2. Rwiew of literature

2. 1. Systematics of Musca domestica:

The qenus Musca Linnaeu~, 17581 comes under the family Muacidae, suborder Cyclorrapha of the order Diptera. The family Muscidae

consists of 26 mcies, of which majoritv of them are "wild" and have

little public health immrtance. H m v e r , Msca domestica and

M. sorbena are considered to he of mblic health Imrtance beca~lae - - of their association with man and his environment and their possible

role in the transmission of infectious aqents. 2. domesticar a

tmical synanthroaic f l v ( s ~ n = to-qether: anthmmic = man) is

comnonlv called as house flv and which is vidtrly distributed in

t m r a t e zones all over the world, even extendinq t o sub-arctic and

sub-tropical areas. The taxonm of this amciea still remains

unclarified. The earlier worker8 have reparted the existence of four

sub species, &. , dmestica (Linnaeus, 1758) , % (Macuuart I

1851), & (1851) and curviforcepa (Sacca and Rivosecchi, 1955) in

different mrts of the world. Hauever, the recent investiqations

suqgest that outside the Ethiooian reqion all M. danestica should be

reqarded as domestica inclr~dinq danestica, vicina and nebula (Patersen, 1974).

Bfological differences are a u m c t d to be present amnq

M. danestica population in different Dart8 of the world but it i s - - uncertain whether such differences are connected with mrpholqical

characters. However two identifiable sub species namely, M. d m s t i c a

cur~i forceps~ an endonhi lir: form and 5. domestics calleva Walker,

1849 (Y. cuthbertsoni: Patton, 19361, an exonhilic form have been

r m r t e d to occur in Africa (Keidinq, 1986).

me qecqraphical oriqin of M. daneatica wa8 alluded to be old

world and more s ~ c i f ical l v in the eastern Ethiwian rq ion fSacca,

1964). Thawson (1938) t r a r d i t 8 disnersal from Africa to hJt9De and

i t s invasion in the western hemisdrere was rewrted to be mainly

through the activities of man (Leqner and McCoyr 1966).

2. 2. Flier as we t s and their role in transmission.of diseases:

House fly i s of considerable immrtance to mankindr as a peat

causinq nuisance adding to the burden of ~eoo le livinq in m r

sanitatv conditims, hwnaers the qeneral improvement of hyqiene and

a l m discourages the m o l e from keeping a gooel standard of permnal

hygiene. Besides its role as a disease soreading agent, the c m d a of

f l i e s disturb w l e at the hours of s l e w or rest. I t s a m a n c e

a l m affects the rows and rduces milk yield in daiv-barna (Keiding~

1986 ) .

lhough the involvement of house f l i e s in the tranamissim of

h m d i r e w e had lonq been euswbed, only in recent times i t s role

in the transmission of diseases was well understad. l h q are seldom

ttue intermediate hosts of mthoqens but qenerally act as mechanical

carriers ( R o y and Brown, 1970).

Keiding (1986) r ~ m r t d that the house f l ies frequently

contminate eubstrates as well as f d , pick up pathoqens and

transmit by contact or throl~qh fly vomit or defecation. Experimental

evidences alsa suoaort that these wthcqens under suitable

cirmatances can infect animals and mn and effective flv control

had achieved a clear red~~ction in the incidence of diseases

transmitted by them.

2. 2. 1. Public health imnortanca:

Over 100 species n f vi~uses , bacteria, nrotozoan paraajtes and

helminth worms causinq various diseases in man have hen i.aolated

Fran house fl ies. However, there i s no evidence of cvclic develomnt

of any pathcqen in them (Hawnod and James, 1979).

The virus reswnsible for mlianyeli t is was isolated fram wild

caught M. danestica (Mnq and Glaser, 1943). In Texas U.S.A. I the

f l i e r were kncun t o be a mechanical carrier of poliamtelitis and

~ k m c k i c virusas (Melnick and D3Wt 1953: h-ancis &. I 1953).

08

The bacteria belonqinq to the genera Shigella, Salmonella,

Vibrio, Cmmylobscter and Myc~bscterium~ the causative agents of many - imDottant disealrcs in man are transmitted by M. h s t i c a (Iteidinq,

1986). Hawley $ &. (1951) rewrted the multi~lication of

Eacherisrhia * I Sa lme l l a achottamlleri and Shigella dynentriae

in fl ies. and Calliohora were capable of tranamittinq leorosy

causing pathogen from nasal rmlcus of an untreatd leprotmus mtient

t o perabna with ulcerative skin (Geatet, 1975). Chatterjee %&.

(1978) isolated ~ r a h a m l y t i u s from M. damnatica daneatica in

Calcuttar India. I n a villaqe of Thailand, M. dcmeetica was r e ~ o r t d

t o be r e m s i b l e for t.ranorni8aion of 5. s r Shigella so.,

Vibrio cholera Non 01 and V. fluvialis (Echeverria &. , 1983). -- Canuylchcter fetus juejlini ral~ainq enteritis in man was isolated

f m M. d m s t i c a collrctctrl from livestock holdings in %way throuqh

i t s link role in tranamiseion of the mthqen from animls to h m n

ford (Ro~ef and Kappenld, 1983). In Malav~iar n n t u r a l pooulaticn of

M. domestics was forind t o harbour E. &, Kleboiella pnemniae and - - S a l m e l l a ap. (Sulaimn 5 *. , 1988 a) .

Streptococcus ~hvoqenns, cnisinq i m t i q o ( inf l m t i o n of nkin)

in children was isolated frnm holise flv in Cairo, Eqmt (El-Tayab

c t s,, 1978). Forsev and Darorlqar (1981) ~howwl the shil i tv of - danantica to carry viable, ChlRmydin trachnmatia carlainq m. -

chlamydia1 ocular infections and trachma under f~vri~rahln

conditions. Based on a r a w ~ t u d v in Malaysia, Kan and Kav (1978)

remrtd the involverent nf t. domestics in the transmission of

P~eudomcsnas weudanallei , causing Meliodoais oresentinq as orostracia in tho eve of a wtient. l'he rickettsial. cathoqen~ Coxiella bllrnettii

causinq Q fever is remrtd to r m i n infective for the entire life

of flv and viable for 80 dava in its faeces and 90 days in dead flies

(Hucko, 1984).

M. dunestica is known to suread h w n intestinal motozoan - - oaraaitea such as Entamoeba histolvtica and E. coli (Roubaud, 1918:

Root, 1921: Connal, 1922). It is a l w rewrted to carry the cvsts of

Giardia intestinalis, Chilmatix mesnili, Wichomonas haninie and - T. foetus ( W o n and OtConnor, 1917: Root, 1921: Mocqon~ 1942). - -

M. danestica contributes conaiderablv for s~readinq the - - helminths to man bv mrrvins the wsta of ~invorm (Enterobiun

vermicularis) , roundorms (Ascario lwbricoides and A. scum) t whiworm (Wichiuris tricl~urcl), hookwons (Anrflostoma duodmalidae

and Necator mricanus) , tanatoms (w so. and Diwlidium m. 1

and stronqvloides (Narhu, 1969: Nadzhafov, 1972: G~~ota 5 1.) 1972:

~i~c?olu, 1977: Sulaiman g . , 19ABbl

The house fly I n ~ v ; l ~ h ~ v e heon reqardql RP causative aqnnt of

rhinitisl asthma, ollerqic: coni~tnctivitis 3110 oc'au~tional a l l e m

(Eluieaeret, 1978: Tee g., 1985). Its invnlvmlmt in the mviasis

of a ~ t i s n t with 1~ 11lrers and a lmronv ~ t i n n t with necrotic

tissue have a l m been reported (Leclerq, 1985: Shwe, 1987).

The fly control mtrilsnrcrs have shown to result in marked

reduction in the prevalenccr of diseases caused by Shigella and

Salmella (Lindbav g g. t 1953) I diarrhoea amnq children in rural areas of Uttar Pradesh (India) (Seqhal and Kumar , 1970) , typhoid, paratyphoid, opthalmic and bacillarv dysentery in Alexandaria (Eqypt)

(Mu1 Gawaad and Gayart 1972) , dysentery in Shemeen (Bulgaria)

(Takhirov, 1973) gastro-intestinal infections in Mexico state ( m a 1

Crozco and Garcia Martinez, 1982).

2. 2. 2. Role. in E~anamission -of -anirwl pathogens:

The involvement of 2. dmstica in the trammission of virus

causing hoq cholera (Mohler, 1919)t Colesioka mjundivae from

conjunctival secretions (Mitscherlich, 1943) and the virus causing

n w castle disease in noultry (Mileshev g &.I 1977) have been

reported.

Salmonella m l l o m , causing white diarrhoea in chickens

(Gesberich, 19521, Coqmebacteritnn psedotubereulesis, causing

ulcerative lymcharqit is nf horses and donkeys (Addot 1983) I

Streptecoccus aqalactiae , the agent of bvine mastitisf

Salmclla qallnaml the agent of white diarrhoea of chickensl

Brueclla abertus causinq bm~cellasis and Bacillus anthracis causing --

11

anthrax in c n t t l e a re known t o he t ranmi t t cd by N. danestica

(Ehriqht & g. 1 1987).

h e m e m a Dertenue, the callsative oqaninm of yaws is s u m c t e d -- t o b? t r a n a n i t t d by f l i t ? ~ mechanically (Castellani, 1907). The

oossihle tranamisaion of s w h i l i s amnq animals by the f l i e s has also

been r e w r t d by Kerr (1906). M. domestics is remrted t o be involved

in tho transmission of Habronema meqastcma and fi. muscae in horaes,

Ancylostoma caninurn in d w s , Rai l l ie t ina ces t i c i l los and Choanotaenia

infundihulum in m u l t r v (Werinde, 1976: Jaqanathan , 1980:

K a r u n m r t h y , 1988).

2. 3. Bionmics and behavior~r:

The developrental n e r i d of i m t u r e n of !. domstica is 0

remrted t o be 12 dav9 a t 14 C with a l m r and unwr temnsrature 0 0

l i m i t of 12.28 C and 42 C I r e s w c t i v ~ l v (Ghizdaw, 19751.

Cherrasterilant resis tant ntraina have been r e w r t d t o have low

fecunditv, low hatchahi l i tv , nrolonqd deve lomnta l duration and

shorter adult l i f e awn [Anaari, 1975). Dorinq winter, when the

a tms ther ic temperature in relat ively low, the manure with hiqher

tmperature favours the deve lomnt of i m t l l r e s in m u l t n t hcYdS~8

(Ani taqe , 1985a, 1985b). Lvwk and Axtell (1988) have tested a

simulation model of house f l y developnent in m u l t q manure. mouqh

hiqher moiature levels favoured ovimsit ion, it was unsuitable for

larval d w e l o m n t (Fatchurochim &. , 1989).

Cowell and Shorev (1975) s t t~died the courts hi^ behaviour of

M. danestica. Johnson (1976) r e n r d M. danestica on C o m r c i a l S o a ~ - - Manufacturer's Association (CSMA) larval rearinq mdim and found

tha t the f l i e s did not mate with the i r natural mwla t ion a f te r the

5th qeneration i n the laboratow. m e aqqreqation behaviour of third

instar larvae of M. d m s t i c a was found t o be influence3 bv m n i a

in the mediwn (Zvereva, 1989).

Schwf (1959) remrterl that the dispersal range of M. domestics

adults was 1 t o 2 milee and t.hev tend t o conqreqnte in areas s ~ ~ i t a h l e

for its feedinq and breedinq. In hiqh lands of Malava, the effective

dispersal range was estimated t o be 0.25 mile usinq radioactive 32

labellinq with P (Wharton s., 1962). The movemnt and

dintrih!~tion of f l i e s dacend on the weevalence of mul t rv fanns and

da i r ies which are the nroferred s i t e s for feedinq and suhsguent

braedinq (Lvnvk and Axtell, 1986).

The hanqinq objects are the oreferred s i t e s for restinq durinq

niqht time and the influence of various factors in the selection of

restinq olaces durinq tho hours of niqht have been discussed bv

Keidinq (1965). M. dcmestica adults exhibited a s w c i a l behaviour

tcuards new resting objects. The attractancy of a black plate in a

caqe decreased subsequently with time than the f i r s t introduction

(Mourier, 1965). Khan (1978) has studied the colour preference of

M. danestica and r e a o r t d the attractancy in the order of preference - -

black, blue, vellow and red. M. domestica females were remrtpd t o be

abundant and active in the i r f ~ e d i n q s i t e s durinq tho day t i m with a

m a x i m ac t iv i ty a t mid d w (Zotov and Fwlosov, 1983). However, R M v

(1981) has r e ~ o r t e d that the diurnal variation in the i r abundance was

m i n i m .

2. 4. Breeding habitats:

The house f l i e s have been remrted t o breed in a variety of

deeavinq, f e m n t i n q or rot t inq o q a n i c matter of animal and

vqe tab le origin. I t s breedinq has been observed from a variety of

animal manures includinq human excreta. The texture and mieture

content of dung determine its su i tab i l i ty (Keidinq, 1986).

The breedinq s i t e of M. domestica may vary fmm place t o d a c e

dep~ndinq on the availr\hj.litv of animal mnures. Breedinq has been

recorded in human excreta in orivy p i t s in Arizona (Schmf and

Silverly, 1954), in qarbaqe (Schoof g g., 1954) in f i e ld rottinq

melons and water melons d~lrinq sarinq in southern California (Lnqner

and Olton, 1975), in food s tu f f s of animal oriqin (Munzel, 1981)r in

the caged layer m u l t r v manure in South Africa ( H u l l ~ r 1 9 8 3 ) ~ in

wastes fran food orrxessinq industries ( I d r l984i)ae well a s in

aewaqe sludqe, under sui table conditions also from solid organic

wastes in open swaqe drains and seeoaqe it^ (Keidinq, 1986).

Preference of breedinq s i t e s has h e n found t o vary with seamnu

depending on the ava i l ah i l i tv of hreedinq medim. In Anand, ( India)

c a t t l e dunq was a favourable d i m throuqhout the year followed by

c i t y qarbage (Rabari and Patel, 1977, 1978), in Calcutta ( Ind ia ) , the

caw dunq was most a t t r ac t ive followed by human excreta (Joaeoh and

Pauri, 1980) and in Aanqalore (India) the oiq manure was most

a t t r ac t ive while c a t t l e mnure the least (Bai and Sankaran, 1982).

Ut i l i ty of w u l t r v man~lre fo r rearinq larvae of M. d m s t i c a

which i n turn used fo r feedinq chicken ae a source of p rote in han

been e x ~ l o r e d (Beard and Sands, 1973). The r ~ t i l i t y of M. d m s t i c a

puwe a s a feed s u h s t i t i ~ t e fo r b ro i l e r chickens has also been

r e o o r t d (Teotia end Miller, 1973). Fly larval infestation is the

chief factor for nitroqpn loss in c a t t l e dunq and its d ~ q r e e of

infestat ion determines the r a t e of n i t r q e n loss (MacrSue~n and

Beirne, 1975). Use of r. domestics larvae on oqan ic wastes in

bioloqical l i f e supmrt s v s t m s of smce c ra f t has k e n at temted.

Attemts were a l so made t o rear larvae of M. d m s t i c a t o diminish

h~nnan excrement and dronoinqs of J a ~ n e s e quail and were in t ~ ~ r n used

t o f e d the l a t t e r (Golrlheva and Erofeva, 1981: Coluheva, 1982).

Rams-Elordw 2. (1980, 1987) r e o o r t d tho nu t r i t ive vilhie of

M. d€B7WStir~ i m t u r e s and adul ts a s protein supulement with feedinq - - stllff f o r birds and reqardad them a s the aollrce of obtaininq anitMl

protein by recyclinq veqetahle, domestic wastes and an iml mnllre.

2. 5. Fly s m l i n q methods:

Various f l v n m l i n s methods a r e beinq used i.n assessinq the

malllation density a t different sitrlatinns. The choice of s m l i n q

technique mainly decenda on the b i o l w and hehaviorrr nf local

wnulationa. The c m n f1.v samoltnq methcds widelv used t o exaraso

the wpr~ la t ion denaitv a re f l v q r i l l count, baited t r a ~ q , spot cards,

s t ickv t rans and l iqh t t rans nf s m l i n q (Keidinq, 1986).

Amnq the three methds u8edl a rel iable index was ~ h t ~ i n e d bv

the s t ickv tape method in rnul t rv ranches (Anderson and Poorhauqh,

1964n) 1965). In sanitarv land f i l l s of southern California, the

Scudderls q r i l l , insect not and "D" vac were u a d and the q r i l l was

found t o be dependable (Dhillon and Challet 1985). Amnq the various

methcds used in mnitor inq f l i e s , the subjective index of cowlation

chanqe was obtained hv ScuMerls q r i l l , soot card and s t ickv t a m

count methcds (Beck and I m o r , 1985).

Turner 6 2. (1984) used a movinq s t icky t a w in c m r c i a l

caqecl layer hor~ses and cornred it with saot card method. The atickv

tape method qave additinnfll information on two other f l y swcies

(Lysvk and Axtell, 1986) and was useful in mnitor inq the seasonal

trends in s m t i a l d i s t r ib r~ t ton of house f l i e a and s table f l i e s a t

dairy f a m and n wstr lre in central IWA (U.S.A.) (Black and

Krafsrrr, 1985). Of the seven adheoi~res evaluated in stickv t r a m ,

"Hwia 200" wfls r e o o r t d t o he an ef fect ivr atlh~ni v r fnr t r a ~ i n q

f l i p s (Sirlaiman g. 19R 7 ) .

Sento and Suenaqa (1970) used baited t r a m with a ha i t of

rot t inq f i sh and "takja" in a Korean farm house. Lvsyk and Axtell

(1985) used a juq t rap with "Golden Maldrin" h a i t and pnintwl with

yellow colout found moRt sui tahla for f l v at t ract ion in caqed ].aver

wultrv houaea. Pickem and Thimi jan ( 1986) eval~lated the eff iciencv

of UV as l iqh t eource in the tcanq. The f l v pooulation estimati.ons by

m r k release recaotr!rs methd with fluoresrent a t i l i n a l substance or

phenal.ohthalein were nlnrn sllitable than conventional pooulation

estimation methods (Postnchil and Brqach, 1982: Krietiansen ~ n d

Skomnd, 1985).

2. 6 . Population dynamics:

The pornlation dynmics wa8 studied from the seasanal chanqea in

the natural popr~latirm of E. daneetica. Linhares (1981a1 1981bl

determined the anthmwahil i c index, seasonal abundance and

hrl iophi ly of synanthrnoir f l i e s from urbnn, rural and natural

environments in Camoinas r i t v (Brazi l ) . Niyazova & &. (1983)

studied the index of abundance and percentage orevalence fo r

M. domestics and other aqaoriated f l i e s and remr ted the chanqes in - - svnanthrooic behaviout nf f l i e ~ in an Eurowan c i ty of USSR.

In the livestock farma of Hawaii, M. m s t i c a was more sbvndmt

and i t s distribution was qoverned by various limitinq factors of the

animal manure (Toyma and Ikeda, 1976). In Narlkkaa (Niqeria), the

distribution wtterns and 8ea.mnal chaqes have been studied (Iwuala

and Onyeka, 1977). In a villaqe OF Orisaa (India), i t was six timer

more abundant in an earthern kitchen with m r sanitary conditions

than a concrete kitchen (Red+, 1981). In Jalnaiquri (India) , its

distribution wae mainlv qovernd by a variety of bredinq media

available (Paul &. 1983).

The influence of matrnrolcqical factorcr on the aeamn~l

abundance of house f l i e ~ ha8 heen r e t n r t d f r m the follovinq

ntudies. The density of holl~e. f l i e s has been correlated with relative

huniditv in Egypt (Hawlev G., 1951). The c l imt ic condit iona ~uch

as rain f a l l , relative hi~miditv, maximum temmr~ture were correlated

with abundance in livestock farm4 of Izat naqar (Khan and Patnaik,

1978). The results of the ~rarious studies conclude that the wak fly

nbundmce varies in different nlaces durinq monebon seaebn at Gauhati

(India) (Miranouri and Lahkar, 1980), the sorinq and autunm determined

by the t-rature and relative humidity in Samsrkand (USSR)

(Svchwskaya, 1962) md a hiqhest wak of abundance durinq m ~ b o n

nnd m l l e r one in aost mnshon period in Dacca (~anqladeah) (Ameen

and HUQI 1973).

While studyinq the cowlation dynamics of house flies Weidhana

and L a B r w e (1970) recorded a rnaximm three fold increase of house

fly index. Howaver, a similar study carried out in north central

Florida revealed a rate of increase of w l a t i o n , which wan leas

than one to six fold in R qeneration (LaBrecque %&., 1972).

Lineva (1953) and Anderaon (1964) developed methods for

distinquiehinq n u l l i m r o ~ ~ ~ from Darous flies for estimatinq aqes of

cyclorrhnaous di~tera. The criteria for classification were the

mesence of follicular relics in the ovarioles, oedicels and lateral

oviducts. The other criteria em~loyed were the Dresence or abaence of

meal fat bodies, the nvmher of tracheolar skeina in the ovarioles,

the n h r of functional ovarioles and its cammctness. Krafsur

(1985) demonstrated a n w method for age qrou~ing of field collected

diptera haad on the staqen of developnent of ovarioles and

calculated the survival rate nf M. dcmestica in different months.

2. 7. Laboratory rearinq:

M. daneatica was remrted to be easily reared in the laboratory - - became of its manurabilitv and ability to ~ro~agate in a widely

vnwinq conditions. The various rearinq method8 which sliqhtly differ

from each other were selected through choice of factors such as

W c e , money and the nrnhr of insects required. M. &nestica larvae

was reared using horee manure, horoe manure and additiveat cow

mrmre, cotton wool mds soaked in diluted milk and on f emnt i rq doq

biacuita ( S c h ~ f t 1964).

Schoof (1964) ha8 also reviewed the varibus kly breeclinq media

develooed by various workers with available local inqrdients &. , CSMA medium, mA medim and coconut o i l c ~ medium. The other media

widely u s d for f ly rearinq include wheat bran, glucose, yeast and

water (Gera and Guuta, 1975), conditinned CSMA medim (Bryant and

Hall, 1975), hqasse with water (Bridqer ,t g., 1984) a d a larval

diet ccmposed of wheat bran, yeast and mter (Charles g &.t 1987).

The choice of brnedinq media depends on faater &velopnant, qrnater

dngree of eynchronization of o u ~ t i o n and increased pvml wiqhts.

Adults were maintain4 in laboratow on a variety of feed auch

as milk oovderr water and sliqar (Harrison, 1950), fresh ripe bananat

cane suqar, milk wuder, aqar and water (Deoras, 1954), milk and

suqar (Sinha, 1974) and qlumsn, condensed milk and water (Gera and

Guota, 1975). Keidinq and Arevard (1964) described a rearinq methdl

for house f ly without thp Lnas of qenetic viqour. The larvae reared

in four different avnthetic media have shown significant differancea

in the body veiqht, protein, carbohydrate and linid contents but not

in a& and water content (D~ahmlkh, 1980).

2. 8. Ply control:

A l o g term f lv control can be achievd by e n v i r o m t a l

eanitstion. Ihe chemical control mnthcds, thouqh yield quicker

effects can only be a s u m l m n t to the environmental measures. The

environmental sanitation includes the elimination of fly brecdinq

sources, exclusion of f l i e s from wtential bredinq sources and bv

killinq larvae in infested materials (Busvine, 1980).

In rural areas of Tr~diana, M. domstica breeding has been

auccessfullv controlled i n tomato cannerv waste water laqoons bv

usinq a wlythene cover whi.ch wa~ also cast effective (McCoy, 1958).

In poultry ranches of northern California, f ly control hv manure

management measures were shown to be cant effective (Rrlrton ,t &. , 1965). In Danish farms, the aanitary meaRures of fly control hold

good but difficult to nractice due to lack of farm labourers

(Aeidinq, 1975). In sanitarv land f i l l s of Haw8iir the soil cover of

leas than 25 m thickness did not prevent the emergence of f lv

i m t u r e a buried underneath (Toyma, 1988).

The experimental fly control with insecticides waa more

effective than mechanical measures such aa mud ~laeter inq , coverinq

with sand or tarred cloth etc. (Pradhan 5 &,, 1961). Keiding (1975)

has studied the feasibility of f ly contrbl in Danish f a m by usinq

chlorinated hydrocarbons, various orqan&oephorous c-unds and

uyrethmids. The residual spray on resting surfaces was the most

effective and the other measures such aa restriction of residual

emray t o 30 or 10% of the spravnble surfaces, innxegnated ribban81

toxic m a r baits minted on strateqic placesl non reaidual suray and

ccmbininq M e r a t e use of a toxic bait and unrelated larvicide were

also u d (Keidinq and Je swrmn~ 1986). The insecticidal control of

M. danestica and other associated dunq breeding f l i e s in animal - - manure increases the ~rod~rct iv i tv of &fry and beef catt le (Earnestt

1986).

Rcqoff & &. (1980) have studied the r amnse of male

M. rhmestica t o "nlocnlnre", a cheromane and to conlsinations of - - various branch chain saturated hydmarbons with and withrn~t

m~rcalure. The attractancy to dimethaate~ allethrin and fenvalerate

but r-llancy t o methoxvchlar and cyphenothrin by M. dunestice has

been reparted (Rani and Rsmnit 1984). Treatrent with cymmyzine wan

the mot awt effective in caqed layer pooltry houses. Larvicidinq or

adulticidinq with dimethoatel fenthian and dimthoate, oennethrin,

dimethoate and stiroohos achieved f ly control i n a mxlerately cont

effective manner. Earlv removal of manure befdre teak mamh of the

f l y conlsined with more selective insecticide use m l d provide an

effective f ly control (Keidinq, 1986).

Cattle dunq treated with 0.35% triflubenzuron a t the rate of 2

1 l / m has prevented the de~ralomnt of M. danestica egga and its

wttncy r e k i n d for 3 days. mird instar larvae treated with 0.0035

t o 35% of triflubenzrlron produced defonned w w r i a (SZabova and

Z a j n ~ , 1987). The wridvl ether, an insect qrowth r e q u l a t o ~

ccmmnd haa becn studied aqainat M. dmatica larvae resistant to

cyrethroid and oqanmhosohorous ccmaunda in laboratory (Kwnda

et &., 1987). Innecticida resistonce of M. dcmestica to crotoxyohoa, - tetrachlorovinphca, dimethoate, dichlotavoa and oennethrin has been

rewrtd in New York dairies (Scott 5 g., 1989).

The svneqistic effwt of neem and custard awle extracts has

been shcm to be as toxic as DDT to M. dcmastica (Qadri etg., 1977). Extracts from leaves nnd air dried root8 of Cathoranthua

~lkal0idS induced siqnificant levels of sterility in males and

females of r. danestica and the leaf extracts were found to be m r e effective than mot extracts (Sukumer, 1987).

The effectiveness of electrocuting liqht trap with black liqht

( W ) wan incrwsd bv addinq "musealure" in the control of flies and

the n W r of flies tram& was mainly de~endinq on the w l a t i o n

size of flies in caqed laver w l t r v houses ( S k m n d and Mourierr

1986).

2. 9. Natural enemies of Musca dcmestica:

A rich variety of natural enemies y&. predatorsr parasites,

mthoqens and parasitoids attacking almst all stages of H. dmstica

life cycle has given amle scope for identifyinq and selectinq

neptoeniate biolcqicnl control aqenta. Majority of them are

the coexisting invertebrate fauna which olay an imctant role in

rcqulating its cnpulation, demite its e n o m s reorcductive

potential. It has been emhasized for the continued efforts in

maintaining these agent^ so an to utilize them for develooinq an

inteqrated control strategy. The multi agent awroach with a

judicious cdination of aqrints during an amrowiate develomntal

stage of host mav yield a successful control (Axtell, 1986b). an

integrated fly control otrateqy by emloyinq Macrochsles

rmscadanest icae and FJscuroaoda vegetans aqainst eqqs Bacillus

thuringieneis and Neoolcctana camaoaae against larvae and miaoned

baits of naled or fenohloronhrm aqainst adults in multry houses has

been demonstrated and ~ r o v d to be effective (Wicht and Rodriquez,

1970).

2. 9. 1. Predators:

l'no Dredace3u.s habits of dunq infeatinq macrochelid mites on

house fly eqqs have been remrted by Axtell (1962) and Rcdrjquez and

Wade (1962). Prevalence of 2. muacadanesticae, Fuscuropcda so. and

Glwtholapis confusa in mjltrv drowinqs of northern California has

been reported (Peck and Anderson, 1969). Cicolani (1979) studied the

intrinsic rate of natural increase of 7 swcies of macrochelid mites

ordating M. danestica eqqs. Predatory and disoersal behaviour of

M. nuscsdomeaticae, G. confusa and Poecilochirus deutronwrohs and - influence of moiature content and aqe of the manure have a l m been

studid (Gedcn and Stofflolano, 1988: Geden g. t 1988).

me inported f i r e ant Solenods geminata has been shown t o hava

a high degree of ~redatorv rntential by feeding house f ly egqs cYrd

immtures i n garbage bins (Pirnentel, 1955). The social soider,

S t e q o w u s miroearm Paveri had bwn introduced in domestic and

per idmet ic habitats of South Africa winq i t s predatory behaviour

on adult house f l ies . T h i ~ aaider ia harmless to man and capable of

withstandinq starvation fnr a long wricd. A awctacular control of

house f l i e s has been ach1eve-I by th is awcies (Stem, 1959). The

predatory potential of Labia ininor an eawiq on l io~~se fly eaqs and

larvae along with i t s l i f e cycle has been assessed in tentperirte zones

of Demrk (Mourier, 1984).

Prtchinsky (1913) reviewed the predatory activity of other dunq

breeding diDteran larvae on house fly larvae. The black qar+aqe flv

leucoatma has heen rewrted to be a nromising biolnqical

control agent of n. d m s t i c a and other nuisance f l ies in multry

Mnure (Andernon and Poorbauqh, 1964b). The fleasonal abundance of

predator wpulatims of Muscina atabulans And 2. leucos tm have also

been studied (Peck and Andernon, 1969). Oleckers and Hullw (1984)

have demonstrated the u t i l i ty of g. camesis lamae in the control of

house f l i e s i n multry manure in situations where the n m b r of other

manure breading dipteca are low. Under manure managmint practices in

caqed layer f a m , a aiqnificant reduction in house f ly woulatim

h~ been achieved with increase in natural enemies ( S h e d , 1983).

B r d i n q of M. danestica in pits of enclosed poultry houses has been

disolaccd by E. aenescena durinq a wriod of 18 weeks when the latter

were all& to breed without any restriction (Noalan and ~ i a b m ,

1987). The= studies revealed that oredatory dipteran larvae, the

adults of which do not cause any nuisance to men, may be used in

controlling house fly m~ulation under auecific habitats like wultrv

farms.

In Jawat Sumatra and South Africa dung k t l e s belonqinq to the

familiest Cooridae and Histeridae are known to control hoi~se fly

imtures through their predatory behaviour (Sinmundst 1940). Leqner

and Olton (1971) cornDar.4 the ~redatory ~tential of adult beetles of

Lahidurinae, Histeridae and Staohylinidae in domestic anirnal mnure

f m various zoqeoqraohical reqions of the World. Carcinopa ~umilo

could succeasfully be mintained with a diet af frozen M. dancstica

eggs at various density levela. The predatory capacity of males,

femlea and larvae of this swcies at various density levels alonq

with its daily rate of increase of it8 -lation has been studied

(Mocqan & &. , 1983). 'his wedator is knm to concentrate on the

surface region of the manure (Geden and Stofflolam, 1988). In South

Africa, E. trcqldytes f om la ti on is nbundant which effectivelv

checked the fly br&inq in multry manure (Hulley and Pfleidrrer,

1988) .

2. 9. 2. Parasites:

Imnaturea of multi-insecticide resistant strains of M. damentica

have been tested for their susceptibility to parasitic nematdes such

as HeterorhaMitus helithidis and Steinernem feltidae and the lat ter

nwcies was found to br, more vinllent resulting a higher parasitism.

6aaed on these studies, it has been suggested that S. feltidae can be

used as a supple men tar^ measure in the contml of house f l i e s (Renn

e t al . , 1985). --

2. 9. 3. Pathogens:

M. domeatica latvae have been rewrted to be sus~eptible to - - wettable d e r fomlat ions of 8. thurinqiensis. Hawrver no adverse

effect ha8 been noticed on adult f l i e s ( Al-Azawi and Jabbar, 1989).

hung fungi, h p e q i l l u s 9, Beauveria globlifera,

0rqxsa mricana , . qryll i , E. mscae, E. aphaeroeuem and Fusarium -- m e have been reported to h mthcqenic to M. danestica (Charles, - 1941). Release of frenh mycelia of E. in f ly infested olacea

has been s h m t o cauae mortality of adults and this aathoqenic 0

funqus developed well at 20 to 25 C (Vcqel, 1968). Field studies

have shown that nycasis caused hy th is funqus i s mainly influenced by

the relative hwniditv and drv ml seamn is the most favourable for

its infratation (Kramer, 1981). Mullens and Rodriguez (1985) have

studied the dynmics of E. E, conidial discharqe frun

M. danestica cadavers a t various relative humidity levels. The - - incidence of infection of this funqus increased when infected house

f l i e s were released into the wild wpulatian (Kramer and Steinkarus,

1987).

The term parasitoid was f i r s t coined by Reuter (1913) to

describe insects that develop as larvae on the tissues of other

arthropods (usually insects), which they eventually k i l l . Adult:

female parasitoids foraqe actively on haste and deposit their eqqs

into, over or near tho host individuals. U w n hatching, the larvae

w i l l feed on host tiasues and complete their developnent either aa an

ec tbo r endoparasite. Solitary parasitoids develop einglv i n or on

their hosts while grnqarious s ~ e c i e s develop in groum from eqqs laid

during one or more otrimsitions. Parasitoids thus differ from tnre

predators which have free-livinq larval staqes and normally require

m r e than one prey item to conplete their develounent (Hassel and

Wave, 1984). Amnq the various natural rqulatory agents of diuteran

f l i e s r the parasitoid warns attacking the puwria received

mnaiderable attention in recent times (Axtell 198& Sunreya have

been carried out world wide to find out the regulatory mle of

parasitoids in various countries (Leqner and Olton, 1976).

2. 9. 4. 1. axo on any of m~wl wrasitoids:

The p a r ~ i t o i d wasos belong t o different families such as

was m a x i m during t h e s u m n r and t h e tic-soon month and

d i s t r i bu t ion o f P. vindemniae has been recorded in a l l hab i t a t s

(Srinivasan and Balak r i shn~n , 1989).

2. 9. 4. 3. Biology and behaviour:

Studies on var ious a s m s of biolaqy have been ca r r i ed art i n

w r a a i t o i d s . Roy 1. (1940) s tudied t h e bionanice of

D. cdchycenllr. Its d e v e l o m n t s l d u r a t i m v a r i e s from 20 days in - s m r t o 45 days i n winter i n t h e host M. dunestica m w r i a . Bull

(1982) has ahom e iqh t recoqniznble s t aqes i n cia vi t r ibenn i r

mtmcqeneais . A t hiqh t-ratures, t h e product im of males i n

thelytokous M. m i r a p t o r was t r iqgered due t o t h e blockage of

endomitosis and fonna t im of d ioloid female producing eggs ( L e p e r ,

1985). Umlqis m f i a s hae shown a f a s t e r r a t e of d e v e l o m t and

hiqher i n t r i n s i c r a t e of q r w t h am! fecundity but t h e .sex r a t i o did

not vary s iqn i f i can t ly with mother's aqe o r t e n a r a t u r e (Smith d

Rutz, 1986, 1987). Arellano and Reuda (1988) have rsoor ted t h a t t h e

develapnental d u r a t i m of 2. eqg and its f i r s t , second and

t h i r d l a rva l i n s t n r s ranqc f m n 20-50 hours, 2 4 days, 2-3 davs and

2-3 days re-ctively. The DTFDUOFJ period l a s t s fo r 1 day and cum1

period ranqes f r m 6-R days. A t higher t m r a t u r e s , 2. & haa

o h m a reducticm in t h e averaqe i m t u r e d e v e l m n t a l duraticm

all and Pischer, 1988). Fran a laboratory study, t he l ~ e v i t v

(32.5 davs) , fecundity (127.3 eqqs/fcmale) aml host feeding behavibur

of g. himalayanus have been rmrted (Srinivasan and Panicker, 1988).

Rsmmal idem , Braconidnet Ichnemmidae , Encvtidae, Eumlidae,

Dimriidae and Chnlcididae ttnder the Suocr Fmilv Chalcidoidea (Order

Hylr*moaCera). The fanilv P t s m l i d a e camrims the l aqea t nudxr of

oarasitoid w a m attadcinq f ly w r i a and includea the i m c t a n t

oara~i to id g m m viz. Swlmqia, MuscMifurax, Pachycrmidwa,

NaMnir and Urolcois (Leqner 1. I 1975: Reda and Axtell! 19854 .A

siblinq sceciea of $. has aleo been rewrted fm Auntralia

and has a ccnplete reproductive iaolatim with the form distribvted

in NH zealand (Leqner, 1983). The cytolqical studies of

D. himalayanus have s h m that i t s diploid c h ~ n h r of 10 - (Analin t g., 1987).

Leqm?r and B w n ( 1966) recorded 14 soecies of parasitoids

attackinq hmae fly oumria fm various collection s i tes of Canada,

Chile, Cmta Rica, J m i r n , Trinidad, U ~ J U R J ' and [J.S.A. b i n q

1962-1965. In the western hemimhere the nuher of parasitoids were

~ r a t i v e l y less than oos t rn hemisphere. The Swlangia m. were

accounted for a hiqh d-rw of natural mraaitism i n northwestern

U.S.A. (Leqner and Mew, 1966). In Southern California multry

rmhes, M. and 2. a were r e w s i b l e for a maxim

oaranit ic activity ( m e t g. , 1968). In eastern hemihere and

Pacific islands the m l v distributed mraritoids vere k n m for n

hiqher activity. But the fnma restricted to eastern harnimhere alone

play coawratively a Ie-r role (Lclqner and Olton, 19681. m q a n and P a t t e r m (1975) studied the natural mr~itism of wild pcmlatim i n

a mine farm a t Florida. In Hsvaii animal f a m , 14 e i e s belonqinq

t o the fmnilies P t e m l i d a e , Encytridae, D i a ~ r i d a e t Cbalcididee,

Cyni~idae and Stachvlinidae were k n m t o attack the dung b r d i n q

f ly m r i a and of these, S. endfun and S. csmemni vere the met

abundwt (Toyam and Ikda , 1976).

In India, onlv a few stldien are available on biological control

aqenta of munmid fl ieo &.mite the acute woblem due to f l i e s and

fly-barne diseases. Rov and SirMons (1939) l i ~ t e d the parasitic wema

viz., Spalangia sw., Bradlvreria fulvitarsis, 8. argentifrona and

Dirhinus wchycerus nttackinq the pumria of musmid f l i e s in

Calcutta. S h a m (1971.) stlKlied the bioloq~ of Muscidifurax

mraaitizinq tmse 1:lv twmria. In Bangal-ore, tho fnllbwinq

mrasitoids vi2.1 5. wr 2. niqroaenea, 5. e, 5. M, P. vindmniae, Ditrirhinot halmis sargusmetallintrs, g. pechvcerus and - D. sp. nr. infiena have twen recorded from dipteran puwria breedinq - in bavine mnure. Munq these m c i e s , 2. c~rmeroni was the minr me.

However, the denaitv of these native parasitoids was not sufficient

t o check the fly hr&inq rffectively (hi and Sankaran, 1977:

Sankarw 1980). D. mchycenm has heen recorded flnm a

multrv farm in Tiruchv (Kamnrmsarthy and Naqarajan, 1986). In

livestock fama of M i c h e m y , P. v i n d d a e l 2. ~ w I ) ~ W I ~ I

g. n i g r m and g. himalavnntm have been (yc6rd.d and their d e ~ i t y

I n a study on the woference of parasitoida on the house fly and

rtable f ly host wonria, Morqan & &. (1979) shcued the preference

of E. with M. dunestica than Stamxys calcitrans. Its

paranitic activity war also influenced by the host mrasitoid ratio

and hmt q e . The develomntal duration of !. and

S. drowDhilae was shorter ir! Hamtobia irr i tans than 2. calcitrans - 0

or M. danestica w w e at 27 C (Camhart & &. , 1981). 8

Musciditurax am. and S w l q i a sw. did not exhibit any preference

wer the puparia of stable f l i e s and house f l i e s i n nature (Meyer and

Petersen, 1983). P e t e r m 2. (1985) have recovered U. m f i ~ e s

fma the house f ly and stable fly w m r i a i n eastern Nebraskan animal

farm i n U.S.A. In an east central Texas wsture, the D I I W ~

mrasitoids attackinq f ly oumria in bovine manure have a broad

mectnnn of hosts (Rlume, 1986). From a laboratory studv, it was

evidenced that 2. niqrA did not show any preference when both house

f ly and stable f ly wmr ia were offered a t the seme time (Hall and

Pischer, 1988). However, the fecundity and hnst destruction potential

of S. endius differ with 1. h s t i c a and Chrysomyia meqaceohala - w m r i a in the laboratory as the f o m r was found to be more suitable

for otoqeny ~ t d l u c t ion ( Arenello and Reuda, 1988 ) .

The occurrence of suwrwrasitism i s due to the suwlv of hosts

i n -1 or less nmkers than the maximnn attack rate of mrasitoid.

Sucer m r a d t i m of 1. vitrioennis on N. danestica w ~ a r i a resulted

i n the reduction i n aurvival and adult size. We proportion of f w l e

p m q q war aim reduced but it had no effect on the rate of

omplrticn of devdoanent of the wrmitoid (Wylie, 1965). T g r m and

Ikda (1980) showed that at animal farm of Hawaii, sucewrasitiam

due to I?. taptor, g. luzorenaia and Encoila impatients were

r e m r i b l e for the high incidence of non-viable fly puparia. Prow

and Morgan (1983 a 1985) r-ed that the eucewrasitism due to

S. endius resulted in the reducticn of its reproductive potential in - - mcla release DrograrrPnea.

Multiparasitiem of 2. and M. ramor on N. dwoestica oume

reveals that the f o m r swcies tends to avoid oviwsitinq in Dume

mraaitized by the latter whereas the latter did not avoid wcae

wrasitizd by the former (Prom and Norqan, 198261.

Studies on caroetitive wrasitism between E. zaraptor and

U. rufiw8 by e m i n q the host puparia sinultaneously to both - - parmitoids have shcun that the former was more efficient in

mrasitizirq house fly w m e than the latter (Pawson & g., 1987).

The intra-aoecific larval oxroetition of N. vitrimis,

jl. and S. camoroni has been studied and the n h r of larvae

found develwiq wao 2.5, 1.0 a d 1.0, rewctively. Larval crodinq

in jl. raptor and S. cmrnni unlike N. vitripennis does not affect

the aex ratio of the survivors (Wvlie, 1971).

-el and Pimentel (1963) studied the habits of dispersal and

6.nsity relationships with 1. vitriwnnis and E. d m s t i c a and the

fad f o m signif icantlv disoersed faster than un fd ones. Leqner

(1983) atudied the matinq and foraqinq behaviour amnq various

crtraina of M. raptor. The house f ly larval breeding medium with a

duwity of 25 larvae w r 100 'gran d i m elicited siqnificant

reawnse by the mrasitoidn as evidenced from olfactaneter (Soafford

e t al., 1984). --

2. 9. 4. 4. Reproductive wtential:

m e reproductive wtent ia l of the wrasitoids i n me of the

i m r t n n t parmeters in determininq their success as a bic-control

aqent and has been studied by various authors. Hybridization of

mrasitoids fran climatoloqically similar and geoqraDhically isolated

areaa could incream their rwrcductive mtential. The inundation of

exotic strains could omduce suwrior strains through intercrass

(Leqner, 1972). Morqan 5 g. (1976ri have reoorted from a laboratow

study, E.1 uniraotor m d s t i o n multiolied 55 timea in a generation.

Reduction in the developnental duration of 2. niqra has been observed

a t higher t-ratures and a t various host d e h i t i e s but the

~ r a a i t i s m has declined (Hall and Fischer, 1988).

Ablea 5 1. (1976) studied the develomnt of S. endius and

M. raptor' i n relation t o m s t a n t and variable temaratures and also

&velo#d an algorithm t o p r d i c t the develoanent of parasitoids bv

providinq 8 i ~ l a t i C n of reswnaes to constant and variable

tameraturea besides a hiqh correlation coefficient obtained between

orndicted and &awed develomntal rates. Morqan 6 &. (1976)

estimated the daily mortality ra te of S. endius as 0.3315, daily

w i m i t i o n rate as 9.46 eqqs w r female and the average n m r of

prcqeny emeqed wr female wr day as 2.6.

Legner (1983) st~ldied the fecundity and cold hardiness m n q

M. rapfor straina a t hiqher host-oarasitoid ratio and ohserved that - the females produced lesner female oroqenv. The difference between

the oroqeny prcductim and host oarasitization i s known as the

m r m i t e induced mottalitv and it increased with t m r a t u r e . The

nnctality due to th is ohenmenon was significantly hiqher than

m r m i t i m in g. m f i w s (Mathevs and Petersen, 1989).

The pupal size had a orofound effect on the wrcentaqe

mrasitimn and ~rogenv ~ m d u c t i m in N. vitriwnnis, a greqarious

oarmitoid of E. h s t i c a (Nagel and Pimentel, 1963). When the

infected ouwe wnre e m e d t o low temceratures, there was an

incrmm i n the raomductive wtential of M. raptor and M. zacaptot

and the l i f e scan a s well as prcqeny pmduction in S. endius. The

w r m i t i c species may be imroved for use i n biological mntml

woqrmmnea through cold storaqe techniques (Legner, 1976). The mass

culturinq methad8 of 5. + suitable for inundatinq f ie ld

relemea 'were develomd ensurinq the production of one million

oaradten w r week (Morqnn et1.1 1978). The frwze killed M. raotor

m m r i a have been u s d for the m s s ~roduction (Peteraen and Mathws,

1984). The utility of irradiated and cold stored house fly pumria

for expMure to parnsitoids ~ l d colony maintenance have a1.w been

rearrted (Morgan & g. 1986).

2. 9. 4. 5. Host wrnsitoid interaction:

Host parasitoid interaction has been studied from the

reproductive and develounental r e m s e of mrasitoids. New York and

Florida strains of M. rkxwstica pume with different nutritive

qualities genetically ahwed variations in mrasitization and Drqenv

om8uctim by N. vitrimnnis. The wrasitoids have also exhibited

difference in their life table mrameters and cooulation qr0H.h

characterist ics (Chabsrnl 1970a) 1970b).

Olmn and Pimentel (1974) recorted that M. domestics under

interme selective oressure by N. vitripennis declined in its oroqenv

moduction and looqevity in 40th qeneration. Tho develomnt af

resistance by M. dcmestica to 2. vitripmnis in a laboraton,

hont-paraaitoid syntm reduced the succeen of the wrasitoid.

M. danentica a l m exhibited a decreased tendency of oscillationsr a - - reducod mean m a t h size and a reduced variance krt an increased

logarithmic varinnea (Pimentel &. , 1978).

36

Zsreh &. (1980) studied the evolution of host-wrasitoid

systan rarder laboratory conditions and thereby the population

kinetics of m. danestira and 2. vitriwnnis. In the f i r s t 20

generations no difference could be detected in mean M. danestica

density. However the adult cawlation was reduced thereafter and this

trend continued for 50 qeneratims.

Weidhaas &. (1977) constructed a computer simulation d e l

f m the l i f e history mriimeters of M. domestics and S. endius which

can be successfullv awlied to study the i m c t of parasitoid

releases on the reduction of house f ly density.

2. 9. 4. 6. Sampling methods:

Rutz (1986) has reviewed the various methods for monitorinq

m r ~ i t o i d s and their relative merits and demerits. The puml

collection method indicates the relative abundance but it i s beset

with the ~rrzb1e1-11 of hrzsts of variable aqes. The other methods y&. , emerqence trap, mpal t rap and sentinel a lwe monitoring qave the

b i n d result. cuinq t o variable wpal densitv and loss of srmoles.

The rtudies have been carried out in the dairies and enclosed multry

h a m s of esntern Nebraska and north Carolina dairy, beef , multry

mine and sheer, huminqs using more thw one method of estimation of

natural parasitism and the merits and demerits of each methnl -re

d i e c u e d (Myer and Peteraen, 1982; Reda and Axtell, 1985bMerchant

et al . 1985). --

2. 9. 4. 7. Population dynamics:

In Danish f a m , the ~ a r a s i t o i d s were lees during the early f ly

aeamn which i n c r e d steadily with a peak in October (Murier ,

1971). The influence of t m r a t u r e , hmiditv and depth of mnure on

hocrt destruction and fecundity have been studied and shown that the

Smlangia scp. c m i s t e n t l v wnetrated t o a greater depth (Legner,

1977). In Nebraska (U.S.A.), during winter its emergence was

increaad and abortive carasitism was also decreased sharply due t o

the non occurrence of diamuse (Peter.sen and Meyer, 1983). The

m r ~ i t i s m of U rufioes was hiqh during October in outdoor habitats

(Smith and Rut21 1985). Petersen and Pawson (1988) have studied the

l a t e seasonal act ivi ty of M. raotor which showed a high incidence and

emergence levels and 2. declined during cooler mnths but

Spheqiqaster 3 was abundant throuqhout the release ~ e r i c d in

liveatock confinements of eastern Nebraska, U.S.A.

In caqed layer w u l t r y manure of southern California,

M. =raptor, M. raptor and S. ciuneroni were the mast abundant and - - - - M. zarapter and 2. cameroni were primarily diurnal in the i r - -

I &arching act ivi ty (Mullens & g., 1986). In Z i n h h e ,

Smlanqia sw., h i c h o ~ r i s and Nasonia scp. , the indiqencus

nntcnqhsgous insects were k n m t o attack the dung breeding dioteran

wpae (Harris, 1987). In enclosed shallow oit egq layer m u l t w

houws of north central Indiana (U.S.A.), S. cameroni wvas the m a t

abdmt species followed by 2. niqroaenea, S. endius, 2. niqra,

N, v i t r i m i r , M. MIA Maeneta d l i w a (Merchant &. , - 1987).

2. 9. 4. 9. Fly control with mrasitoid releases:

The earl ier efforts to control M. danestica and other dung

breedinq f l i e s by using bioloqical control agents were attem~ted i n

ceztain Pacific Islands. In Hawaii Islands amnq the 16 soecies of

hymenoDteran and coleo~teran natural enemies introduced since 1909,

tmlve got established and ~mduced encouraging results (Leqner,

1973). In Fi j i curd Gaun Islands, the introduction of S. camerrmi from

Hawaii in 1930s had achieved a siqnificant f ly reductim (Vandenburq,

1930; Simnds , 1958).

In California, the introducticn of mrasitoids to conbat dunq

k. .d inq f l i e s cannenced in l%Ost by releasing several exotic

mncier/ strain6 of TachnMhsqus zelandiua and five species of

Huacidifurax and 5. cameeonit 5. endiust S. niqroaenea and 2. niqra

i n dairies and poultrv ranges. The released oarasitoids differ in

their tolerance t o temeraturr, humidity extremes and i n their

frcurdityr longevity and ~r0binq abil i ty (Moore and Legnor, 1911 ).

Sphrqigaater sp., imoartd fmm South Africa was mss released but it

failed to establish i n the California mrasitoid aatolex (Gerinq and

1968). Aleochara t a n i a t a , a S t awl in id from J m i c a ha8

k.n liberated i n c-tnl southern California but the results were

not available. Inoculative releases of T. zelarxlicus, S. endius and

M. raptor carried out i n an enclosed wultw house in southern - - California revealed that T. zelandicus was m s t effective (Lqner,

1972, 1973: Olton and Leqner, 1971).

Comnonwealth Institute of Biological Control exwnded the

mrasitoid release activit ies to West Indies, Mauritius and m r t s of

Asia. Various studies were a lm carried out in this field in Chile,

E l Salvader, Mexico, New Zeland and Pacific Islands (Lqner and Bay,

1970). In Danish ca t t le farms, 2. cameroni and M. -were

mbjected t o inundating releases durinq early fly sellson to achieve

f lv control successfullv (Mourier , 1972). Inundatiq releases of

S. endius against house fly cowlations i n coulttv fann, comcvrrcial - - dairy, feeding station of a Dasture land and a beef farm in Florida

have yielded an effective control of M . danestica (Mrqan g c., 1975). m e ima of carasitoid releases was reflected in the

i n r r c s l ~ in parmitian of field arwria and a decline in the adult

Doarlntion (Morgan, 1980). M e host-mrasitoid r e l a t i m h i ~ as wall

M #ypulatim dynmnics had been studied by augmentative releases of

S. endiuo t o summan house flv pawla t i au under field conditions - - (Noqan and Patterwn, 1976: Morgan 5 &., 1976). h-oqranned

rele8.~0s of 2. and 2. ra~tor were carried out aqainst field

oaoulations af ter estimstinq the breeding wtential of M. domestirs

ilaaatures (Norqan & g., 1981 ) .

Field inundatinq releases of P. vindmiae have achieved the

control of houae f l i e s , stable f l i e s and PRnnia am. in a multrv

houw and a box s t a l l . A m l a t i m model han also been derived to

determine the paxrlation dmmics of ~a ra s i to id in the field (Pickens

et g., 1975). Weekly inundatinq releases of g. vindmiae in a dairr - farm in Pondicherry, India t o check the f ly nuisance achieved an

increase in the natural oarasitism and a reductim in f ly q r i l l

counts (Panicker and Srinivrraan, 1986).

Pawson and Patterson (1988) have studied tho imct of E.

raleanes and its disrr?r-1 Mttern in eastern Nebraska (U.S.A.) and I

found that s ~ e c i e s was not a m r e n t and the averaqe p~ras i to id

emerqence i n each side of the release mint was not significantly

different. The influence of habitat and t m r a t u r e was studied on

d i m e r ~ a l behaviour of 13. and U. nlfices durinq inundatinq

releaees in a dairy barn a t Nev York (U.S.A. ) and an increase in

met release ~ r a s i t i s m wan &served. E. raDtor w a s found to hn

efficient both in diswr.sa1 and field oaraaitization (Smith & g.,