The Hallmarks of Scientific Research

Chapter 2

SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

Research Methods: Chapter 2

The Hallmarks of Scientific Research Limitations to scientific research in the management The building blocks of science and hypo-thetico

deductive method of research Seven steps of hypo-thetico deductive method Other types of research (Case studies and Action research)

Introduction to Research

TOPICS



The Hallmarks of Scientific Research;

1. P2. R3. T4. R5. P6. O7. G8. P

1. G2. O3. P4. P5. P6. R7. T8. R

Main Characteristics

1. Purposiveness2. Rigor3. Testability4. Replicability5. Precision and Confidence6. Objectivity7. Generalizability8. Parsimony



1. P2. R3. T4. R5. P6. O7. G8. P

1. G2. O3. P4. P5. P6. R7. T8. R

Main Characteristics

Purposiveness

It has to start with a definite aim or purpose. The focus is on increasing employee commitment. Increase employee commitment will translate into

Less turnover Less absenteeism Increased performance levels

Thus it has a purposive focus.



Purposiveness

A good theoretical base and sound methodological design would add rigor to the purposive study.

Rigor adds carefulness, accuracy and the degree of exactitude in research.

Example: A manager asks only from 10-12 employees how to

increase the level of commitment. And on the basis of their responses the manager reaches

to conclusions on how commitment can be increased? Whole approach to the investigation would be unscientific. It would lack rigor for the following reasons



Rigor

1. Based on few employees’ opinion that does not represent the whole population

2. Bias and incorrectness in the responses3. There might be other influences on commitment which are

ignored and are important for a researcher to know

Rigorous involves good theoretical base and thought out methodology.

These factors enable the researcher to collect the right kind of information from an appropriate sample with the minimum degree of bias and facilitate suitable analysis of the data gathered.



After random selection manager and researcher develop certain hypothesis on how manager employee commitment can be enhanced, then these can be tested by applying certain statistical tests to the data collected for the purpose.

If the scientific analysis of data supports the hypothesis, it is accepted as a fact or as truth.

The researcher might hypothesize that those employees who perceive greater opportunities for participation in decision making would have a higher level of commitment.



Testability

It means that the results of the tests of hypotheses should be supported again and yet again when the same type of research is repeated in other similar circumstances.

Example: The study concludes that participation in decision making is

one of the most important factors that influences the commitment, we will place more faith and credibility in these finding and apply in similar situations.

To the extent that this does happen, we will gain confidence in the scientific nature of our research.

Every object is attracted to the center of the earth.



Replicability

Precision refers to the closeness of the findings to “reality” based on a sample.

It reflects the degree of accuracy and exactitude of the results of the sample.

Example: If a supervisor estimated the number of production days

lost during the year due to absenteeism at between 30 and 40, as against the actual of 35.

The precision of estimation more favorably than if he has indicated that the loss of production days was somewhere between 20 and 50.



Precision and Confidence

Confidence refers to the probability that our estimations are correct.

That is, it is not merely enough to be precise, but it is also important that we can confidently claim that 95% of the time our results would be true and there is only a 5% chance of our being wrong.

This is also known as confidence level.



Precision and Confidence

The conclusions drawn through the interpretation of the results of data analysis should be objective; that is, they should be based on the facts of the findings derived from actual data, and not on our subjective or emotional values.

Example: If we had a hypothesis that stated that greater participation in

decision making will increase organizational commitment and this was not supported by the results, it makes no sense if the researcher continues to argue that increased opportunities for employee participation would still help!



Objectivity

It refers to the scope of applicability of the research findings in one organization setting to other settings.

Example: If a researcher’s findings that participation in decision making

enhances organizational commitment are found to be true in a variety of manufacturing, industrial and service organizations, and not merely in the particular organization studied by the researcher, then the Generalizability of the findings to other organizational settings in enhanced.



Generalizability

Simplicity in explaining the phenomenon or problems that occur, and in generating solutions for the problems, is always preferred to complex research frameworks that consider an unmanageable number of factors.

Example: For instance, if 2-3 specific variables in the work situation are

identified, which when changed would raise the organizational commitment of the employees by 45%, that would be more useful and valuable to the manager than

if it were recommended that he should change 10 different variables to increase organizational commitment by 48%.



Parsimony

It is not possible to conduct 100% scientific research studies.

It is due to human behavior being studied. Data collection in the subjective areas of feelings, moods,

attitudes and perceptions may not be 100% accurate. Sometimes, the obstacle is due to lack of a representative

sample.

Obstacles or Limitations

In business Research:


The Building Blocks of science in Research;

A sales manager might observe that customers are perhaps not as pleased as they used to be.

This process of observation of the situation is what gets most of the research started

Now the manager is to determine weather there is a real problem if it is so then how serious it is?



Observation: Example

This problem identification calls for some preliminary data gathering

The manager might talk casually to a few customers to find out how they feel about the products and customer service

During these conversation the manager might find that the customers like the products but are upset because of the stocks availability

And they perceive the salesperson as not being helpful



The problem identification:

From discussions with the salespersons, the manager might discover that the factory does not supply the goods on time and promise new delivery dates that it fails on occasions to keep.

Salespersons might also indicate that they try to please and retain the customers by communication the delivery dates given by the factory.

Gathered information helped the manager to determine that the problem does exist.



The problem identification:

Gathered information also helps the manager to formulate a conceptual model and theoretical framework of all the factors contributing to the problems.

In this case there is a network of connections among the following factors. Delays by the factory in delivering the goods The notification of later delivery dates are not kept Salesperson’s promises can not be fulfilled All of them contribute to customer dissatisfaction



Theoretical Framework:

From the theoretical framework several hypotheses can be generated and tested to determine if the data support them.

Concepts are then operationally defined so that they can be measured



Hypotheses:

A research design is set up to decide on, among other issues to collect further data, analyze and interpret them.

And finally to provide an answer to the problem. The process of drawing from logical analysis an

inference that declare to be conclusive is called deduction.



A research design:

Answers to issues can be found either by the;

Process of Induction Process of Deduction, By a combination of the two.



Deduction and Inductions


Deduction & Induction Methods in Research;

1) Identify a broad problem area

2) Define the problem statement

3) Develop hypotheses

4) Determine measures

5) Data collection

6) Data analysis

7) Interpretation of data


The Hypothetico-Deductive Method;

The Seven-step Process

Observation is the first stage, in which one senses that certain changes are occurring or that some new behaviors, attitudes and feelings are surfacing in one’s environment (i.e., the work place). Drop in sales Frequent production interruptions Customer switching Disinterestedness of employees



Identify a broad problem area

Scientific research starts with a definite aim or purpose It involves the seeking of information in depth, of what is

observed, to find solutions for identified problems A problem statement that states the general objective of the

research should be developed This could be done by talking informally to several people in

the work setting or to clients or to other relevant sources, thereby gathering information on what is happening and why,

Then it is followed by structured interviews.



Define the problem statement

It is an attempt to integrate all the information in a logical manners, so that the factors responsible for the problem can be on conceptualized and tested.

The theoretical framework formulated is often guided by experience and intuition.

In this step the critical variables are identified and examined as to their contribution or influence in explaining why the problem occurs and how it can be solved.

A scientific hypothesis must meet the two criteria Hypothesis must be testable and falsifiable



Develop hypotheses

It is the next logical step after theory formulation.

From the theorized network of associations among the variables, certain testable hypotheses or educated conjectures can be generated.

Hypothesis testing is called deductive research. Sometimes, hypotheses that were not originally formulated do get generated through the process of induction.



Hypothesizing

Measurement of variables (variables and measuring scales)

After the development of the hypotheses, data with respect to each variable in the hypotheses need to be obtained.



Determine measures

Further data are collected to test the hypotheses that are generated in the study.



Data Collection

Data gathered are statistically analyzed to see if the hypotheses that were generated have been supported.

Co-relational method will be used to analyze and determine the relationship of two or more factors in the hypotheses for example:

Stock availability and customer satisfaction.



Data Analysis

Deduction is the process of arriving at conclusions by interpreting the meaning of results of the data analysis.



Interpretation of data

Case studies and action research are sometimes used to study certain types of issues.

1. Case Studies2. Action Research


Other Types of Research;

Other Types

Case studies involve in depth, contextual analyses of similar situations in the other organizations, where the nature and definition of the problem happen to be the same as experienced in the current situation.

Case study, as a problem solving technique, is not often undertaken in organizations

Because such studies dealing with problems similar to the one experienced by a particular organization of a particular size and in a particular type of setting are difficult to come by.



Case Studies

The researcher begins with a problem that is already identified and gathers relevant data to provide a tentative problem solution.

This solution is then implemented, with the knowledge that there may be unintended consequences following such implementation.

The effects are then evaluated, defined and diagnosed and the research continues on an ongoing basis until the problem is fully resolved.


Action Research


The Hallmarks of Scientific Research

Business

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