JI8<C�NFLC;�:FD<�KF�BEFN��?I@JK�8J�'FI;��-FD��9FK?�F= �N?@:?�@DGCP�:FDGC<K<�;@J8MFN8C�F= �FE<XJ�FNE�@EK<I<JKJ�/?FL>?��FE�K?<�J8D<�?8E;��#<9I<NJ�JK8K<J�F= �%<JLJ��U=FI�K?<�AFP�J<K�9<=FI<�?@D�<E;LI<;�K?<�:IFJJV��<O:<IGK�F= �#<9� ��JL>><JK@E>�K?8K�<M<E�@E�K?<�D@;JK�F= �K?<�DFJK�J<CZ<JJ�8:K�K?<I<�8I<�JK@CC�I@>?K<FLJ�DFK@M8K@FEJ�JK<DD@E>�=IFD�FE<XJ�FNE�AFP��)@<9L?I��-<@E?FC;�Moral Man and Immoral SocietyU a Study in Ethics and Politics.�)<N�3FIB��.:I@9E<I�� '<N@J��.�The Weight of Glory�'FE;FE��.F:@<KP�=FI�+IFDFK@E>��?I@J

Aaron Gyde‘14 is a Social Studies concentrator living in Cabot House. He is the Features Editor of The Ichthus.

><K� @E� K?<�N8P� F= � KIL<� CFM<� 'FM<� @J� JKIFE><JK�N?<E� FE<� @J�JF� =LCCP� J<<B@E>� 8EFK?<IXJ� @EK<I<JKJ� K?8K� FE<� :FDGC<K<CP�=FI><KJ� 89FLK� ?FN� ?8GGP� @K� D8B<J� ?@D� =<<C� ��K?� �<EKLIP��D<I@:8E� /?<FCF>@8E� -<@E?FC;� )@<9L?I� 8;;I<JJ<J� K?@J�

/?<� G8I8;FO� F= � K?<�DFI8C� C@=<� :FEJ@JKJ� @E� K?@J�� K?8K�the highest mutuality is achieved where mutual advantages are not consciously sought as the fruit of love. For love is purest where it desires no returns for itselfH and it is most potent where it is purest. Complete mutuality, with its advantages to each party to the relationship, is therefore most

perfectly realised where it is not intended, but love is poured out without seeking returns. That is…the madness of religious morality.�� $= �K?@J�@J�K?<�:8J<��@= �J<C=@EK<I<JK�;@I<:KJ�LJ�8N8P�=IFD�K?<�

GLI<JK�CFM<�8E;�F9<;@<E:<��G<I?8GJ�K?@J�8IK@:C<XJ�LE;<IJK8E;@E>�F= � F9<;@<E:<� 8E;� CFM<� 8J� 9<@E>� J<C=@EK<I<JK<;� @J� LE?<CG=LC�@E� GLIJL@E>� K?<� GLI<JK� F9<;@<E:<� �.� '<N@J� JG<8BJ� KF� K?@J�concern in a most beautiful essay, The Weight of Glory. '<N@J�NI@K<J��U%LJK�@E�GIFGFIK@FE�8J�K?<�;<J@I<�5=FI�"F;�8E;�others] grows, our fear lest it should be a mercenary desire N@CC� ;@<� 8N8P� 8E;�YE8CCP� 9<� I<:F>E@Q<;� 8J� 8E� 89JLI;@KP��LK�probably this will not, for most of us, happen in a dayH poetry replaces grammar, gospel replaces law, longing transforms F9<;@<E:<�� 8J� >I8;L8CCP� 8J� K?<� K@;<� C@=KJ� 8� >IFLE;<;� J?@GV28

*M<I�K@D<��8J��?I@JK@8EJ��N<�J<<�K?8K�"F;�>@M<J�>I8:<�8E;�that His people seek to do good works simply out of a love and a delight in God. The moral worth of our deeds is in no way diminished by the fact that we were motivated to act out of delight in God. In fact, God commands nothing less.

*9M@FLJCP��<M<E�N@K?�K?@J�E<N�LE;<IJK8E;@E>��F9<;@<E:<�@J� JK@CC� ;@=Y:LCK� �K� K@D<J�� FLI� CFM<� F= � "F;� N@CC� 9<� K<JK<;�by obedience and will lead to suffering. Indeed, the book F= � %8D<J� J8PJ� K?8K� N<� J?FLC;� I<AF@:<� @E� JL==<I@E>� 8E;�G<IJ<:LK@FE� �%8J� �� 8J� @K� D8B<J� K?<� �?I@JK@8E� :CFJ<I� KF�Christ.29��*9<;@<E:<�@J�?8I;��9LK�F9<;@<E:<�@J�8CN8PJ�NFIK?�@K

$�?8M<�ALJK�9<>LE�KF�J:I8K:?�K?<�JLI=8:<�F= �F9<;@<E:<�$�have glossed over much that is contentious and confusing and ?8M<�EFK�JFL>?K�KF�8EJN<I�8CC�K?<�HL<JK@FEJ�FE<�D8P�?8M<�FE�this topic. I do not wish to change any perspective of what God does command. Instead, I wish only to present a simple

Christian obedience to Christ is, on a basic level, a pur suit after a Christian’s own happiness and delight.

K?FL>?K��F9<;@<E:<�KF�"F;�@J�EFK�8E�8C@<E8K@FE�F= �8��?I@JK@8EXJ�N@CC��9LK�I8K?<I�8�=LCYCCD<EK�F= �?@J�FI�?<I�@EK<I<JKJ�8E;�=FI�?@J�or her own good. God commands His people to love Him 9<:8LJ<�#<�8CFE<�J8K@JY<J��8E;�#<�:FDD8E;J�#@J�G<FGC<�KF�love others because that makes those who obey more like Him 8E;�9<:8LJ<�K?8K�8CJF�J8K@JY<J�*9<;@<E:<�@J�@DGFIK8EK�2?@C<�@E�FE<�J<EJ<�N<�8CC�=8:<�AL;>D<EK�@= �N<�;F�EFK�F9<P��<M<E�DFI<�JF�;F�N<�=FI8><�KIL<�GC<8JLI<J�8E;�KIL<�AFP�@= �N<�;F�EFK�F9<P�.F�� JKL;P�"F;XJ�NFI;� 8E;�<O8D@E<�#@J� :FDD8E;J��<C@>?K�PFLIJ<C= �@E�GI8:K@:@E>�K?<D��8E;�K?<�'FI;�N@CC�=8@K?=LCCP�>@M<�PFL�K?<�;<<G<JK�;<J@I<�F= �PFLI�?<8IK��AFP�@E�#@D�$�C<8M<�PFL�N@K?�

8�GI8P<I�K?8K�PFL�NFLC;�<OG<I@<E:<�K?<�NFI;J�F= � �K?:<EKLIP��D<I@:8E�<M8E><C@JK��'�(FF;P��U/?<�'FI;�>@M<J�?@J�G<FGC<�G<IG<KL8C�AFP�N?<E�K?<P�N8CB�@E�F9<;@<E:<�KF�?@DV�"@M<�@K�8�KIP

K@8E�&EFNC<;><�� 29 I understand that there is much more to explore when it comes to F9<;@<E:<�$�NFLC;�;@I<:K�PFL�KF�%F?E�+@G<IXJ�Desiring God and Don’t Waste Your Life to see more practical explorations of obedience.


A philosoramble in which I present a classic critique of materialism, namely, that if materialism is true, then we cannot have any knowledge. This presentation develops upon the work of C S Lewis1 and Alvin Plantinga.2 These arguments have also been considered by such diverse minds as Blaise Pascal,� Charles Darwin,� G K Chester-ton,5 J B S Haldane,� and Thomas Nagel .�

*E<�;8P��N?<E�DFJK�F= �K?<�G?@CFJFG?<IJ�N<I<�FLK�8K�K<8��or perhaps tucked up in bed with Critique of Pure Reason and a handful of aspirin, there was a great accident in the philosoG?P�F= �D@E;�;<G8IKD<EK�.FD<�89J<EKD@E;<;�J:?FC8I�DLJK�have slipped up somewhere, and, of course, the press went =FI�K?<�AL>LC8I�8K�FE:<��=FI�K?<�E<OK�;8P��8CC�K?<�G8G<IJ�N<I<�chock full of great blundering misreports that science had at last explained all the secrets of love and happiness and the ?LD8E�D@E;�� C<8M@E>� K?<� G?@CFJFG?<IJ� FLK� F= � 8� AF9� �FE:<�and for all) and feeling rather like those hapless fellows who once woke up in the middle of the night wondering what all K?<�:C8DFI�N8J��N?P�K?<@I�?FLJ<J�N<I<�FE�YI<��8E;�89FM<�8CC��whose daft idea it was to let in the big wooden horse.

Hence, or thereabouts, materialism (which might also be called physicalism, naturalism, or reductionism) took hold of peoGC<XJ�D@E;J�8E;�@D8>@E8K@FEJ�8E;�9<:8D<�K?<�GI<M8@C@E>�G?@CFJFG?P�F= �K?@J�J:@<EK@Y:�8><

Materialism is not the same thing as science. Rather, it is the much bolder philosophical claim that there is nothing at all outside of physical material reality. Roughly speaking,

When Things Stop Making SenseStephen Mackereth

physics seeks to describe the universe as being built up from some basic substances (matter and energy) which are governed by a set of unchanging physical laws – this describes physical material reality. Materialism is the philosophy that this description could, in principle, account for everything that is. Furthermore, materialism claims a physical explanation is the only sort of explanation that can be given to account for why anything happens.

The essence of the materialistic perspective is to take the J:@<EK@Y:�D@E;J<K�8E;�KF�D8>E@=P�@K�@EKF�LCK@D8K<�I<8C@KP�!FI�<O8DGC<��G?PJ@:J�LJ<J�8�U:CFJ<;�JPJK<DV�FI�8E�U@JFC8K<;�JPJK<DV� 8J� K?<� 98J@:�DF;<C� =FI� 8CC� F= � @KJ� I<8JFE@E>� �� :CFJ<;�JPJK<D�@J�FE<�@E�N?@:?�K?<I<�8I<�EF�FLKJ@;<�@EZL<E:<J��<M<EKJ�?8M<�:8LJ<J�K?8K�8I<�KFK8CCP�J<C=:FEK8@E<;�@E�K?<�JPJK<D�/?@J�is the foundational assumption on which physical models of the universe are built. Now materialism is the sweeping philosophical suggestion that our universe, at bottom, is a closed system. Within the framework of a closed system, physics hopes to build up a description of what will happen by extrapolating from what has already happened. The belief of materialism is that things are� =LE;8D<EK8CCP� U9L@CK� LGV� K?@J�way, from little pieces pushed around by big laws. Physics observes an underlying mathematical orderliness in the nature of thingsH materialism asserts that this order is in some way responsible for governing the things themselves. In material@JD��K?<I<�@J�EF�JL:?�K?@E>�8J�UFLKJ@;<�@EK<IM<EK@FEV�/?<I<�8I<� EF� JLIGI@J<J� /?<I<� 8I<� EF� UD@I8:C<JV� $= � @K�D8B<J� 8EP�sense at all to ask why something happened a certain way, the only possible answer for the materialist is, “Because it had certain physical causes that made�@K�?8GG<E�K?8K�N8PV��LK�J<<�the Quantum Endnote [8].) This is the materialistic vision.

At the very least, I hope to convince you that the philosophy of materialism is not at all obvious, and should not 9<�8::<GK<;�LEHL<JK@FE@E>CP��=K<I�8CC��N?P�J?FLC;�<C<:KIFEJ�>F�N?@QQ@E>�8IFLE;�JL9A<:K�KF�DPJK<I@FLJ�D8K?<D8K@:8C�C8NJ��2?8K� 8I<� K?<J<� C8NJ� 8EPN8P��2?<I<� ;@;� K?<P� :FD<� =IFD��E;��N?8K�8I<�K?<�C8NJ�D8;<�F=��-<D<D9<I�K?8K�@E�8�D8K<I@8C@JK@:�G?@CFJFG?P�K?@J�@J�K?<�YIJK�8E;�DFJK�J<EJ@9C<�HL<JK@FE�K?8K�N<�J?FLC;�8JB��I<�K?<P�D8;<�F= �D8KK<I��I<�K?<P�>CF9J�

“Materialism is not the same thing as science. Rather, it is the much bolder philosophical claim that there is nothing at all outside of G?PJ@:8C�D8K<I@8C�I<8C@KPV

F= � <E<I>P�� $= � K?<P� 8I<� E<@K?<I� F= � K?<J<� K?@E>J�� K?<E� N?8K��Materialism does not admit the existence of the immaterial. �I<�K?<�C8NJ�K?<DJ<CM<J�8E�UFLKJ@;<�@EZL<E:<V�FE�K?<�JPJK<D��:FEKI8;@:K@E>�D8K<I@8C@JDXJ�8JJLDGK@FE�K?8K�K?<I<�8I<�EF�FLKJ@;<�@EZL<E:<J�

�LK�N<�N@CC� G8JJ�FM<I� K?<J<�HL<JK@FEJ�� 8E;� @EJK<8;� KLIE�FLI�JB<GK@:@JD�KF�8�D8KK<I�F= �DFI<�G<IJFE8C� @DGFIK8E:<�� @= �materialism is true, then what does that say about my own D@E;��2?8K�NFLC;�@K�D<8E�@= �<M<IPK?@E>��=IFD�K?<�NFIB@E>J�of my mind to every thought that I think, could be completely <OGC8@E<;�9P�G?PJ@:8C�:8LJ<J�

There are many, many issues which could be raised at this point, including those of free will, ethics, and the self, 9LK�=FI�EFN�N<�N@CC�:FE:<EKI8K<�FE�ALJK�FE<�GIF9C<D��K?FL>?�perhaps the most fundamental of them all. I will argue that materialism destroys the dearest treasure of all philosophers 8E;�J:@<EK@JKJ�8C@B<��E8D<CP��BEFNC<;><�@KJ<C=�2<�:8CC�K?@J�K?<��I>LD<EK�!IFD�-<8JFE��materialism excludes the possibility of us having any knowledge.

/F�9<>@E�N@K?��N<�;<YE<�UBEFNC<;><V�8::FI;@E>�KF�K?<�philosophical notion of��!� �(�� !��. For something to be BEFNC<;><�� $�DLJK�9<C@<M<�@K��@K�DLJK�9<�KIL<��8E;��$�must have some reason to believe it. This last criterion will be the most important for this discussion. There are many possible reasons for my belief, such as “because I see it right in =IFEK�F= �D<�V�FI�U9<:8LJ<�DP�<OG<I@<E:<�K<CCJ�D<�K?8K�@K�@J�JF�V�

FI�U9<:8LJ<�DP�KILJKNFIK?P�=I@<E;�KFC;�D<�JFV��LK��$�DLJK�have some reason to believe.

'<K�LJ�I<M@<N�K?<�98J@:�@;<8J�F= �D8K<I@8C@JD��8��<M<IPthing that exists could, in principle, be explained by physical material causes, and furthermore, (b) the only sort of explanation that can be given for why anything happens is a physical explanation.

With this in mind, let us now consider knowledge in light of materialism. If materialism is true, then by premise (a), there is in principle a physical explanation or a physical material U:8LJ<V�=FI�K?<J<�K?FL>?KJ�/F�K?<�D8K<I@8C@JK��DP�K?FL>?KJ�8I<�K?<�:FEJ<HL<E:<�F= �JFD<�@DD<EJ<CP�:FDGC@:8K<;�:?<D@:8C�9LKK<IZP<==<:K�I<JLCK@E>�=IFD�8CC�K?<�JK@DLC@�DP�9F;P�?8J�been exposed to over my lifetime. Moreover, the only sort of U:8LJ<V�DP�K?FL>?KJ�:8E�?8M<� @J� K?<�G?PJ@:8C��D8K<I@8C�M8I@ety. There is nothing else governing my thoughts, since from the materialist perspective there is no other sort of causation. /?8KXJ�8CC� M<IP�K?FL>?K�F= �D@E<�NFLC;�?8M<�KF�9<�<EK@I<CP�automatic, programmed into me by the laws of physics8.

Here, then, is my central argument. If physics, and physics alone, completely governs my thoughts, then I say there is no reason to believe my thoughts ought to be true because the physical explanation for a thought makes no reference to the logical truth of those thoughts. The physical explanaK@FE�;<8CJ�N@K?�<C<:KIFEJ�8E;�HL8IBJ�8E;�K?<�#@>>J�9FJFE�But how can we get from these physical things to the logical KILK?�F= �8�JK8K<D<EK��$E�I<8C�C@=<��N< don’t see any connection between physical causation and logical truth. Quite the opGFJ@K<��@K�@J�G<I=<:KCP�GFJJ@9C<�KF�>@M<�8 physical explanation for a logically false� K?FL>?K�$K�;F<JEXK�9I<8B�K?<� C8NJ�F= �G?PJ@:J�=FI�D<�KF�K?@EB��U$�8D�8�(8IK@8EV�+<I?8GJ�$�?8M<�K8B<E�'.��8E;�?8M<�9<:FD<�HL@K<�:FEM@E:<;�K?8K�$�8D�8�(8IK@8E�The laws of physics allowed this to happen.�/?<�HL<JK@FE��K?<E��@J�N?P�I should believe that any thoughts I am currently having are true ones. For if materialism is true, then any allegedly true K?FL>?KJ� F= �D@E<� S� J8P�� U$� ?8;� G8E:8B<J� =FI� 9I<8B=8JKV� S�

“[I]f materialism is true, then what ;F<J�K?8K�J8P�89FLK�DP�FNE�D@E;��What would it mean if everything, including the workings of my mind, including every thought that I think, could in principle be completely explained by physical :8LJ<J�V


C@E<8><��KI8:@E>�98:B�KF�K?<�M<IP�YIJK�:<CC��@= �N<�9<C@<M<�@E�8�single origin of life). Every creature that survives can consider itself a winner in the evolutionary struggle for exisK<E:<��K?<�98:K<I@LD�8E;�K?<�E<D8KF;<�ALJK�8J�DL:?�8J�K?<�ape. So we conclude that there is no reason to believe that the evolutionary process tends towards complex minds or true thoughts, except by coincidence alone.

$K�N@CC�9<�F9A<:K<;�K?8K�N<�?8M<�FECP�:FEKI8JK<;�8E@D8CJ�N@K?�:FDGC<O�D@E;J��UD@E;<;V�8E@D8CJ��N@K?�D@E;C<JJ�FE<J�We have not given any examples of how an animal whose thoughts fundamentally misrepresent the world could possibly compete with an animal that thinks true thoughts. Yet in reply, I would say that materialism sees no distinction between minded and mindless animals. The materialistic mind @J��8K�9FKKFD��8LKFD8K@:�(FI<FM<I��FLI�JL9A<:K@M<�<OG<I@<E:<�of the world is irrelevant to natural selectionH the only thing that matters is how an organism responds to its environment. It is not essential that the animal should be aware of what @K�@J�;F@E>��FI�N?P�@K�@J�;F@E>�@K��ALJK�8J�CFE>�8J�@K�JK8PJ�8C@M<�and keeps reproducing. Bacteria and beetles and the roaches @E��LEJK<I�#FLJ<�:8E�JLIM@M<�FE�U8LKFG@CFKV�.F�:FD9@E@E>�all these ideas, we can imagine an animal whose thoughts are completely meaningless, even false, but whose instincts are accurate enough to keep it alive. What evolutionary reason is K?<I<�KF�JLGGFJ<�K?8K�N<�8I<�8EP�;@==<I<EK�=IFD�K?@J�8E@D8C��You may say that our thoughts affect our decisions, but this presupposes a certain notion of free will which most materi

8C@JKJ�NFLC;�;<EP�/?<J<�HL<JK@FEJ�:8EEFK�9<�8EJN<I<;�=LCCP�?<I<��9LK�@K�JL=Y:<J�KF�J8P�K?8K�@E�K?<�D8K<I@8C@JK@:�M@J@FE��K?<�accuracy of human thought is not at all assured.

The second weakness in the Evolutionary Argument is that even if� K?<I<�N<I<�J@>E@Y:8EK�J<C<:K@M<�GI<JJLI<J�=8MFI@E>�a complex mind, natural selection could never select for the truth or falsity of any individual thoughtH it could only select for genes that promote thought patterns advantageous to survival 8E;�I<GIF;L:K@FE�0EC<JJ�K?<�><E<K@:@JKJ�D8E8><�KF�LE:FM<I�a strong connection between the expression of certain genes and the possession of certain true beliefs, the Evolutionary Argument cannot give me a reason to believe any particular thought of mine is true. At best, we might be able to say that a belief of mine shows useful cognitive abilities (like abstract reasoning, or pattern recognition), which could have a genetic origin and could also have survival and reproductive advantages. Yet the truth or falsity of the belief itself – whether it 9<��FG<IE@:LJXJ�?<C@F:<EKI@:�DF;<C�F= � K?<�LE@M<IJ<��FI� @E

“[The Evolutionary Argument]GIFGFJ<J� K?8K�N<� :8E� ALJK@=P� FLI�beliefs, even if they are completely explained by physical causes, by 8GG<8C@E>�KF�E8KLI8C�J<C<:K@FEV

:8LJ<J��9P�8GG<8C@E>�KF�E8KLI8C�J<C<:K@FE��@��FLI�D@E;J�8I<�8K�least partially governed by our genesH (ii) over time, the effect F= �E8KLI8C�J<C<:K@FE�FE�8�GFGLC8K@FE�@J�KF�@E:I<8J<�K?<�=I<HL<Ecy of genes that confer an increased likelihood of survival and reproductionH (iii) having a mind whose thoughts accurately I<Z<:K� K?<� <OK<IE8C� NFIC;� :FE=<IJ� 8� JLIM@M8C� 8E;� I<GIF;L:tive advantageH (iv) therefore, I do have reason to believe my thoughts are probably true, and better yet, I have a mechanism by which truth could emerge from pure physics.

I see two main weaknesses in the Evolutionary Argument. /?<�YIJK�@J�98J<;�LGFE�K?<�><E<I8C�GI@E:@GC<�K?8K�N<�J?FLC;�be very cautious before proposing that evolution necessarily approaches any kind of end goal. Evolution is random. Why, then, should evolution select for the ability to think logically KIL<�K?FL>?KJ�S�FI�K?<�89@C@KP�KF�K?@EB�8K�8CC��=FI�K?8K�D8KK<I��Evolution selects for survival and reproductive ability alone. So, there is no reason at all to suppose that a mind capable of thinking logically true thoughts is in any way a necessary end product of evolution, nor even a probable one. Extremophile bacteria like Deinococcus radiodurans, which can survive nuclear fallout and the vacuum of space, would probably consider themselves much better adapted for survival and reproduction than any Homo sapiens – if they could think, that is. For this reason, it is a very unhelpful misuse of language that we J8P�K?8K�?LD8EJ�8I<�K?<�DFJK�U?@>?CP�<MFCM<;V�JG<:@<J�FE�K?<�GC8E<K�/?@J�@J�ALJK�8EK?IFGF:<EKI@JD�$E�K?<�JKI@:K�J<EJ<��<M<IP�C@M@E>�JG<:@<J�@J�ALJK�8J�U?@>?CP�<MFCM<;V�8J�<M<IP�FK?<I�JG<:@<J��J@E:<�<M<IP�JG<:@<J�:FD<J�=IFD�8E�<HL8CCP�CFE>�<MFCLK@FE8IP�

were produced in me by the same universal, inexorable C8NJ�K?8K�GIF;L:<;�K?<�=8CJ<�K?FL>?K�U$�8D�8�(8IK@8EV�3FL�N@CC�JLI<CP�F9A<:K�K?8K�$�N8J�FE�'.��N?<E�$�K?FL>?K�$�N8J�8�(8IK@8E�� K?LJ�� K?8K� K?FL>?K�N8J� ALJK� K?<�I<JLCK�F= �JFD<�N8:BP�:?<D@:8C�I<8:K@FE��LK�K?8KXJ�<O8:KCP�K?<�GF@EK�/F�K?<�D8K<I@8C@JK��DP�D@E;�@J�8CN8PJ�UFE�;IL>J�V�@= �N<�K8B<�U;IL>JV�KF�D<8E�:?<D@:8C�JL9JK8E:<J�F= �FE<�sort or another. To the materialist, my thoughts consist entirely�F= �UN8:BP�:?<D@:8C�I<8:K@FEJ�V�8E;�K?8KXJ�@K�2?P��then, should there be any reason why we would get logi:8C�KILK?�FLK�F= �8�:?<D@:8C�I<8:K@FE�

This understanding of thoughts is disastrous since, to the materialist, the only acceptable sort of explanation for anything is a physical explanation (according to premise (b)). So if physics does not provide reasonable ALJK@Y:8K@FE�=FI�K?<�KILK?�F= �FLI�K?FL>?KJ��K?<E�K?<�D8K<rialist has nothing left to stand on. There can be no way of separating true thoughts from false ones, for there is nothing but physical laws. Even the laws of logic themselves would be nothing more than arbitrary beliefs pro;L:<;�@E�LJ�8J�8�:FEJ<HL<E:<�F= �9C@E;�G?PJ@:8C�C8NJ�/?LJ��if we have no reason to believe that any of our thoughts are true, we cannot have any knowledge.

At this point, the critical reader might respond, “Per?8GJ� $� :8EXK� GIFM<�9<PFE;� 8� J?8;FN�F= � 8� ;FL9K� K?8K�DP�mind is telling me the truth, but I can still have knowledge. For in my experience, certain beliefs have always worked. They are consistent with one anotherH they have withstood whatever tests or experiments I have performedH they have kept me alive and well fed thus farH what further reason do I E<<;�KF�9<C@<M<�K?<D�V

The idea that my beliefs ought to be trustworthy because they keep me alive is expressed in its strongest form as the EvoluK@FE8IP��I>LD<EK�/?@J�8I>LD<EK�GIFGFJ<J�K?8K�N<�:8E�ALJK@=P�our beliefs, even if they are completely explained by physical

“If physics and physics alone completely governs my thoughts, then I say there is no reason to believe my thoughts ought to be true because the physical explanation for a thought makes no reference to the logical truth of K?FJ<�K?FL>?KJV


JK<@EXJ� K?<FIP�F= �I<C8K@M@KP��FI��?I@JK@8E@KP��FI� K?<�G?@CFJFG?P�of materialism – offers us no evolutionary advantage whatsoever. Even though we might be capable of knowing the truth 89FLK� K?<�DFJK�98J@:�F9J<IM89C<� =8:KJ�� JL:?�8J�U � ��V�FI�UK?<I<�@J�8�?FI;<�F= ��LEJK<I�IF8:?<J�:?8J@E>�D<�V�N<�:FLC;EXK�be certain that we know the truth about many of the ideas most important to us.

All this being granted, the materialist might raise another B@E;�F= �:I@K@:@JD��?8J�FLI�JB<GK@:@JD�JG@I8C<;�FLK�F= �:FEKIFC��8E�K?<�EFED8K<I@8C@JK�GIFGFJ<�8EP�G?@CFJFG?@:8CCP�I@>FIFLJ�basis for knowledge that meets his own standards of skepti:@JD��/?@J�@J�JFD<K?@E>�F= �8�;@>I<JJ@FE��8E;�;F<J�EFK�;@I<:KCP�refute the original argument, but I think it is a very reason89C<�;@>I<JJ@FE�$E�I<JGFEJ<��$�K?@EB�K?8K�K?<�EFED8K<I@8C@JK�@J�@E�8�DL:?�9<KK<I�GFJ@K@FE�K?8E�K?<�D8K<I@8C@JK��J@E:<�K?<�EFED8K<I@8C@JK� 8K� C<8JK�;F<J�EFK�:FEKI8;@:K�?@DJ<C=�/F� K?<�EFEmaterialist, there is plenty of room left for an immaterial mind capable of real knowledge. Materialism, on the other hand, is 8�M<IP�I<JKI@:K@M<�G?@CFJFG?P��@K�GI<J<EKJ�8E�8=YID8K@M<�M@J@FE�of a world where the immaterial mind does not exist.

/?<I<� @J� FE<� YE8C� DFM<� K?<� D8K<I@8C@JK� :FLC;� D8B<� 8K�K?@J�GF@EK��U.F�N?8K�V� M<E�@= �8CC�K?<J<�8I>LD<EKJ�8I<�JFLE;��and materialism @J� J<C=;<=<8K@E>�� 8E;� K?<I<� KILCP� :8E�9<� EF�BEFNC<;><�@E�K?@J�NFIC;��JF�N?8K��(8P9<�K?<�NFIC;�@J�C@B<�K?8K�Maybe there is no reason to believe the thoughts of my mind. /?<E�N?8K��2?F�:8E�8I>L<�8>8@EJK�K?<�D8E�N?F�;F<J�EFK�9<C@<M<�@E�KILK?��$K�DLJK�9<�EFK<;�K?8K�K?@J�@J�EF�CFE><I�8�;<=<EJ<�of materialism but an entirely different philosophy, namely, total skepticism9. $�;FEXK�K?@EB�K?8K�D8K<I@8C@JKJ�8I<�KFK8C�JB<GK@:J��and if they are, then they are certainly no longer materialists. But perhaps this is the topic for another philosoramble.

This concludes our brief sketch of the Argument From Reason and its counterarguments. We have argued that maK<I@8C@JD�DLJK�9<�I<A<:K<;�9<:8LJ<�8�D8K<I@8C@JK@:�D@E;�;F<J�not allow the possibility of human knowledge, and therefore contradicts even itself as a way of knowing and understanding the world. Yet it feels as though we still have a long way to >F�9<=FI<�N<�:8E�J8M<�-<8JFE�2?<I<�;F�N<�>F�=IFD�?<I<��$= �N<�8CCFN�K?<�GFJJ@9@C@KP�F= �8E�@DD8K<I@8C�F9A<:K@M<�I<8C@KP��K?<E�?FN�:8E�N<�8GGIF8:?�JL:?�8�I<8C@KP��2?8K�@J�@K��2?8KXJ�@K�C@B<��#FN�:8E�N<�LE;<IJK8E;�@K��FLC;��?I@JK@8E@KP�KILCP�8::FLEK�for the frustration of the human condition, in which we are :I<8KLI<J�LE;<E@89CP�9FLE;�LG� @E� K?<�D8K<I@8C�NFIC;�� @EZLenced and conditioned by the everyday material realities that N<�J<<�8E;�?<8I��<M<IP;8P�I<8C@K@<J�N?@:?�JF�F=K<E�;FEXK�D8B<�J<EJ<��E;� :FLC;� �?I@JK@8E@KP� <OGC8@E� K?<� ?FG<� F= � K?<� ?Lman condition, that we have something like Reason (though we so often choose not to follow our Reason), and Freedom (though we so often cling to those things that only diminish that Freedom), and Self (though we hopelessly misunderstand FLI�.<CM<J�8J�9<@E>�D<8EK�=FI�.<CYJ?E<JJ��:<EKI8C�K?<D<�F= �the Christian faith is that God promises that those who seek

#@D�N@K?� 8CC� K?<@I�?<8IK� J?8CC�YE;�EFK�FECP� K?<@I�!I<<;FD��"8C�� 8E;�K?<@I�.<C= �� G?��9LK�8CJF�8�YID�98J@J�=FI�-<8JFE� 8E;�&EFNC<;><� ��FC� �� $= �N<� J<<B� KF� I<;<<D�Reason, the solution is not to resort to material skepticism, but to rely upon the God who supports and redeems all creation – the God who sent wisdom and reason to us, taking FE�K?<�Z<J?�8E;�=FID�F= �8�D8E�@E�?@J�JFE�%<JLJ��?I@JK

5 6��.�'<N@J��Miracles.�(8:D@CC8E� � ��/?@J� 8I>LD<EK� @J� =FLE;� @E��?8GK<I��U/?<��8I;@E8C��@=Y:LCKP�F= �)8KLI8C@JDV

[2]. Blaise Pascal, Pensées,��U!FI� @K� @J� @DGFJJ@9C<� K?8K�FLI� I8K@FE8C�G8IK� J?FLC;�be other than spiritualH and if any one maintain that we are simply corporeal, this would far more exclude us from the knowledge of things, there being nothing so inconceivable as to say that matter knows itself. It is impossible to imagine how it should know itself. So, if we are simply material, we can know nothing at allH ... Hence it comes that almost all philosophers have confused ideas of things, and JG<8B�F= �D8K<I@8C�K?@E>J�@E�JG@I@KL8C�K<IDJ��8E;�F= �JG@I@KL8C�K?@E>J�@E�D8K<I@8C�K<IDJV

5�6��FII<JGFE;<E:<�F= ��?8IC<J��8IN@E�KF�2@CC@8D�"I8?8D��%LCP�� 8::<Jsible online at� ?KKG��NNN;8IN@EGIFA<:K8:LB�<EKIP �� U)<M<IK?<C<JJ� PFL�have expressed my inward conviction, though far more vividly and clearly than I :FLC;�?8M<�;FE<��K?8K�K?<�0E@M<IJ<�@J�EFK�K?<�I<JLCK�F= �:?8E:<��LK�K?<E�N@K?�D<�K?<�?FII@;�;FL9K�8CN8PJ�8I@J<J�N?<K?<I�K?<�:FEM@:K@FEJ�F= �D8EXJ�D@E;��N?@:?�?8J�9<<E�developed from the mind of the lower animals, are of any value or at all trustworthy. 2FLC;�8EP�FE<�KILJK�@E�K?<�:FEM@:K@FEJ�F= �8�DFEB<PXJ�D@E;��@= �K?<I<�8I<�8EP�:FEM@:K@FEJ�@E�JL:?�8�D@E;�V

5�6�"�&��?<JK<IKFE��Orthodoxy,�G��U/?8K�G<I@C�@J�K?8K�K?<�?LD8E�@EK<CC<:K�@J�=I<<�to destroy itself... It is idle to talk always of the alternative of reason and faith. It is an act of faith to assert that our thoughts have any relation to reality at all. If PFL�8I<�D<I<CP�8�JB<GK@:��PFL�DLJK�JFFE<I�FI�C8K<I�8JB�PFLIJ<C= �K?<�HL<JK@FE��W2?P�J?FLC;�8EPK?@E>�>F�I@>?K��<M<E�F9J<IM8K@FE�8E;�;<;L:K@FE��2?P�J?FLC;�EFK�>FF;�CF>@:�9<�8J�D@JC<8;@E>�8J�98;� CF>@:��/?<P�8I<�9FK?�DFM<D<EKJ� @E� K?<�9I8@E�F= �8�9<N@C;<I<;�8G<�X�V

[5]. J B S Haldane, Possible Worlds and Other Essays,�G��

5�6��CM@E�+C8EK@E>8�� )�� $�� !��*O=FI;�0E@M<IJ@KP�+I<JJ��0.��<:<D9<I��

5�6�/?FD8J�)8><C� Mind and Cosmos: Why the Materialist Neo-Darwinian Conception of Nature is Almost Certainly False.�*O=FI;�0E@M<IJ@KP�+I<JJ��0.��.<GK<D9<I��

5�6�$E�JG<8B@E>�F= �UG?PJ@:8C�:8LJ<JV��$�J?FLC;�EFK�GI<JLGGFJ<�K?8K�K?<�LE@M<IJ<�@J�deterministic. Quantum mechanics complicates things by suggesting that we live in a universe governed by probabilities, where the events themselves are truly ran;FD��EFK�?8M@E>�8EP�;<K<ID@E@JK@:�U:8LJ<V�8K�8CC�$�;FEXK�J<<�K?@J�8J�8�D8AFI�Z8N�@E�the argument. True randomness does not seem like a very secure basis for human BEFNC<;><�/?<I<�@J�8CJF�K?<�HL<JK@FE�F= �N?8K�N<�I<8CCP�D<8E�9P�UI8E;FDE<JJV�If there is a wavefunction specifying the probability of certain events happening, then we might argue that that is already a certain level of structure (why were the GIF989@C@K@<J�J<K�KF�K?FJ<�M8CL<J��N?@:?�:FLC;�?<J@K8EKCP�9<�I<>8I;<;�8J�8�G?PJ@:8C�U:8LJ<V�FI�U<OGC8E8K@FEV�=FI�8E�<M<EK�@E�K?<�J<EJ<�F= �K?@J�8IK@:C<�#FN<M<I��J@E:<�$�8D�8;D@KK<;CP�LE=8D@C@8I�N@K?�HL8EKLD�K?<FIP��$�N@CC�J<K�K?@J�KFG@:�8J@;<�=FI�EFN

5�6�$�8D�LJ@E>�K?<�EFEJK8E;8I;�G?I8J<�UKFK8C�JB<GK@:@JDV�KF�D<8E�G?@CFJFG?@:8C�skepticism (whether Academic or Pyrrhonian), to distinguish it from the everyday sense of the word. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, available online at ?KKG��GC8KFJK8E=FI;<;L, provides a helpful introduction to this topic, and is a great resource in general.

Stephen Mackereth ’15 is a mathematics concentrator in Mather House.

W?P� GI8P��F<J�"F;� <M<E� ?<8I�PFL�� $= � PFLXI<� 8� >FF;� G<IJFE��N?P� EFK� ALJK� <EAFP� C@=<� 8E;�

=FI><K�89FLK�8I:?8@:�I<C@>@FLJ�;<D8E;J��$E�8�� +<N�JLIM<P��8�K?@I;�F= �K?FJ<�LE;<I��I<GFIK<;�

KF�9<�I<C@>@FLJCP�LE8=YC@8K<;1. Those in this growing category F= �UEFE<J�V�F=K<E�;<J:I@9<�K?<DJ<CM<J�8J�UJG@I@KL8C�V�9LK�EFK�UI<C@>@FLJV2 That is, though they usually believe in God, they do not make religious activity a central part of their lives.� To many people in our society, then, prayer and other traditional religious behaviors can seem outmoded and even pointless. With these criticisms in mind, it is important to explore prayer as the central component of the Christian life. In so doing, I hope to demonstrate something of the difference between Christianity and modern attitudes toward spirituality.

+I8P<I� @J� 8� JL9A<:K� 8J� M8JK� 8J� K?<�?LD8E� JFLC�� JF� C<K� LJ�9<>@E�=IFD�K?<�=FLE;8K@FE�8E;�=FCCFN�JFD<�:FEJ<HL<E:<J�

If God exists, prayer cannot be a trivial matter. Indeed, prayer is at the center of Christian cosmologyH it is the crux to understanding human existence and to comprehending the bond between God and humans. As Christians, we

believe God to be present everywhere, within and around us, closer than our own breath. We, however, are rarely :F>E@Q8EK� F= � K?<� @DD<;@8:P� F= �"F;� 8E;� FLI� GI<J<E:<� @E�#@D��P�GI8P@E>��N<�:FEK@EL8CCP�I<:8CC�K?8K�"F;�@J�8E�<M<Ipresent Creator, and that, in reality, our purpose is to love 8E;� 9<� CFM<;� 9P�"F;� +I8P<I� BE@KJ� K?<� JFLCXJ� C@=<� KF><K?<I�N@K?�"F;XJ�<O@JK<E:<��8:BEFNC<;>@E>�K?8K�?LD8E�@;<EK@KP�@J�LCK@D8K<CP�=LCYCC<;�FECP� @E�I<C8K@FE�KF�@KJ��I<8KFI�#<I<��K?<�human soul is called not only to be good, but also to be united with God, to experience God as personal and loving, YCC@E>�<M<IP�G8IK�F= �<O@JK<E:<�"FF;�9<?8M@FI�@J�EFK�K?<�<E;�goal of religious life, but rather only one facet of gaining a ;<<G<I�BEFNC<;><�8E;�G8IK@:@G8K@FE�@E�"F;XJ�<O@JK<E:<�/?@J�is the foundation and the goal of the Christian life. Prayer is the means of reaching this goal.

To this end, prayer may take several forms. Personal, private prayer should be a continuing conversation between the soul and God, in which we withdraw into our own heart to show God our thoughts and hopes. It is often best in its J@DGC<JK� FI� <M<E� NFI;C<JJ� =FID� �J� K?<� K?<FCF>@8E� *C@M@<I�Clement put it, “it may be silent listening, a cry of distress, a :<C<9I8K@FE��@K�D8P�8CJF�9<�%F9XJ�GC8@EK@M<�:?8CC<E><V� Prayer can happen anywhere, at any time, and all the time but

Why +I8P�Margaret Eichner


From his prison cell in Tegel, the German theologian �@<KI@:?��FE?F<==<I��N?F�N8J�K?8K�P<8I�KF�9<�GLK�to death for conspiracy to assassinate the Führer, wrote in a letter to his friends that the time had

come for Christians to “see [things] from below, from the perspective of the outcast, the suspects, the maltreated, K?<�GFN<IC<JJ�� K?<�FGGI<JJ<;�� K?<� I<M@C<;� � @E� J?FIK�� =IFD�K?<� G<IJG<:K@M<� F= � K?FJ<� N?F� JL==<IV1 This line, from �FE?F<==<IXJ� LEYE@J?<;� �� C<KK<I�� N8J� KF� 9<:FD<� K?<�@EJG@I8K@FE� =FI� K?<� K?<FCF>@8E� "LJK8MF� "LK@<II<QXJ� FNE�liberation theology.2 Around the same time Bonhoeffer wrote this letter, the French philosopher Simone Weil, whom Albert Camus had called “the only great spirit of FLI� K@D<J�V� ?8;� ;@<;� @E� 8� J8E8KFI@LD� @E� E>C8E;� 8K� K?<�8><� F= � K?@IKP=FLI�� GIF989CP� =IFD� J<C=JK8IM8K@FE� � $E� ?<I�posthumously published essays, she had written, “Creative attention means really giving our attention to what does EFK�<O@JK��#LD8E@KP�;F<J�EFK�<O@JK�@E�K?<�8EFEPDFLJ�Z<J?�lying inert by the roadside. The Samaritan … stops and CFFBJ�R�'FM<�J<<J�N?8K� @J� @EM@J@9C<V� Thus we have two D<K8G?FIJ� =FI�J<<@E>� @E� K?<��?I@JK@8E� =8@K?�� CFM<�9FK?�J<<J�from below and it sees what is below. It is the view from below and it is the view of below. Given this, the particular

��@<KI@:?��FE?F<==<I�'<KK<IJ�8E;�+8G<IJ�=IFD�+I@JFE� ;� 9<I?8I;��<K?><�)<N�3FIB��/FL:?JKFE<�.@DFE��.:?LJK<I�� +>� �2. This was conveyed to me by personal correspondence with #8IM<P��FO��N?F�?8;�:FII<JGFE;<;�N@K?�"LK@<II<Q�I<>8I;@E>�K?@J��.@DFE<�2<@C��28@K@E>�!FI�"F;��#8IG<I��FCC@EJ� �� DD8�Craufurd, trans., Pg.92

;@=Y:LCKP�=FI��?I@JK@8EJ�@E�K?@J�@DG<I@8C�DFD<EK8�DFD<EK�of economic exploitation, political oppression, and religious C<>@K@D8K@FE� K?<I<F=@J� K?<� K8JB� F= � J<<@E>� K?<� @EM@J@9C<�� 8J�empire betrays a not incidental tendency to render invisible certain elements of itself, preferring instead grand illusions about itself. This tendency is best explained by Freud as ?<�8I>L<J� @E��@M@C@Q8K@FE�8E;�@KJ��@J:FEK<EKJ�K?8K�K?<�DFI<�:@M@C@Q<;�8�JF:@<KP� @J�� K?<�DFI<�I<GI<JJ<;� @K� @J� �/?@J�J?FLC;�9<� I8K?<I� @EKL@K@M<�� K?<� DFI<� :@M@C@Q<;� 8� JF:@<KP� :FEJ@;<IJ�itself, the more it must hide from itself in order to maintain that image. Thus the poet William Butler Yeats once wrote, “Civilisation is hooped together, brought under a rule, under K?<�J<D9C8E:<�F= �G<8:<�9P�D8E@=FC;�@CCLJ@FEV� The problem for Christians is thus the problem of invisibility, which empire exacerbates, for in empire, that which is unsightly is exported from the collective imagination.

$E�?@J�9FFB� DG@I<�F= �$CCLJ@FE��K?<�+LC@KQ<I+I@Q<�N@EE@E>�AFLIE8C@JK� �?I@J� #<;><J� 8I>L<J� K?8K� <DG@I<� ;<G<E;J� FE� 8�certain false image of itself. It must engage in a collective delusion. The signs of such delusion abound, and Hedges ;F:LD<EKJ�K?<J<�@E�?@J�9FFB��9LK�N<�:8E�<M<E�YE;�8�GC<K?FI8�F= �K?<J<�FE�FLI�FNE�@= �N<�:8I<�KF�CFFB��/?<�FK?<IN@J<�HL@K<�inexplicable American obsession with incarceration is a K<CC@E>�<O8DGC<��/?<�0E@K<;�.K8K<J�9F8JKJ�K?<�?@>?<JK�GI@JFE�GFGLC8K@FE�@E�K?<�NFIC;��?@>?<I�K?8E�<M<E�-LJJ@8XJ�FI��?@E8XJ�� M@;<EKCP��FM<I�?8C= �F= �8CC�@ED8K<J�8I<�K?<I<�=FI�;IL>I<C8K<;�:I@D<J��/?<�0E@K<;�.K8K<J�@J�8CJF�8CFE<�@E�CF:B@E>�LG�ALM<E@C<J�without the possibility of parole, of which Professor Noam �?FDJBP�NI@K<J��U.L:?�GI8:K@:<J�8I<�@E�M@FC8K@FE�F= �K?<�0)��/8B<E�=IFD�8�GF<D��U(<ILV

�?I@JK@8E@KP�8E;�K?<�"8Q<&<CCP�(8<J?@IF

should also be practiced as a regular, continuing discipline. 5Accordingly, many Christians establish patterns of regular, ;<;@:8K<;� GI8P<I�� <OK<E;@E>� 9<PFE;� :LIJFIP� I<HL<JKJ� =FI�help. For instance, denominations that follow ancient prayer GI8:K@:<J�=FID8C@Q<�8�:P:C<�F= �:FDDLE8C�8E;�G<IJFE8C�GI8P<I�that lasts continually through every day and year. This high JK8E;8I;�=FI�8��?I@JK@8EXJ�G8IK@:@G8K@FE�@E�GI8P<I�J?FLC;�9<�8�reminder that God is meant to pervade all of our existence.

�FDDLE8C�GI8P<I�@J�<HL8CCP�:<EKI8C�KF�K?<��?I@JK@8E�C@=<��P�<E>8>@E>�N@K?�8�:FDDLE@KP�@E�G<K@K@FEJ�8E;�>CFI@Y:8K@FE�

of God, a Christian acknowledges that he or

she is part of a body of believers extending through time and space, participating together @E�"F;XJ� GI<J<E:<� 8E;�grace. Thus, our bond

to our fellow human 9<@E>J� @J� :FEJ<HL<EKCP�

grounded in shared unity with God.

Whether communal or personal, prayer is a

conversation. Without c o n v e r s a t i o n ,

relationships are never begun, and without concent ra t ed

c o nve r s a t i o n , a relationship r e m a i n s

u n d e v e l o p e d . �J� 8E� 8E8CF>P�� C<KXJ� J8P�a fascinating, but rather

mysterious person sits across =IFD� PFL� 8K� 8� G8IKP� �F�

you simply speculate about them, or do you walk over and @E@K@8K<�8�:FEM<IJ8K@FE��*=K<E��FLI�I<C8K@FEJ?@G�

with God continues as speculation because

we do not start the conversation. Both initiating

and sustaining a good relationship take effort and sometimes frustration, but

the rewards of dedication are boundless. While

speculation about God may be safer and may be easier, His I<8C@KP�@J�=8I�>I<8K<I�8E;�DFI<�9<8LK@=LC�K?8E�:FEA<:KLI<��8E;�deserves the effort and dedication on our part to experience it in our own lives.

0CK@D8K<CP�� GI8P<I� @J� 89FLK� I<C8K@FEJ?@G� N@K?� "F;�$K� @J� 8� I<:F>E@K@FE� K?8K� @E�"F;� 8CFE<� @J� K?<� JFLCXJ� C@=<� 8E;�ultimate purpose. Because Christians seek a God who knows them intimately and powerfully, they participate in the conversation that is GI8P<I� �<J:I@9@E>� K?@J�search for God, the *IK?F;FO� �?I@JK@8E�writer Tito Colliander observed, “[W]ithout prayer you can never <OG<:K� KF� YE;� N?8K� PFL�are seeking. Prayer is the beginning and the basis of all striving towards "F;V� !FI�� UGI8P<I� >@M<J�K?<�YIJK�?@EKJ�F= �N?8K�PFL�8I<�J<<B@E>��8E;�@K�8N8B<EJ�8E;�JLJK8@EJ�K?<�;<J@I<�KF�>F�=LIK?<IV� Thus, our life of prayer actively engages us in a continually growing connection with a very real and loving God. You alone, however, have the responsibility of starting the conversation.

5 6/?<�+<N�!FILD�FE�-<C@>@FE��+L9C@:�'@=<�UX)FE<JX�FE�K?<�-@J<V�?KKG��NNNG<N=FILDFI>�0E8=YC@8K<;�EFE<JFEK?<I@J<aspx[2]Ibid.5�6.<<�+LKE8D��-F9<IK�8E;��8M@;� ��8DG9<CC��D<I@:8E�"I8:<��#FN�-<C@>@FE��@M@;<J�8E;�0E@K<J�0J�)<N�3FIB��.@DFE��.?LJK<I�� 5�6�C<D<EK��*C@M@<I�/?<�-FFKJ�F= ��?I@JK@8E�(PJK@:@JD�#P;<�+8IB��)3��)<N��@KP�+I<JJ�� [5]Some Christian traditions see literally continual prayer as the ideal for which one should strive. Practices such as monasticism 8E;�K?<�%<JLJ�GI8P<I�@E�K?<�*IK?F;FO�KI8;@K@FE�8@D�KF�GI<G8I<�=FI�the state of continuous prayer expected in heaven. For the most commonly cited passage of Scripture to this effect, see 1 Thess �� .1�U-<AF@:<�8CN8PJ��GI8P�N@K?FLK�:<8J@E>��>@M<�K?8EBJ�in all circumstancesH for this is the will of God in Christ Jesus for PFLV5�6�FCC@8E;<I��/@KF�/?<�28P�F= �K?<��J:<K@:J�.8E�!I8E:@J:F��#8IG<I�-FN��

Margaret Eichner ‘14 is a History concentrator in Winthrop House.

Whether communal or personal, prayer is a conversation. Without conversation, relationships are never begun, and without concentrated conversation, a relationship remains undeveloped.

the harvard ichthusMy beggar’s hands reach out to you Like napkins stained by foul refuse. My...

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