TheFlorida

anThropologisT

Volume 60 Number 1March 2007

TableoFConTenTs

From the Editors 3

Temporal Problems and Alternatives Toward the Establishment of Paleoindian Site Chronologies in Florida 5and the Adjacent Coastal Southeast. JamesS.Dunbar

Summer Pentoaya: Locating a Prominent Ais Indian Town along the Indian River Lagoon, Florida. 21J.F.LanhamandAlanBrech

A Preliminary Review and Bibliography of Human Skeletal Remains Curated by the Palm Beach Museum 39of Natural History. PeterFerdinando

BOOK REVIEWS

Grantham: Creation Myths and Legends of the Creek Indians. JimPepe 51

Mason: The Archaeology of Ocmulgee Old Fields, Macon, Georgia. RochelleMarrinan 52 About the Authors 55

Cover:TheFloridaAnthropologicalSociety60thAnniversaryLogobyJamesW.HunterIII.

Published by theFLORIDA ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY, INC.

ISSN 0015-3893

temporal problems and alternatives towards the establishment oF paleoindian site Chronologies in Florida and the adjaCent Coastal southeast

JaMess.dunbar

Senior Archaeologist, Public Lands Archaeology Program, Bureau of Archaeological Research, 1001 de Soto Park Drive, Tallahassee, FL 32301Email: jsdunbar@dos.state.fl.us

Vol.60(1) TheFloridaanThropologisT MarCh2007

IntroductionSeveral Paleoindian sites have been identified in Florida

that have yielded diagnostic artifacts and preserved faunalbone, but have not been radiometrically dated. There havebeenlimitationstoandnewdevelopmentswiththeradiocarbontechnique (both standard radiometric andAccelerator MassSpectrometryAMS)thatmayormaynotprecludeitsuseindeterminingasite’stemporalcontext.Therearealsoalternativeradiometricdatingmethods,generallynotutilizedbyFloridaarchaeologists,whichofferthepotentialtodeterminetemporalcontext, such as Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL)andUraniumThoriumdating.Thealmostcompleteabsenceof firm temporal contexts for late Pleistocene sites in Florida and the adjacent coastal Southeast has limited a regionalinterpretationofPaleoindianlifeways.Afailuretograspthetemporal chronology of Southeastern cultures through timecontinuestoencouragespeculativeanswersforthemostbasicof questions, including which tool-making tradition camefirst, if some traditions coexisted together, and how long the durationofPaleoindianoccupationwas.

In Florida and the coastal lowlands of southeasternAlabamaandsouthernGeorgia,threediagnosticPaleoindianartifact types have been recognized, the Clovis, Suwannee,and Simpson point types (Bullen 1975). Recently, thistypologyhasbeencalledintoquestionduetothediversityofformssubsumedunderaBullentypecalledSuwanneeandasobservedbyinspectinghistypecasecollectionofSuwanneepointspecimens(DunbarandHemmings2004:68).PartofthematerialvarietythatBulleninadvertentlymaskedwithinthisSuwanneetypeappearstorepresentoneormoredistincttypesthatareeithercontemporaneouswithor temporallyseparatefrom the classic Suwannee type (as redefined by Goodyear et al.1983,Goodyear1999)andtheClovisandSimpsontypes(Dunbar and Hemmings 2004). If this greater diversity oftypesisso,thenBullen’stypologyisinneedofrevision(fora discussion seeFarr 2006), and the assemblageof types isindicativeofamoremateriallycomplexandperhaps longerPaleoindian tradition in the coastal Southeast than hasbeen previously thought. Ideally, any effort to undertake atypologicalrevisionshouldconsidertheartifacts’methodsofmanufacture and use, as well as the temporal placement oftypesintimeandstratigraphicposition.

Chronology and Stratigraphy of Coastal Southeast Paleoindian Sites

Since its development, radiocarbon dating (Libby et al.1949)hasbeenthepreferredmethodofplacingarchaeologicalsites in temporal context (Dasovich 1996, Morlan 2004).However,theradiocarbonmethodhasbeenlargelyineffectivein determining the age of Paleoindian sites east of theMississippi River due to the general absence of preservedorganicmaterialcapableofyieldingdates(Ellisetal.1998).This isparticularlytruein thecoastalplainof theSoutheastwhere the age of suspected pre-Clovis, Middle, and LatePaleoindian sites remains unconfirmed.

Florida Paleoindian sites that have eluded radiometricdatingincludetheWakullaSpringsLodge(8WA329),Ryan-Harley (8JE1004) Harney Flats (8HI507), Norden (8GI40)Lewis-McQuinn (8DI112), and Silver Spring (8MR192)sites (see Figure 1 for the location of Florida Paleoindiansitesmentionedinthisarticle).TheonlyFloridasitetoyielda radiocarbondate fromaPaleoindian levelwithdiagnosticartifactsistheCloviscomponentatSlothHole(8JE121),aninundatedsitelocatedintheAucillaRiver.Acarvedmastodonivory tool fragment yielded an assay of 11,050 ±50 14C BP(n=1)(Hemmings 2004), an age now believed to be one ofthe three oldest Clovis sites in the Americas (Waters andStafford 2007:1124). The Sloth Hole ivory shaft fragmentwas carbon dated using XAD-purified collagen: a new preparation technique used to insure accurate bone dating.ThestratigraphicsequenceatthePage-Ladsonsite(8JE591)has five Paleoindian components that produced debitage, un-diagnostic tools,andbutcher-markedbones. TheearliestofthePaleoindianlevelsatPage-Ladsondated12,245±3214CBP(averagedageofseven[n=7]staticallyrelatedcarbondates).Though diagnostic artifacts were recovered from displacedcontextsatthePage-Ladsonsite,nonewererecoveredfrominplacelevels(Dunbar2006b).

AnotherprobleminthecoastalSoutheastistheabsenceofestablishedstratigraphicpositionsamongthedifferenttypesofPaleoindiandiagnostic artifacts suspectedof representingdifferentculturalmanifestations through time. TheWakullaSprings Lodge, Ryan-Harley, Harney Flats, Norden, Lewis-McQuinn, and Silver Springs sites, to the extent they arenow understood, all have single Paleoindian components,althoughmanyofthesesiteshavelaterperiodEarlyArchaicandyoungersitecomponents. SitessuchasSlothHoleandthe Page-Ladson in the Aucilla have multiple Paleoindiancomponents;nevertheless,onlytheCloviscomponentatSlothHolehasyieldeddiagnosticClovisartifactsfromundisturbed,primarycontext.

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The establishment of a radiometric chronology forPaleoindian sites in the coastal Southeast is fundamental toarchaeological and paleontological interpretation, a factorthat is presently limited by temporal uncertainty. This isparticularly apparent when site data are compared to datafromthedesertSouthwest.SouthwesternPaleoindianculturaltraditions (including their respective diagnostic artifactassemblages)havelongbeenreferencedtochronostratigraphyandgeoclimatedata(Antevs1954,1962a,1962b,BerryandBerry1968,Bryan1950,BryanandAlbritton1943,Haynes1971,1982,1991).Theinvestigationsofkarst,wetland,andinundatedsitesintheSoutheasthavebeguntoprovideregionalchronologies (Carr 1987, Clausen et al. 1979, Cockrell andMurphy 1978, Collins et al. 1994, Doran and Dickel 1988,Driskell1994,1996,Hemmings1999,2004,Hoffman1983,Walker 1998) and the Page-Ladson site is the first well-dated stratigraphicsequencetoyieldaregionalchronostratigraphyand geoclimate reconstruction for the coastal Southeast(Dunbar 2002, 2006a, 2006b, 2006c).Thus, the compellingresearchquestionsforthecoastalSoutheastbecome:1)wheredo the various manifestations of Paleoindian culture fit in time(forinstance,ClovisbeforeSuwanneeortheotherwayaround)? 2) What are the material manifestations of theseadaptations(artifacts,dietarypatterns,resourcechoices,landuse preferences etc.)? 3) Did more than one tool-makingtradition and/or distinctly different group of people coexistconcurrently (i.e. Clovis and Suwannee) or did one culturedevelopfromanearlierone(i.e.Clovis,theancestor,gaveway

to Suwannee, the offspring) or possibly replace an existinggroup or fill a cultural lacuna1.

In order to fully appreciate our need to more firmly establish these temporal contexts, one needs to look nofurtherthantheproblemsrelatedtotheinterpretationsoftheSuwannee point-making, Paleoindian culture. The Clovisand Suwannee tool kits are similar but also differ in manyrespects.WaistedClovispointsdisplaythediagnosticClovismanufacture techniques of fluted and overshot flaking, while the Waisted Suwannee points seldom display this fluting or overshot flaking technique. Nevertheless, a small population of Suwannee points do display single or multiple fluting on one or both sides as well as overshot flaking as a method of thinning blade thickness; morphological features first recognized by Dunbar et al. (2005) at the Ryan-Harley siteand further documented by Dunbar and Hemmings (2004)onotherSuwanneepointspecimens.ThedistaltipsofClovispointstendtobebroadwithroundedtipswhenvieweddorsalorventrally,butinlateralviewtheyarethinnedforsharpnessacrossthetip.ThetipsonwaistedSuwanneepointsdifferandcometoashape-pointedtip(acute)whenvieweddorsallyorventrally, but are not thinned laterally for sharpness acrossthe tip. Waisted Clovis and Suwannee points have similarbladewidthtohaftingwaistdimensions.ThesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweenthewaistedformsofClovisandSuwanneeas well as similarities in other parts of their stone tool kitsareconsideredevidence thatClovis is the likelyancestorofSuwannee(DunbarandHemmings2004).

Figure 1. Site Location Map.

dunbar paleoindiansiTeChronologies 7dunbar paleoindiansiTeChronologies 7

With that said, Dennis Stanford correctly pointed outthatbothSuwanneeandSimpsonpointsitesremainundatedand hypothesized “that when dated, they may be slightlyolder than Clovis” (Stanford 1991:9). I tend to go alongwith the traditional thought of southeastern archaeologists(Bullen1975,Ellis et al. 1998Goodyear1999) andassumea post-Clovis age for the Suwannee tool kit; however, thisviewpoint introduces a different set of issues. If Suwanneepoints are post-Clovis, they are also associatedwith extinctlate Pleistocene species, including horse and tapir at twoFloridasites,theRyan-Harleysite(Dunbaretal.2005)andtheNordensite(DunbarandVojnovski2007).Elsewhere,NorthAmericanPleistocenemegafaunaarebelievedtohavebecomeextinctbeforetheendofClovistime(Haynes2005:120-125and Figure 5). During Clovis time, the region west of theMississippiRiverexperiencedthe“Clovisdrought,”whichisoneofthefactorsattributedtomegafaunalextinctionpriortotheonsetof theYoungerDryas2 (Haynes1984,1991,1993,2006,Haynesetal.1999).Butsuchanextinctioneventmaynot have taken place in the Southeast if Suwannee point-makingpeoplearetrulyMiddlePaleoindian.Thestratigraphicintegrity of the Ryan-Harley site has been verified (Balsillie et al. 2006), therefore theonlyother alternativewouldbe thatStanford(1991)iscorrectandthatSuwanneepointsareeithercontemporarywithorareolderthanClovis.Eitherway,the

resolution of this temporal enigma invigorates Paleoindianresearch in the coastal Southeast and promises to provideheretofore-undiscoveredrevelations.

Yetanother factor regarding thePaleoindianoccupationof Florida and the adjacent coastal plain is its unique latePleistocenefaunalassemblage.Thoughmanylandmammals,including mastodon and mammoths, occupied geographicregions throughout ice-freeNorthAmerica, the southeasterncoastal plain, particularly Florida, also had a significant assemblage of South American-immigrant or Neotropicalfauna(Webbetal.2004).Furthermore,Floridamakesupmostof the geographic faunal area specified as the Chlamythere–Glyptodont3 province of North America. It is a faunalprovincethatis“distinctfromtherestoftheSoutheast[duringthe Pleistocene], but during the Holocene [after the latePleistoceneextinction],Florida’sfaunasclusteredwithothersfromtheSoutheast”(FAUNMAPWorkingGroup1996:1603)becausemostifnotalloftheNeotropicalfaunabecameextinctor retreat from this province by the Holocene (ibid: 1604-1605).NeotropicalspeciesintheFloridaPleistocenenotonlyincludedthegiantarmadilloandglyptodont;theyalsoincludethe jaguar, tapir, capybara, ground sloths, and opossum.Itmay ormay not be a coincidence, but the distribution ofwaisted and fishtailed Paleoindian projectile points (recurvate forms)appearstoperfectlymirrorthePleistocenedistribution

Figure 2. Map depicting the Page-Ladson Site Excavations.

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of Neotropical fauna from Florida to South America. TworecentstudiessuggesttheClovistoolmakingtradition,whichincludes thewaistedClovis type inNorthAmerica,was thelikely progenitor of subsequent waisted and fishtailed point types in Central and South America (Faught 2006, Ranere2006).Bydefault this becomespart of the temporaloriginsissue and supports the need to determine the actual age ofSimpsonandSuwanneePaleoindiansites.

Some Important Aspects of River-Basin and Upland Stratigraphy

The Page-Ladson site is located in a sediment-filled sinkhole in thecenterchannelof theHalfMileRisesectionoftheAucillaRiver(Figure2).ThePaleoindiancomponentsofthissitearedeeplyinundated,beingsome8to10mbelowpresent sea level.Due to thesinkhole’s low-lyingelevation,its 7 m plus section includes stratigraphic units that haveoutstandingorganicpreservation;preservationthathasyielded48radiocarbonassaystakenfromsamplescollectedbyhandduring controlled excavation. The sinkhole’s stratigraphicunitsincludedthefollowing:calciticsilts,siltsthatwererichinfreshwaterfauna,primarilysnailshells;still-waterdepositedpeat including wood-rich peat, and colluvium mixed withfreshwaterponddeposits(Dunbar2006a,Kendrick2006).

ManyPaleoindian river basin sites are located inmuchshallowerwaterorareelevatedabovethewatertableduringtimes of low-river stage conditions. The Suwannee pointcomponentattheRyan-Harleysiteislocatedabout1mbelowlow-river stage and about 10 m above sea level (Figure 3).TheNorden site in theSantaFeRiverbasin (Figure3) andLewis-McQuinnsiteintheSuwanneeRiverbasin(Figure3)are located in the floodplain and are about 1 m above the low river stage.These three sites contain stone artifacts as wellasbonepreservedintheriverbasin’spredominatelyalkalinesedimentary environments. The ability to radiocarbon datethesesiteshasbeenhinderedbythemineralizednatureofthefaunalbonesamplessubmittedfordating.OfthesamplesofbonefromtheRyan-HarleyandNordencampsites,nonehadsurvivingbone collagen andwere therefore not datable. Inaddition,noneofthesesiteshaveproducedpreservedbotanicalmaterial, although it is possible a fire hearth feature may one dayyieldcharcoalforradiocarbondating(Dunbaretal.2005,Dunbar and Vojnovski 2007). Typical floodplain sediment sequencesaredominatedbylevelsofcalciticsilts,sands,lags,andfreshwaterlimestone,allofwhichareconduciveforgoodfaunalbonepreservation.

Sites overlooking river basins are well above the floodplain inuplandsettings.TheseincludesitessuchasWakullaSpringsLodge(JonesandTesar2000,2004),SilverSprings(Hemmings1975,Neill1958),andHarneyFlats(DanielandWisenbaker1987), all sites that areburied ineolian (windblown) sand.Unfortunatelynoneofthesesitesareknowntohaveorganicpreservationincludingbone,thereforeradiocarbondatinghasnotbeenpossible.Thepreservationof stoneartifacts,whileoftengenerallygood,isnonethelessdegradedbyanouterrindof patina resulting from the accumulated effects of wet-drycyclesinthesedimentcolumnthroughtime.Nevertheless,the

WakullaSpringsLodgesiteisparticularlynoteworthybecauseitistheonlydocumentedSimpsonpointsiteintheSoutheastknowntohavestratigraphicintegrity(Figure4).

InthecoastalSoutheast,organicpreservationappearstobea functionofelevationaboveorbelow thepresentwatertable as well as the alkalinity (karst) or acidity (generallyupland non-karst) of a site’s sediment column. Outstandingorganicpreservationisfoundindeeplyinundatedsites.Goodpreservationofboneandperhapscharcoalisfoundinwetland,riverbasin,andcaveandsinkholesites.Theenvironmentsleastconducivefororganicpreservationincludeuplandandotheropen-air sites where humates increase sediment acidity andalternatingwet-dryconditionsfacilitatesthedecompositionoforganicmaterialstohumates.

Another consideration of stratigraphy relates to thecompleteness of the Page-Ladson site stratigraphic column.ThedeeppartofthesinkholeatthePage-Ladsonsiteisnowsome 10 m below modern sea level. The Page-Ladson sitesinkholeactedasasedimenttrapduringthelatePleistoceneandaccumulatedanalmostuninterruptedsedimentaryrecordfromthelateglacialmaximumuntiltheearlyHolocene(Figure5). The extent of the sediment-fill is limited horizontally to the confines of the sinkhole. The stratigraphic units in the Page-Ladson stratigraphic column are representative of the localenvironments of deposition and contain the well preservedorganic material needed to radiocarbon date the units andlevelswithintheunits(Figure5).

In comparison, the shallower sections of the Aucillachannelhavealesscompletestratigraphicsequenceofdepositsduetodifferingdepositionversuserosionpotentials.Similarto other sections of the lowerAucilla River, the Half MileRisesectionhasanentrenchedlimestonechannelthatcarriesverylittlesedimentload(Yon1966).Theriverdoesnothaveterraced valleys nor does it have levee or floodplain deposits, in part due to the lack of particulate sediment load and theunderground nature of karst drainage channels. The lowerAucillaRiverisbestdescribedasalabyrinthofundergroundchannels slowly emerging on the land’s surface due to theprocesses of karstification and collapse.

Karst sections of other rivers, such as the Wacissa,Wakulla, Suwannee, and Santa Fe, do have wide flood basins in many areas; however, their floodplain sediment fills are atypicalcomparedtonon-karstriversintheSoutheast.Karstriver sections also carry very little sediment load, (Puriet al. 1967, Vernon 1951) and as a result often dischargealmost transparentgroundwater,particularlyduringelevatedpotentiometric surface intervals with low rainfall, whentanninsoforganicoriginlendlittleornodarkstainingtothewatercolumn.Suchconditionsare,andhaveinthepastbeen,conduciveforthedepositionofcalciticsilts,shellysilts,andfreshwater limestone over broad floodplain expanses. This is because the potentiometric surface periodically filled these basinsacrosstheextentoftheirmargins.Sedimentationofthistypeisresponsibleforthepreservationofincorporatedfaunalbone. Although the calcitic floodplain sediments are wide-ranging horizontally, they also are interrupted vertically bynumerousunconformablecontactsbetweenlevelsofdisparateages. Therefore, sediment fills of karst floodplains are much

dunbar paleoindiansiTeChronologies �

Figure 3. Stratigraphic profiles of karst river basin Paleoindian sites.

Figure 4. A stratigraphic profile at the Wakulla Springs Lodge site depicting the Simpson point Paleoindian stratum.

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less complete compared to the sediment fills that are held in sinkholes like that at the Page-Ladson site. Karst floodplain sediment fills also have the potential to contain many more Paleoindian sites, the most significant of which are Paleoindian campsites, which are more likely to occur in floodplains than in sinkholes.Thechallengeinfutureresearchwillbetoattemptto understand when and under what conditions the floodplain sedimentswereformedaswellasdetermine towhatdegreeelevation differences and inter-basin sequences are alike ordissimilar.

Upland Paleoindian sites, with the exception of cavesites or other sites located in karst features with alkalinesediments, represent a different sedimentary environmentaltogether. Most upland Paleoindian sites are located inacidic, sandy, or clayey sediments where long-term organicpreservation is unlikely. However, the frequent occurrenceofuplandeoliansanddepositsinFloridaoffersthepotentialfortemporalevaluationifasite’sarchaeologicalcomponentshaveaccumulatedwithoutsubsequentepisodesoferosionandare stratigraphically separated from one another by sufficient thicknessofsedimentaccumulation.

Uplandsites,suchastheHarneyFlatssiteinsouth-central

Florida,haveaccumulationsofeoliansands;however,andforwhateverreason,thethicknessofthesanddepositthatholdSuwanneepointcomponentisnotactuallyseparatedfromtheearlyHolocene,Bolenpointcomponent.Thus,theSuwanneeandBolencomponentswerefoundtooccurinsameapparentlevel,whereastheyoungersitecomponentswerecompletelyseparatedfromthisearlylevelandfromoneanotherbymuchthicker sediment accumulations inupper stratigraphic levels(DanielandWisenbaker1987).

In northern Florida the Wakulla Springs Lodge sitehas an overlap zone where Paleoindian Simpson and EarlyArchaic Bolen artifacts occur on the same stratigraphiclevel. Fortunately, there is a level below the overlap zonewhereSimpsonartifactsoccur inadiscrete level(JonesandTesar2004).Archaeologicalsiteswithgoodsitecomponentseparationareidealcandidatesfortemporalplacement.

Potential for Radiometric Dating River-Basin and adjacent Upland Stratigraphies

Karst river-basin stratigraphy

Figure 5. Showing the Page-Ladson site stratigraphic profile.

dunbar paleoindiansiTeChronologies 11

In the wetland and shallow-water archaeological sitesthusfarencountered,collagenhasnotbeenpreservedinbonesamplesthatwouldotherwisebedateableusingtheradiocarbonmethod. Similarly, fire hearth features with charcoal, which couldalsoprovideameansforradiocarbondating,haveyetto be identified. It is the reason that sites such as they Ryan-Harley site remain undated.The types ofmaterial availablefordatingincludefaunalbone,teeth(includingivory),lithicartifacts,heatexplodedlithicartifactfragments,andsedimentmatrix.

The Suwannee-point stratum at the Ryan-Harley site iscomposed of point bar sand mixed with lesser amounts ofmuch finer eolian sand (Balsillie et al. 2006) (Figures 3 and 6). DirectlyabovetheSuwanneelevelareorganic-richsedimentswith lenses of unconsolidated sand. Below the Suwannee-point stratum is a consolidated, silty sand and below that aleveloffreshwatershellwithminorinclusionsofcalciticsiltandsmallfossilbones.

AttheNordensite,theSuwannee-pointstratumappearstoconsistofasilty,sandylevelmixedwithcalciticshell-richlevelthatrestsbelowit(Figures3and7).Thelowershell-richlevelappearstobeabout1mthick,belowwhichislimestonebedrock.AbovetheSuwanneelevel isa levelofcalciticsiltfollowedbyanupperhumuslevel.

AttheLewis-McQuinnsitethePaleoindianlevelyieldeda fragment of an unfluted Clovis-like base. The Paleoindian level consists of sand that is partly lithified by calcium carbonate that has leached from a freshwater, shell-rich siltlevel above it. Below and above these levels are levels ofcalciticsilt(Figure3).TheLewis-McQuinnsiteisuniqueinthatitappearstobeburiedbelowriver-leveedepositsandisinorverynearanabandonedpaleo-channel(Figure8).

Potential means of dating the river-basin sites

Radiocarbon. Should bone with surviving collagen orcharcoal be recovered from one of these sites, the standardradiometricor,morelikely,theAMSradiocarbonmethodwouldbe utilized to secured age evaluations. Charcoal from a fire pit would represent a find of major significance because it is better suitedforradiocarbondatingwithoutelaboratepretreatment.Apointofcautionrelatedtoselectionofcharcoaloranyothersamplesfordatingisoneassociationwiththeculturaldeposit.Areyoudatingtheculturaldepositorsomethingelsethatisnotberelatedtotheculturaldeposit?Thus,sampleselectionfromearlysitesbecomesveryimportant.Forexample,oneoftheselectioncriteriaforchoosingsamplestodateattheCactusHill site in Virginia included charcoal identification. A sample ofwhitepinecharcoalwasselectedfromthesuspectedpre-Clovislevelbecauseitrepresentedaspeciesthatexistedlocallyduringthecolderintervalsofthelateglacialrecession,butthathadrecededawayfromtheVirginiacoastallowlandsintotheAppalachianMountains,presumablyafterthePleniglacialandpriortoorduringtheAllerød4.Thewhitepinesampleyieldedanageof15,070±7014CBP(Beta-81590)andreinvigoratedthe pre-Clovis controversy in the Eastern North America(McAvoyandMcAvoy1997).Subsequentradiocarbondatesfromthepre-ClovislevelatCactusHillinclude16,670±730

14CBP 14CBP (Beta-81590) and 16,940±50 14CBP (Beta-97708) (Feathers et al. 2006). Calibrated to calendar yearsbefore present, these radiocarbon dates indicate Cactus Hillwasoccupiedaround18,200to20,200CalBP.

A recent caution has been expressed about using theradiocarbon method to date collagen from Pleistocenebone (George et al. 2005). Bone is composed of collagen(organic fibers) and apatite (inorganic, nano-sized mineral hydroxyapatite).Itistheorganic,collagen,fractioninbonethatisusedforradiocarbondating;however,itcanbecontaminatedby intrusive, postmortemorganic residue.The utilization ofstandardpretreatmentproceduresforradiocarbonsampleshasshown that it isnotuncommonfor thesamples toyieldagedeterminationsthataretooyoung.Forexample,twosamplesof mastodon bones recovered from the pre-Clovis, MonteVerde site in Chile provided two dates that were obviouslyseparated in timebyabout5,000radiocarbonyears (6550±160 14CBP[BETA-7824]versus11,990±200 14CBP[TX-3769])(ibid: 767). Because both of the dated samples camefrom the same mastodon femur (they refit together along a fractureline),theirageevaluationswereobviouslyconsideredproblematic. One of the samples was recovered fromundisturbedstratigraphiccontextwhile theothercame fromdisplacedcontextinanadjacentstream.Bothsamplesusedthecollagenfractionof thebonetoobtaindates.Arecentefforttore-datebothbonesamplesusedtwoalternativetechniquestoobtainradiocarbonassays.Thetwotechniquesarerelatedto the specialized pre-treatment and preparation of samplesfordatingandaremorecomplexcomparedtotheextractionof the bone collagen fraction for dating. The first technique datedasampleofthetotalaminoacidswhiletheseconddateda sample of ultrafiltered gelatin from both specimens. The resulting fourdateswere statistically identical (12,510±6014CBPto12,450±6014CBP)(Georgeetal.2005:770)andyieldanaverageradiocarbonageof12,460±3014CBP(n=4),anagethatagreeswithotherradiocarbondatesfromthepre-Clovis,ElJobopointcomponentatMonteVerdesiteinSouthAmerica.

A final thought about the radiocarbon method relates to thecalibrationof radiocarbonyears to calendaryearsBPor BC. There are several radiocarbon calibration programsavailable for use over the World Wide Web, by download,orprovidedbytheradiocarbonlaboratories themselves.Theintenthereisnottodiscussthedifferentprogramsanddatasets,but tocompareanexampleof the resultsderived from fourcalibrationprogramsusingthreedifferentdatasetsprocessingthesameradiocarbondate(averageddatederivedfromsevenstatisticallyrelatedradiocarbondatesfromUnit3,theoldestcultural level at the Page-Ladson site) (Table 1).These agesarestatisticallyderivedandarebasedonthreereconstructeddatasetsofcalendaryeartables.

Radiation Exposure, OSL Dating. Age determinationusingtheOpticallyStimulatedLuminescence(OSL)methodhas been refined over the past decade or so and has virtually replacedThermoluminescence(TL)asameanstodatesedimentsamples.Age determinations derived fromOSLmethod areconsidered to be in calendar years BP, therefore OSL dates

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donotrequirecalibrationlikethatoftheradiocarbonmethod.OSLdatinghasbecomeamajorQuaternarydatingtooldespiteit’s thus far~3% to~10%standarddeviation in±years calBP.PerhapsthemostimportantadvancementsinOSLdatingincludestheuseofhigh-poweredblue-greenLEDstoreleasethe trapped electrons in quartz, and the development of thesinglealiquotregeneration(SAR)methodofobtainingrepeatedmeasurements from a single sample. “Another significant advance has been the ability to obtain OSL measurementsfromasinglegrain”ofquartzsand(Walker2005:99).

An important OSL success story has recently beenaccomplishedon thepre-Clovis levelat theCactusHill sitein Virginia. Wagner and McAvoy (2004) investigated thestratigraphic integrityof theCactusHill site, particularly asit related to the Paleoindian Clovis and pre-Clovis levels.TheirinvestigationdeterminedthattheClovisandpre-Clovislevelshadaccumulatedasaresultofincrementaleoliansandaccumulationthatcontainednoevidenceofpost-depositionaldisturbance.Inotherwords,CactusHillcontainedasediment

sequenceidealforOSLdating,andthatisexactlywhatFeathersetal.(2006)accomplished.TakingthirteenOSLsamplesfromvarious levels of the site, they derived OSL dates from thepre-Clovis level that ranged in age from 17,000 Cal BP to20,000CalBP,anagerangeincompleteagreementwiththecalibrated(tocalendaryearsBP)radiocarbondatesfromthesamelevel(Feathersetal.2006:182-185).

The potential to use luminescence dating on fluvial deposits was once thought impractical due to problemsrelated topartial zeroing5.Howeverby themid1990s,withthe increaseduseofOSLasameansofdating, thismethodbrought with it a greater potential for dating river-basinsediments(PrescottandRobertson1997).Arecentlandmarkstudy employed OSL dating to determine the age of threePleistocene braided channel beds in the Mississippi Riverbasin. OSL dating was conducted on several samples fromeach of the braided channel deposits and yielded ages thatwere consistent with the first Pleniglacial6modernmodeevent,MeltwaterPulseIAandMeltwaterPulseIB7.TheseOSLage

Figure 6. Ryan-Harley site plan-view map.

dunbar paleoindiansiTeChronologies 13

Figure 7. Norden site area, cross section.

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evaluations were in general agreement with other geologicinvestigations(Rittenouretal.2003)andistoutedasaleadingexample of a successful effort to OSL date fluvial sediments (Walker2005).

Because OSL dating relies on quartz sand exposure tosunlightinordertosetitsradiometricclock,theturbidwaterofthePleistoceneMississippiRiverisclearlyanextremetestoftheOSLtechnique.ThekarstsectionsofriversinFloridashouldpresentamuchmorefavorablescenarioforOSLdating.Because the Ryan-Harley and Norden sites are Paleoindiancamps they are significant not only archaeologically, but also for their potential to beOSLdated.During site occupation,the ground’s surface was subjected to human foot traffic as wellasotherculturallygeneratedgrounddisturbingactivity.Theeffectsofthisactivityhelpedexposethesites’sedimenttodaylightandincreasedthelikelihoodforittobezeroed(fullybleached).AttheRyan-Harleysitepartof thesandiseolianand part is fluvial in origin. The selection of eolian versus fluvial sand grains might yield the best sand grains for dating.

Long-livedRadioactiveIsotopes,Uranium-SeriesDating.

Amongthe typesofmaterialsthattheUranium-seriesmethodcan date is calcium carbonate sediment and organisms thatsecretecarbonatetoformexoskeletons.U-seriesdisequilibriumdatingcanbeusedintwowaystodetermineagebasedontheU-series decay chain. These are the daughter deficient (DD) andthedaughterexcess(DE)methods(Walker2005).

TheDDmethodmeasures230Th/234Uratiosandworksontheprincipalthaturaniumissolubleinwaterwhereasthorium,thedaughter, isnot.Organismssuchascoralsandmollusksuptakeuranium in their shells;however, there is littleornouptakeof thorium.Thismakes thedecay (daughter) isotopedeficient and thus allows dating. The DD method also can be usedonspeleothemsandtravertines.TheDDmethodappliedto precipitated carbonate in speleothems, and travertinesdetermines the age of its precipitation and solidification.

The DE method differs from DD because in somecarbonatesitisthedaughterisotopethatispresentinexcessconcentration. The deficiency of the parent isotope can be due to the precipitation of the daughter but not the parentor the preferential leaching of the parent, which causes thedisequilibriumstate.Lakebedandseabedsedimentoftenhave

Figure 8. Plan view map of the Lewis-McQuinn site.

dunbar paleoindiansiTeChronologies 15

carbonatesedimentsthatcanbedatedinthismanner.TwoproblemswithemployingU-seriesdatingarethatit

assumes closed-system behavior when it may not exist andsamples may be contaminated by the inclusion of detritalsediment in the otherwise carbonate matrix. Open-systembehavior is caused if there is post-mortem migration ofradionuclides into and out of the mollusk shells (SchwarczandGascoyne 1984).Whenneeded, the correction factor(s)foropen-systembehaviorrequiresadetailedknowledgeoftheprocessesthatcausedthepost-mortemisotopedisequilibrium(Walker2005).

Theinclusionofdetritalmaterials,suchaseolianorwatertransportedsediment(thatalsocontainnuclides)incarbonatesedimentscancauseaproblem.Ifthedetritalsedimentcarriesdaughterisotopestheywillgeneratedatesolderthanthetrueage.Ontheotherhand, if thedetritalsedimenthas234Uand238U, itwill lead to age evaluations that are tooyoung.Theeffectofdetritalcontaminationcanbecorrectedbymeasuringthe232Th,whichisanisotopepresentindetritalsediment,notcarbonate;thus,the232Th/Th230ratiocanbeusedtocorrectforthedetritaladditionsof232Th.Themethodforconductingthiscorrection is referred to as the isochron technique (Walker2005).

Thedatingofshellcanbeproblematicifthepost-mortem,open-system behavior is detected and the processes thatcausedthepost-mortemdisequilibriumcannotbedetermined.Thedatingofcalciticsedimentshasgreaterpromise,althoughpost-depositional leachingorrecrystallizationalsomayposeproblems.

Theproblemofwater-transporteddetritalcontaminationmaybenegligibleinriverbasinsliketheWacissaandSantaFe, since both have little or no particulate sediment load.There may be more of a potential problem with eolian-sedimentcontamination,however,andasmentioned,thatcanbecorrected.Thedepositionofkarstbasincalcitic-sedimentsappears to be of biologic rather than precipitated origin.Although it has not beendemonstrated, theprocess appearsto have something to do with aquatic plants and/or algaeassimilating (fixing) the dissolved calcium carbonate from thewatercolumn.Asaresultofitsdeathanddecomposition,aquatic vegetation appears responsible for the formation ofcalciticsediment,whichisleftbehindasaresidue.Presumablythese calcitic sediments formed in slow-moving, relatively

shallow riverineenvironments.Manyof theseenvironmentsalsosupportfreshwatermollusksandupondeaththeirshellsarealsopreservedincalciticsediments.

Conclusions

Work at the Page-Ladson site has yielded the first completelatePleistocenechronostratigraphicandgeoclimaticreconstructioninthecoastalSoutheast.Thisreconstructionwaspossibleduetothenearlycomplete,fullydatablestratigraphicsection preserved in a sinkhole that is now situated severalmetersbelowpresentsealevel.Deeplyrecessedsinkholesitesoffer more complete, late Pleistocene stratigraphic sections,but they also are limited in size horizontally and have notbeencorrelatedwithcontemporaneousriverbasinanduplandstratigraphic sequences. The Page-Ladson site investigationrecognized five levels containing Paleoindian artifacts, but none oftheartifactsrecoveredfromtheselevelsrepresentdiagnostictool types.Although the chronostratigraphy and geoclimatedata have been reconstructed from the site’s stratigraphicprofile, it has not given us the information needed to understand the temporal placement of the different types of diagnostic,Paleoindianartifacts.Inalllikelihoodtheanswerswillcomefromsiteslocatedinriverbasinsanduplandsites,whicharesinglecomponentorhaveclearstratigraphicseparationoftheircultural components. Therefore, it becomes imperative thatfutureresearchonPaleoindiansitesbeundertakenwithbudgetsthatallowfortheirplacementintimeandthatallowsforthebattery of cooperative studies necessary to firmly understand thesesites.Onlywhenthisisaccomplishedwillwebeabletomorecompletelyunderstand thecomplexityof theseartifacttypologies, theirsequenceofevolutionarydevelopment,andwhere they fit into the chronostratigraphy and paleoclimate of latePleistoceneFlorida.InthiswaytheSoutheasthaslaggedbehind the archaeological data developed from PaleoindiansitesinthedesertSouthwest.

In the desert Southwest, the geoarchaeologicalunderstanding of the arroyo sediment sequences has been avitalkey,which ledgeoarchaeologists todevelop theClovis First Hypothesis.Withadvancedmethodsofradiocarbon,OSL,andU-seriesdating,wenowhavethemeanstodeterminetheageofriverbasinanduplanddeepsandsites.Theutilizationof these radiometric dating methods will revolutionize our

Radiocarbon Age Calendar Age Calibration version Meanage stddev

±14CyearsBP Meanage stddev±CalBP

12,425 32(n=7)

14,315 102 LDEO/Fairbanks0107(1sigma)68%14,421 167 Calib/Intcal04(1sigma)68%14,488 310 Calib/Intcal04(2sigma)95%14,690 130 CalPal/05-SFCP(1sigma)68%14,690 260 CalPal/05-SFCP(2sigma)95%14,420 170 OxCal/Intcal04(1sigma)68%14,500 350 OxCal/Intcal04(2sigma)95%

Table 1.Radiocarbon to Calendar Year Age Calibrations Using Different Programs and Datasets (Chiu et al. 2007, Ramsey 2001, Reimer et al. 2004, Weninger et al. 2005).

16 TheFloridaanThropologisT 2007Vol.60(1)16 TheFloridaanThropologisT 2007Vol.60(1)

understanding of Paleoindian cultural activity and morecompletely refine the geoarchaeological reconstruction of the coastalSoutheast.Withstrongevidenceofpre-Clovishumanactivity in the Southeast, the need for multi-disciplinaryresearch, including geologic dating and sediment analyses,becomesessentialtoachievingthisgoal.

One final thought before closing. Today it makes no sense forsomeonelivinginFloridatorelyonalong-termweatherforecast fromNewMexicoorArizona.Yet that iswhathastakenplaceinNorthAmericanPaleoindianArchaeology.ItiswonderfulthatresearchersintheSouthwesthaveaccomplishedsomuchcomparedtootherregionsofthiscountry,driveninpartbythedevelopmentofnucleartechnologywithoffshootresearch relating to radiometric dating capability. It is alsotrue that preservation of organic remains, the stuff neededfor radiocarbon dating, has more commonly been found inPaleoindian siteswestof theMississippiRiver than in siteseastofthatnationaldivide.However,withtheadventofOSLandadvancesinUranium-seriesdatingmethods,weneednolongerrelyonradiocarbonastheonlymeansofdatingasite.Therefore, the purpose of this article is not to compare theSoutheasttotheSouthwest;ratheritistocallforwell-plannedresearch to include whatever radiometric dating method ittakestounderstandthedynamiclatePleistocenecontextsoftheSoutheast.Thesecontexts include time,habitat, climate,resources,andtheculturalandmaterialadaptationsmadebyPaleoindian peoples that took place during the late glacialrecession.

Notes

1 An example of cultural replacement or the filling of a voidleftbyacultural lacuna(abandonmentorabsenceofanotherpeoplealreadyoccupyingthelandscape)hasbeenhypothesizedbyKeithAshley(2003:282-283)forthelowerSt. Johns River, Mill Cove Complex area at the Early toMiddle Mississippian temporal boundary. This temporalboundary is placed at 1250 AD, which coincides with aclimatictransitionfromawarmerclimaticcycletoacooleronewidelyrecognizedastheLittleIceAge(Fagan2000).

2 Younger Dryas – an interval of late-glacial time, from about13,000to11,600CalBP(11,000to10,00014CBP)during which the climate in the northern latitudes of thenorthern hemisphere deteriorated and returned to glacialmaximum-like cold conditions. In the desert Southwest,largePleistoceneanimalssuchasthehorse,mammoth,andothersexceptfortheBison,hadbecomeextinctpriortoitsonset.

3 Chlamythere-Glyptodont – Chlamythere - the giant armadilloandtheGlyptodont-aPleistocene,thicker-shelledrelativeofthegiantarmadillo.

4 Allerød - a warm (modern-mode) interval of late glacialtimefromabout12,300to11,00014CBP.

5 Zeroing (also called bleaching) – has to do with the zeroing of the luminescence clock caused by quartz sand beingexposedtodirectsunlight.

6 Pleniglacial - a termofEuropeanoriginused to identifythegenerallycolder intervalof time from thepeakof the

lateglacialmaximum~18,50014CBPuntilabout~13,00014CBP,afterwhich (during theAllerød) the recessionofthe continental glaciers became more common than theiradvances. With that said, there was one interval of sub-modern warming conditions during the Pleniglacial fromabout17,000to15,00014CBP,whichiswithinthetime-rangethatthepre-Clovis,CactusHillsiteinVirginiaappearstohavebeenoccupied.

7 Meltwater Pulse (MWP) MWP-1A and MWP-1B– represent two times that meltwater from the Laurentide icesheetinCanadawasrouteddowntheMississippiRiverto the Gulf of Mexico. MWP-1A took place from about12,700to12,60014CBPandMWP-1Bfromabout10,000to9,90014CBP.TheoccurrenceofmeltwaterintheGulfof Mexico caused the Bermuda High pressure area tocenteroverFloridacausingsevereandprolongeddroughtconditions. During meltwater pulse intervals to the GulfofMexico,inlandwatertablesinFloridafellmanymetersandtheclimatewasarid.Conversely,thedesertSouthwestexperiencedrelativelymoderateclimaticconditions;astheclimateintheeasternGulfshiftedtodry,inthewesternGulfit shifted tomoderate towet conditions. Itwas not untilaftermathofMWP-1Abeginningaround11,70014CBPandlastingto11,00014CBPthattheClovisdroughttookplaceinthedesertSouthwestandtheextinctionofmega-mammalstookplace.Conversely,intheSoutheastafterMWP-1Atheclimatewasmoderatedandinlandwatertablesrebounded.Rivers such as the Aucilla River resumed flow after MWP-1A. The only other evidence of cessations of channel flow conditions in theAucillaRiver tookplace during the lateglacialmaximumandagainduringMWP-1B.

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