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The Four Horsemen of Terrorism – It’s notWaves, it’sStrainsTomParker(BardGlobalizationandInternationalAffairsProgram,BardCollege,NewYork,USA)NickSitter(CentralEuropeanUniversityandBINorwegianBusinessSchool)TomParker,wasformerlyPolicyDirectorforTerrorism,Counter‐TerrorismandHumanRightsatAmnestyInternationalUSA,andAdviseronHumanRightsandCounter‐TerrorismtotheUnitedNationsCounter‐TerrorismImplementationTaskForce(CTITF).Heiscurrentlyworkingonabookexamininghumanrights‐compliantcounter‐terrorismstrategies,entitledWhyRightisMight,forImperialCollegePress.NickSitterisProfessorofPublicPolicyandCentralEuropeanUniversity(SchoolofPublicPolicy)andProfessorofPoliticalEconomyatBINorwegianBusinessSchool(DepartmentofLaw).TheauthorsgratefullyacknowledgethesupportoftheEUFP7large‐scaleintegratedresearchprojectGR:EENGlobalRe‐ordering:EvolutionthroughEuropeanNetworks,EuropeanCommissionProjectNumber:266809ThisisanAcceptedManuscriptversionofanarticlepublishedbyTaylor&FrancisinTerrorismandPoliticalViolence,availableonline:http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09546553.2015.1112277

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The Four Horsemen of Terrorism – It’s notWaves, it’sStrains

DavidRapoport’sconceptoffourwavesofterrorism,fromanarchistterrorismin the 1880s, through nationalist andMarxistwaves in the early andmid‐TwentiethCentury,tothepresentreligiouswave,isoneofthemostinfluentialconceptsinterrorismstudies.However,thisarticlearguesthatthinkingaboutdifferenttypesofterrorismasstrainsratherthanwavesbetterreflectsboththeempiricalrealityandtheideathatterroristslearnfromandemulateeachother.Whereas thenotionofwaves suggestsdistinct iterationsof terroristviolencedrivenbysuccessivebroadhistoricaltrends,theconceptofstrainsandcontagionemphasizeshowterroristgroupsdrawonbothcontemporaryandhistoricallessonsinthedevelopmentoftheirtactics,strategies,andgoals.The authors identify four distinct strains in total – socialist, nationalist,religious,andexclusionist‐andcontendthatitispossibletotraceeachstrainbacktoa‘patientzero’activeinthe1850s.

AfterAlQaeda’sattacksontheWorldTradeCenterandthePentagononSeptember

11th,2001,DavidRapoportpublishedoneofthemostinfluentialarticleseverwritten

in the field of terrorism studies. 1 The article has since been republished and

referenced in numerous volumes. 2 To this day, it provides the basic conceptual

framework for many academic courses taught around the world on this subject.

Rapoport’spremisewascleanandsimple:muchasSamuelHuntingtonarguedthat

democratizationcameinwaves,3Rapoportidentifiedfourbroadlyconsecutivewaves

of terrorism. The first – which he dubbed the anarchist wave ‐ started with the

Russian populist group Narodnaya Volya (the People’s Will) in the 1880s and

continuedintotheearlydecadesofthetwentiethcentury.Itwasfollowedbyananti‐

colonialwavefromthe1920stothe1960s,aNewLeftwavefromthe1960stothe

endoftheTwentiethCentury,andareligiouswavebeginningin1979thatisstillwith

ustoday.4Rapoportusedthiswavetheorytopredictthatthereligiouswave,which

hadgivenbirthtoAlQaedaandtheso‐calledIslamicState,coulddissipateby2025

andthatanewwavemightthenemerge.5

3

InfairnesstoRapoport,henotedthattherewereothergroups,forexampletheKu

KluxKlanbetween1865and1876,whichemployedterroristviolenceandyetdidnot

fit neatly into his template. However, he essentially dismissed such examples as

statistical outliers that had little impact of the development of terrorism as a

phenomenonovertime.6Healsoobservedthatsomegroupswithineachwavehad

non‐dominant characteristics in common with groups in the other waves. For

example, the Provisional IRA of the 1970s and 1980s was both nationalist and

Marxist.ButthedeeperoneexploresRapoport’stheory,themoredifficultitbecomes

toescapethesuspicionthathetooktheanalogyofthewavetoofar.Hedescribeseach

wave as having an international character “driven by a predominant energy that

shapes the participating groups’ characteristics and mutual relationships.” 7 This

resultsin“acycleofactivityinagiventimeperiod…characterizedbyexpansionand

contraction phases.” 8 But is this really what happens? We find particularly

problematic Rapoport’s assertion that “when awave’s energy cannot inspire new

organizations, thewavedisappears”.9Indeed, there is very little evidence that the

activitiesassociatedwithanyofhisfourwaveshaveactuallydisappeared,andthere

isagreatdealofevidencetosuggestthateachtypeofterrorismhasdeeperhistorical

rootsthanhiswavetheorysuggests.

Itisourcontentionthatthestrategicandtacticalchoicesterroristorganizationsmake

play an important role in the evolution of terrorism. Even isolated outbreaks of

terroristviolencecaninfluencethechoicesmadebylaterterroristgroups.Tobesure,

like other political organizations, terrorists learn first and foremost from their

immediaterivalsandotherlikemindedgroups.10However,thereisalsoconsiderable

evidenceofconsistentanddynamicexchangeof ideasbetweenterroristgroupsof

markedly different character that stretches back several decades further than

Rapoportsuggests,tothemiddleoftheNineteenthCentury.WhileRapoport’stheory

providesasimpleandconceptuallycleannarrativetohelpstudentsandresearchers

alike to organize their thoughts, there are simply too many anomalies. More

significantly,someoftheseoutlyingcaseshavebeenveryinfluentialinthesensethat

theyprovidedimportantlessonsorinspirationforlaterterroristgroups(including

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themaingroupsineachofRapoport’swaves)andthusplayedanintegralroleinthe

evolutionofterrorismoverthepast150years.

Wethereforeproposeanalternativeframeworkforanalysis,basedontheideathat

terrorismcomesinfourdifferentstrainsandthatthereisanimportantelementof

“contagion”bothwithinandbetweentheseseparatestrains.Webelievethatitmay

evenbepossibletoidentifya‘patientzero’foreachstrain–anindividualwhoeither

through advocacy or example first promoted the innovative adoption of terrorist

methodstoadvanceaparticularpoliticalcause.Theconceptoffourstrainsfitsthe

historical record better, and more plausibly explains how terrorism spreads and

evolvesfromoneconflicttothenext.

Thefourstrainswehaveidentifiedalldatefromthesameperiod,andalthoughthey

havemostlydevelopedseparatelysince,theydooccasionallycombineandmutate.

Thesefourstrains–thesefourhorsemenofterrorism–arenationalism,socialism,

religiousextremismandsocialexclusion.UsingBoazGanor’sdefinitionofterrorism‐

“the intentionaluseoforthreattouseviolenceagainstciviliansoragainstcivilian

targets, inorder toattainpoliticalaims” ‐ asourcriteria,wehavecomparedboth

theoriesagainstthehistoricalrecordtodeterminewhichultimatelyoffersthegreater

theoreticalleverageoverrecordedevents.

TerroristGroupsasLearningOrganizations

Thereisarichsociologicalliteratureonhowandunderwhatcontextorganizations

learnfromtheirpeersandrivals,associatedwithscholarssuchasBarbaraLevittand

James G. March.11Non‐state organizations learn both from direct experience and

from the stories they develop to make sense of that experience, as well as from

experiences and stories generated by peers. Organizations that interact regularly

withdirectcompetitors learn fromboth theirownandtheirrivals’ successes.The

fieldsofanthropologyandcommunicationstudieshavegeneratedsimilar theories

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about the contagiousness of ideas to explain the diffusion of innovative practices

acrosssocieties.12AnalyzinghowWestEuropeanconservativepartieshad learned

fromthesuccessfulpost‐warinitiativesofSocialDemocratstorevitalizetheirown

electoral programs, party organizations and electoral strategy, Maurice Duverger

labeledthis“contagionfromtheleft”.13Afewdecadeslater,itwouldbethecentre‐

leftpartiesthat“modernized”throughaprocessof“contagionfromtheright”.14

TheGermanterrorismexpertPeterWaldmannwasoneofthefirsttoreferencethis

kindof“contagioneffect”forterroristgroups,arguingthattheapparentsuccessof

somegroupsattractedotherstoemulateaspectsoftheirapproach,andperhapsalso

theirideology.15Indeed,severalearlymodernterroristsactuallyexpressedthehope

thattheywouldsetanexampleforotherstoemulate.AstheRussianpopulistNikolai

MorozovobservedinTheTerroristStruggle:“Whenahandfulofpeopleappearsto

representthestruggleofawholenationandistriumphantovermillionsofenemies,

thentheideaofterroristicstrugglewillnotdieonceitisclarifiedforthepeopleand

provenitcanbepractical.”16Propagandabythedeed–theverynotionthatactsof

terrorismwouldbeabetterwaytospreadideasthanmerewrittenpropaganda–was

basedonthehopethatterrorismwouldproveacontagiousidea.17

The main causal mechanism in Rapoport’s work, as in Huntington’s, is historical

context. The first, anarchist,wave emergedwith new technological developments

thatmadetravelandcommunicationeasier,andinturnmadeiteasierforideasand

doctrines to be transmitted across boundaries. In Rapoport’s words: “A wave by

definition isahistoricalevent”, sparkedor shapedby internationalwarsorpeace

agreements. 18 Huntington was more explicit about the causes for waves of

democratization: global economic growth, economic and military failure in

dictatorships,changesinthepoliciesofexternalactors(suchasthesuperpowers),

anda“snowballingeffect”whereearlyeventsprovidedmodelsandinspirationfor

latereventsinthesamewave.19Inbothcasesradicalmovementsandorganizations

learnfromtheircontemporaries,butthespreadofbothideologyandtacticsislimited

to a given time and space. A simple extension of this idea is that each wave of

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terrorismischaracterizedbyacommonnarrativeabouttheenemy–authoritarian

monarchies, empires, capitalist democracies and secular states – and a common

internationallegalandpoliticalregime–theconcertofEurope,theageofempire,the

ColdWar,andthepost‐coldwar“globalization”era.Indeed,thewavemetaphorcan

evenbeextendedtocounter‐terrorismstrategies.20

Thecentralpointaboutcontagionororganizationallearningisthatitassignsmore

weighttotheactiverolethatterroristsandtheirorganizationsplayintheprocess

whereby ideas and practices “travel” across boundaries: much like Huntington’s

dictators, terrorist groups sometimes cooperatewith each other, andmuchmore

frequently learn from or imitate each other. The sociologists Paul DiMaggio and

WalterPowellexaminedaseriesofwaysorganizationscancometoresembleeach

other (the process of isomorphism), including responding to similar conditions,

learning from and imitating each other, and interacting with each other and

establishing common norms. 21 Although terrorist organizations are usually

autonomousandisolated(evenmoresothandictators),andthereforelesssubjectto

pressurefromsocietyandcompetitorsthanmanyotherorganizations,itisclearthat

learning and copying has been an important factor in shaping similarities across

organizationsbothintermsofstrategyandtactics.

Thereisagreatdealofqualitativeevidenceinthehistoricalrecordofthediffusionor

transferofideasbetweendifferentterroristandinsurgentactors,oftenacrosswide

temporal and geographic distances. For example, the Irish revolutionary Michael

Collins,who isoften seenasoneof thekeyarchitectsofmodernurban terrorism

although he personally eschewed acts of indiscriminative violence, 22 wrote an

appreciativelettertotheBoercommanderChristiaandeWetthankinghimforbeing

his “earliest inspiration”. 23 Collins also spoke of his admiration for the Finnish

nationalist Eugen Schauman who assassinated the Russian Governor General of

Finland, Nicholai Bobrikov, in 1904. 24 We also know from the Irish nationalist

O’DonovanRossa’sprivatecorrespondencethathewaswellawareoftheattemptby

NarodnayaVolyatoassassinateTsarAlexanderIIbybombingtheWinterPalacein

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February 1880. 25 President McKinley’s assassin, Leon Czolgosz, slept with a

newspapercuttingabouttheassassinationofKingUmbertoofItalyunderhispillow,

and even purchased the same model of Iver Johnson .32 revolver used by the

anarchistGaetanoBrescifortheassassination.26TheMarxistWeatherUnderground

Organization, which operated in the United States from 1969 to 1973, publicly

declaredthedebtitowedtocomradeselsewhere:“Nowweareadaptingtheclassic

guerrillastrategyoftheVietCongandtheurbanguerrillastrategyoftheTupamaros

toourownsituationhereinthemosttechnicallyadvancedcountryintheworld.”27

TheGermanMarxistHorstMahlerchosethenameRoteArmeeFraktioninconscious

homage to the Japanese Red Army (Rengo Sekigun). 28 Dimitris Koufodinas,

OperationsChiefoftheGreekterrorgroupNovember17,taughthimselfSpanishin

hisprisoncellsohecouldtranslatetheprisonmemoirsoftwoTupamarosleaders,

MauricioRosencofandEleuterioFernándezHuidobro.29Cuttingdeeplyacrosstime,

Eldridge Cleaver, one of the leaders of theBlack Panther Party in the late 1960s,

adoptedSergeiNechaev’sNineteenthCenturyCatechismoftheRevolutionaryashis

“revolutionarybible”.30

Terroristshaveemulatedbothgroupstheyadmireandtheirfiercestadversaries.The

IndiannationalistBarinGhose,jailedforhisroleina1909conspiracytoassassinate

amemberoftheBritishgovernmentadministrationinBengal,wrotethathis“cultof

violence”was“learntfromtheIrishSeinfeinners[sic]andRussiansecretsocieties.”31

HocineAïtAhmet,theheadoftheAlgerianMouvementpourleTriomphedesLibertés

Démocratiques (Movement for theTriumphofDemocraticLiberties), analyzed the

Irishstruggleforindependence,aswellasthetriumphofcommunisminChinaand

the tactics of theVietMinh in Indochina.32YasserArafat’s Intelligence chief Salah

Khalaf, better known to posterity by his nom de guerre Abu Iyad, noted in his

memoirs: “Theguerrillawar inAlgeria, launched fiveyearsbefore the creationof

Fatah,hadaprofoundinfluenceonus…[It]symbolizedthesuccesswedreamedof.”33

TheAlQaedaideologueMustafaSetmarianNasar‐perhapsbestknownbyhisalias

AbuMus’abal‐Suri‐employedthenomdeplume‘Castro’.34Althoughhemournedthe

creationof theStateof Israel, theEgyptianMuslimBrotherhood ideologueSayyid

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Qutburgedhis fellow Islamists to learn fromthesuccess that the Jewish terrorist

groupsLEHIandIrgunZviLeumihadenjoyedinfluencingBritishpolicyinPalestine.35

ArafatcitedtherelationshipbetweentheHaganahandIrgunasamodelforthePLO

– Fatah structure.36The FrenchOrganization of the SecretArmy (OAS) formed in

1961bydisgruntledmilitaryveteransoftheAlgerianconflictwasmodeledonthe

imageofitsmainadversary,theAlgerianNationalLiberationFront(FLN).37

Thiskindofpolicytransfercanalsotakeplacedirectly,intheshapeoftraining,even

betweenwhatmightseematfirstsighttobeill‐matchedgroups,suchastheJapanese

Red Army and the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) who

cooperated in the Bekaa Valley in the early 1970s. 38 . Mia Bloom describes a

“demonstrationeffect”,wherebyterroristtacticsspreadfromoneconflicttoanother

because perceived success attracts imitation. Bloom shows how the adoption of

suicidebombingbythePalestinianterroristgroupHamascanbetracedbacktothe

December1992expulsionof415seniorHamasandPalestinian Islamic Jihad(PIJ)

activists from theOccupied Territories, toMarj al Zahour in Southern Lebanon.39

DespiteHamasandPIJbothbeingSunniorganizations,theactivistsweretakeninby

theShiaLebaneseterroristgroupHezbollahandprovidedwithaidandoperational

training (including the use of explosives). Althoughmany of those expelled from

Israeli‐controlled territory had been intellectuals and ideologues rather than

frontline fighters, on their return to the Occupied Territories in September 1993

many took a more active part in hostilities and several were linked to suicide

bombingsbytheIsraeliauthorities‐atacticthathadnotpreviouslybeenusedby

Palestiniangroups.40On19October1994Salehal‐SouwiboardedabusinTelAviv

carryingabombconcealedinabrownbagthathethendetonated,takingtwenty‐two

civilianlivesalongwithhisownandinjuringfiftyothers,makingittheworstbomb

attackinIsraelihistoryupuntilthatpoint.Thefollowingdayapublicannouncement

wasreadoutinmosquesacrosstheGazainwhichHamasboastedthattheattackhad

beencarriedoutusingknowledgeandtechniqueslearneddirectlyfromHezbollah.41

9

Inshort,weknowfrombothterroristsandanalyststhatterroristgroupsactivelyand

deliberatelylearnfromeachother.Notonlyideology,butalsostrategy(elaboration

ofwhatagroup’sgoalshouldbeandhowitisbestpursued)andtactics(howtoturn

strategyintopractice)areoftenshapedbyotherterroristsgroups’experience.While

direct learning, in the shape of training and support, might be limited to

contemporarygroups,itisclearthananumberofterroristshavefoundinspirationin

oldergroupsorevenadoptedmodelsfromrivaloropposingorganizations.Thenext

section proceeds to analyze the origins ofmodern terrorism,which go somewhat

furtherbackthanRapoport’sfirstwave,andargues,asLindsayClutterbuckpointed

outinhisinfluential2004critiqueofRapoport’sarticle,42thatterrorisminthelate

NineteenthCenturyhadasmuchtodowithnationalismaswithanarchism.

TheNineteenthCenturyOriginsofModernTerrorism

Terrorism has its origins in a series of technological developments that occurred

almost simultaneously in the mid‐Nineteenth Century. These have something in

commonwiththecommunicationsrevolutionattheendofthecenturythatRapoport

emphasized,butanumberofimportantdevelopmentsprecededthisbyabouthalfa

century. The first was a revolution in military technology that concentrated the

destructive power previously associated with mass military formations into the

handsof a few individuals.Gunpowderhadbeen theprimaryexplosive inuse for

about1000yearswhenin1847anItalianchemistcalledAscanioSobrenocreated

nitroglycerine–aliquidcompoundthatiseighttimesmorepowerfulbyweightthan

gunpowder.Initsliquidformnitroglycerineprovedimmenselyunstableanddifficult

to transport, but, after his brotherEmilwas killed in an industrial accidentwhile

working with nitroglycerine, Alfred Nobel began to experiment with methods of

stabilizingtheexplosiveandthisledtohisinventionofdynamite,whichhepatented

in1867.Otherkeydevelopmentsinweaponstechnologyweretheintroductionofthe

revolverbySamuelColtin1835,theOrsinibomb(ahand‐throwncontactgrenade)

designed and used by Felice Orsini for an assassination attempt on Emperor

10

NapoleonIIIin1858,therepeatingriflefirstmanufacturedbyChristopherSpencer

in1860,andtheso‐called“horologicaltorpedo”,atimedelaybombfirstdeployedby

theConfederateSecretService inanattackon theHeadquartersofUnionGeneral

UlyssesS.GrantinCityPoint,Virginia,whichkilledmorethanfiftypeopleinAugust

1864.43The sudden availability of powerful, affordable, portable and concealable

weapons‐whichcouldalsobeeasilyacquiredormanufacturedbyprivatecitizens‐

wouldprovetobesignificantforcemultiplierforstatesandnon‐stateactorsalike.

The second development was the development of new mass communication

technologies thatallowedknowledgeof ideasandevents toberapidlydistributed

acrossthousandsofmiles,andenabledindividualstotraveleasilyacrossborders,and

evenacrossoceans, inlargernumbersthaneverbeforeopeningupaneraofmass

migration and commensurate dislocation. The first working telegraph was built

betweenWashingtonDCandBaltimorebySamuelMorse(whoalsodevelopedMorse

codetoaidthetransmissionofmessages)becomingoperationalin1844.Thelaying

ofthefirsttransatlantictelegraphcablewascompletedin185844andtheuseofthe

telegraphbytheprintmediareallytookoffinthe1860swhennewspaperofficeslike

the Scotsman and the London Times began to install telegraph lines in their

newsrooms so that they could receive news rapidly from national capitals and

overseascorrespondents.45Thesteampoweredrotaryprintingpressinventedinthe

UnitedStatesin1843allowedforthereproductionofmillionsofcopiesofpageoftext

in a single day.46On land, theworld’s first commercial railway, the Stockton and

Darlington Railway in England, began operation in 1825, the first railway in

continentalEuropeopenedinBelgiumin1835,andRussiagotitsfirstrailwaylinein

1837,butthegreatexpansionofrailwaynetworksoccurredinthe1850sand1860s

astheindividualnationalrailwaynetworksbegantolinkupofferingpassengersthe

possibilityof travelingacrossEuropeby rail.On sea, the constructionof the iron‐

hulledSSGreatWesternbyIsambardKingdomBrunelin1838inauguratedtheageof

thetrans‐Atlanticpassengersteamer,butittooktheintroductionofscrewpropeller,

iron hulls, and compound and triple expansion engines, which all combined to

increase the size, fuel efficiency and range of commercial vessels, tomake trans‐

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oceanicshippingeconomicallyviableona largescaleby1870.GermanandItalian

radicals like JohanMost andLuigiGalleani emigrated to theUSA; Irish‐Americans

basedinurbancentreslikeNewYork,ChicagoandBostonwereabletofundterrorist

activityontheBritishMainland.Accordingly,someoftheearliestmodernterrorists

– European anarchists and Irish nationalists – can be said to have posed a

transnationalthreatalmostfromtheirinception.

Thethirdandfinalrevolutiontookplaceintherealmofideas.PriortotheNineteenth

Centurypoliticalactivityhadbeentoallintentsandpurposestheexclusiveprovince

of socialelites.Newtechnologiesbroughtaccess toeducationalopportunities that

hadnotpreviouslyexisted,agriculturallaborersandartisansflockedtourbancenters

attractedbynewemploymentopportunities and creating anew social class – the

industrial proletariat. KarlMarx, Friedrich Engels,Mikhail Bakunin, Pierre‐Joseph

Proudhonandahostofothersdevelopedpoliticaltheoriesthatputthecommonman

at the center of societal progress and created a language of working class

empowerment.TheGermanrevolutionaryKarlHeinzenwasthefirsttoarticulatethe

use of violence, evenmassmurder, by individuals to effect political change in his

influential1853pamphlet,MordundFreiheit,coiningthetermfreiheits‐kämpferor

freedomfighterintheprocess.47TheEuropean‐widepopularunrestof1848andthe

example set by the short‐lived Paris Commune of 1871 held out hope to the

disenfranchisedthatpopulargovernmentbythemasseswasnotbeyondreachand

thatmeaningfulsocialchangewaspossible.ThemutinyoftheParisNationalGuard

inMarch1871andthedecisionbythemutineerstoholdanelection,whichledtothe

creationofasocialistgovernmentthatruledParisforthreemonthsimplementinga

radicalpoliticalagenda,wouldbecomeabeaconofpromiseforsocialrevolutionaries.

ThefactthattheParisCommuneendedinareactionarybloodbaththatclaimedmore

thantwenty‐fivethousand livesas theFrenchgovernmentreassertedcontrolonly

strengthenedtheirresolve,drawingthebattlelinesevenmoreclearly.AstheSwiss

anarchist Paul Brousse observed in an article in the radical journalBulletin de la

FédérationJurassienne:“PriortotheParisCommune,whoinFrancewasconversant

12

withtheprincipleofcommunalautonomy?Noone.”48Afterwardsitwasanideathat

resonatedwiththedispossessedandmarginalizedacrossthewesternworld.

The revolutionary ideals of the late Nineteenth Century were rooted as much in

nationalismasinrevolutionaryradicalism.HeinzendedicatedMordundFreiheitto

theHungariannationalistLibényiJánoswhoattemptedtoassassinatetheAustrian

Emperor Franz Joseph I in February 1853. A few years earlier, in 1848, Mikhail

BakuninhadpennedanAppealtotheSlavstoriseupagainsttheAustro‐Hungarian

empire. In the Balkans the “national sympathies” to which he appealed would

eventually give rise to one of the most active and enduring early terrorist

organizations,theInternalMacedonianRevolutionaryOrganization(IMRO),aswell

asoneofthemostconsequentialterroristattacksofalltime–theassassinationin

Sarajevo of the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand by the Bosnian Serb Gavrilo

PrincipinJune1914,whichprecipitatedtheoutbreakofWorldWarI.Principwas

explicit about his motivation, declaring at his trial: “I am a Yugoslav nationalist,

aimingfortheunificationofallYugoslavs,andIdonotcarewhatformofstate,butit

must be freed from Austria.” 49 The cause of Italian reunification was also the

motivatingforcebehindFeliceOrsini’sassassinationattemptonNapoleonIII,andthe

pivotal role played by Giuseppi Garibaldi and his 1,000 redshirts in the Italian

Risorgimento was hugely influential on other revolutionary movements, as it

demonstrated that a small group of determined men and women could have a

decisive impactontheaffairsofgreatpowers.The leadingItaliananarchistErrico

Malatesta acknowledged the debt he and his followers owed to the heroes of the

Risorgimento,notingthattheFirstInternationaltaughtitsmembersnothingthathad

not already been learned fromOrsini,Mazzini andGaribaldi.50Thiswas certainly

Orsini’sintention,hepublishedtwovolumesofmemoirsandanumberofpolitical

pamphletsbasedonhiscareerasarevolutionaryduringhislifetime,includingone

withanappendixentitledHowtoConspire.51

InEurope,therevolutionsof1848‐49andtheParisCommuneraisedthehopesofa

rangeofradicalgroupsthatsocialchangemightbeachieved,butsomeindividuals

13

andgroupsconcludedfromtheseevents(togetherwiththefailedeffortsofRussian

populists to educate and mobilize the rural population in the 1870s) that more

dramaticaction–terrorism–wouldberequired.IntheUSAthetensionssurrounding

theCivilWarplayedasimilarrole.InEurope,radicalsthatwereonthelosingsidein

1848‐49and1871turnedtoterrorism;intheUSAitwastheopponentsofslavery

before the outbreak of the CivilWar (John Brown), andmany on the losing side

afterwards(theKuKluxKlan).InEuropethisgaverisetoanarchistandnationalist

terrorism in the secondhalf of theNineteenthCentury; in theUSA it gave rise to

religiousandexclusivistterrorism.

TheNineteenthCenturybroughttogetherthemeans,themotiveandtheopportunity

forsmallbandsofcommittedradicalstotakethefighttotheestablishedorderand

menof all political stripeswerequick to realize the game‐changing tools that the

marchofsciencehadplacedinthehandsoftheirfollowers.Rapoportdateshisfirst

waveofterrorismasbeginninginthe1880sbutasearlyasthe1850sand1860swe

can see nationalists, populists (perhaps a more accurately inclusive label for the

disparate‘oldleft’groupsofRapoport’s“firstwave”thananarchism),exclusionists,

andreligiousextremistsbegintoexplorethepossibilitiesthatthesenewtoolshadto

offer.The‘patientszero’ofthisviralmetaphor,asbestwehavebeenabletoestablish,

aretheItaliannationalistFeliceOrsini,theGermanpopulistKarlHeinzen,theformer

Confederate general Nathan Bedford Forrest and the American abolitionist John

Brown.

NationalistTerrorism–fromFeliceOrsinitotheTamilTigers

Felice Orsini was an associate of the Italian statesman Giuseppe Mazzini and a

supporterofItalianunification,towhichNapoleonIIIwasperceivedasanobstacle.

Inatransnationalconspiracy,whichsawOrsinibuildandtestacontactbombofhis

own devising in England before traveling to Paris, Orsini and his Italian co‐

conspiratorsplannedtobombtheEmperor’scoachashedrovetotheoperaonthe

14

eveningof14January1858.Three‘Orsini’bombs,employingfulminateofmercury

asanexplosive,detonatedkillingandinjuringanumberofonlookersinthecrowd

butleavingNapoleonandhisentourageessentiallyunharmed.Injuredintheblasts,

Orsiniwasdetainedbeforehecouldmakegoodhisescapeandwasultimatelysentto

theguillotine.52

Intheend,Italy’spathtounificationwouldbedriveninlargepartbytheactionsof

regular and irregular forces, rather than clandestine groups, and the torch of

nationalist terrorismwould be taken up by Irish nationalists based in the United

StateswholaunchedaviolentassaultonthemajorcitiesoftheBritishmainlandin

the1880s.Thecampaignwaseightyearsinthemaking.Intheautumnof1875Patrick

Ford, the editor of the Brooklyn‐based newspaper Irish World, and his brother

Augustine,bothpassionatesupportersofIrishindependence,hadfirstdevelopedthe

idea of dispatching what they termed “skirmishers” from the United States to

undermineBritishruleinIreland.53PatrickexplainedhisplaninthepagesofIrish

World:“TheIrishcauserequiresskirmishers.Itrequiresalittlebandofheroeswho

willinitiateandkeepupwithoutintermissionaguerillawarfare–menwhowillfly

overthelandandsealikeinvisiblebeings–nowstrikingtheenemyinIreland,now

inIndia,nowinEnglanditself,asoccasionmaypresent.”54Theuseofskirmishershad

attractedsignificantattentionduringtheAmericanCivilWarasaresultofaseriesof

influential articleswritten by General JohnWatts de Peyster under the title New

AmericanTactics.Usingtheirnewspaperasaplatform,theFordsjoinedwiththeIrish

nationalist leader JeremiahO’DonovanRossa to establish a “Skirmishing Fund” to

raise money for their plan, and it was the revenue from this fund (renamed the

National Fund in 1878) thatwould be used to fund operations of the Irish secret

societyClanNaGael (FamilyofGaels)operations, aswell asadditional attacksby

“skirmishers” working directly for Rossa. Between 1881 and 1887 the so‐called

“DynamiteCampaign”sawhigh‐profiletargetsinLondonlikeTowerBridge,Scotland

Yard,thePalaceofWestminsterandthenewUndergroundrailsystemcomeunder

attack ‐ one bomb that detonated on the Metropolitan line injured seventy‐two

15

people,mostlythirdclasspassengers.55TherewerefurtherbombingsinManchester,

LiverpoolandGlasgow.

Irish nationalist terrorist groupswould come and go over the next 130 years. As

President of the Irish Republican Brotherhood, Adjutant‐General of the Irish

Volunteers and Director of Information of the shadow nationalist government

MichaelCollinsledanurbanguerrillacampaignthatplayedacrucialroleinsecuring

theindependenceofthesoutherntwenty‐sixcountiesofIrelandin1921.Thesuccess

ofCollinsandhistacticsinspirednationalliberationmovementsaroundtheworld.

As the leader of Jewish terrorist groupLEHI, future Israeli PrimeMinster Yitzhak

Shamiradopted‘Michael’ashisnomdeguerreinexplicithomagetoMichaelCollins.56

Further outbreaks of Irish nationalist violence – focused on securing a British

withdrawalfromtheremainingsixcountiesofNorthernIreland‐wouldoccurduring

theSecondWorldWar,thelate1950sandearly1960s,andforthreedecadesfrom

the1970stothe1990s,featuringsuchgroupsastheIrishRepublicanArmy(IRA),the

ProvisionalIRAandtheIrishNationalLiberationArmy.57Fringenationalistgroups

liketheReal IRAandtheContinuityArmyCouncilcontinuetoreject theNorthern

IrelandPeaceProcess to this day,with themost recent fatal attack at the timeof

writing,themurderofPrisonOfficerDavidBlack,occurringasrecentlyasNovember

2012.

Thenationaliststrainoftheterroristviruscanbetrackedspreadingacrosstheglobe

farbeyondIreland.Ashortlistofotherprominentnationalistterroristgroupswould

includetheIndianBarinGhoseandtheManiktalagroupfightingBritishruleinthe

first decades of the Twentieth Century, the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary

Organization(IMRO)activeinthesameperiod,ZionistextremistgroupslikeIrgun

andLEHI fighting theBritishMandateor theirArab counterparts, theBlackHand

foundedbySheikhIzzal‐Dinal‐Qassam,theAlgerianFrontdeLibérationNationale

(FLN)activeagainstFrenchcolonialrulefrom1954to1962,theGreekCypriotgroup

EthnikiOrganosisKyprionAgoniston (EOKA– theNationalOrganizationofCypriot

Struggle)whofoughttheBritishfrom1955to1959,theLiberationTigersofTamil

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Eelam(LTTE)activeinSriLankafrom1976to2009,andfinallythePalestiniangroup

Fatehfoundedinthelate1950sandstillactivetoday.58Itisimportanttonotethat

manyofthesegroups,ifnotdirectlyresponsibleforsecuringindependencefortheir

people,havebecomeanimportant,ifnotcrucial,partoftheirnations’independence

narratives–inspiringfurtheremulation.Thechainofnationalistterrorismstretches

unbrokenfromthe1880stothepresentday.

SocialistTerrorism–fromKarlHeinzentoETA

WhileKarlHeinzendidnothimself convertwords intodeeds,hehelped inspirea

generationof populists, socialists and anarchists thatwouldput his program into

action.His influencewas such that two days after Leon Czolgosz assassinatedUS

PresidentWilliamMcKinleyinSeptember1901,JohanMostreprintedKarlHeinzen’s

essayDerMord,writtenalmostfiftyyearsearlier,toprovidepoliticalcontexttothe

incident–agesturethatearnedhimaconvictionintheNewYorkcourtsforwillfully

and wrongfully endangering the public peace.59 Marx and Engels were also well

acquaintedwithHeinzen’swork–withEngelsinparticulargoingoutofhiswayto

disparageHeinzenintheBritishpress.60

It was another associate of Marx and Engels, the Russian anarchist philosopher

MikhailBakunin,whoworkingwitharadicalRussianstudentSergeiNechaev,helped

tolaythefoundationforoneofthefirstleftistterrorgroups,Nechaev’sNarodnaya

Rasprava (The People’s Retribution), briefly active in 1869. Narodnaya Rasprava

would partially inspire the creation of a far better organized clandestine populist

group, Narodnaya Volya in 1879. 61 It was Narodnaya Volya that succeeded in

assassinatingTsarAlexanderIIin1881.LeftistterrorismwouldcontinueinRussia

untilthetriumphoftheBolshevikRevolution,anditisworthrecallingthatLenin’s

elder brother, Aleksander, was executed in 1887 because of his association with

NarodnayaVolyaplottokillTsarAlexanderIII.Anarchistterrorismwouldbecomea

worldwidephenomenon.InSeptember1883aringofconspirators,ledbytheself‐

17

describedanarchist‐communistKameradReinsdorf,onlynarrowlyfailedtoblowup

KaiserWilhelmIandthe‘IronChancellor’OttovonBismarck.62AsRapoportnotes,

the1890swouldseetheassassinationoftheKingofItaly,thePrimeMinisterofSpain,

the President of France, and Empress Elizabeth of Austria. Anarchist groups

detonatedbombsacrossWesternEuropeandtheUnitedStates,withmajorattacks

taking place as far afield as Paris (1892 and 1894), Barcelona (1893 and 1896),

London(1894),Milwaukee(1917),NewYork(1920)andMilan(1921).As lateas

1928,BhagatSinghoftheHindustanSocialistRepublicanAssociation(HSRA),who

washeavilyinfluencedbythethinkingofMikhailBakunin,63gunneddownAssistant

Superintendent JohnSaundersasareprisal for theviolentsuppressionofapublic

demonstrationinLahorebycolonialpolice.IndeliberateemulationoftheNineteenth

CenturyFrenchanarchistAugusteValliant,SinghfollowedtheattackonSaundersby

hurlingtwosmallbombsontotheflooroftheCentralLegislativeAssemblyinNew

Delhiwhilethechamberwasinsession.64

ToallintentsandpurposesRapoport’sthirdwaveof‘newleft’terrorismisreallyjust

theuninterruptedevolutionof the ‘old left’activityhegroups togetherashis first

wave.InRussia,theSocialRevolutionaryPartypickedupthethreadfromNarodnaya

Volyaaftertherepressionofstudentrebellionsattheturnofthecentury,andagain

aftertheabortedrevolutionof1905‐06,65andmanyofthepractitionersofterrorism

ontheleftlenttheirskillstothenewregime’s“redterror”afterthe1917revolution.66

The Communist International (or Comintern) became at the same time the

instrumentand thevictimof Stalin’s terroroutsideRussia.67The lessonsMaoTse

Tung derived from fighting both the invading Imperial Japanese Army and the

ChineseNationalistarmyofChiangKai‐shekinthelate1930sledtotheformulation

ofhisdoctrineofPeople’sWarthatwoulddeeplyinformtheactivitiesofgroupslike

theRedArmyFaction,ShiningPath,andtheRedBrigades,aswellasshapingthework

ofotherkeytheoristsofirregularwarfareandurbanguerrillacombatsuchasRégius

Debray, Ernesto ‘Che’ Guevara and Carlos Marighella. The concept of armed

propagandadevelopedbytheTupamaroswasreallyjustarestatementoftheideaof

propagandaofthedeedfirstarticulatedbyBakunin,andpopularizedbyPaulBrousse,

18

inthe1870s.Theheydayofnew‐leftterrorismmayhavebeeninthe1970sand1980s

butsomeofthesamegroupsstillremainactiveandtheirexamplecontinuestoexert

influence to this day.Michael Ryan, author of DecodingAl Qaeda’s Strategy, even

wrylynotes:“AlQaeda’sstrategicwritingsmaybeginandendwithIslamicreferences

andprayersbuttheircoreargumentshavelesstodowithIslamthanwiththetexts

of communist insurgents and idealogues.” 68 People’s War theory also heavily

influencednationalistgroupsliketheProvisionalIRA,theArmenianSecretArmyfor

theLiberationofArmenia(ASALA),thePopularFrontfortheLiberationofPalestine,

and theBasque separatist groupEuskadiTaAskatasuna (ETA),whichall shareda

Marxistsensibility.69

ReligiousTerrorism–fromJohnBrowntoAlQaeda

InMay1856theAmericanabolitionistJohnBrown,amilitantopponentofslaveryin

thesouthernUnitedStatesrodeintothepro‐slaveryKansassettlementPottawatomie

withhissmallgroupoffollowersandpulledfivemembersoftheproslaveryLawand

OrderPartyfromtheirbedsandbrutallyexecutedthem.Motivatedbyhisprofound

Christianfaith,Brown’savowedintentwasto“makeanexample,andsostriketerror”

inthehopesofstampedingproslaveryciviliansintoleavingtheKansasterritory.70

WhenBrownledhisraidonthefederalarmoryinHarpersFerryinOctober1859he

hoped–likesomanyofthemenandwomenofviolencethatwouldcomeafterhim‐

hissmallbandwouldinspireotherstoriseupbytheirexampleandtakebacktheir

freedomusingtheweaponsfromthearmory.Brownandhismenseizedthearmory

and took thirty‐five local inhabitants hostage. The hoped‐for uprising did not

transpire and a federal force – ironically enough led by the future Confederate

Commander‐in‐ChiefRobertE.Lee–capturedBrown,killedtenofhismen,including

twoofhissons,andfreedtheirhostages.Brownwasswiftlyputontrial,whichhe

usedasplatformtoproclaimhisviews,andthenexecuted.Asbefittedamanwhohad

admonished his followers “to takemore care to end lifewell than to live long”,71

Brown went to scaffold quite cheerfully, embracing martyrdom. Max Boot has

19

describedBrown as “one of themore consequential terrorists in history” quoting

FrederickDouglass’epitaph:“IfJohnBrowndidnotendthewarthatendedslavery,

hedidatleastbeginthewarthatendedslavery.”72HenryDavidThoreausaidofhis

execution: “Someeighteenhundredyears ago,Christwas crucified;Thismorning,

perchance,CaptainBrownwashung....HeisnotOldBrownanylonger;heisanangel

oflight.”73

Thereligiousstrainlaydormantformorethanhalfacenturybeforeemergingonce

more,butintheinterimreligiousbeliefcertainlyimpactedotherstrains.Forexample,

WalterLaqueurtracesmanyoftheimportantideasaboutjustifiabletyrannicidein

anarchistandearlynationalistterrorismtoChristianthought,eventhoughterrorists

likeHeinzenemphasizedthedistinctionbetweenthetwodoctrines.74Religionwas

animportantfactorinIrishnationalism‐withtheEasterUprisingin1916Padraig

Pearseandhisconfederatesexplicitlysetouttoestablishwhathetermed“atheology

ofinsurrection”andthechoiceofEasterMondayfortherisingwasalsodeliberatein

this regard,with its connotationsof sacrificeand resurrection.75Theactionof the

British authorities only served to amplify this effect. As the Provisional IRA

intelligenceofficerEamonCollinswouldwritemorethaneightyyearslater:“Inmy

mind,Pearseand[James]Connollywerealllinkedtogether.Theyweremartyrsfor

ourCatholicfaith,thetruereligion:religionandpoliticsfusedtogetherbytheblood

of themartyrs. I was prepared to bemartyr, to die for this Catholic faith.”76The

AmericanMarxistterrorgrouptheWeatherUndergroundwouldalsolaternameone

ofitspublicationsOsawatomie,afteratowninKansasthatJohnBrownhadtriedto

defendagainstpro‐Slaveryraidersin1856.77

ThefirstmodernIslamistrevivalmovement,theSocietyoftheMuslimBrothersor

MuslimBrotherhood,would reactivate the strain andputting faith at the heart of

politics. Founded in Egypt in March 1928, the central virtues of the Muslim

Brotherhood’s philosophy were militancy (within the context of jihad) and

martyrdom. 78 The group’s semi‐autonomous military wing, known as the Secret

Apparatus (al‐jihaz), carried out terrorist attacks against Egyptian government

20

figures,Britishmilitary targets in theSuezCanalZone,andbusinessesconsidered

emblematicofunwelcomewesterninfluencesuchascinemasandnightclubs.79The

BrotherhoodevensentvolunteerstofightintheArab‐IsraeliWarof1948.Forthe

Society’s founder, a former school teacher calledHasanal‐Banna,martyrdomwas

apogeeofpoliticalstruggle:“Thesuprememartyrdomisonlyconferredonthosewho

slayorareslaininthewayofGod.Asdeathisinevitableandcanhappenonlyonce,

partakinginjihadisprofitableinthisworldandthenext.”80TheSocietyofMuslim

Brothers was forcibly disbanded by the Egyptian Prime Minister Mahmoud an‐

NukrashiPashainearlyDecember1948.Whenan‐Nukrashiwasassassinatedbya

student member of the Brotherhood just three weeks later, Hasan al‐Banna was

gunneddownonastreetinCairobytheEgyptianSecretPoliceinretaliation.81

Hasanal‐Banna’splacewastakenbyaformerschoolinspectorandpublicintellectual,

SayyidQutb,who joined theMuslimBrotherhood in1953.Qutb’smost successful

work,Milestones,mapsoutanuncompromisingprogramforadvancingtheIslamist

cause:“PreachingaloneisnotenoughtoestablishthedominionofAllahonearth…

ThosewhohaveusurpedtheauthorityofAllahandareoppressingAllah’screatures

arenotgoingtogiveuptheirpowermerelythroughpreaching.”82WhentheEgyptian

government became aware of Qutb’s role in helping to reestablish the Muslim

Brotherhoodonaclandestinebasis,hewasarrested,sentencedtodeathandexecuted

inAugust1966.HisbiographerJohnCalvertcomparesMilestonestoLenin’ssimilarly

influential What is to be Done? 83 Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, who led the political

movementHizb‐iIslamiagainsttheSovietoccupationofAfghanistaninthelate1970s

and1980s,andShaykhSalamatHashim,formerleaderoftheMoroIslamicLiberation

Front(MILF)inthePhilippines,publiclycreditedQutbastheirinspiration.84Osama

bin Laden attended public lectures given by Qutb’s brother, Muhammad, at King

Abdul‐AzizUniversityinJeddah,andhissuccessorasleaderofAlQaeda,AymanAl

Zawahiri,wasraisedontalesofQutb’spietyandvisionbyhisuncleMahfouzAzzam,

Qutb’spersonallawyerandtheexecutorofhiswill.85

21

TheMuslimBrotherhoodwouldbecometheinspirationforanumberofmorerecent

Islamistterroristorganizations.AymanAlZawahiripublishedastudyoftheMuslim

Brotherhood in 1991 entitled The Bitter Harvest, which, though critical, also

illustrates the conceptual debt Al Qaeda owes the Brotherhood. 86 The Muslim

Brotherhood’suniquecombinationofmilitancyandsocialserviceprovisionhasalso

been widely copied, including by terrorist groups such as Hezbollah and Hamas.

Service provision creates its own dynamic strengthening bonds between armed

groupsandtheirconstituents,butalsocreatesobligations.AstheDeputySecretary‐

GeneralofHezbollah,NaimQassem,explainedinhismemoirs:“Socialworkservesto

enrichsupporters’confidenceintheviabilityoftheParty’scausesandcourse,asit

cooperates, collaborates and joins forces to remain strong and tenacious in its

politicalandresistanceroles.”87

Rapoport dates the beginning of his fourth, religious, wave to the upheavals that

grippedtheMuslimworldin1979–apivotalyearcertainly,whichashenotessaw

theIslamicrevolutioninIran,theSovietinvasionofAfghanistanandthesiegeofthe

GrandMosqueinMeccabyradicalfollowersofMohammedAbdullahal‐Qahtani–but

itisclearthattheseedsoftheIslamicrevivalgobackmuch,muchfurther.Ofcourse

it should be stressed that religious terrorism is not an exclusively Islamic

phenomenon.RapoportnotestheviolenceoftheChristianIdentitymovementinthe

UnitedStatesinthe1990s,JewishterrorismagainsttheIsraeliseculargovernment,

and Sikh terrorism in the 1980s; to which one could also add the rising tide of

BuddhistviolencedirectedattheMuslimpopulationofBurmaandtheroletheJewish

faithplayedinthelegitimizingnarrativesofbothIrgunandLEHIinthe1930sand

1940s.88

SocialExclusionTerrorism–fromNathanForresttoAndersBehringBreivik

TheConfederateStatesofAmericahadbeenoneofthefirstgovernmentstograspthe

potentialthattheNineteenthCenturyrevolutioninmilitarycapabilitiesrepresented.

22

In 1863 Bernard Janin Sage published a pamphlet titled Organization of Private

Warfare promoting the use of irregular bands of “destructionists”, which he

conceived as operating under loose official direction on landmuch as privateers

operatedatsea,insuchawaythattheConfederacycould“dothemostharmwiththe

least expense to ourselves.” 89 The pamphlet influenced the creation of the

ConfederateBureauofSpecialandSecretService,whichwasbehindtheattackon

Grant’s headquarters. Confederate ‘bush‐whackers’ likeWilliamQuantrill engaged

UnionisttroopsalongtheMissouri‐Kansasborderinhighlymobileirregularwarfare

and latermorphed into criminal incarnations suchas the James‐YoungerGang (of

JesseJamesfame).ThereisevidenceofcollusionbetweenveteransofbothQuantrill’s

raidersandtheJames‐Youngergang,andoneofthemostactiveearlyKuKluxKlan

‘dens’inAlamanceCounty,NorthCarolina.Althoughhewasnotafoundingmember

of theKlan– thatdubioushonor fell tosixyoungConfederateveterans inPulaski,

Tennessee‐theConfederatecavalrygeneralNathanBedfordForrestwouldbethe

first leader of theKlan in itsmature political and activist form.90The racism that

underpinned the institutionof slavery, and thus inevitably theConfederate cause,

gaverisetotheKuKluxKlanaroundwhichoppositionandresistancetotheUnionist

reconstructionofthesouthcoalesced.Duringtheelevenyearsofreconstructionfrom

1865‐1876 the Klan killed an estimated 3,000 freed former slaves and brutally

intimidatedblackcommunitiesfromrealizinganysemblanceofequality.Thefailure

ofthefederalgovernmenttointervenetosecurethe1875electioninMississippiwith

predictable consequences for black voters led its Republican Governor, Adelbert

Ames,toproclaimindisgust:“Arevolutionhastakenplace(byforceofarms)anda

racearedisenfranchised–theyaretobereturnedtoaconditionofserfdom.”91The

Ku Klux Klan had snatched no small measure of victory from the jaws of defeat.

Although reconstruction was abandoned in 1876 the Klan’s racially motivated

violence would continue more than a century spawning beatings, lynchings,

bombings and assassinations. This violence attracted little attention outside the

southern United States until the 1960s, and as such it exerted little influence on

politicaldevelopmentsfurtherafield,buttheKlanmightneverthelessbereasonably

describedasthefirstmodernterroristorganization.

23

However,theKlanisfarfromtheonlyexclusionistterroristorganizationtoplyits

tradearoundtheworld.InRussiatheantisemiticundergroundmovementknownas

theBlackHundredsassassinatedtwoJewishmembersoftheRussianDumain1906

andlaunchedaseriesofpogromsagainstJewishcommunitiesintheUkraineinthe

yearsbeforetheoutbreakofWorldWarI.Inthe1920sGermanysawtheemergence

of the Nazi party’s Sturmabteilung (the SA, or Stormtoopers), a paramilitary

organization thatused terrorism insupport thepoliticalparty (which included its

owninternalbodyresponsibleforterrorintheshapeoftheShutzstaffel‐theSS)and

merits its inclusion in books on terrorism.92Walter Laqueur includes theGerman

Freikorps,andHungarianandRomanianfascistsamongrightwingterroristgroups

thatattackedpoliticalleaders:theIronGuardkilledtwoRomanianprimeministers

inthe1930s.93FrenchsettlerviolencewasanimportantfactorintheAlgerianwarof

independence.On10August1956aformerFrenchintelligenceofficerAndréAchiary,

supportedbymembersoftheUnionFrançaiseNord‐Africaine,plantedalargebomb

in Rue de Thèbes, Algiers, which killed 73 local Muslim residents and helped

precipitatetheBattleofAlgiers.ThedisaffectedFrenchmilitarypersonneloftheOAS

evenattemptedamilitarycoup,andtriedtoassassinatePresidentCharlesdeGaulle

onseveraloccasions.94AsMichaelBurleighnotes,theOASwasactuallyresponsible

for more deaths than the entire Northern Ireland conflict.95 The activities of the

ItalianRedBrigades in the1970sweremetbyastrongcounter‐reaction fromthe

ItalianextremerightandgroupslikeBlackOrder,RevolutionaryFascistNuclei,and

NewOrder:6peoplewerekilledwhenabombexplodedin1970ontheFrecciadel

SudexpresstrainconnectingMilanwithPalermo;8werekilledbyabombplantedin

aunionmeetingatthePiazzadellaLoggia inBresciaand12inatrainbombingin

Italicus near Bologna in 1974.96Neo‐fascist terrorism reached a climax in August

1980when84peoplewerekilledand200woundedinabombblastatBolognatrain

station. The right‐wing backlash in Italy was also echoed in Germany with the

bombing of the Munich Oktoberfest in September 1980 by the neo‐Nazi Gundolf

Köhler,inwhich13peoplewerekilled(includingKöhler)and211injured.Theright‐

wingbacklashinItalywasalsoechoedinGermanywiththebombingoftheMunich

24

OktoberfestinSeptember1980bytheneo‐NaziGundolfKöhler,inwhich13people

werekilled(includingKöhler)and211injured.97

In2011theSouthernPovertyLawCenterpublishedalistofmorethan100“plots,

conspiraciesandracistrampages”thathadoccurredintheUnitedStatessincethe

1995OklahomaCitybombing committedbywhite supremacistTimothyMcVeigh,

whichitselfclaimed168lives.98InDecember2008policeinvestigatingthemurderof

JamesG.CummingsinBelfast,Maine,discoveredthathehadbeenintheprocessof

assemblingahomemadedirtybomb.Cummings,awhitesupremacistandanardent

admirerofAdolfHitler,wasreportedly“veryupset”abouttheelectionofPresident

BarackObama.99AsimilarlydisturbingincidentoccurredinApril2003whenfederal

investigators stumbled across an arms cache assembled by 63‐year‐old white

supremacistWilliamKrar,whichincluded800gramsofsodiumcyanide–enoughto

kill 1000s of people. 100 As recently as June 2015 twenty‐one‐year‐old white

supremacistDylannRoofwalkedintoachurchinCharleston,SouthCarolina,andshot

deadnineAfrican‐Americanworshippers tellingoneof his victims: “You rapeour

womenandyou’retakingoverourcountry.Andyouhavetogo.”101

OthercontemporaryexamplesofthisstrainwouldincludetheBritishneo‐NaziDavid

Copeland,whodetonatedthreenailbombstargetingimmigrantandgaycommunities

inLondonovera thirteen‐dayperiod inApril1999, claiming3 livesandmaiming

dozensmore.ThereisalsoofcoursetheNorwegianracistAndersBehringBreivik,

whoon22July2011detonateda950Kilogramnitratefertilizerbombconcealedina

whiteVolkswagenvanparkedoutsidegovernmentbuildingsinOslo,killing8people

andinjuring9seriously.HethentraveledtoaLabourPartyyouthcampontheisland

ofUtøyawhereheshotdead69campersandwounded33.102Breiviklaterstatedthat

oneofthereasonshehadspecificallychosentheislandasatargetwasthattheformer

Norwegian Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland had been scheduled to speak

there,butshehadalreadyleftUtøyabythetimehearrived.Heclaimedtobeacting

onbehalfofa fictitious“KnightsTemplar”organizationandpublishedamanifesto

settingouthisanti‐socialistandxenophobicbeliefsonlinebefore theattacks.This

25

was the worst violent incident in Norway since the Second World War and

commentatorsestimatedthat1in4Norwegiansknewsomeonepersonallyaffected

bytheattacks.Overtortacitracismisalsoanimportantaspectofdelegitimizingand

dehumanizingnarrativesinconflictsdrivenbyreligiousornationalistsentiments.

Conclusion–TheFourHorsemenRide

Rapoport’s Four Waves of Modern Terrorism is the field of terrorism studies’

equivalent of Francis Fukuyama’s essay on The End of History. It is thought‐

provokingandconceptuallyuseful.However,whileatfirstglanceitseemstofitthe

facts,therealityismessierandmoreprosaic.Therearenowavesofmodernterrorism

–therearesimplynumeroussituationsaroundtheworldwherethemeans,motive

andopportunitytoseekpoliticalchangethroughviolencehavegivenrisetoterrorist

actorsmotivatedbyoneormoreofthefourstrainsoutlinedabove.

Thetruthisthatwearelivinginanageofterrorism,andhavebeenforacenturyand

ahalf.Modernterrorismisaproductofthedramaticchangesinweaponstechnology

andmasscommunicationsintheNineteenthCenturyandthedevelopmentofradical

ideologies that inspired revolutionary groups to experiment with new forms of

politicalviolence.The fourstrainsofmodernterrorismallhave theirroots in this

confluenceofmeansandmotive.Technologicalandideationaldevelopmentsmade

modernterrorism,technologicalandideologicalchangedrovedevelopmentsinthe

fourstrainsduringtheTwentiethCentury,andtechnologicalandideologicalchange

islikelytoshapetheirfuturetrajectories.

Terroristgroupscomeinmanyshapesandsizes,andtheyevolveandmutate.Jessica

Sterncoinedthephrase‘theProteanenemy’–aftertheshape‐shiftingGreekseagod

featuredinHomer’sOdyssey‐todescribethechallengeposedbyterrorismbecause

oftheconstantlychangingnatureofthegroupsinvolvedandthechangingnatureof

threat itself.103Terrorism isnot, andwillneverbe, a conceptually clean label.As

26

Rapoporthasnoted,terroristsarecomplexactorsthatmaysimultaneouslyinhabit

multiple identities104‐ terrorist and drug trafficker, terrorist and freedom fighter,

terroristandrevolutionary,Marxistandnationalist–butattheircoreallthegroups

featured in this article all have one thing in common: they are prepared to

indiscriminatelyandviolentlytargetciviliansforpoliticalgain.

Thefourstrainsdifferfundamentallyinideology.Someoftheorganizationscitedin

thisarticleusedterrorismasoneofseveraltactics,butformany,terrorismbecame

theircentral,definingcharacteristic:astrategythatdefinedwhattheirgoalswereand

howtheseweretobeachieved.Thereisampleevidencethattheyhavelearnedfrom

eachother.Judgingbywhattheterroriststhemselvesclaim,contagion(orlearning)

seemstohavebeensomewhatstrongerwithineachstrainthanacrossstrains.Butit

mustalsobeacknowledgedthatinmanycasesideasjumpedacrossbothgenerations

andideologies.

All four strains have proven resilient, despite the ideological and technological

revolutionsof theTwentiethandTwenty‐FirstCenturies.Today, insomerespects,

thesocialandpoliticalspaceinwhichtooperateasaterroristactorisshrinking.For

example, emerging technologies like facial recognition, social media, robotics,

predictivealgorithms,artificialintelligence,andgeneticmarkingwillmakeitharder

andharderforindividualsorsmallgroupstooperateoffthegrid.Inotherrespects,

withtheriseoffailedstatesandthe“feralcities”thatcounterinsurgencyexpertDavid

Kilcullen warns of in Out of the Mountains, their space to operate might be

increasing. 105 The question about the future threat of terrorism is not so much

whetherandwhenanewwavemightemerge,ashowchanginggeopolitics,ideology

andtechnologymightaffecteachofthefourstrainsandwhethertheymightmutate

intonewformsofpoliticalviolence.

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1Thearticleappearedinthreeversions:DavidC.Rapoport,“TheFourthWave:September11andtheHistoryofTerrorism,”CurrentHistory,100,no.650(2001)419‐424;“TheFourWavesofRebelTerrorandSeptember11”,Anthropoetics8,no.1(2002);“TheFourWavesofModernTerrorism”,inAudreyKurthCroninandJamesLudes(eds.),AttackingTerrorism:ElementsofaGrandStrategy(WashingtonDC:GeorgetownUniversityPress;2004).46‐73.2Seee.g.DavidC.Rapoport,“TheFourWavesofModernTerrorism”,inJohnHorganandKurtBraddock(eds),TerrorismStudies:AReader(London:Routledge:2012).3SamuelP.Huntington,TheThirdWave:DemocratizationintheLateTwentiethCentury,(Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress:1991);“Democracy’sThirdWave”JournalofDemocracy,2,no.2(1991),12‐34.4SeealsoRapoport’searlierworkalongsimilarlines:DavidC.Rapoport,“Introduction”,JournalofStrategicStudies,10,no.4(1987),1‐10;and“SacredTerror:AContemporaryExamplefromIslam”,inWalterReich(ed.),OriginsofTerrorism:Psychologies,Ideologies,Theologies,StateofMind(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1990).5Rapoport,“TheFourWavesofModernTerrorism”(seenote1above),47.6LindsayClutterbuckwasoneofthefirsttorefutethisargumentbyoutliningthecriticalroleplayedbyIrishnationalistgroupslikeClanNaGaelandTheSkirmishersinthedevelopmentofterroristpracticeinthenineteenthcentury.SeeLindsayClutterbuck,“TheProgenitorsofTerrorism:RussianRevolutionariesorExtremeIrishRepublicans?”,JournalofTerrorismandPoliticalViolence,16:1(2004),154‐181.7Rapoport,““TheFourWavesofModernTerrorism”(seenote1above),47.8Rapoport,“TheFourWavesofModernTerrorism”(seenote1above),47.9Rapoport,“TheFourWavesofModernTerrorism”(seenote1above),48.10DianeStone,“TransferandTranslationofPolicy”,PolicyStudies,33,no.6(November2012),483‐499.11BarbaraLevittandJames.G.March,“OrganizationalLearning”,AnnualReviewofSociology,14(1988),319‐340;James.G.March,“ExplorationandExploitationinOrganizationalLearning,OrganizationScience,2,no.1(1991),SpecialIssue:OrganizationalLearning:PapersinHonorof(andby)JamesG.March,71‐87.12SeeRobertWinthrop,DictionaryofConceptsinCulturalAnthropology(NewYork:Greenwood,1991)andEverettRogers,DiffusionofInnovations(NewYork:FreePress,2003).13MauriceDuverger,PoliticalParties:TheirOrganizationandActivityintheModernState(London:Methuen,1954).14RichardS.KatzandPeterMair(eds):HowPartiesOrganize:ChangeandAdaptationinPartyOrganizationsinWesternDemocracies,(London:Sage,1995).15SeePeterWaldmann,“Social‐revolutionaryterrorisminLatinAmericaandEurope”,inToreBjørgo(ed.),RootCausesofTerrorism:Myth,realityandwaysforward(London:Routledge,2005).SeealsoManusMidlarsky,MarthaCrenshawandFumihikoYoshida,“WhyViolenceSpreads:TheContagionofInternationalTerrorism”,InternationalStudiesQuarterly,24,no.2(June1980),262‐298.16NikolaiMorozov,TheTerroristStruggle(1880),republishedinWalterLaqueur(ed.),VoicesofTerror:Manifestos,WritingsandManualsofAlQaeda,Hamas,andotherTerroristsfromaroundtheworldandThroughouttheAges(NapervilleIll.:ReedPress,2004),8117MarieFleming,“Propagandabythedeed:Terrorismandanarchisttheoryinlatenineteenth‐centuryEurope”,StudiesinConflict&Terrorism,4,no.1‐4(1980),1‐2318DavidC.Rapoport,“TheFourWavesofModernTerrorism”(seenote1above),5219Huntington,“Democracy’sThirdWave”(seenote3above),13.20NickSitterandTomParker,“FightingFirewithWater:NGOandCounter‐TerrorismPolicyTools”,GlobalPolicy,5,no.2(2014)159‐168.21PaulJ.DiMaggio&WalterW.Powell,"Theironcagerevisited"institutionalisomorphismandcollectiverationalityinorganizationalfields",AmericanSociologicalReview,48(1983),147‐60.

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22PeterHart,TheI.R.A.atWar1916‐1923(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2003);LindsayClutterbuck“TheProgenitorsofTerrorism”(seenote6above);CharlesTownshend,“TheIrishRepublicanArmyandtheDevelopmentofGuerillaWarfare,1916‐1921”,TheEnglishHistoricalReview,94,no.371(1979),318‐345;CharlesTownshend,TheRepublic:TheFightforIrishIndependence,(AllenLane,2013).23TimPatCoogan,MichaelCollins:ABiography,(London:ArrowBooks,1991)13.24T.RyleDwyer,TheSquadandtheIntelligenceOperationsofMichaelCollins(Dublin:Mercier,2005),6525K.R.M.Short,TheDynamiteWar:Irish‐AmericanBombersinVictorianBritain(Dublin:GillandMacmillan,1979),4726ScottMiller,ThePresidentandtheAssassin:McKinley,Terror,andEmpireattheDawnoftheAmericanCentury(NewYork:RandomHouse,2011),6.27BernardineDohrn,DeclarationofaStateofWar,TheBerkeleyTribe,31July1970athttp://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/pacificaviet/scheertranscript.html(accessed26July2015)28OttoBillig,“TheLawyerTerroristandHisComrades”,PoliticalPsychology,6,no.1(March1985),32.29GeorgeKassimeris,InsideGreekTerrorism(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress;2013),3330PaulAvrich,AnarchistPortraits(PrincetonNJ:PrincetonUniversityPress;1988),1331PeterHeehs,“TerrorisminIndiaduringtheFreedomStruggle”,TheHistorian,55,no.3(Spring1993),469–482,47432ChristopherCradockandM.L.R.Smith,“NoFixedValues:AReinterpretationoftheInfluenceoftheTheoryofGuerreRévolutionnaireandtheBattleofAlgiers1956‐1957”,JournalofColdWarStudies,9,no.4(Fall2007),68‐105,80‐8133AbuIyad,PalestiniensansPatrie:EntretiensavecÉricRouleau,(Paris:Fayolle1978),64.34JarretBrachmanandWilliamMcCants,“StealingAlQaeda'sPlaybook”,StudiesinConflictandTerrorism,29,no.4(June2006),309‐321.35JohnCalvert,SayyidQutbandtheOriginsofRadicalIslamism(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress;2010),122.36TonyWalkerandAndewGowers:Arafat:TheBiography(London:VirginBooks,2003),33‐34.37MarthaCrenshaw,“TheEffectivenessofTerrorismintheAlgerianWar”,inMarthaCrenshaw(ed.)TerrorisminContext(UniversityPark,PA:PennsylvaniaStateUniversityPress,1995),47438AmiPedahzur,TheIsraeliSecretServicesandtheStruggleAgainstTerrorism(NewYork,NY:ColumbiaStudiesinTerrorismandIrregularWarfare,2009),3839MiaBloom,DyingtoKill:TheAllureofSuicideTerror(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,2005),122.40Ibid,123.41JeffreyWilliamLewis,TheBusinessofMartyrdom:AHistoryofSuicideBombing(Annapolis,MD:NavalInstitutePress,2012),158.42LindsayClutterbuck,“TheProgenitorsofTerrorism”(seenote6above).43JohnGrady,TheConfederateTorpedo,Opinionator,TheNewYorkTimes,15August201444Thefirstcableonlyfunctionedforthreeweeksandwasnotsuccessfullyreplaceduntil186645AndrewMarr,MyTrade:AShortHistoryofBritishJournalism(London:PanBooks,2005),1546PhilipMeggs,AHistoryofGraphicDesign(NewYork:JohnWiley&Sons,1998),147.47KarlHeinzen,MurderandFreedom(NewYork:1853)reproducedinDanielBessnerandMichaelStauch,“KarlHeinzenandtheIntellectualOriginsofModernTerror”,TerrorismandPoliticalViolence,22,no.2(2010),143–176.48PaulBrousse,"Lapropagandeparlefait",BulletindelaFédérationJurassienne,August1877.49Frenchtranslationofthetrialtranscript,AlbertMousset,UnDrameHistorique:L’AttentatdeSarajevo:documentsinéditsettexteintégraledessténogrammesduprocés(Paris:Payoy,1930),115.50 Nunzio Pernicone, “Luigi Galleani and Italian Anarchist Terrorism in the United States”, StudiEmigrazione,30,no.111(September1993),469‐489,47051MarcoPinfari,“ExploringtheTerroristNatureofPoliticalAssassinations:AReinterpretationoftheOrsiniAttentat”,TerrorismandPoliticalViolence,21,no.4(2009),580‐594,585.52DavidGeorge,“DistinguishingClassicalTyrannicidefromModernTerrorism”,The

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ReviewofPolitics50,no.3(Summer1988),391–396;MarcoPinfari,“ExploringtheTerroristNatureofPoliticalAssassinations”.53NiallWhelehan,TheDynamiters:IrishNationalismandPoliticalViolenceintheWiderWorld1867‐1900(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2012),77;Clutterbuck“TheProgenitorsofTerrorism”(seenote6above),162‐163.54Short,TheDynamiteWar(seenote25above),38.55Ibid,162and229.56YitzhakShamir,SummingUp:AnAutobiography(London:Widenfeld&Nicholson,1994),8..57RichardEnglish,IrishFreedom:TheHistoryofNationalisminIreland(London:Macmillan2006).58BruceHoffmann,AnonymousSoldiers:TheStruggleforIsrael1917–1947(NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,2015);DavidFrench,FightingEOKA:TheBritishCounter‐InsurgencyCampaignonCyprus,1955‐1959(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2015);YezidSayigh,ArmedStruggleandtheSearchforState:ThePalestinianNationalMovement,1949‐1993(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1997).59DanielBessnerandMichaelStauch,“KarlHeinzenandtheIntellectualOriginsofModernTerror”,15260Ibid,150‐151.61DeborahHardy,LandandFreedom:TheOriginsofRussianTerrorsim,1976‐1979,(NewYork:GreenwoodPress,1987),chapter5.62RichardBachJensen,TheBattleAgainstAnarchistTerrorism:AnInternationalHistory,1878‐1934,(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2014),26.63FromMaytoSeptember1928BhagatSinghpublishedaseriesofarticleshehadwrittenonanarchistthoughtinKirti,thejournaloftheKirtiKisanParty64KuldipNayar,TheMartyr:BhagatSinghExperimentsinRevolution(NewDelhi:Har‐AnandPublications,2000),70‐73.65PhilipPomper,“RussianRevolutionaryTerrorism”inMarthaCrenshaw(ed.),TerrorisminContext,(Universitypark,PA:PennsylvaniaStateUniversity,1995),89‐99.66AnnaGeifman,RevolutionaryTerrorisminRussia,1894‐1917(PrincetonNJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,1993),chapter8andtheepilogue.67KevinMcDermott,“StalinistTerrorintheComintern:NewPerspectives”,JournalofContemporaryHistory,30,no.1(1995),111‐130;WilliamJ.Chase,EnemieswithintheGates?TheCominternandtheStalinistRepression,1934–1939(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,2001).68MichaelRyan,DecodingAlQaeda’sStrategy:TheDeepBattleAgainstAmerica(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,2013),4‐5.69ETA’srevolutionarysocialiststrandcametodominatetheorganization,butitsfounderslookedtobothMarxist(CubaandVietnam)andnationalist(Ireland,Cyprus,thePalestinianMandate)examplesforinspiration.TeresaWhitfield,EndgameforETA:ElusivePeaceintheBasqueCountry(London:Hurst&Co,2014),40‐42.70ReportedbyGeorge.A.Crawford,inalettertoEliThayer,4.August1879,publishedasanappendixinG.W.Brown,ReminiscencesofOldJohnBrown:ThrillingIncidentsofBorderLifeinKansas(Rockford,IL:AbrahamE.Smith,1880).71MaxBoot,InvisibleArmies:AnEpicHistoryofGuerrillaWarfarefromAncientTimestothePresent(NewYorkLiveright,2013),21472Ibid,21773KenChowder,“TheFatherofAmericanTerrorism”,AmericanHeritage,51,no.1(February/March2000),68‐79.74WalterLaqueur,Terrorism(London:WidenfeldandNicholson,1977),33‐38.75JeffreyWilliamLewis,TheBusinessofMartyrdom,12576MiaBloomandJohnHorgan,“MissingTheirMark:TheIRA’sProxyBombCampaign”,inMichaelA.InnesandWilliamBanks(eds.),MakingSenseofProxyWars:States,Surrogates&theUseofForce(Dulles,VA:PotomacBooks,2012),3977Chowder,“TheFatherofAmericanTerrorism”(seenote73above).78RichardMitchell,TheSocietyoftheMuslimBrothers(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1969),206‐207.

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79Ibid,58‐6280Hasanal‐Banna,FiveTractsofHasanal‐Banna(1906‐1949):ASelectionfromtheMajmu'atRasa'ilal‐Imamal‐Shahid,(Berkeley,CA:UniversityofCaliformiaPress,1978).81RichardMitchell,TheSocietyoftheMuslimBrothers,67and70‐7182SayyidQutb,Milestones(Daral‐lim;2007),47‐48;JohnCalvert,SayyidQutbandtheOriginsofRadicalIslamism(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress;2010),22583JohnCalvert,SayyidQutbandtheOriginsofRadicalIslamism(seenote82above),225.84Ibid,3and265.85N.C.AsthanaandAnjaliNirmal,UrbanTerrorism:MythsAndRealities(Jaipur:PointerPublishers,2009),11786Calvert,SayyidQutbandtheOriginsofRadicalIslamism(seenote83above),223.87NaimQassem,Hizbullah:TheStoryfromWithin(London:Saqi,2007),165.88Rapoport,“SacredTerror”(seenote4above),103‐104;AmiPedahzurandAriePerliger,JewishTerrorisminIsrael(NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress,2009).89WilliamA.Tidwell,April’65:ConfederateCovertActionintheAmericanCivilWar(Kent,Ohio:KentStateUniversityPress;1995),206‐212.90SeeAllenTrelease,WhiteTerror:TheKuKluxKlanConspiracyandSouthernReconstruction(BatonRouge:LouisianaStateUniversityPress,1971),3‐27.91DavidC.Rapoport,“Beforethebombstherewerethemobs:Americanexperienceswithterror”,inJeanRosenfeld(ed.),Terrorism,IdentityandLegitimacy:TheFourWavestheoryandpoliticalviolence(London:Routledge,2011),151.92JamesM.LutzandBrendaJ.Lutz,GlobalTerrorism(London:Routledge,2004),171‐174.93LaqueurTerrorism(seenote74above),95‐96.94MartinEvans,Algeria:France’sUndeclaredWar(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress),2012,chapter9.95MichaelBurleigh,SmallWars,FarawayPlaces:TheGenesisoftheModernWorld:1945‐65(London:Macmillan,2013),329.96DonatellaDellaPorta,InstitutionalResponsestoTerrorism:TheItalianCase,inAlexP.SchmidandRonaldD.Crelinsten(eds)WesternResponsestoTerrorism(London:FrankCass,1993).SeealsoAnnaCentoBull,ItalianNeofascism:TheStrategyofTensionandthePoliticsofNonreconciliation(Oxford:BerghahnBooks,2011).97ClaireSterling,TheTerrorNetwork:TheSecretWarofInternationalTerrorism(NewYork,NY:Holt,RinehartandWinston;1981),198HeidiBeirichetal,TerrorFromtheRight(Montgomery,AL:SouthernPovertyLawCenter,2012)99WalterGriffin,“‘Dirtybomb’partsfoundinslainman’shome”,BangorDailyNews,10February2009,http://bangordailynews.com/2009/02/10/politics/report‐dirty‐bomb‐parts‐found‐in‐slain‐mans‐home/accessed26July2015100GeorgeMichael,LoneWolfTerrorandtheRiseofLeaderlessResistance(Nashville,TN:VanderbiltUniversityPress,2012),39‐41,111.101DougStanglinandMelanieEversley,SuspectinCharlestonchurchrampagereturnstoSouthCarolina,USAToday,19June2015.102NOU2012:14,Rapportfra22.juli‐kommisjonen(Oslo:Departementenesservicesenter,2012).103JessicaStern,“TheProteanEnemy”,ForeignAffairs,82,no.4(July/August2003),27‐40.104Rapoport,“Beforethebombstherewerethemobs”(seenote91above).105DavidKilcullen,OutoftheMountains:TheComingAgeoftheUrbanGuerrilla(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2013).