The Genomics England 100,000 Genomes Project · Confidential: For Review Only The Genomics England...
Transcript of The Genomics England 100,000 Genomes Project · Confidential: For Review Only The Genomics England...
Confidential: For Review Only
The Genomics England 100,000 Genomes Project
Journal: BMJ
Manuscript ID BMJ.2016.036140
Article Type: Analysis
BMJ Journal: BMJ
Date Submitted by the Author: 18-Oct-2016
Complete List of Authors: Turnbull, Clare; Queen Mary University of London, William Harvey Research Institute; Institute of Cancer Research, Scott, Richard; Genomics England; Great Ormond Street Hospital NHS Trust Jones, Louise; Genomics England; Barts Cancer Institute, Queen Mary University of London Thomas, Ellen; Genomics England; Guys and St Thomas NHS Foundation Trust Murugaesu, Nirupa; Genomics England; St George's University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust
Lawson, Kay; Genomics England Henderson, Shirley; Genomics England; Oxford Universities NHS FoundationTrust Hamblin, Angela; Genomics England; Oxford Universities NHS FoundationTrust Ryten, Mina; Genomics England; University College London O’Neill, Amanda; Genomics England Baple, Emma; Genomics England; University of Exeter Smith, Katherine; Genomics England Rueda-Martin, Antonio; Genomics England Smedley, Damian; Genomics England; Queen Mary University of London, William Harvey Research Institute
Patch, Christine; Genomics England; Guys and St Thomas NHS Foundation Trust Alrifai, Doraid; Genomics England; St George's University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust Athanasopoulou, Maria; Genomics England Bari, Wasim; Genomics England Boardman-Pretty, Freya; Genomics England Boustred, Chris; Genomics England Campbell, Chris; Genomics England Coll-Moragon, Jacobo; Genomics England Cranage, Alison; Genomics England
Dinh, Lisa; Genomics England Foulger, Rebecca; Genomics England Furio-Tari, Pedro; Genomics England Gordon, Duncan; Genomics England
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Confidential: For Review OnlyHalai, Dina; Genomics England Haraldsdottir, Eik; Genomics England Jang, Mikyung; Genomics England Leigh, Sarah; Genomics England Logie, Cameron; Genomics England Lopez, Javier; Genomics England McDonagh, Ellen; Genomics England McGrath, Kenan; Genomics England Medina, Ignacio; Genomics England
Mistry, Vanisha; Genomics England Montaner, David; Genomics England Mueller, Michael; Genomics England Nevin-Ridley, Katrina; Genomics England Niblock, Olivia; Genomics England Ocampo, Ernesto; Genomics England Parker, Matthew; Genomics England Prapa, Matina; Genomics England Rendall, Alice; Genomics England; St George's University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust Riley, Laura; Genomics England Rimmer , Andy; Genomics England
Serra, Enric; Genomics England Shallcross, Laura; Genomics England; University College London, Department of Infection and Population Health Simpson, Pauline; Genomics England Sosinsky, Alona; Genomics England Stals, Karen; Genomics England Sultana, Razvan; Genomics England Thompson, Simon; Genomics England Tregidgo, Carolyn; Genomics England Mahon-Pearson, Jeanna; Genomics England Witkowska, Katarzyna; Genomics England; Queen Mary University of
London, William Harvey Research Institute Bale, Mark; Genomics England Fowler, Tom; Genomics England Hubbard, Tim; Genomics England; Kings College London, Medical and Molecular Genetics Rendon, Augusto; Genomics England; University of Cambridge Caulfield, Mark; Genomics England; Queen Mary University of London, William Harvey Research Institute
Keywords: Whole Genome Sequencing, Next Generation Sequencing, Rare Disease, Cancer Genomics, Secondary Findings
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The Genomics England 100,000 Genomes Project Clare Turnbull1-4, Richard Scott1,5, Louise Jones1,6, Ellen Thomas1,2, Nirupa Murugaesu1,7, Mina
Ryten1,2,8, Emma Baple1,9, Amanda O’Neill1,10, Kay Lawson1, Shirley Henderson1,11, Angela Hamblin1,11,
Katherine Smith1, Antonio Rueda Martin
1, Damian Smedley
1,3, Christine Patch
1,2,12, Doraid Alrifai
1,7,
Maria Athanasopoulou1, Wasim Bari1, Freya Boardman Pretty1, Chris Boustred1, Chris Campbell1,
Jacobo Coll Moragon1, Alison Cranage1, Lisa Dinh1, Rebecca Foulger1, Pedro Furio Tari1, Duncan
Gordon1, Dina Halai1, Eik Haraldsdottir1, Mikyung Jang1, Sarah Leigh1, Cameron Logie1, Javier
Lopez1, Jo Mason
1, Ellen M. McDonagh
1, Kenan McGrath
1, Ignacio Medina
1, Adam Milward
1,13,
Vanisha Mistry1, David Montaner1, Michael Mueller1, Katrina Nevin-Ridley1, Olivia Niblock1,
Ernesto Ocampo1, Matthew Parker1, Matina Prapa1, Alice Rendall1,7, Laura Riley1, Andy Rimmer1,
Enric Serra1, Laura Shallcross1, Pauline Simpson1, Alona Sosinsky1, Karen Stals1, Razvan Sultana1,
Simon Thompson1, Carolyn Tregidgo
1, Alice Tuff-Lacey
1, Jeanna Mahon-Pearson
1, Katarzyna
Witkowska1, Mark Bale
1, Jim Davies
1,13, Tom Fowler
1, Tim Hubbard
1,14, Augusto Rendon
1,10, Mark
Caulfield1,3
1 Genomics England, Charterhouse Square, London, EC1M 6BQ
2 Guys and St Thomas NHS Foundation Trust, London, SE1 9RT.
3 William Harvey Research Institute, Queen Mary University of London, EC1M 6BQ
4 Institute of Cancer Research, London, SM2 5NG.
5 Great Ormond Street Hospital NHS Trust, London,WC1N 3JH
6 Barts Cancer Institute, Queen Mary University of London, EC1M 6BQ
7 St George's University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, London SW17 0QT.
8 University College London, Gower Street, London, WC1E 6BT
9 University of Exeter, Exeter, EX4 4SB.
10 University of Cambridge, C., CB2 1TN.
11 Oxford Universities NHS FoundationTrust, Oxford, OX3 9DU.
12 Florence Nightingale Faculty of Nursing & Midwifery, King’s College, London SE1 8WA.
13 University of Oxford, Oxford, OX1 2JD.
14 Medical and Molecular Genetics, Kings College, London, WC2R 2LS.
On behalf of the 100,000 Genomes Project
The 100,000 Genomes Project is a government-led initiative to sequence 100,000 whole genomes
from patients recruited from the National Health Service (NHS) in England. The project was
established to develop the infrastructure and expertise necessary to transform delivery of genomic
medicine into the NHS, to improve the lives of patients, to enable high quality research and to boost
the UK genomics industry.
Background
Genomics has advanced through stepwise evolution of technology
The genome of each human comprises approximately 3 billion base pairs, 20,000 protein-coding
genes and 4-5 million points of variation1. There has been stepwise evolution in technology for
accessing and reading the genetic code with several landmark genomic discoveries made in the UK
(Box a)2. These advances have been mirrored by commensurate improvement in the genomic tests
available for use in the clinical care of patients with hereditary disease, with evolution from
biochemical assays for the defective gene product, through family mapping of genetic markers to
sequencing that reveals the specific disease-causing mutations3.
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The Human Genome Project was established in 1990 in order to map comprehensively the full
sequence of the 3 billion bases comprising the human genome4. Regions of the genome were
divided between 20 research sequencing centres across the United States, the United Kingdom,
Japan, France, Germany, and China with the first complete sequence of a human genome completed
after 13 years at an estimated cost of $3 billion5. Now, rather than sequencing sections of the
genome one-at-a-time, over the last decade the advent of next-generation sequencing (NGS) has
enabled the ‘massively parallel’ sequencing of millions of fragments of the genome simultaneously,
which has enabled the long-heralded $1000 genome to be delivered in less than a day (Fig a)6. This
technological renaissance has transformed opportunities for genomic sequencing in research and in
the clinic.
Box a: Landmarks in UK Genomic Research
1903: pioneering studies of early inborn errors of metabolism by Archibald Garrod
1951: X-ray diffraction studies reveal 3D structure of DNA, Rosalin Franklind, Kings College London
1953: elucidation of the structure of the double helix by James Watson and Francis Crick, Cambridge
1954: description of the structure and synthesis of nucleotides and nucleosides by Alexander Todd,
Cambridge University
1977: description of ‘chain-termination’ sequencing by synthesis by Frederick Sanger and Alan Coulson,
Cambridge University
1990: scientists from Wellcome Trust Sanger Centre lead UK Human Genome Project effort
1995: development of solid phase colony next-generation sequencing technology at Cambridge University
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Figure a: The decrease in cost of sequencing against time
Establishing the 100,000 Genomes Project
Capitalising upon the UK’s strong record in genomic research and the established network of
regional genetics laboratories and clinical genetics services, it was recognised that our unified single-
payer national health service offered a unique test-bed in which to first introduce whole genome
sequencing across a healthcare system. However, as highlighted by Professor Sir John Bell to The
House of Lords Science and Technology Committee in 20097 and later by Human Genome Strategy
Group8, it was widely recognised that substantial transformation of the NHS and education of its
workforce would be required for successful implementation of these new technologies. In 2012, as
part of the Olympic Legacy, the then Prime Minister, David Cameron announced that funding would
be committed to sequence 100,000 genomes from patients in the English NHS, with key objectives
around patient benefit, research and industry development (Box b). In 2013, Secretary of State for
Health Jeremy Hunt announced that the project would be delivered through establishing Genomics
England, a company owned in its entirety by the Department of Health. Through a steering group
initiated by Chief Medical Officer Professor Dame Sally Davies and chaired by Professor David Lomas,
rare disease, cancer and infection were agreed as the initial priority areas (Box c)9.
Box b: Key objectives of the 100,000 Genomes Project
1. To bring benefit to NHS patients
2. To create an ethical and transparent programme based on consent
3. To enable new scientific discovery and medical insights
4. To kick start the development of a UK genomics industry
Box c: The 100,000 Genomes Project: Advancing genomic healthcare across three clinical
areas
• Sequencing the whole genome enables us to survey all variants across a multitude of
mutational mechanism in order to most reliably find the causative mutation underlying
patients suffering rare Mendelian disorders: early investigation with a whole genome
thus can obviate the protracted and expensive diagnostic odyssey which historically
characterised investigation of these disorders.
• Cancer is a common disease with a grave burden of morbidity and mortality and ever-
growing treatment costs. Whole genome sequencing of the tumour can predict
therapeutic efficacy and prognosis, thus enabling administration of more effective
treatments and avoidance of administration of drugs that may be ineffective, costly and
associated with significant effects.
• Sequencing of pathogen genomes enables more effective disease monitoring, infection
control and management of anti-microbial resistance.
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Whole genomes as the sequencing platform for research and clinical care
Constrained by sequencing costs and capacity for data processing, early applications of NGS typically
concentrated on sequencing of protein-coding regions (the exome or selected panels of genes).
However, projects such as the Encyclopedia of DNA Elements (ENCODE) have debunked the
formerly-held notion that the other 98% of the genome comprising the non-coding elements is
“junk-DNA”10 11
. We are in our infancy of understanding how non-genic variants influence disease:
to evolve these insights, substantial genome data across diseases is required12 13. Furthermore,
many well-recognised disease-causing mechanisms, such as large copy number changes (deletions
and duplications), balanced structural rearrangements and uniparental disomy, could be missed if
we restrict our analyses to just the coding regions of the genome using conventional sequencing
technologies. With the rapidly falling cost of sequencing (Fig a) alongside commensurate advances
in computational infrastructure, clinical sequencing at scale of the entirety of the genome has
become feasible and accordingly was the chosen strategy for this ambitious programme.
A transformative genomics project embedded in the NHS
Genomic research studies have enabled progressive delineation of the genomic architecture of rare
disease, common complex disease and cancers, with evolving correlation of molecular (genomic)
changes with clinical diagnosis, prognosis and/or response to therapy. Application of these findings
to clinical care is termed ‘precision’ ‘personalised’, or ‘stratified’ medicine14. However, local
implementation of NGS has required substantial technical, computational and bioinformatics
capacity that has not been consistently delivered across NHS diagnostic laboratories. Complicated
by the complexities of the commissioning of laboratory testing, this has resulted in disparate
practice and standards of care around genetics15-17. The 100,000 Genomes Project has been
recognised as a unique opportunity for the UK genomics community and NHS England (NHSE) to
work together in these areas to deliver improvement, modernisation and consistency across clinical
and laboratory services18 19
.
Establishing the 100,000 Genomes Project through partnerships and
infrastructure
Genomics Medicine Centres as hubs of expertise in the NHS
In 2014, NHS trusts were invited to tender to become Genomic Medicine Centres (GMCs): regional
hubs of excellence in genomic medicine through which existing expertise in molecular genetics,
molecular pathology, clinical genetics services and molecular oncology would be grown. Following
two rounds of evaluation, 13 Genomic Medicine Centres have now been established, each
comprising a lead NHS trust and up to 12 local delivery partner hospitals. In total the GMC network
comprises 85 hospital trusts and provides full geographic coverage of England (Fig b). In addition
Northern Ireland and Wales are developing capabilities as Genomic Medicine Centres to join the
programme, and Scotland is developing a parallel sequencing project.
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Harnessing the expertise of the research community through GeCIP
To leverage for the programme the wealth of expertise within the UK and international clinical
academic and NHS genomics community, the Genomics England Clinical Interpretation Partnership
(GeCIP) was established. This partnership reflects a quid pro quo: GeCIP researchers are providing
expert support in the clinical interpretation of the genomes and gain priority access to the genome
data via research data embassies in return. Following a call for expressions of interest, >1700 senior
academics from the UK from diverse scientific backgrounds representing >300 institutions, >600 NHS
clinicians and >200 international collaborators responded20 21
. This group has self-organised into 41
domains spanning 14 themes in rare disease, 14 specific tumour types and 12 cross-cutting themes
such as ethics, health economics and advanced analytical approaches (Figure c).
Rare Disease Cancer Cross-cutting
Fig b: Division of England into 13 NHS Genomic Medicine Centres, each with a lead organisation
Roles of Genomic Medicine Centres include:
• identification of eligible patients, offering equity of access,
• consenting of patients and collection of clinical data.
• collection of biological samples (blood/tumour tissue/saliva)
• sample processing, DNA extraction and quality control checks
• sample dispatch to the central sample biorepository.
• interpretation and technical validation of returned clinically important variants
• return of the findings to patients and implementation of appropriate clinical actions.
Rare Disease Cancer Cross-cutting
Dermatology Breast Cancer Electronic Records
Endocrine and
Metabolism
Renal and Bladder
Cancers
Ethics and Social Science
Neurological Sarcoma Functional Effects
Hearing and Sight Brain Tumours Health Economics
Immunology Germ Cell Tumours Stratified Medicine and
Therapeutic Innovation Paediatric sepsis Prostate Cancer
Musculoskeletal Colorectal Cancer Population Genomics
Gastroenterology
and Hepatology
Haematological
Malignancy
Machine Learning,
Quantitative Methods
and Functional Genomics Respiratory Childhood Solid
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Dermatology Breast Cancer Electronic Records
Endocrine and
Metabolism
Renal and Bladder
Cancers
Ethics and Social Science
Neurological Sarcoma Functional Effects
Hearing and Sight Brain Tumours Health Economics
Immunology Germ Cell Tumours Stratified Medicine and
Therapeutic Innovation Paediatric sepsis Prostate Cancer
Musculoskeletal Colorectal Cancer Population Genomics
Gastroenterology
and Hepatology
Haematological
Malignancy
Machine Learning,
Quantitative Methods
and Functional Genomics Respiratory Childhood Solid
Cancers
Paediatrics Lung Cancer Education and Training
Renal Melanoma Electronic Records
Inherited Cancer
Predisposition
Ovarian and
Endometrial Cancers
Enabling Rare Disease
Translational Genomics via
Advanced Analytics and
International
Interoperability
Upper Gastro-
intestinal Cancer
Cardiovascular Cancer of Unknown
Primary
Education and Training
Haematology Pan Cancer Functional Cross-Cutting
Fig c: The Genomics England Clinical Interpretation Partnership: Research domains for the 100,000
Genomes Project
Partnering with and stimulating the Genomics Industry in the UK
Following a 'bake-off’ between multiple sequencing providers launched in 2013, Illumina Inc was
selected to partner with the programme to provide sequencing services, working alongside our
Sequencing Advisory Group. Similarly, in 2014, 29 suppliers of genomic analysis, annotation and
interpretation services were evaluated, a subset of which have become 'clinical interpretation
partners'. These suppliers are assisting Genomics England with interpretation of the genomes within
the programme, under ongoing evaluation. In parallel, working with Innovate UK, Genomic England
awarded £10 million forward investment via the Small Business Research Initiative (SBRI) to
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companies with the most promising proposals to further develop genome annotation tools and
services20 22. Genomics England has also brought together twelve companies into a pre-competitive
consortium, Genomics Expert Network for Enterprises (GENE), to foster closer working between
industry, academia and the NHS so that insights from the genomic analyses will be translated most
rapidly for patient benefit23
.
Establishing sustainable sequencing infrastructure and data architecture
To achieve efficiency of cost and throughput, delivery at scale of whole genome sequencing was
required. Accordingly, supported by the Wellcome Trust, a national sequencing centre has been
built at Hinxton, Cambridgeshire, with capacity to deliver >1,000 whole genome sequences (WGS)
per week. Sequencing at the centre commenced in March 2016.
The 100,000 Genomes Project embodies many of the challenges inherent to interfacing big data with
clinical care. Firstly, there are significant technical challenges to storing, transferring, compressing,
tracking, analysing and representing the massive volumes of data generated by genome sequencing
(box d). Data relating to the patients and the samples is provided by GMCs: harmonising data-
models to work across multiple EPR and laboratory LIMS systems has been highly challenging.
Robustly-tested, versioned pipelines for data processing and analysis have been established to
ensure that generation of genomic analyses is reliable and reproducible. The 100,000 Genomes
Project data are stored in a highly secure government data centre with rigorous systems applied for
data permissions and access. Linked identifiable clinical and molecular data are made available to
clinicians from NHS GMCs, whilst data embassies containing de-identified instances of the data are
provided for researchers from academia and industry. The research data embassies are subject to
strict airlock mechanisms which restrict the exit of data to registered users, who are permitted
summary-level exports only (Figure d).
Box d: Genomics and Big Data for the 100,000 Genomes Project
3 billion: base pairs in the human genome
4-5 million: variants (points of difference to the reference genome) in a single human genome
300 million: sequencing reads per sample*
40: average reads per base (coverage) for a germline genome (minimum). The tumour genomes
require sequencing at greater depth and are sequenced at 75 fold coverage.
63 GB: size of data generate for each genome sequenced*�
9 PB: predicted size of total data generate from 100,000GP *�¥
500 million computer processing hours: total compute required to process 100,000 genomes for
the project
*germline genome from blood at median coverage ~30x, read length 150bp, paired-end reads
���� as BAM files
¥ whole genome equivalents based on 75% tumour 25% germline. Tumour coverage median ~75x. Compressed
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Figure d: Data Flow in the 100,000 Genomes Project
Improving opportunities for patients with rare disease
Rare diseases are collectively common
A rare disease is defined as affecting < 1 in 2000; there are 5000-8000 different rare diseases and it
is estimated overall that 1 in 17 individuals are affected by a rare disease, equating to approximately
3 million people in the UK. The majority of rare diseases present in childhood with significant rates of
disability and early mortality. It is estimated that 80% of these rare disorders are monogenic
(meaning that there is a single underlying gene defect). However, for over half of these disorders,
the underlying gene(s) have yet to be identified22-24. Due to their individual low frequency, these
‘orphan diseases’ have been historically underserved with regard to research and development of
therapies, an inequity that international collaborations such as Orphanet and EUCERD (now
European Commission Expert Group on Rare Diseases) seek to redress25 26.
Making a diagnosis in rare disease: a diagnostic odyssey
Establishing a robust genetic diagnosis in cases of rare disease is a critical foundation stone in the
care of that child and their family. A precise molecular genetic diagnosis can enable the clinician to
better estimate prognosis, pre-empt complications and apply the interventions and therapies most
likely to be effective. Furthermore, if achieved in a timely fashion, genetic diagnosis facilitates
reproductive decision-making in subsequent pregnancies, enabling provision of accurate risk of
recurrence and potential options for pre-implantation or pre-natal genetic diagnosis. Historically,
when genetic testing was slow, expensive and low throughput, the ‘diagnostic odyssey’ could span
many years involving investigation of multiple organ systems by different medical specialists and
requiring serial testing of individual genes at different laboratories. Recent research projects such as
Deciphering Developmental Disorders (DDD) have revealed the potential of exome sequencing to
increase diagnoses for patients and now through the 100,000 Genomes Project we have the
opportunity to extend diagnostic yield27-29
.
Recruiting patient groups with unmet diagnostic need to 100,000 Genomes Project
Following nomination by clinicians of patient phenotypes particularly underserved by current clinical
diagnostic testing and/or for which the genetic basis of the disorder is not well explained, there are
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>190 phenotypic categories to which patients with rare disease can be recruited to the Project.
Eligibility for each category is defined by a set of clinical and/or family characteristics, pre-testing of
well-established genes and an optimal family structure for recruitment (typically (i) trio including
unaffected parents, (ii) multi-generational affected individuals or (iii) isolated proband).
Detailed clinical phenotyping improves diagnosis and research in rare disease
Working with the disease experts, detailed clinical data models have been developed for each of the
phenotypic groups under recruitment, which has enabled systematic collation of patient
characteristics using the Human Phenotype Ontology30 31
. Applying this standardised,
internationally-recognised and comprehensive ontology will enable ready comparison of patients
across phenotypic groups as well as comparison of 100,000 Genomes Project phenotypes to outside
datasets. Systematic and standardised clinical phenotyping, using data models such as these, will
facilitate robust longitudinal study of rare disease cohorts by the newly established Public Health
England National Congenital Anomaly and Rare Disease Registration Service (NCARDRS)32.
Identifying causative variants through data analysis, interpretation and validation.
In rare Mendelian disease, we seek to identify the single (or paired recessive) pathogenic variant(s)
causative of disease in that patient. However, each genome will contain >4 million variants, many of
which will be rare and may be candidates for being the causal variant(s). Therefore, we have crowd-
sourced expert input from the relevant rare disease communities from the UK and beyond via
interactive software to enabling us to create ‘virtual panels’ of genes robustly implicated in each
included phenotype33. Semi-automated bioinformatics pipelines, incorporating variant impact,
inheritance mechanism and clinical data, are then used to prioritise and tier called variants using
these virtual panels. Clinicians and scientists within the NHS GMC Network then utilise interactive
variant interpretation platforms to view, explore, share and collate expert opinion on the genomic
data in order to determine which variants should be confirmed by technical validation in their local
laboratories and reported back to participants.
Enabling research through studying cohorts of patients with rare disease
De-identified data from undiagnosed patients will be analysed by the relevant GeCIP domains in the
research data environment, whereby iterative analysis across the full data set can be performed to
identify previously unrecognised genomic causes that, once confirmed, can be fed back to
participants via the GMC Network. In addition, participants can be recalled up to four times per year,
offering opportunity for additional deeper phenotyping, working with parallel dedicated initiatives
such as the Translational Research Collaborative in Rare Disease34. This presents the opportunity to
identify previously unrecognised features, complications and genotype-phenotype correlations,
opening the way for better, more personalised management. Furthermore, as exemplified by
genetic familiar disorders such as cystic fibrosis, haemoglobinopathies and Down syndrome (Trisomy
21), even between patients who carry the identical genetic abnormality, wide phenotypic variation is
common35 36
. Systematic whole genomic analyses of patient cohorts alongside deep longitudinal
phenotyping offers opportunity for identification of modifier genes influencing phenotypic spectrum
and severity, which are currently poorly understood37
.
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Studying Cancer via Whole Genome Sequencing
Cancer as a genomic disease
One in two people born in the UK after 1960 will be affected by cancer; >350,000 new diagnoses of
cancer were made in in 2013 and the NHS annual spend on cancer services for 2020 is estimated to
be £13 billion38-40.
Cancer is a disease of disordered genomes, with serial acquisition of somatic genetic mutations
which result in progressive escape from the mechanisms which regulate cellular proliferation41 42
.
Large-scale cancer sequencing research projects such as the International Cancer Genome
Consortium (ICGC) and the Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) have enabled detailed cataloguing of
mutated genes, allowing the important ‘driver mutations’ to be distinguished from the noise of
incidental ‘passenger mutations.43-46
Accordingly ‘Molecular Oncology’ has emerged, with clinical
application of these genomic biomarkers used to predict tumour behaviour, prognosis and drug
response, along with increasing administration of bespoke targeted drugs which subvert and/or
switch off the oncogenes activated by particular ‘driver mutations’47 48
. However, current
taxonomies of cancers are still largely defined by the organ of origin and histological description of
the aberrant cells and most patients are treated with empiric regimens of cytotoxic chemotherapy
and irradiation49.
A cancer programme to advance clinical research and benefit patients
In the 100,000 Genomes Project we are undertaking WGS across a range of tumour types, adding
substantially to the volume of whole genome data available for comprehensive molecular
characterisation of these tumour types 50
. Furthermore, through alignment of recruitment to clinical
studies and trials, collection of multiple patient samples in space and time and utilisation of
longitudinal clinical data to capture treatment and response, stratified analysis of genomic drivers to
response, progression and metastasis are possible. Through capturing serial blood samples for the
analysis of circulating cell-free DNA (cfDNA), circulating tumour DNA as a ‘liquid biopsy’ for
monitoring tumour progression can be further evaluated51
. In the analysed genomes returned to the
GMC tumour sequencing boards, we highlight clinically relevant variants which range from small
base substitutions of well characterised ‘actionability’ to novel gene copy number variants or fusion
which may enable access to experimental drugs.
Molecular pathology: new approaches for the genomic era
Through initial pilot studies at 10 UK centres, we evaluated collection feasibility and sequencing
quality for both fresh frozen (FF) and formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tumour tissue. Whilst
sample processing and DNA extraction protocols for FFPE tissue varied widely between centres, the
sequence quality generated was consistently lower that of fresh frozen across a range of tumours.
Fresh frozen tissue was elected as the preferred sample processing pathway with which to initiate
the 100,000 Genomes Project cancer main programme. In consultation with Royal College of
Pathologists, Cancer Research UK and National Cancer Research Institute Cellular Molecular
Pathology (NCRI CM-Path), working through a molecular pathology network, the NHS GMCs are re-
engineering tissue handling to develop sustainable pathways for processing FF tissue at greater scale
which do not compromise sample diagnosis. New approaches include methods of snap-freezing
small biopsies and pathways through theatres involving vacuum packing and extended refrigeration
of fresh surgical tissue at 4°C. In conjunction with Health Education England (HEE), supported by
digital pathology approaches, online training resources are being developed to formally train
pathologists in tumour cellularity evaluation to facilitate provision of samples sufficiently rich in
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neoplastic cells52
. Together, these approaches are creating new pathways in sample handling ready
for the genomic era.
Complementing the molecular data with rich life-course clinical data
For each cancer patient, basic registration data, sample-handling data and a rich core clinical dataset
are collected, aligned to the National Cancer Registration and Analysis Service (NCRAS) reporting
dataset. This is complemented by additional tumour-type specific fields defined by NHS clinicians
and researchers. Follow-up data will be derived from nationally collected datasets, including the
Cancer Outcomes and Services Dataset (COSD), the Systemic Anti-Cancer Therapy Dataset (SACT)
and the Radiotherapy Dataset (RTDS)53-55. In partnership with NHS Digital, the longitudinal data will
be further enriched by life-long linkage to electronic health data from primary care, hospital
episodes, pharmacy data and social care records. Working with the Farr Institute, these datasets will
be integrated optimally for interrogation of both cancer outcomes and broader health-related
questions56 57.
Infection Infectious diseases are responsible for seven percent of UK deaths at an annual cost of £30 billion
per annum58. Sequencing of viral and bacterial genomes enables delineation of species taxonomy,
virulence, transmission and anti-microbial resistance, facilitating infection control and improved use
of anti-microbial agents59 60. Partnering with Public Health England, we have initiated a programme
of pathogen sequencing and have already completed WGS of 3000 multidrug resistant tuberculosis
organisms.
Education, Training and Patient and Public Involvement (PPI) It has been widely recognised that successful implementation of genomics within routine healthcare
will require substantial up-skilling of the general clinical workforce, additional development of the
specialist genetics workforce, and education of the patients and the public. Partnering with Health
Education England, Masters courses in Genomic Medicine have been established at ten universities,
with courses available full- or part-time to NHS clinical staff, or as modules for Continuing
Professional Development (CPD) 61. This partnership has also yielded a new funded scientific training
programme to expand genetic counsellor numbers for the NHS workforce. In addition, MOOCs
(Massive Open Online Courses) and other online training resources in areas such as consent,
bioinformatics and molecular pathology have been developed62
.
Ongoing Public and Patient Involvement has been central to development of the programme
alongside close consultation with several patient stakeholder and affiliated groups63-65. Open town-
hall style events were held at the inception of the project to facilitate contribution from stakeholder
groups, patients and members of the public in sculpting the programme. A year-long programme of
activities (the Genomics Conversation) was initiated in 2015 to engage the public and relevant
stakeholders on key topics relating to genomic medicine. Delivered through science and health
networks and charities, the Genomics Conversation involved public debates, roundtables, tailored
briefings and research with the aim to start a dialogue on the benefits as well as the barriers to
embedding genomic medicine into mainstream healthcare today. A national participant panel
convenes regularly and provides representation to the Data Access Committee, Ethics Committee
and GeCIP Board66.
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Ethics and regulatory aspects If the 100,000 Genomes Project is to truly advance utilisation of genomics in UK healthcare, the
programme must be ethical, transparent and supported by public and patient confidence. Through
our Ethics Advisory Committee, our National Participant Panel and our Research Ethics Committee,
we have addressed in detail issues such as life-long data linkage, the return of secondary (incidental)
findings, sharing of data for research with academia and industry, consenting of children and
adolescents, impact on insurance and diminution in mental capacity subsequent to enrolment50.
Secondary findings
As we have moved from single gene testing to large-scale sequencing, much debate has ensued
around handling of ‘additional’ or ‘incidental’ genomic findings, i.e. genetic variants identified which
are not related to the condition under investigation but which are informative to the risk of
unrelated but serious medical conditions67 68. For the 100,000 Genomes Project, we shall offer
participants the option to receive secondary findings on a short list of relatively well characterised
genes which are robustly linked to disease and established clinical management (Box e): the impact
of returning these results will be studied by GeCIP social sciences researchers. In addition, we also
offer reporting of secondary ‘reproductive findings’; for example, where both parents of a child with
a rare disease are found to each carry a pathogenic variant in CTFR, this would be of potential clinical
utility as they are at risk of having a subsequent child affected by cystic fibrosis.
Data protection and data federation: a dynamic tension
In the 100,000 Genomes Project, we shall ensure strict security for patient-identifiable data but
through continued consultation with stakeholder groups and affiliation to the Global Alliance for
Genomics and Health we shall navigate how federation of de-identified data can be achieved to
benefit individual patients and clinical research69 70
. For a patient with a very rare disease, the
causative variants and genes will only be established by locating the handful of other cases in the
world and comparing de-identified clinical and genomic data71 72. Cancer genomes are complex,
noisy and further complicated by spatial heterogeneity and mutational evolution over time:
largescale combining of these genomic and longitudinal clinical data across projects and across
Box e: Conditions (genes) for which secondary findings are reported
• Hereditary non-polyposis colorectal cancer / Lynch syndrome (MLH1, MSH2,
MSH6)
• Familial adenomatous polyposis (APC)
• MYH-associated polyposis (MutYH)
• Hereditary, breast and ovarian cancer (BRCA1, BRCA2)
• Von Hippel-Lindau syndrome (VHL)
• Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 (MEN1)
• Multiple endocrine neoplasia type 2 (RET)
• Familial hypercholesterolaemia: (LDLR, APOB, PCSK9)
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borders will enable real advances in precision oncology, a priority articulated unequivocally in USA
Vice President Biden’s recent Cancer Moonshot initiative73.
Progress in recruitment, sequencing and returning patient results Following piloting in 2014 of patient recruitment, sample collection, sequencing and data analysis for
the rare disease and cancer programmes, the first patients from the NHS Genomic Medicine Centres
were recruited in February 2015 with return of the first results to patients in Newcastle in March
2015 (Box f). Through progressive scaling up of recruitment and sequencing throughput, results will
be returned to >1000 families in 2016.
Discussion The 100,000 Genomes Project marks a substantial milestone in NHS genomic healthcare, advancing
our management of rare Mendelian disease, cancer and infection (box c). In addition, potential
applications of genomics for public health and prevention (box g) will be explored through the
Project by means of return of secondary and reproductive findings.
To date, NHS clinical diagnostic genetic testing and genetic research studies have operated under
quite distinct structures of governance and funding, often resulting in costly and time-consuming
duplication of patient consent, clinical data and sample collection and genomic data generation.
Only a minority of NHS patients are engaged in genetic research studies, whilst for the remainder
their clinical and molecular data remain siloed and inert within the NHS clinical record system.
Through the project, we aim to advance implementation of genomics in healthcare not only to bring
direct benefit the patients of today but also to enable more efficient, synergistic and sustainable
alignment of patient care with clinical research. This will enable the NHS to become a hub for
genomic research, facilitating clinicians, academics and partners from industry to derive research
Box f: Programme Landmarks for the 100,000 Genomes Project
Jan 2014: first patient recruited to 100,000 GP pilot
Dec 2014: Announcement of 11 Genomic Medicine Centres
Feb 2015: first patient recruited to the 100,000 GP Main Programme
March 2015: first results returned to pilot patients in Newcastle
Dec 2015: Announcement of two new Genomic Medicine Centres – 13 NHS GMCs in total
March 2016: Sequencing commences at Hinxton Sequencing centre
April 2016: sequencing of 10,000 whole genomes completed
Box g: Potential applications of genomics in public health and prevention
• Identifying asymptomatic individuals at increased risk of disease: Genetic risk profiling from
cancer susceptibility genes and common risk variants, augmented by non-genetic and life-style
factors can enable targeting of screening, preventative surgery and chemopropylaxis to high–risk
groups, improving cancer prevention and early detection.
• Reproductive carrier screening for genetic diseases: To date only offered opportunistically to
those from ethnically high-risk populations, this could be offered more widely and systematically.
• Newborn screening for genetic diseases: The newborn screening programme is currently reliant
on assay of relevant metabolites: mutational screening of the genes implicated in these childhood
diseases may enable earlier and more accurate detection of childhood diseases.
• Pharmacogenomic profiling: can enable life-saving avoidance of toxicity from chemotherapeutic
drugs and precision dosing in widely-used drugs such as warfarin.
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value and clinical insights to also benefit the patients of tomorrow (Box h).
Acknowledgements
We should like to thank all patients and participants involved in the 100,000 Genomes Project.
We should like to acknowledge the work of the >1500 NHS staff across 85 NHS hospital trusts
within 13 Genomic Medicine Centres who are enacting this Project. We should like to
acknowledge Sir John Chisholm, Nick Maltby, Vivienne Parry and the full staff of Genomics
England. We should like to recognise the contribution of Sir John Bell, Dame Sally Davies and the
other members of the Genomics England Board, Science Advisory committee, Ethics Advisory
committee, Access Review Committee and numerous advisory and working groups, who have all
supplied considerable time and expertise to guide the project. We should like to recognise our
partnership with NHS England in delivery of this project and our close working with Professor
Sue Hill, James Fisher, Zandra Deans, Val Davison and their teams. We should like to recognise
our partnership with Health Education England in delivery of training and educational materials.
We should like to acknowledge the staff of the NIHR National Biosample Centre and Illumina Inc
in sample processing and sequencing. We should like to acknowledge the support for the
project provided by the National Institute of Health Research, the Wellcome Trust, the Medical
Research Council and Cancer Research UK. We should like to recognise Queen Mary University
of London for hosting Genomics England at their Charterhouse Square campus. The views
expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of NHS England
or the Department of Health.
“I Clare Turnbull, The Corresponding Author of this article contained within the original
manuscript which includes any diagrams & photographs within and any related or stand alone
Box h: Combining clinical diagnostics with research: 100,000GP as an exemplar
• Broad Consent: Approval from Health Research Authority Research Ethics Committee (REC) has been
granted for the consent to cover return of clinical results into the routine NHS clinical setting as well as
lifelong data storage and linkage, making participant’s data available to researchers from academia and
industry and re-contact to gain additional data and biosamples.
• Molecular pathology and tissue handling: Applying evidence-based sample handling protocols and vigorous
quality assurance processes in laboratories, the NHS GMCs have re-engineered and optimised sample
handling and molecular pathology pathways to generate the requisite high quality FF tumour tissue and
DNA suitable for high quality WGS.
• Data centralisation: a single central 100,000GP data repository containing linked clinical and full genome
data can be utilised (i) in the identifiable form by NHS clinicians to view the genomic data for individual
patient management and (ii) in the de-identified form by researchers from academia and industry to analyse
cohorts of patients for research and discovery.
• Biobanking of additional biosamples: harnessing the single overarching consent and phlebotomy
opportunity, samples additional to the DNA including serum, plasma, RNA and cell-free DNA are being
collected and stored, to be made available for researchers to perform functional analyses to validate or
explore genomic findings.
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film submitted (the Contribution”) has the right to grant on behalf of all authors and does grant
on behalf of all authors, a licence to the BMJ Publishing Group Ltd and its licencees, to permit
this Contribution (if accepted) to be published in the BMJ and any other BMJ Group products
and to exploit all subsidiary rights, as set out in our licence set out at:
http://www.bmj.com/about-bmj/resources-authors/forms-policies-and-checklists/copyright-
open-access-and-permission-reuse.”
Contribution
The manuscript was drafted by CT with support from MC, RHS, ET, LJ, AR, TH, DH, EM and KS. All
authors reviewed the final manuscript.
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