The Farlex Grammar Book

TheFarlexGrammarBook:CompleteEnglishGrammarRules

FARLEXInternational

Copyright©2016FarlexInternationalAllrightsreserved.ISBN:1535231688

ISBN-13:978-1535231688

TableofcontentsAbouttheauthorPrefaceEditor’sNoteEnglishGrammarPartsofSpeechNounsCommonandProperNounsNounsofAddressConcreteandAbstractNounsCountableNounsUncountableNounsCollectiveNounsCompoundNounsNominalization(CreatingNouns)

PronounsPersonalpronounsPersonalPronouns-NumberPersonalPronouns-Person(Firstperson,Secondperson,Thirdperson)PersonalPronouns-GenderPersonalPronouns-CasePersonalPronouns-ReflexivePronouns

IntensivePronounsIndefinitePronounsDemonstrativePronounsInterrogativePronounsRelativePronounsReciprocalPronounsDummyPronouns

VerbsFiniteandNon-finiteVerbsTransitiveandIntransitiveVerbsRegularandIrregularVerbsAuxiliaryVerbsPrimaryAuxiliaryVerbsModalAuxiliaryVerbsModalAuxiliaryVerbs-WillModalAuxiliaryVerbs-WouldModalAuxiliaryVerbs-ShallModalAuxiliaryVerbs-Should

ModalAuxiliaryVerbs-CanModalAuxiliaryVerbs-CouldModalAuxiliaryVerbs-MayModalAuxiliaryVerbs-MightModalAuxiliaryVerbs-MustSubstitutingModalVerbs

Semi-ModalAuxiliaryVerbsInfinitivesParticiplesActionVerbsStativeVerbsLinkingVerbsLightVerbsPhrasalVerbsCommonPhrasalVerbs

ConditionalVerbsCausativeVerbsFactitiveVerbsReflexiveVerbs

AdjectivesAttributiveAdjectivesPredicativeAdjectivesProperAdjectivesCollectiveAdjectivesDemonstrativeAdjectivesInterrogativeAdjectivesNominalAdjectivesCompoundAdjectivesOrderofAdjectivesDegreesofComparisonComparativeAdjectivesSuperlativeAdjectives

AdverbsAdverbsofTimeAdverbsofPlaceAdverbsofMannerAdverbsofDegreeMitigatorsIntensifiers

AdverbsofFrequency

AdverbsofPurposeFocusingAdverbsNegativeAdverbsConjunctiveAdverbsEvaluativeAdverbsViewpointAdverbsRelativeAdverbsAdverbialNounsRegularandIrregularAdverbsDegreesofComparisonComparativeAdverbsSuperlativeAdverbs

OrderofAdverbsPrepositionsPrepositionalPhrasesCategoriesofPrepositionsCommonPrepositionalErrorsPrepositionswithNounsPrepositionswithVerbsPrepositionswithAdjectivesPrepositionsinIdiomsIdiomsthatStartwithPrepositionsIdiomsthatEndwithPrepositions

ConjunctionsCoordinatingConjunctionsCorrelativeConjunctionsSubordinatingConjunctions

OtherpartsofspeechParticlesArticlesDeterminersPossessiveDeterminers

GerundsGerundsasObjectsofVerbs

InterjectionsInflection(Accidence)ConjugationTensePresentTense

PresentSimpleTensePresentContinuousTense(Progressive)PresentPerfectTensePresentPerfectContinuousTense

PastTensePastSimpleTensePastContinuousTensePastPerfectTensePastPerfectContinuousTense

FutureTense(Approximation)FutureSimpleTenseFutureContinuousTenseFuturePerfectTenseFuturePerfectContinuousTense

AspectPerfectiveandImperfectiveAspectAspectsofthePresentTenseAspectsofthePastTenseAspectsoftheFutureTense

MoodIndicativeMoodSubjunctiveMoodSubjunctiveMood-ExpressingWishes

VoiceActiveVoicePassiveVoiceMiddleVoice

SpeechReportedSpeech(IndirectSpeech)

GrammaticalPersonDeclensionPluralsGenderinNouns

RegularandIrregularInflectionSyntaxSubjectsandPredicatesTheSubjectThePredicateComplements

ObjectsSubjectComplementsObjectComplementsAdjectiveComplementsAdverbialComplements

ModifiersAdjuncts

PhrasesNounPhrasesAdjectivePhrasesAdverbialPhrasesParticiplePhrasesAbsolutePhrasesAppositives

ClausesIndependentClausesDependentClausesNounClausesRelativeClausesAdverbialClauses

SentencesCompoundSentencesComplexSentencesCompound-ComplexSentencesDeclarativeSentencesInterrogativeSentencesNegativeInterrogativeSentencesImperativeSentencesConditionalSentencesMajorandMinorSentences(RegularandIrregularSentences)

QuizanswersIndex

AbouttheauthorPeterHerringwasborninBoulder,Colorado,andgrewupwithapassionforreading.HeattendedtheUniversityofBritishColumbia,inVancouver,Canada,wherehemajoredinEnglishLiterature.Hewentontocompleteamaster’sdegreeinAnglo-IrishLiteratureandDramaatUniversityCollegeDublininIreland,wherehegraduatedwithhonors.Peterhasworkedasaneditorsince2009,lendinghispassionforwordstoscientificresearchprojects,non-fictionpublishing,andTheFreeDictionary.HelivesinDublin,Ireland,withhiswifeandson.

AbouttheeditorNickNorlenisthemanagingeditorofTheFreeDictionary,whereheoverseesalleditorialprojects.AftergraduatingwithhonorsfromLaSalleUniversityinPhiladelphia,heworkedasareporterbeforejoiningtheFarlexteamin2008.HelivesinNewtown,Pennsylvania,withhiswifeanddaughter,whosefirstwordishisfavoriteword.

PrefaceGrammariswithoutadoubtoneofthemostdauntingaspectsoftheEnglishlanguage,anareariddledwithcomplexities,inconsistencies,andcontradictions.Ithasalsobeeninastateoffluxforprettymuchitsentireexistence.FornativespeakersofEnglish,aswellasforthoselearningitasanewlanguage,grammarpresentsaveryseriouschallengetospeakingandwritingbothaccuratelyandeffectively.Havingasingle,reliable,go-toreferenceguideshouldthereforebeindispensabletothosetryingtolearn,improve,orperfecttheirspeechorwriting.Thisbookisthatguide:aclear,unambiguous,andcomprehensivesourceofinformationthatcoversalltherelevanttopicsofEnglishgrammar,whilestillbeingeasytounderstandandenjoyabletoread.Everytopicinthebookhasbeenbrokendownintobasicunits.Eachunitcanbereadandunderstoodinitsownright,butthroughoutthebookyouwillfindcross-referencestoothersectionsandchapterstohelpmakeitclearhowallthepiecesfittogether.Ifyou’rehavingtroubleunderstandingsomething,trygoingback(orforward)tootherrelatedtopicsinthebook.Finally,itmustbementionedthat,becauseEnglishissuchaflexible,inconsistentlanguage,the“rules”thatareoftenbandiedaboutareusuallynotrulesatall,butratherguidesthatreflecthowthelanguageisused.Accordingly,theguidelinescontainedwithinthisbookarejustthat—guidelines.Theyarenotintendedtoprovideconstrictiveorproscriptiverulesthatconfineeveryonetoaparticularwayofspeakingorwriting.LearninghowtheEnglishlanguageworkswillenhanceyourengagementwithspeechandwritingeveryday,fromthebooksyouread,tothee-mailsyouwrite,totheconversationsyouhavewithfriendsandstrangersalike.Assuch,masteringgrammarisnotanexercisethatisconfinedtotheclassroom.Whileitiscertainlyimportanttolearnthestructures,styles,andrulesthatshapethelanguage,thekeytotrulylearningEnglishistoreadandlistentothewaypeoplewriteandspeakeveryday,fromthemostwell-knownauthorstothepeopleyoutalktoonthebus.Taketheinformationyoufindinthisbookandcarryitwithyouintotheworld.-P.Herring

Editor’sNoteThisbookiswrittenaccordingtothestandardstylesandspellingsusedinAmericanEnglish.WhilemajordifferencesbetweenAmericanandBritishEnglishareusuallyaddressed,someinformationinthebookmightnotcoincidewiththestyles,tendencies,orpreferencesofotherEnglish-speakingcommunities.

EnglishGrammarGrammarreferstothewaywordsareused,classified,andstructuredtogethertoformcoherentwrittenorspokencommunication.ThisguidetakesatraditionalapproachtoteachingEnglishgrammar,breakingthetopicintothreefundamentalelements:PartsofSpeech,Inflection,andSyntax.Eachoftheseisadiscrete,individualpart,buttheyareallintrinsicallylinkedtogetherinmeaning.

PartsofSpeechInthefirstpartoftheguide,wewilllookatthebasiccomponentsofEnglish—words.Thepartsofspeecharethecategoriestowhichdifferentwordsareassigned,basedontheirmeaning,structure,andfunctioninasentence.We’lllookingreatdetailatthesevenmainpartsofspeech—nouns,pronouns,verbs,adjectives,adverbs,prepositions,andconjunctions—aswellasothercategoriesofwordsthatdon’teasilyfitinwiththerest,suchasparticles,determiners,andgerunds.Byunderstandingthepartsofspeech,wecanbetterunderstandhow(andwhy)westructurewordstogethertoformsentences.

InflectionAlthoughthepartsofspeechprovidethebuildingblocksforEnglish,anotherveryimportantelementisinflection,theprocessbywhichwordsarechangedinformtocreatenew,specificmeanings.Therearetwomaincategoriesofinflection:conjugationanddeclension.Conjugationreferstotheinflectionofverbs,whiledeclensionreferstotheinflectionofnouns,pronouns,adjectives,andadverbs.Wheneverwechangeaverbfromthepresenttensetothepasttense,forexample,weareusingconjugation.Likewise,whenwemakeanounpluraltoshowthatthereismorethanoneofit,weareusingdeclension.

SyntaxThethirdandfinalpartoftheguidewillfocusonsyntax,therulesandpatternsthatgovernhowwestructuresentences.Thegrammaticalstructuresthatconstitutesyntaxcanbethoughtofasahierarchy,withsentencesatthetopas

thelargestcohesiveunitinthelanguageandwords(thepartsofspeech)atthebottom.We’llbeginthethirdpartbylookingatthebasicstructuralunitspresentinallsentences—subjectsandpredicates—andprogressivelymoveontolargerclassesofstructures,discussingmodifiers,phrases,andclauses.Finally,wewillendbylookingatthedifferentstructuresandcategoriesofsentencesthemselves.

UsingthethreepartstogetherThebestwaytoapproachthisguideistothinkofitasacross-referenceofitself;whenyouseeatermorconceptinonesectionthatyou’reunfamiliarwith,checktheothersectionstofindamorethoroughexplanation.Neitherpartsofspeechnorinflectionnorsyntaxexistastrulyseparateunits;it’sequallyimportanttoexamineandlearnaboutthedifferentkindsofwords,howtheycanchangetocreatenewmeaning,andtheguidelinesbywhichtheyarestructuredintosentences.Whenwelearntouseallthreepartstogether,wegainamuchfullerunderstandingofhowtomakeourspeechandwritingnotonlyproper,butnaturalandeffective.

PartsofSpeechDefinitionThepartsofspeecharetheprimarycategoriesofwordsaccordingtotheirfunctioninasentence.Englishhassevenmainpartsofspeech.We’lllookatabriefoverviewofeachbelow;continueontotheirindividualchapterstolearnmoreaboutthem.

NounsNounsarewordsthatidentifyornamepeople,places,orthings.Nounscanfunctionasthesubjectofaclauseorsentence,anobjectofaverb,oranobjectofapreposition.Wordslikecat,book,table,girl,andplaneareallnouns.

PronounsPronounsarewordsthatrepresentnouns(people,places,orthings).Grammatically,pronounsareusedinthesamewaysasnouns;theycanfunctionassubjectsorobjects.CommonpronounsincludeI,you,she,him,it,everyone,andsomebody.

VerbsVerbsarewordsthatdescribetheactions—orstatesofbeing—ofpeople,animals,places,orthings.Verbsfunctionastherootofwhat’scalledthepredicate,whichisrequired(alongwithasubject)toformacompletesentence;therefore,everysentencemustincludeatleastoneverb.Verbsincludeactionwordslikerun,walk,write,orsing,aswellaswordsdescribingstatesofbeing,suchasbe,seem,feel,orsound.

AdjectivesAdjectivesarewordsthatmodify(adddescriptionto)nounsand(occasionally)pronouns.Theycanbeapartofeitherthesubjectorthepredicate.Commonadjectivesarered,blue,fast,slow,big,tall,andwide.

Adverbs

Adverbsarewordsthatmodifyverbs,adjectives,otheradverbs,orevenentireclauses.Dependingonwhattheymodify(andhow),adverbscanappearanywhereinthesentence.Adverbsarecommonlyformedfromadjectivesbyadding“-ly”totheend,asinslowly,quickly,widely,beautifully,orcommonly.

PrepositionsPrepositionsarewordsthatexpressarelationshipbetweenanounorpronoun(knownastheobjectofthepreposition)andanotherpartofthesentence.Together,theseformprepositionalphrases,whichcanfunctionasadjectivesorasadverbsinasentence.Someexamplesofprepositionalphrasesare:onthetable,intheshed,andacrossthefield.(Theprepositionsareinbold.)

ConjunctionsConjunctionsarewordsthatconnectotherwords,phrases,orclauses,expressingaspecifickindofrelationshipbetweenthetwo(ormore)elements.Themostcommonconjunctionsarethecoordinatingconjunctions:and,but,or,nor,for,so,andyet.

OtherPartsofSpeechInadditiontothesevenpartsofspeechabove,thereareseveralothergroupingsofwordsthatdonotneatlyfitintoanyonespecificcategory—particles,articles,determiners,gerunds,andinterjections.Manyofthesesharecharacteristicswithoneormoreofthesevenprimarycategories.Forexample,determinersaresimilarinmanywaystoadjectives,buttheyarenotcompletelythesame,andmostparticlesareidenticalinappearancetoprepositionsbuthavedifferentgrammaticalfunctions.Becausetheyarehardertoclassifyincomparisontothesevenprimarycategoriesabove,they’vebeengroupedtogetherinthisguideunderthegeneralcategoryOtherPartsofSpeech.

NounsDefinitionNounsarewordsthatindicateaperson,place,orthing.

Inasentence,nounscanfunctionasthesubjectortheobjectofaverborpreposition.Nounscanalsofollowlinkingverbstorenameorre-identifythesubjectofasentenceorclause;theseareknownaspredicatenouns.

TheSubjectThesubjectinasentenceorclauseisthepersonorthingdoing,performing,orcontrollingtheactionoftheverb.Forexample:•“Thedogchaseditstail.”(Thenoundogisperformingtheactionoftheverbchase.)•“Maryreadsabookeveryweek.”(ThepropernounMaryisperformingtheactionoftheverbread.)

ObjectsGrammaticalobjectshavethreegrammaticalroles:thedirectobjectofaverb,theindirectobjectofaverb,ortheobjectofapreposition.

DirectobjectsDirectobjectsarewhatreceivetheactionoftheverbinasentenceorclause.Forexample:•“Thedogchaseditstail.”(Thenountailisreceivingtheactionoftheverbchase.)•“Maryreadsabookeveryweek.”(Thenounbookisreceivingtheactionoftheverbread.)

IndirectobjectsAnindirectobjectisthepersonorthingwhoreceivesthedirectobjectoftheverb.Forinstance:•“PleasepassJeremythesalt.”(ThepropernounJeremyisreceivingthedirectobjectsalt,whichreceivestheactionoftheverbpass.)•“Isentthecompanyanapplicationforthejob.”(Thenouncompanyisreceivingthedirectobjectapplication,whichreceivestheactionoftheverbsent.)

ObjectsofprepositionsNounsarealsousedafterprepositionstocreateprepositionalphrases.Whenanounispartofaprepositionalphrase,itisknownastheobjectofthepreposition.Forexample:•“Yourbackpackisunderthetable.”(Thenountableistheobjectoftheprepositionunder,whichcreatestheprepositionalphraseunderthetable.)•“Iamlookingforwork.”(Thenounworkistheobjectoftheprepositionfor,whichcreatestheprepositionalphraseforwork.)

PredicateNounsNounsthatfollowlinkingverbsareknownaspredicatenouns(sometimesknownaspredicativenouns).Theseservetorenameorre-identifythesubject.Ifthenounisaccompaniedbyanydirectmodifiers(suchasarticles,adjectives,orprepositionalphrases),theentirenounphraseactspredicatively.Forexample:•“Loveisavirtue.”(Thenounphraseavirtuefollowsthelinkingverbistorenamethesubjectlove.)•“Tommyseemslikearealbully.”(ThenounphrasearealbullyfollowsthelinkingverbseemstorenamethesubjectTommy.)•“Maybethisisablessingindisguise.”(Thenounphraseablessingindisguisefollowsthelinkingverbistorenamethesubjectthis.)(GotothesectiononSubjectComplementsinthepartoftheguidethatcoversSyntaxtolearnmoreaboutpredicatenouns.)

CategoriesofNounsTherearemanydifferentkindsofnouns,andit’simportanttoknowthedifferentwayeachtypecanbeusedinasentence.Below,we’llbrieflylookatthedifferentcategoriesofnouns.Youcanexploretheindividualsectionstolearnmoreabouteach.

CommonandProperNounsNounsthatidentifygeneralpeople,places,orthingsarecalledcommonnouns—theynameoridentifythatwhichiscommonamongothers.

Propernouns,ontheotherhand,areusedtoidentifyanabsolutelyuniqueperson,place,orthing,andtheyaresignifiedbycapitalletters,nomatterwheretheyappearinasentence.

CommonNouns ProperNouns

“Hesatonthechair.” “GofindJeffandtellhimdinnerisready.”

“Iliveinacity.” “I’llhaveaPepsi,please.”

“Wemetsomepeople.” “PrinceWilliamisadoredbymany.”

NounsofAddressNounsofaddressareusedindirectspeechtoidentifythepersonorgroupbeingdirectlyspokento,ortogetthatperson’sattention.Likeinterjections,theyaregrammaticallyunrelatedtotherestofthesentence—theydon’tmodifyoraffectanyotherpartofit.Forexample:•“James,Ineedyoutohelpmewiththedishes.”•“CanIhavesomemoney,Mom?”•“This,class,isthevideoIwastellingyouabout.”•“Sorry,Mr.President,Ididn’tseeyouthere.”

ConcreteandAbstractNounsConcretenounsnamepeople,places,animals,orthingsthatarephysicallytangible—thatis,theycanbeseenortouched,orhavesomephysicalproperties.Propernounsarealsousuallyconcrete,astheydescribeuniquepeople,places,orthingsthatarealsotangible.Forexample:

tablerockslakecountriespeopleAfricaMacBook

JonathanAbstractnouns,astheirnameimplies,nameintangiblethings,suchasconcepts,ideas,feelings,characteristics,attributes,etc.Forinstance:

lovehatedecencyconversationemotion

CountableandUncountableNounsCountablenouns(alsoknownascountnouns)arenounsthatcanbeconsideredasindividual,separableitems,whichmeansthatweareabletocountthemwithnumbers—wecanhaveone,two,five,15,100,andsoon.Wecanalsousethemwiththeindefinitearticlesaandan(whichsignifyasinglepersonorthing)orwiththepluralformofthenoun.

SingleCountableNouns PluralCountableNouns

acup twocups

anambulance severalambulances

aphone 10phonesCountablenounscontrastwithuncountablenouns(alsoknownasnon-countormassnouns),whichcannotbeseparatedandcountedasindividualunitsorelements.Uncountablenounscannottakeanindefinitearticle(a/an),norcantheybemadeplural.

✔ Correct ✖ Incorrect

“Wouldyouliketea?” “Wouldyoulikeatea?”

“Doyouhaveanyinformation?” “Doyouhaveaninformation?”

“Weboughtnewcampingequipment.”

“Weboughtnewcampingequipments.”

CollectiveNounsCollectivenounsarenounsthatrefertoacollectionorgroupofmultiplepeople,animals,orthings.However,eventhoughcollectivenounsrefertomultipleindividuals,theystillfunctionassingularnounsinasentence.Thisisbecausetheystillaretechnicallyreferringtoonething:thegroupasawhole.Forexample:•“Theflockofbirdsflewsouthforthewinter.”•“Theorganizationvotedtorevoketherulesthatithadpreviouslyapproved.”•“Thesetoftableclothshaddisappeared.”

AttributiveNouns(NounAdjuncts)Attributivenouns,alsocallednounadjuncts,arenounsthatareusedtomodifyothernouns.Theresultingphraseiscalledacompoundnoun.Forexample:•“Theboyplayedwithhistoysoldier.”Inthissentence,toyisthenounadjunct,anditmodifiesthewordsoldier,creatingthecompoundnountoysoldier.Tolearnmoreaboutattributivenouns,gotothesectiononAdjunctsinthechapteronThePredicate.

CompoundNounsAcompoundnounisanouncomposedoftwoormorewordsworkingtogetherasasingleunittonameaperson,place,orthing.Compoundnounsareusuallymadeupoftwonounsoranadjectiveandanoun.•water+bottle=waterbottle(abottleusedforwater)•dining+room=diningroom(aroomusedfordining)•back+pack=backpack(apackyouwearonyourback)•police+man=policeman(apoliceofficerwhoisaman)

NounPhrasesAnounphraseisagroupoftwoormorewordsthatfunctiontogetherasanouninasentence.Nounphrasesconsistofanounandotherwordsthatmodifythenoun.Forexample:

•“Hebroughttheshovelwiththebluehandle.”Inthissentence,theshovelwiththebluehandleisanounphrase.Itcollectivelyactsasanounwhileprovidingmodifyingwordsfortheheadnoun,shovel.Themodifiersaretheandwiththebluehandle.

Nominalization(CreatingNouns)Nominalizationreferstothecreationofanounfromverbsoradjectives.Whennounsarecreatedfromotherpartsofspeech,itisusuallythroughtheuseofsuffixes.Forexample:•“Myfiancéeisanactor.”(Theverbactbecomesthenounactor.)•“Hisacceptanceofthepositionwasreceivedwarmly.”(Theverbacceptbecomesthenounacceptance.)•“Thehardnessofdiamondmakesitagreatmaterialforcuttingtools.”(Theadjectivehardbecomesthenounhardness.)•“Thisprojectwillbefraughtwithdifficulty.”(Theadjectivedifficultbecomesthenoundifficulty.)

Quiz(answersstartonpage610)

1.Anouncanbewhichofthefollowing?a)Thesubjectb)Anobjectc)Predicatived)A&Be)B&Cf)Alloftheabove2.Whatcategoryofnounsisusedtoidentifythepersonorgroupbeingdirectlyspokento?a)Commonnounsb)Nounsofaddressc)Attributivenounsd)Abstractnouns3.Identifythetypeofnoun(inbold)usedinthefollowingsentence:

“Yourindifferenceisnotacceptable.”a)Propernounb)Countablenounc)Collectivenound)Abstractnoun4.Whatcategoryofnounsisusedtomodifyothernouns?a)Commonnounsb)Nounsofaddressc)Attributivenounsd)Abstractnouns5.Whichofthefollowingiscommonlyusedtocreateanounfromaverboradjective?a)Prefixb)Suffixc)Attributivenound)Predicativenoun

CommonandProperNounsNounsfallintooneoftwobroadcategories:commonnounsandpropernouns.

CommonNounsAllnounsservetonameaperson,place,orthing.Thosethatidentifygeneralpeople,places,orthingsarecalledcommonnouns—theynamethatwhichiscommonamongothers.Forexample:•“Hesatonthechair.”•“Iliveinacity.”•“Wemetsomepeople.”•“Shewentintopolitics.”•“Ourteacherisangry.”•“Let’sgodowntothelake.”

ProperNounsPropernouns,ontheotherhand,areusedtoidentifyauniqueperson,place,orthing.Apropernounnamessomeoneorsomethingthatisoneofakind,whichissignifiedbytheuseofacapitalletter,nomatterwhereitappearsinasentence.

NamesThemostcommonpropernounsarenames,asofpeople,places,orevents.Forexample:•“GofindJeffandtellhimdinnerisready.”•“IlivedinCincinnatibeforeImovedtoNewYork.”•“MyparentsstilltalkabouthowgreatWoodstockwasin1969.”

BrandsPropernounsarealsousedforcommercialbrands.Inthiscase,theobjectthat’sbeingreferredtoisnotuniqueinitself,butthebranditbelongstois.Forexample:•“PassmetheHellmann’smayonnaise.”•“I’llhaveaPepsi,please.”•“MynewMacBookisincrediblyfast.”

AppellationsWhenapersonhasadditionalwordsaddedtohisorhername(knownasanappellation),thisbecomespartofthepropernounandisalsocapitalized.(Somelinguistsdistinguishtheseaspropernames,ratherthanpropernouns.)Forexample:•“PrinceWilliamisadoredbymany.”•“ItalywasinvadedbyAttilatheHunin452.”

JobTitlesandFamilialRolesManytimes,apersonmaybereferredtoaccordingtoaprofessionaltitleorfamilialroleinsteadofbyname.Inthiscase,thetitleisbeingusedasanounofaddressandisconsideredapropernoun,evenifitwouldbeacommonnounin

othercircumstances.Forexample:•“Howareyoudoing,Coach?”•“Ineedyouradvice,Mr.President.”•"Mom,canyoucomewithmetotheplayground?”•“Pleasedtomeetyou,Doctor.”


1.Commonnounsidentifypeople,places,orthingsthatare___________?a)Especiallyuniqueorone-of-a-kindb)Genericamongothersimilarnounsc)Addressedbythespeakerd)Uncountable2.Thingsreferredtobytheirbrandusewhichkindofnouns?a)Commonnounsb)Propernouns3.Nounsofaddressareusedinthesamewayaswhichkindofnouns?a)Commonnounsb)Propernouns

NounsofAddressDefinitionNounsofaddress(technicallycalledvocatives,butalsoknownasnominativesofaddressornounsofdirectaddress)identifythepersonorgroupbeingdirectlyspokento.Likeinterjections,theyaregrammaticallyunrelatedtotherestofthesentence—thatis,theydon’tmodifyoraffectanyotherpartofit.Instead,theyareusedtoletthelistenerorreaderknowwhoyouareaddressing,ortogetthatperson’sattention.Forexample:•“James,Ineedyoutohelpmewiththedishes.”•“CanIhavesomemoney,Mom?”•“This,class,isthevideoIwastellingyouabout.”

•“Mr.President,Ididn’tseeyouthere.”•“Hey,guyintheredshirt,canyouhelpme?”

PunctuationNounsofaddressarefoundintheinitial,middle,orfinalpositioninasentence.Nomatterwheretheyoccur,theyarenormallysetapartfromtherestofthesentencebyoneortwocommas.Iftheyoccurintheinitialposition,theyarefollowedbyacomma.Iftheyoccurinthemiddleposition,theyareenclosedbetweentwocommas,andiftheyoccurinthefinalposition,theyareprecededbyacomma.Forexample:•“James,Iwaswonderingifyoucouldhelpmewiththedishes.”•“Iwaswondering,James,ifyoucouldhelpmewiththedishes.”•“Iwaswonderingifyoucouldhelpmewiththedishes,James.”•“Class,thisisthevideoIwastellingyouabout.”•“This,class,isthevideoIwastellingyouabout.”•“ThisisthevideoIwastellingyouabout,class.”

CapitalizationPropernounsPropernouns,suchasthenameortitleofaperson,arethemostfrequentnounsofaddress.Thesenounsarealwayscapitalized,nomatterwheretheyappearinasentence.Ifaprofessionaltitleisusedwiththename,itiscapitalizedaswell.Forexample:•“Canyouhelpme,James?”•“Thankyou,Mrs.Smith,forbeinghere.”•“It’ssonicetomeetyou,DoctorJenner.”•“Hey,CoachFrank,howareyoudoingtoday?”

CommonnounsinplaceoftitlesCommonnounscanalsobeusedasnounsofaddress.Ifthecommonnounisthetitleofajoborfamilymemberandisusedinplaceofaperson’sname,itshouldalwaysbecapitalized.Forexample:•“Howareyoudoing,Coach?”

•“Ineedyouradvice,Mr.President.”•"Canyoucomewithme,Mom?”•“Pleasedtomeetyou,Doctor.”Comparetheexamplesabovetothefollowingcasesinwhichthesametitlesofjobsandfamilymembersarenotusedtoaddressthepersondirectly,andthereforearenotcapitalized:•“Givethatfootballtothecoach.”•“Wasthepresidentatthemeeting?”•“Tellyourmomtocomewithus.”•“Didyoucallthedoctoryet?”

TermsofendearmentWhenatermofendearmentisbeingusedinplaceofaperson’sname,wedonotcapitalizethewordunlessitbeginsthesentence.Forexample:•“Wouldyougetmeaglassofwater,sweetie?”•“Thanks,pal,Iappreciateyourhelp.”•“Love,pleaseputawayyourclothes.”

OthercommonnounsIftheydonotactasaprofessionalorfamilialtitle,othercommonnounsshouldgenerallyremaininlowercase,unlesstheyoccurasthefirstwordofthesentence.Forexample:•“This,class,isthevideoIwastellingyouabout.”•“Canyouhelpme,guyintheredshirt?”•“Pleasestandup,boysandgirls.”•“Ladiesandgentlemen,pleaseremainseatedforthedurationoftheperformance.”


1.Nounsofaddressoccurinthe________.a)initialposition

b)middlepositionc)finalpositiond)A&Ce)Alloftheabove2.Nounsofaddressaresetapartby________.a)periodsb)commasc)hyphensd)semicolons3.Whichofthefollowingsentencesdoesnotcontainanounofaddress?a)“Oh,hello,Dad.”b)“Comewithme,Daniel.”c)“Coach,Ithoughtthatwasyou!”d)“Givethatmessagetothepresident,please.”4.Whichofthefollowingsentencesiswrittenincorrectly?a)“Iwishyouwerehere,grandma.”b)“Iwishmygrandmawashere.”c)“Iwishyouwerehere,Grandma.”d)“Grandma,Iwishyouwerehere.”5.Whichofthefollowingsentencesiswrittenincorrectly?a)“Pleasehelpus,DoctorGreen.”b)“DoctorGreenpleasehelpus.”c)“Please,DoctorGreen,helpus.”d)“DoctorGreen,pleasehelpus.”

ConcreteandAbstractNounsAllnounsservetonameaperson,place,orthing.Dependingonwhethertheynameatangibleoranintangiblething,nounsareclassedasbeingeitherconcreteorabstract.

ConcreteNouns

Concretenounsnamepeople,places,animals,orthingsthatareorwerephysicallytangible—thatis,theycanorcouldbeseenortouched,orhavesomephysicalproperties.Forinstance:

rockslakecountriespeoplechildairwaterbread

Propernounsarealsousuallyconcrete,astheydescribeuniquepeople,places,orthings.

MaryTheQueenAfricamyMacBookaPepsi

AbstractNounsAbstractnouns,astheirnameimplies,nameintangiblethings,suchasconcepts,ideas,feelings,characteristics,attributes,etc.—youcannotseeortouchthesekindsofthings.Herearesomeexamplesofabstractnouns:

lovehatedecencyconversationemotionaspirationexcitementlethargy

Gerunds,verbsthatendin“-ing”andfunctionasnouns,arealsoabstract.For

example:runningswimmingjumpingreadingwritinglovingbreathing

Theseallnameactionsasconcepts.Theycannotbeseenortouched,soweknowtheyarenotconcrete.

CountableNounsvs.UncountableNounsBothconcreteandabstractnounscanbeeithercountableoruncountable,dependingonwhattheyname.

CountableNounsCountablenouns(alsoknownascountnouns)are,asthenamesuggests,nounsthatcanbecountedasindividualunits.

ConcretecountablenounsManyconcretenounsarecountable.Considerthefollowing,forexample:

cupambulancephonepersondogcomputerdoctor

Eachofthesecanbeconsideredasanindividual,separableitem,whichmeansthatweareabletocountthemwithnumbers—wecanhaveone,two,five,15,100,andsoon.Wecanalsousethemwiththeindefinitearticlesaandan

(whichsignifyasinglepersonorthing)orwiththepluralformofthenoun.Forexample:

acup–twocupsanambulance–severalambulancesaphone–10phonesaperson–manypeople

AbstractcountablenounsEventhoughabstractnounsarenottangible,manyofthemcanstillbecountedasseparableunits.Likeconcretenouns,theycantakeaoranorcanbemadeplural.Forexample:

aconversation–twoconversationsanemergency–severalemergenciesareading–10readingsanaspiration–manyaspirations

UncountableNounsUncountablenouns,ontheotherhand,arenounsthatcannotbeconsideredasseparateunits.Theyarealsoknownasnon-countormassnouns.

ConcreteuncountablenounsConcretenounsthatareuncountabletendtobesubstancesorcollectivecategoriesofthings.Forinstance:•wood,smoke,air,water•furniture,homework,accommodation,luggageUncountablenounscannottaketheindefinitearticlesaoraninasentence,becausethesewordsindicateasingleamountofsomething.Likewise,theycannottakenumbersorpluralforms,becausetherecannotbemultipleunitsofthem.Forexample:✖ “Iseeasmokeoverthere.”(incorrect)✔ “Isee(some*)smokeoverthere.”(correct)✖ “Idon’thavefurnitures.”(incorrect)✔ “Idon’thave(any*)furniture.”(correct)

(*Weoftenusethewordssomeoranytoindicateanunspecifiedquantityofuncountablenouns.)However,uncountablenounscansometimestakethedefinitearticlethe,becauseitdoesnotspecifyanamount:•“They’reswimminginthewater.”•“Thehomeworkthisweekishard.”

AbstractuncountablenounsAlargenumberofabstractnounsareuncountable.Theseareusuallyideasorattributes.Forinstance:•love,hate,news*,access,knowledge•beauty,intelligence,arrogance,permanence(*Eventhoughnewsendsinan“-s,”itisuncountable.Weneedthis“-s”becausewithoutit,newswouldbecomenew,whichisanadjective.)Again,thesecannottakeindefinitearticlesorbemadeplural.✖ “He’sjustlookingforalove.”(incorrect)✔ “He’sjustlookingforlove.”(correct)✖ “She’sgainedagreatdealofknowledgesduringcollege.”(incorrect)✔ “She’sgainedagreatdealofknowledgeduringcollege.”(correct)Aswithcountablenouns,though,wecansometimesusethedefinitearticlethe:•“Ican’tstandwatchingthenews.”•“Canyoubelievethearroganceheexhibits?”


1.Whichofthefollowingisadistinguishingfeatureofabstractnouns?a)Theycanbeseenortouchedb)Theycannotbeseenortouchedc)Theycanbecountedd)Theycannotbecounted2.Propernounsaregenerally_________.a)concrete

b)abstract3.Isthefollowingwordconcreteorabstract?amazementa)concreteb)abstract4.Isthefollowingwordconcreteorabstract?sugara)concreteb)abstract5.Isthefollowingwordconcreteorabstract?Australiaa)concreteb)abstract6.TrueorFalse:Allconcretenounsarecountable.a)Trueb)False

CountableNounsDefinitionCountablenouns(alsoknownascountnouns)arenounsthatcanbeconsideredasindividual,separableitems,whichmeansthatweareabletocountthemwithnumbers—wecanhaveone,two,five,15,100,andsoon.Wecanalsousethemwiththeindefinitearticlesaandan(whichsignifyasinglepersonorthing)orintheirpluralforms.Countablenounscontrastwithuncountablenouns(alsoknownasnon-countormassnouns),whichcannotbeseparatedandcountedasindividualunitsorelements.Uncountablenounscannottakeanindefinitearticle,norcantheybemadeplural.

Concretevs.AbstractCountable

NounsBothconcreteandabstractnounscanbecountable.Concretenounsnamepeople,places,orthingsthataretangible—theycanbeseenortouched.Abstractnouns,ontheotherhand,nameintangiblethings,suchasideas,concepts,feelings,orattributes.

ConcretecountablenounsConcretenounsareabiteasiertounderstandasbeingcountable—afterall,theyarethingsthatwecanseeandfeel,andsowecanusuallycountthem.Considerthefollowing,forexample:•cup•ambulance•phone•person•eel•computer•doctorEachofthesecanbeconsideredasanindividualitemorunit,whichmeansthatweareabletocountthem:

Singular Plural

acup twocups

anambulance severalambulances

aphone 10phones

aperson manypeople

aneel threeeels

acomputer afewcomputers

adoctor somedoctors

AbstractcountablenounsEventhoughabstractnounsarenottangible,manyofthemcanstillbecountedasseparableunits.Likeconcretenouns,theycantakeaoranorcanbemadeplural.Considertheseabstractnouns:•conversation•emergency•reading•aspiration•emotion•beliefNowlet’sseehowtheycanbecounted:

Singular Plural

aconversation twoconversations

anemergency severalemergencies

areading 10readings

anaspiration manyaspirations

anemotion hundredsofemotions

abelief certainbeliefs

GrammarwithcountablenounsWhenweusecountablenouns,certainelementsinasentencewillchangedependingonwhetherthenounissingularorplural.

Third-personsingularvs.third-personpluralpronounsIfacountablenounisbeingrepresentedbyathird-personpronoun,wemust

takecaretousethecorrectsingularorpluralform.

SingularWhenanounissingularandnamesaperson(or,sometimes,apet)whosegenderisknown,*thenweusethethird-personsingularhe,him,orhis(masculine)orshe,her,orhers(feminine).Forexample:•“Themanleftearly,soIdidn’tgetachancetotalktohim.”(Manissingular,soittakesthethird-personsingularpronounhim.)•“Thepresidenthasmanythingsthatshewantstoaccomplishinoffice.”(Presidentissingular,soittakesthethird-personsingularpronounshe.)•“Wetaughtourdogtoknowwhichbedishis.”(Dogissingular,soittakesthethird-personsingularpronounhis.)Ifthenounnamesasingularplace,thing,ornon-domesticanimal,thenwemustusethethird-personneuterpronounit:•“Ihatethiscomputerbecauseitissoslow!”•“Thecowlowedsoftlyasitate.”•“Somepeopledislikethistown,butI’vealwayslovedit.”

PluralWhenanounisplural,weusethesamethird-personpronounsforpeople,places,animals,andthings:they,them,andtheirs*.Forexample:•“Theparadefloatsarespectacular!Ilovewatchingthemgodownthestreet.”•“BillandSamanthatoldmetheywerecomingoverlater.”•“Makesurethechildrenknowwhichbagsaretheirs.”

*UsageNote:“Singularthey”Englishdoesnothaveawayofidentifyingasinglepersonwithapronounifhisorhergenderisnotknown,sosometimesthethird-personpluralforms(they,them,etc.)areusedasagender-neutralalternativetothethird-personfeminine/masculineforms.Thisissometimescalled“singularthey.”Forexample:•“Youshouldn’tjudgesomeoneuntilyouknowwhattheyarereallylike.”

•“Ifanyoneneedsextrahelpwiththeirstudies,theyshouldfeelfreetoseemeafterclass.”Whileitisstillconsideredincorrectbysomewritersandwritingguides,especiallyinAmericanEnglish,“singularthey”isgraduallybecomingacceptedasthenorm,especiallyininstanceswithindefinitepronounsthatsoundpluralbutaregrammaticallysingular(likeanyoneintheexampleabove).

Subject-VerbAgreementBecausecountablenounscanbeeithersingularorplural,itisveryimportanttousethecorrectsubject-verbagreementwhentheyarefunctioningasthesubjectofaclause.Subject-verbagreementreferstousingcertainconjugationsofverbsforsingularsubjectsandusingotherconjugationsforpluralsubjects.Thishappensmostnoticeablywiththeverbtobe,whichbecomesisorwaswithsingularsubjectnounsandareorwerewithpluralsubjects.Forexample:•“Mybrotherisbackfromcollege.”(singularpresentsimpletense)•“Thecompanywasinfinancialtrouble.”(singularpastsimpletense)•“Manypeoplearegettingfrustratedwiththegovernment.”(pluralpresentsimpletense)•“Thecomputerswereratherold.”(pluralpastsimpletense)Foranyotherverb,weonlyneedtomakeachangeifitisinthepresentsimpletense.Formostverbs,thisisaccomplishedbyaddingan“-s”totheendifitissingularandleavingitinitsbaseformifitisplural.Forexample:•“Myfatherrunshisownbusiness.”(singular)•“Buthissonsrunitwhenhe’saway.”(plural)•“Thedogwagshistailwhenheishappy.”(singular)•“Dogssometimeswagtheirtailswhenthey’reangryorscared.”(plural)Theverbshaveanddoalsoonlyconjugateforsingularsubjectsinthepresentsimpletense,buttheyhaveirregularformsforthis:hasanddoes.Forexample:•“Theapplehasamarkonit.”(singular)•“Alltheappleshavemarksonthem.”(plural)•“Theteacherdoesnotthinkit’sagoodidea.”(singular)•“Theotherteachersdonotmind,though.”(plural)

Finally,themodalauxiliaryverbswill,would,shall,should,can,could,might,andmustdonotconjugateforsingularvs.pluralsubjects—theyalwaysremainthesame.Forinstance:•“ThisphonecanalsosurftheInternet!”(singular)•“Mostphonescandothatnow.”(plural)•“ThepresidentwillarriveinMaltanextweek.”(singular)•“Theotherdiplomatswillarriveshortlyafterthat.”(plural)


1.Whichofthefollowingcannotbeusedwithcountablenouns?a)Indefinitearticlesb)Definitearticlesc)Third-personsingularpronounsd)Pluralformse)Alloftheabovef)Noneoftheabove2.TrueorFalse:Countablenounsarealwaysconcretenouns.a)Trueb)False3.Howdomostverbsconjugatewhentheyhaveasingularsubject?a)Byadding“-d”totheendb)Byadding“-s”totheendc)Theyremainintheirbaseformd)Theytakeanauxiliaryverb4.Whichofthefollowingthird-personpronounsisusedforpluralnouns?a)heb)shec)itd)they5.Whichofthefollowingthird-personpronounsisusedfornon-genderedsingularnouns?

a)heb)shec)itd)they

UncountableNounsDefinitionNounsthatcannotbedividedorcountedasindividualelementsorseparatepartsarecalleduncountablenouns(alsoknownasmassnounsornon-countnouns).Thesecanbetangibleobjects(suchassubstancesorcollectivecategoriesofthings),orintangibleorabstractthings,suchasconceptsorideas.Nounsthatcanbedividedarecalledcountablenouns,orsimplycountnouns.Herearesomeexamplesofuncountablenouns:•wood,smoke,air,water•furniture,homework,accommodation,luggage•love,hate,beauty,intelligence,arrogance•news*,access(*Eventhoughnewsendsinan“-s,”itisuncountable.Weneedthis“-s”becausewithoutit,newswouldbecomenew,whichisanadjective.)

UsingarticleswithuncountablenounsUncountablenounscannottaketheindefinitearticles“a”or“an”inasentence,becausethesewordsindicateasingleamountofsomething.Forexample:✖ “Wouldyoulikeatea?”(incorrect)✔ “Wouldyouliketea?”(correct)✖ “Doyouhaveaninformation?”(incorrect)✔ “Doyouhave(some/any)information?”(correct)(Weoftenusethewords“some”or“any”toindicateanunspecifiedquantityofuncountablenouns.We’llinvestigatethismoreinalaterpartofthissection.)However,uncountablenounscansometimestakethedefinitearticle“the,”asin:•“Haveyouheardthenews?”

•“Thefurnitureinmylivingroomisold.”However,thisisonlythecaseifaspecificuncountablenounisbeingdescribed.Forexample:✖ “Iamlookingforanaccommodation.”(incorrect)✖ “Iamlookingfortheaccommodation.”(incorrect)✔ “Iamlookingforaccommodation.”(correct)✔ “Iamlookingfortheaccommodationlistedinthisadvertisement.”(correct—referencesspecificaccommodation)

UncountablenounsarenotpluralThird-personsingularvs.third-personpluralpronounsJustasuncountablenounscannottaketheindefinitearticles“a”or“an”becausethereisnot“one”ofthem,itisequallyincorrecttousethird-personpluralpronounswiththem,astheyarenotconsideredacollectionofsinglethings.Forexample:•PersonA:“Yourhairlooksverynicetoday.”✖ PersonB:“Yes,Iwashedthemlastnight.”(incorrect)✔ PersonB:“Yes,Iwasheditlastnight.”(correct)Notethatsinglehairsbecomecountable.Iftherearetwohairsonyourjacket,youcansay“hairs”orusethepluralpronoun“they.”Thehaironyourhead,however,isseenasanuncountablenoun.

PluralformsofthenounWealsocannotmakeuncountablenounspluralbyadding“-s”ontheend.Again,theyaregrammaticallyregardedassingle,collectiveunits.Forexample:✖ “Weboughtnewcampingequipments.”(incorrect)✔ “Weboughtnewcampingequipment.”(correct)✖ “Theteachergaveusmanyhomeworks.”(Incorrect.Wealsocannotusethequantifier“many”withuncountablenouns,becauseitreferstoindividualthings.)

✔ “Theteachergaveusalotofhomework.”(Correct.Wecanusethequantifier“alot”toindicatealargeamountofanuncountablenoun.)

Subject-verbagreementBecauseuncountablenounscannotbeplural,itisveryimportanttousethecorrectsubject-verbagreement.Subject-verbagreementreferstousingcertainconjugationsofverbswithsingularvs.pluralsubjects.Thishappensmostnoticeablywiththeverbtobe,whichbecomesisorwaswithsingularsubjectnounsandareorwerewithpluralsubjects.Becauseuncountablenounsaregrammaticallysingular,theymusttakesingularformsoftheirverbs.Hereareafewexamplesillustratingthisdistinction:✖ “Thefurnituresinmylivingroomareold.”(incorrect)✖ “Thefurnituresinmylivingroomisold.”(incorrect)✔ “Thefurnitureinmylivingroomisold.”(correct)✖ “Theirbehaviorsarenotgood.”(incorrect)✔ “Theirbehaviorisnotgood.”(correct)✖ “Thenewsaregood.”(incorrect)✔ “Thenewsisgood.”(correct)

Measurementsofdistance,time,andamountAnotableexceptiontothesubject-verbrulewejustdiscussedrelatestocountablenounsthataredescribingmeasurementsofdistance,time,oramount.Inthiscase,weconsiderthesumasasingularamount,andsotheymusttakesingularformsoftheirverbs.Forexample:✖ “$20,000havebeencreditedtoyouraccount.”(incorrect)✔ “$20,000hasbeencreditedtoyouraccount.”(correct)✖ “Ithink50milesaretoofartotravelonfoot.”(incorrect)✔ “Ithink50milesistoofartotravelonfoot.”(correct)✖ “Wow,twohoursflybywhenyou’rehavingfun!”(incorrect)✔ “Wow,twohoursfliesbywhenyou’rehavingfun!”(correct)

Makinguncountablenounscountable

Ifwewanttoidentifyoneormorespecific“units”ofanuncountablenoun,thenwemustaddmoreinformationtothesentencetomakethisclear.Forexample,ifyouwanttogivesomeoneadviceingeneral,youcouldsay:•“CanIgiveyouadvice?”or;•“CanIgiveyousomeadvice?”Butifyouwantedtoemphasizethatyou’dliketogivethemaparticularaspectorfacetofadvice,youcouldnotsay,“CanIgiveyouanadvice?”Instead,wehavetoaddmoreinformationtospecifywhatwewanttogive:•“CanIgiveyouapieceofadvice?”Byadding“pieceof”totheuncountablenounadvice,wehavenowmadeitfunctionallycountable.Thismeansthatwecanalsomakethisphraseplural,thoughwehavetobecarefultopluralizethecountnounthatwe’veadded,andnottheuncountablenounitself.Forexample:•“CanIgiveyouafewpiecesofadvice?”

UsingquantifierswithuncountablenounsAswe’vealreadyseen,certainquantifiers(akindofdeterminerthatspecifiesanamountofsomething)canonlybeusedwithuncountablenouns,whileotherscanonlymodifycountablenouns.WhilewewillexaminethesemoreindepthinthechapteronDeterminers,hereareafewexamplesthatcauseparticularconfusion.

Too–TooMuch–TooManyWeuse“too+adjective”tomean“beyondwhatisneededordesirable,”asin,“Itistoobig.”Toomuch,ontheotherhand,isusedtomodifyuncountablenouns,whiletoomanyisusedwithcountablenouns—theyarenotusedwithadjectives.Forexample,thefollowingsentenceswouldbothbeincorrect:✖ “Itistoomuchbig.”✖ “Itistoomanybig.”Oneparticularsourceofconfusionthatcanarisehereisthefactthatmuchcanbeusedasanadverbbeforetootogiveitemphasis,asin:

•“Itismuchtoobig.”Wealsomustbesurenottousetoomuchwithacountablenoun,nortoomanywithanuncountablenoun.✖ “Ihavetoomuchpiecesoffurniture.”(incorrect)✔ “Ihavetoomanypiecesoffurniture.”(correct)✖ “Ihavetoomanyfurniture.”(incorrect)✔ “Ihavetoomuchfurniture.”(correct)

Fewervs.LessTheconventionalruleregardinglessvs.feweristhatweusefewerwithcountablenounsandlesswithuncountablenouns.Forexample:✖ “IhavelessfriendsthanJillhas.”(incorrect)✔ “IhavefewerfriendsthanJillhas.”(correct)✖ “Ihavefewermoneythanhehas.”(incorrect)✔ “Ihavelessmoneythanhehas.”(correct)Therulecarriesoverwhenweaddwordstoanuncountablenountomakeacountablephrase(aswelookedatabove).Wecanseethisdistinctioninthefollowingexamples:•“Iwantlesstoast.”(toastisuncountable)•“Iwantfewerpiecesoftoast.”(piecesoftoastiscountable)•“Thereislesswaterinthejug.”(waterisuncountable)•“Therearefewercupsofwaterinthejug.”(cupsofwateriscountable)

Measurementsofdistance,time,andamountAswenotedabove,measurementsofdistance,time,oramountfornounsthatwewouldnormallyconsidercountable(andthusplural)enduptakingsingularverbs.Likewise,thesetermsalsotakethewordless,mostoftenintheconstructionlessthan.Forexample:•“$20,000islessthanweexpectedtopay.”•“Wewalkedlessthan50milestogethere.”•“Wehavelessthantwohourstofinishthisproject.”

•“Iweigh20poundslessthanIusedto.”Note,however,thatwecan’tuselessbeforethesekindsofnouns:✖ “Wehaveless$20,000.”(incorrect)✖ “Iranless10miles.”(incorrect)Lessisalsousedwithcountablenounsintheconstructiononeless_____,asin:•“Thatisonelessproblemtoworryabout.”Fewercanalsobeused(albeitlesscommonly),buttheconstructionusuallychangestoone______fewer,asin:•“Thatisoneproblemfewertoworryabout.”

Ruleornon-rule?Itisimportanttonotethatmanygrammarguidesdisputethenecessityofthissupposed“rule,”referencingthatitwasinfactimplementedasastylisticpreferencebythe1770grammarianRobertBaker,andthatfewerandlesshadbeenusedinterchangeablyforcountableanduncountablenounsforhundredsofyearsbeforethat.Specifically,itisconsideredbysomeasacceptabletouselesswithcountablenouns,especiallyininformalorcolloquialwritingandspeech.Aslongasthesentencedoesnotsoundawkward,itisprobablysafetodoso.However,manystillregardthefewervs.lessruleasindisputable,soitisrecommendedtoadheretotheruleforprofessional,formal,oracademicwriting.


1.Whicharticlecanbeusedwithuncountablenouns?a)ab)anc)thed)A&B2.Whatverbformisgenerallyusedwithuncountablenouns?a)singularb)pluralc)singularinthepasttenseonlyd)pluralinthepasttenseonly

3.Whichofthefollowingisanuncountablenoun?a)personb)friendc)intelligentd)news4.Whichofthefollowingisnotanuncountablenoun?a)loveb)piecec)woodd)water5.Whichofthefollowingsentencesiscorrect?a)“Wearewaitingforanews.”b)“Youcanneverhavetoomanylove.”c)“Thesehomeworksareveryhard.”d)“CouldIhavelesswater,please?”

CollectiveNounsDefinitionCollectivenounsarenounsthatrefertoacollectionorgroupofmultiplepeople,animals,orthings.However,eventhoughcollectivenounsrefertomultipleindividuals,theystillusuallyfunctionassingularnounsinasentence.Thisisbecausetheystillaretechnicallyreferringtoonething:thegroupasawhole.Herearesomeexamplesofcollectivenouns:

group–Agroupisasingleunitthatismadeupofanumberofindividuals,whetherpeopleorthings.collection–Acollectionisasingleunitthattypicallyconsistsofmanysimilarthingsorganizedtogether,suchaspaintings.tribe–Atribeisasingleunitthatismadeupofagroupoftribemembers.fleet–Afleetisasingleunitthatismadeupofseveralvehiclesorvessels,suchasships.

band–Abandisasingleunitthatconsistsofanumberofdifferentmusicians.

Collectivenounsareusedinsentencestorefertoagroupofpeople,animals,orthings.Herearesomeexamplesofcollectivenounsbeingusedinsentences:•“Theflockofbirdsflewsouthforthewinter.”•“Theorganizationvotedtorevoketherulesthatithadpreviouslyapproved.”•“Thesetoftableclothshaddisappeared.”

SimilaritytopluralnounsCollectivenounsareverysimilartopluralnouns.Pluralnounsarenounsthatrefertomultiplepeople,places,orthings,andtheyprimarily(butnotalways)endin“-s,”“-es,”or“-ies.”Theyarederivedfromsingularnouns,andsoaretrulypluralinformandfunction.Forexample,thefollowingwordsareallpluralnouns:

dogscitiestablesoceanssleds

Bothpluralnounsandcollectivenounscanrefertomultiplethings.Thedifferenceisthatcollectivenounsrefertoagroupofindividualsinasingleunit,whereaspluralnounsrefertomultipleindividuals.Tounderstandthedifference,considerthefollowingsentence:•“Themusiciansplayedthesongbeautifully.”Thissentencecontainsthepluralnounmusicians.Thiswordletsthereaderknowthattherearemultiplemusicianswhoplayedthesongbeautifully.However,considerthefollowingsentence:•“Theorchestraplayedthesongbeautifully.”Thissentencecontainsthecollectivenounorchestra.Thiswordletsthereaderknowthatthereisagroupofmusiciansthatplayedthesongbeautifully.However,italsoletsthereaderknowthatthemultiplemusiciansarearrangedintoasinglegroup.Thepluralnounmusiciansinthefirstsentencedoesnotdothat.Herearetwomoreexamples:

•“Thesoldiersmarchedveryswiftly.”(pluralnoun)•“Theplatoonmarchedveryswiftly.”(collectivenoun)Asinthepreviousexamples,bothsoldiersandplatoonindicatemultiplepeople.However,onlyplatoonletsthereaderknowthatthesoldiersareorganizedintoacollectiveunit.

Singularvs.PluralUseCollectivenounsusuallyfunctionassingularnounsinasentence,buttheyareoccasionallyusedasplurals,too.Whethertheyareusedinasingularorpluralmannercanimpactwhichverbsandpronounsshouldbeassociatedwiththeword.Thewaywedetermineinwhichmannerthecollectivenounshouldbeusedistoconsiderwhetherthemembersofthecollectivenounarebeingregardedasasingle,wholeunit,orasmultipleindividuals.Iftheyarefunctioningasawhole,thenyouusesingularverbtensesandpronouns;iftheyareactingindividually,thenyouusepluralverbtensesandpronouns.Forexample,thefollowingsentencedemonstratessingularuseofacollectivenoun:•“Theoffensehopestoscoreatouchdownonitsnextplay.”Here,thecollectivenounoffensereferstothemembersoftheteam’soffensiveunitfunctioningasawhole;therefore,itactsasasingularnouninthesentence.Asaresult,theverbhopesandthepronounitsarealsosingular.Comparethistothenextsentence,whichdemonstratespluraluseofacollectivenoun:•“Thejuryeattheirlunchesbeforetheydeliberate.”Inthissentence,thecollectivenoun,jury,referstothejurymembersactingindividually.Asaresult,juryfunctionsasapluralnouninthesentence.Thismeansthatthepluralpronounstheyandtheirareused,asisthepluralformoftheverbeat.Finally,itisworthnotingthatinBritishEnglish,itismorecommonforcollectivenounstofunctionaspluralsinallinstances.

Plural-onlycollectivenounsCertaincollectivenounscanonlybeplural,suchas“police.”Forexample:

✖ “Thepoliceisinvestigatingthematter.”(incorrect)✔ “Thepoliceareinvestigatingthematter.”(correct)However,wecanmakethenouncountablebyaddingmoreinformationtothesentence.Ifwewanttospecifyasinglememberofthepolice,wecouldsay:•“Apoliceofficerisinvestigatingthematter.”Herearesomeotherexamplesofcollectivenounsthatcanonlybeplural:

peoplechildrenpoultryvermincattle

CollectiveNounsandAnimalsIntheEnglishlanguage,therearemanydifferenttypesofcollectivenounsthatrefertodifferentgroupingsofanimals.Therearehundredsofdifferentcollectivenounsusedtodescribeanimalgroupnames,buthereareafewcommonones:

flockofbirdspodofwhalespackofwolvesprideoflionsgaggleofgeesebandofcoyotesgatlingofwoodpeckershuddleofpenguinsmobofkangaroosschooloffish


1.Whichofthefollowingwordsisacollectivenoun?a)birdsb)berriesc)cake

d)team2.Whichwordisthecollectivenouninthefollowingsentence?“Theherdmovednorthoverthemountains.”a)movedb)northc)herdd)mountains3.Whichofthefollowingisnotacollectivenoun?a)shipsb)groupc)committeed)government4.Acollectivenounisusually_______inasentence.a)pluralb)singularc)Neitherd)A&B5.Whichofthefollowingisacollectivenounthatreferstoagroupofanimals?a)bookb)snowc)flockd)sky

CompoundNounsDefinitionAcompoundnounisanounconsistingoftwoormorewordsworkingtogetherasasingleunittonameaperson,place,orthing.Compoundnounsareusuallymadeupoftwonounsoranadjectiveandanoun,butothercombinationsarealsopossible,aswell.Generally,thefirstwordinthecompoundnountellsuswhatkindofpersonor

thingitisorwhatpurposehe,she,oritserves,whilethesecondworddefinesthepersonorobject,tellinguswhoorwhatitis.Forexample:•water+bottle=waterbottle(abottleusedforwater)•dining+room=diningroom(aroomusedfordining)•back+pack=backpack(apackyouwearonyourback)•police+man=policeman(apoliceofficerwhoisaman)Likeothernouns,compoundnounscanbemodifiedbyotheradjectives.Forexample:•“Ineedtobuyalargewaterbottle.”•“That’sabeautifuldiningroom.”•“Myoldbackpackisstillmyfavorite.”•“Alonepolicemanfoiledtheattemptedrobbery.”Youcanrecognizecompoundnounsbecausethemeaningofthetwowordsputtogetherisdifferentthanthemeaningofthewordsseparately.Forexample,waterandbottlehavetheirownseparatemeanings,butwhenweusethemtogethertheymeanaparticulartypeofbottlethatwedrinkwaterfrom.

FormingcompoundnounsAsmentioned,compoundnounsareformedbycombiningtwoormorewords,withthemostcommoncombinationsbeingnoun+nounoradjective+noun.However,combinationsusingotherpartsofspeecharealsopossible.Belowarethevariouscombinationsusedtocreatecompoundnouns.

Noun+nounThereareagreatnumberofcompoundnounsformedusingthenoun+nouncombination.Forexample:•backpack•bathroom•bathtub•bedroom•busstop•fishtank•football•handbag

•motorcycle•shopkeeper•tablecloth•toothpaste•wallpaper•waterbottle•website•wristwatch

Adjective+nounTherearealsomanycompoundnounsthatareformedusingtheadjective+nouncombination.Forexample:•fullmoon•blackberry•blackbird•blackboard•cell(ular)phone•mobilephone•hardware•highway•greenhouse•redhead•six-pack•smalltalk•software•whiteboard

OthercombinationsAlthoughthenoun+nounandadjective+nouncombinationsarethemostcommon,therearealsoplentyofotherpossibilitiesforformingcompoundnouns.Forexample:

Combination Examples

noun+verb haircut,rainfall,sunrise,sunset

noun+preposition hanger-on,passerby

noun+prepositionalphrase

brother-in-law,mother-in-law

noun+adjective cupful,spoonful

verb+noun breakfast,washingmachine,runway,pickpocket,swimmingpool

preposition+noun bystander,influx,onlooker,underpants,upstairs

verb+preposition check-in,checkout/check-out,drawback,lookout,makeup

adjective+verb drycleaning,publicspeaking

preposition+verb input,output,overthrow,upturn

WritingcompoundnounsCompoundnounsareverycommon,bothinwrittenandspokenEnglish,andtherearespelling,punctuation,andpronunciationnormsthatwemustbeawareofifwewanttousethemcorrectly.

ThethreewrittenformsofcompoundnounsWritingcompoundnounsisabitcomplicatedduetothefactthattheycantakethreedifferentforms.First,opencompoundnouns(orspacedcompoundnouns)arethosethatarewrittenastwoseparatewords,suchaswashingmachine,swimmingpool,andwaterbottle.Second,therearehyphenatedcompoundnouns,asincheck-in,hanger-on,andmother-in-law.Third,thereareclosedcompoundnouns(orsolidcompoundnouns)—thosethatarewrittenasoneword,suchasrainfall,drawback,andtoothpaste.Unfortunately,therearen’tanyrulesthattelluswhichofthethreeformsisacceptableforaparticularcompoundnoun.Somecompoundnounsare

commonlywrittenintwoforms,asinwebsite/websiteorcheckout/check-out,whileothers,suchasbusstop,arestrictlyusedinoneform.Wheremorethanoneispossible,theformthatismorecommonlyusedmaydependonthevarietyofEnglish(AmericanEnglishvs.BritishEnglish,forexample),thestyleguideofapublication,orthepersonalpreferenceofthewriter.Ifyou’renotsurewhichofthethreeformstouse,it’simportanttocheckagood,up-to-datedictionary.Ifyouarerelyingonthespellcheckerinawordprocessor,rememberthatthishasitslimits.Forexample,spellcheckisgoodforcheckingwhetheraparticularcompoundnouncanbewrittenasoneword(closed);however,ifwewriteacompoundnounastwowords(open)anditshouldbewrittenasoneword(closed),orifwewriteitwithahyphenanditshouldbewrittenwithoutahyphen,spellcheckwillnotcatchthemistakes.Finally,rememberthat,nomatterwhichwaythecompoundnouniswritten,italwaysfunctionsgrammaticallyasasingleunit.

PluralizingcompoundnounsWeusuallypluralizeacompoundnounbyaddingan“-s”or“-es”tothemainword,orthedefiningword,ofthecompoundnoun.Thisisusuallythesecondword,butnotalways.Forexample:

Singular Plural

bedroom bedrooms

football footballs

waterbottle waterbottles

fullmoon fullmoonsBUT

Singular Plural

secretarygeneral secretariesgeneral

mother-in-law mothers-in-law

passerby/passer-by passersby/passers-by

Whenit’snotobviouswhichofthewordsisthedefiningword,wepluralizetheendofit.Forexample:

Singular Plural

haircut haircuts

check-in check-in

checkout/check-out checkouts/check-outs

upturn upturns

PronouncingcompoundnounsIngeneral,compoundnounsarepronouncedwiththeemphasisonthefirstpartoftheword.Forexample:

BEDroomBLACKbirdCHECK-inGREENhouseMAKEupWATERbottle

Pronouncingcompoundnounsinthiswayhelpsusdistinguishwordsthatformacompoundnounlikeblackbirdandgreenhousefromotherinstanceswhenthesamewordswouldappeartogether,asin:“Lookatthatbeautifulblackbird,”or“Ilikethatgreenhouseonthecorner.”Althoughwenormallystressthefirstwordinacompoundnoun,therearecertainexceptionstothispattern.Forexample,wedisregardthisrulewhenpronouncingcompoundnounsthatincludetitlesorpropernouns,asinSecretaryGENeralandMountRUSHmore.Ifindoubt,youcanuseagooddictionarytodeterminewhichsyllableshouldbeemphasized.

Quiz

(answersstartonpage610)

1.Compoundnounsaremadeupof________words.a)twoormoreb)twoc)manyd)oneortwo2.Closedcompoundnounsarewritten________.a)astwowordsb)asonewordc)withahyphend)withacomma3.Whichofthefollowingsentencesdoesnotcontainacompoundnoun?a)“Didyouseethatnoisyblackbird?”b)“Let’sgoeatbreakfast.”c)“I’dlovetoliveinagreenhousewithareddoor.”d)“Wouldyouliketoseemynewswimmingpool?”4.Whichofthefollowingcompoundnounsiswrittenincorrectly?a)spoonfulb)tableclothc)hangerond)passerby5.Ifcapitallettersshowemphasisinpronunciation,whichwordispronouncedincorrectly?a)attorneyGENeralb)PASSERbyc)BACKpackd)PRIMEminister

Nominalization(CreatingNouns)Definition

Nominalizationreferstothecreationofanounfromverbsoradjectives.Mostofthetime,nounsarecreatedfromotherpartsofspeechthroughtheuseofsuffixes.Inothercases,thewordremainsthesamebutissimplyusedadifferentway;thisisknownasconversionorzeroderivation.

SuffixesSuffixesarecertaingroupingsoflettersthatcanbeattachedtotheendofwordstochangetheirmeaning.Mostverbsandadjectivesthatbecomenounsarechangedusingsuffixes.(Beaware,however,thattheexamplesbelowonlyshowsomeofthecommonwaysofusingsuffixestochangeverbsandadjectivestonouns;theyarenotallconcreterules,andthelistsofpossiblesuffixesarenotexhaustiveones.Thebestwaytolearnthespellingsofsuchnounsisbyusingagooddictionary,orbyencounteringthemineverydayspeechandwriting.)

VerbsTherearecertainpatternsthatwefollowtodecidewhichsuffixisneededinordertocreateanounfromaverb.

GerundsThemoststraightforwardwayofturningaverbintoanounisthroughtheuseofgerunds.Thesearemadebyaddingthesuffix“-ing”totheendoftheverb.Forexample:•“Walkingisverypleasant.”•“Ienjoyreading.”•“Listeningisanimportantaspectofanyrelationship.”•“Mysleepinghasbeenverydisruptedlately.”•“Bakingismyfavoritepastime.”•“Ihaterunning.”Notethatifthegerundtakesanyadditionalinformation,suchasanobject,adverb,orprepositionalphrase,thenthisentiregroupofwords(knownasagerundphrase)actsasanoun.Tolearnmoreaboutgerundsandgerundphrases,gotothesectiononGerundsinthechapteraboutOtherPartsofSpeech.

NounsofagencyandprofessionWhenweturnaverbintoanountorepresentsomeone(oroccasionallysomething)whoisanagentofthataction,orwhoperformstheactioninaprofessionalcapacity,wetypicallyusethesuffixes“-or,”“-er,”or“-r.”Forexample:•“Myfiancéeisanactor.”(Someonewhoacts.)•“I’mtrainingtobeateacher.”(Someonewhoteaches.)•“Thewriterisverywellknown.”(Someonewhowrites.)•“Thecompanyisamajoremployerinthearea.”(Somethingthatemployspeople.)•“Theprojectorwasbrokentoday.”(Somethingthatprojects.)

NounsofrecipienceForverbsthatbecomenounstorepresentsomeonewhoistherecipientofanaction,weoftenusethesuffix“-ee.”PerhapsthemostcommonexampleofthisinmodernEnglishisemployee(someonewhoothersemploy),asin:•“Theemployeeisdisputinghiswages.”Otherexamplesinclude:•“Thebankmustapproveyouasthepayee.”(Someonewhoispaid.)•“Thereisonemoreintervieweewaitingtobeseen.”(Someonewhoisinterviewed.)

NounsofgeneralactionWecanuseavarietyofdifferentsuffixestodescribeanactioningeneral.Themostcommonoftheseare“-tion,”“-sion,”“-ance,”“-ment,”and“-ence”;insomeinstances,wechangetheendingoftheverbslightlyinordertotakethesuffix.Forexample:•“Hisacceptanceofthepositionwasreceivedwarmly.”(Theverbacceptbecomesthenounacceptance.)•“Thankyoufortheinvitation!”(Theverbinvitebecomesthenouninvitation.)

•“Inconclusion,weshouldseeaspikeinprofitssoon.”(Theverbconcludebecomesthenounconclusion.)•“Governmentmustderivefromthewillofthepopulation.”(Theverbgovernbecomesthenoungovernment;theverbpopulatebecomesthenounpopulation.))•“Attendanceisatanall-timelow.”(Theverbattendbecomesthenounattendance.)•“Iwassurprisedbymyenjoymentoftheplay.”(Theverbenjoybecomesthenounenjoyment.)•“Usethetextbookasyourreferenceifyou’reconfused.”(Theverbreferbecomesthenounreference.)Someothersuffixesthatworkinthiswayare“-al”and“-ure,”asin:•“Failuretofindasolutionisnotanoption.”(Theverbfailbecomesthenounfailure.)•“Thereviewwillincludeaquickperusalofyourwork.”(Theverbperusebecomesthenounperusal.)

AdjectivesWechangeadjectivesintonounswhenwewanttospeakofthemasgeneralideasorconcepts.Adjectivescantakeavarietyofdifferentsuffixes,dependingonhowtheyarespelled.

“-ness”Weoftenusethesuffix“-ness”formanyadjectives.Mostofthetime,wecansimplyaddthesuffixontotheendoftheadjectivewithoutmakinganychangestoitsspelling.Forexample:•“Thehardnessofdiamondmakesitagreatcuttingtool.”(Theadjectivehardbecomesthenounhardness.)•“Thechild’smeeknessisquitesweet.”(Theadjectivemeekbecomesthenounmeekness.)•“Hisgruffnessisnotappreciated.”(Theadjectivegruffbecomesthenoungruffness.)•“Idon’tcarefortheroughnessofmyhands.”(Theadjectiveroughbecomesthenounroughness.)

•“Idon’tthinkyouunderstandtheseriousnessofthesituation.”(Theadjectiveseriousbecomesthenounseriousness.)•“Pleasedon’tunderestimatemygratefulness.”(Theadjectivegratefulbecomesthenoungratefulness.)However,whenweusethissuffixwithanadjectiveendingin“-y,”wechange“y”to“i”:•“We’rewaitingforsomesteadinessinthemarket.”(Theadjectivesteadybecomesthenounsteadiness.)•“Theteacherputsherstudents’happinessaboveallelse.”(Theadjectivehappybecomesthenounhappiness.)Someadjectivesendingina“-t”precededbyalongvowelsoundcantakethissuffixaswell:•“Hergreatnessiswithoutquestion.”(Theadjectivegreatbecomesthenoungreatness.)•“TheflatnessoftheEarthwasdisprovenlongago.”(Theadjectiveflatbecomesthenounflatness.)

“-y”Otheradjectivesthatendina“-t”precededbyaconsonantwilltakethesuffix“-y”tobecomenouns.Forexample:•“Thisprojectwillbefraughtwithdifficulty.”(Theadjectivedifficultbecomesthenoundifficulty.)•“That’senoughofyourmodesty.”(Theadjectivemodestbecomesthenounmodesty.)•“Honestyisaveryimportantvirtue.”(Theadjectivehonestbecomesthenounhonesty.)

“-ity”Whenadjectivesendin“-e,”theyoftentakethesuffix“-ity”tobecomenouns.However,thereisoftenachangetothespellingoftheword.Usually,wesimplydrop“e”andreplaceitwith“-ity,”asin:•“Thereisascarcityoffoodinthecity.”(Theadjectivescarcebecomesthenounscarcity.)

•“Kindnessisararityinthisworld.”(Theadjectiverarebecomesthenounrarity.)Whenthewordendsin“ble,”though,wehavetochange“le”to“il,”asin:•“Thisprojectisyourresponsibility.”(Theadjectiveresponsiblebecomesthenounresponsibility.)•“Ihavenoquestionofyourability.”(Theadjectiveablebecomesthenounability.)Uniquely,wealsousethe“-ity”suffixtochangetheadjectivehilarioustohilarity,eventhoughotheradjectiveswithsimilarendings(suchasserious,grievous,callous,etc.)takethesuffix“-ness.”

“-ance”and“-ence”Weoftenusethesuffix“-ance”foradjectivesendingin“-ant,”asin:•“Thisisoftheutmostimportance.”(Theadjectiveimportantbecomesthenounimportance.)•“Yourignoranceisastounding.”(Theadjectiveignorantbecomesthenounignorance.)Weoftenusethesuffix“-ence”foradjectivesendingin“-ent,”asin:•“Wedemandgreaterindependence.”(Theadjectiveindependentbecomesthenounindependence.)•“Silenceisexpectedduringtests.”(Theadjectivesilentbecomesthenounsilence.)

ConversionWhenweuseaverboradjectiveasanounwithoutchangingitsspellinginanyway,itiscalledconversionorzeroderivation.

VerbsConversionisespeciallycommonwithverbs,andtherearemanyinstanceswherethesamewordmayfunctionasaverboranoun,dependingonthecontext.Forexample:•“Pleaseanswerthephone,Tom.”(verb)•“We’llneedananswerbytomorrow.”(noun)

•“Iruneachmorningbeforebreakfast.”(verb)•“I’mgoingforarunlatertoday.”(noun)•“Meteorologistsareforecastingasnowstormovernight.”(verb)•“Theforecastsaidtherewouldberainintheafternoon.”(noun)Lesscommonly,thereareinstancesinwhich,insteadofchangingaword’sspelling,wechangewherewepronounceastressontheword’ssyllablestoindicateashiftfromaverbtoanoun;thischangeisknownasasuprafix.Let’slookatsomeexamples(withthestressedsyllableunderlined):•“Youneedtoconvertpoundsintokilograms.”(verb)•“Thechurchalwayswelcomesrecentconvertstoitsmeetings.”(noun)•“Makesureyourecordthemeetingsowecanreviewitlater.”(verb)•“Ilovelisteningtooldrecords.”(noun)•“Pleasedon’tinsultmyintelligence.”(verb)•“Wewillnotforgetthisinsulttoourcompany.”(noun)Thewordusecanalsofunctionaseitheranounoraverb,butinsteadofchangingthestressonasyllable,wechangetheactualpronunciationoftheword,asin:•“Weplantouseadiagnostictesttoevaluatetheproblem.”(verb—useispronounced“yooz”)•“Thereisonlyoneuseforthistool.”(noun—useispronounced“yuce”)

NominaladjectivesWecanalsoconvertadjectivesintonounswithoutchangingspelling,butwegenerallydosobyaddingthearticlethebeforetheword.Theseareknownasnominaladjectives.Forexample:•“Thewealthyhaveanobligationtohelpthepoor.”•“Weallwantthebestforher.”•“Thislawprotectstheinnocent.”Tolearnmoreabouthowandwhentheseareused,gotothesectionaboutNominalAdjectivesinthechapteronAdjectives.

InfinitivesLastly,verbscanservethefunctionofnounsbybeingusedintheirinfinitiveform—thatis,thebaseformoftheverbwiththeparticleto.Infinitivesarenot

technicallyanexampleofnominalization,becausetheycanalsoactasadjectivesandadverbs,butit’sworthlookingathowtheyworkwhentheyfunctionasnouns.Forexample:

Asthesubjectofaclause•“Toerrishuman;toforgiveisdivine.”•“TostudymathematicsatHarvardwasherultimatedream.”•“Toliveinthecitymeansadjustingtoacompletelydifferentlifestyle.”

Astheobjectofaverb•“I’mnotgoingunlessyouagreetogowithme.”•“Youappeartobecorrect.”•“Pleasebequiet;I’mtryingtostudy.”

Asanobjectcomplement(Anobjectcomplementisawordorgroupofwordsthatdescribe,rename,orcompletethedirectobjectoftheverb.)•“Idon’texpectyoutoapproveofmydecision.”•“She’sforcingmetoworkthroughtheweekend.”•“Weneedyoutomakeafewmorecopies.”


1.Whichofthefollowingisusedtochangethespellingofaverboradjectivethatismadeintoanoun?a)prefixesb)suffixesc)infixesd)circumfixes2.Whatisthenamefornominalizationinwhichthespellingoftheverboradjectivedoesnotchange?a)inversion

b)conscriptionc)conversiond)elision3.Whichofthefollowingsuffixesiscommonlyusedtochangeaverbtoanountoreflectagencyorprofession?a)“-or”b)“-ing”c)“-ance”d)“-ence”4.Whichofthefollowingnominalizedverbs(inbold)isagerund?a)“Adherencetotherulesisexpectedofallstudents.”b)“Weweren’texpectingherrefusalofouroffer.”c)“Winningisn’teverything,youknow.”d)“Weneedtohireafewmoreemployees.”

PronounsDefinitionPronounsarewordsthatareusedinplaceofnounsinasentence.Thenounbeingreplacedisknownastheantecedentofthepronoun.

UsingpronounsWecommonlyusepronounsinspeechandwritingtoavoidsoundingunnaturalandrepetitivebyreusingthesamenouninasentencemultipletimes.Take,forexample,thefollowingsentence:•“JohnsaidthatJohnwantstousethecomputerthatbelongstoJohn.”ThesentenceisawkwardbecauseJohnisrepeatedsomanytimes.Instead,wecanusepersonalpronounstostandinforthenameoftheantecedenttomakethesentencesoundmorenatural,asin:•“Johnsaidthathewantstousethecomputerthatbelongstohim.”Inadditiontomakingthesentencesoundbetter,thepronounsprovidespecificinformation,tellingusthatJohnisinthethirdperson.Ifthesentencewerein

thefirstperson,itwouldread:•“IsaidthatIwanttousethecomputerthatbelongstome.”(Weneveruseourownnameswhenwetalkaboutwhatwe’redoinginthefirstperson,soweusethepersonalpronounIinsteadofanantecedent.)Aswecanseeintheexamplesabove,thepronounsareallservingthesamefunctionasnouns.Theycanbethesubjectofasentenceorclause,theobjectofaverb,ortheycanfollowlinkingverbstorenameorre-identifythesubject(knownasasubjectcomplement).

CategoriesofPronounsThereisawiderangeofdifferentcategoriesofpronounsthatweuseineverydayspeechandwriting.Eachkindofpronounhasauniquefunctioninasentence;manypronounsbelongtomultiplecategories,andcanservedifferentpurposesdependingonthecontext.We’llbrieflysummarizethesecategoriesbelow,butyoucancontinueonintothechaptertolearnmoreabouteach.

PersonalPronounsPersonalpronouns,whichwelookedatbrieflyabove,areusedtorepresentpeopleinasentence.Uniqueamongpronouns,personalpronounsexperienceawiderangeofinflection,meaningtheychangeformtoreflectspecificmeaningindifferentcontexts.Wealreadysawintheexampleabovehowpersonalpronounscaninflectaccordingtogrammaticalperson(firstperson,secondperson,orthirdperson),buttheyalsochangetoreflectgrammaticalnumber(singularorplural),gender(masculine,feminine,orneuter),andcase(subjective,objective,orpossessive).Gotoeachofthesub-sectionsofpersonalpronounstolearnmoreaboutalltheirdifferentforms.

ReflexivePronounsReflexivepronounsareverysimilarinstyleandformtopersonalpronouns—sosimilar,infact,thattheyarelistedasasub-groupofpersonalpronounsinthisguide.(Theyaretechnicallynotpersonalpronouns,buttheiruseandthewaytheyareformedaresosimilarthatitisusefulseeingthemindirectcomparisontopersonalpronouns.)Weusereflexivepronounswhenthesubjectofaclauseisalsotheobjectofthe

clause’sverb.Thisoccurswithcertainreflexiveverbs.Theyareformedbyadding“-self”(singular)or“-selves”(plural)totheendofmy,your,our,him,her,itorthem(aswellastheindefinitepronounone).Forexample:•“Isawmyselfinthemirror.”•“Sheimaginedherselfonatropicalbeach.”•“Theyconsiderthemselvestobeabovethelaw.”•“Oneshouldnotconcernoneselfwiththebusinessofothers.”

IntensivePronounsIntensivepronounsareidenticaltoreflexivepronounsinform,but,insteadoffunctioningastheobjectofaverb,theyservetoemphasizeorreiteratethesubject’sroleintheverb’saction.Forinstance:•“Icheckedoverthesedocumentsmyself.”•“Thepresidenthimselfwillbeinattendance.”

IndefinitePronounsWeuseindefinitepronounsinplaceofanounthatisnotbeingspecifiedinthesentence.Therearemanydifferentindefinitepronouns;whichoneweusedependsonwhetherwearerepresentinganounthatisapersonorthing,andwhetherthatnounissingularorplural.Somecommonexamplesinclude:•“Iseveryonehere?”•“Ihopeallisgoingwell.”•“Whateveryoudecideisfinewithme.”•“Manyarecomingtotheshowtonight.”

DemonstrativePronounsDemonstrativepronounsareusedtoindicatespecificpeopleorthingsandindicatewhethertheyarea)singularorpluralandb)nearornotneartothespeaker.Themostcommonarethis,that,these,andthose.Forexample:•“Thisisn’tmine.”(singular,nearby)•“Givemethat.”(singular,notnear)•“Thesearereallygross.”(plural,nearby)

•“Iforgottobringthose.”(plural,notnear)

InterrogativePronounsInterrogativepronounsareusedtoaskquestions,functioningeitherasthesubjectorobjectofsuchsentences.Therearefiveprimaryinterrogativepronouns:who,whom,whose,which,andwhat.•“Whoiscomingtothepartytonight?”(subject)•“So,whichwillitbe:$10,000,oranewsportscar?”(object)•“Couldyoutellmewhosetheseare?”(subject)•“Doyouknowwhatwe’redoinghere?”(object)

RelativePronounsRelativepronounsareusedtoconnectrelativeclauses(alsoknownasadjectiveclauses)tothemainclauseinasentence.Relativeclauseseitherhelpclarifytheantecedentwithessentialinformation(inwhichcasetheyareknownasrestrictiveclauses),orelsegiveextra,nonessentialinformationaboutit(inwhichcasetheyareknownasnon-restrictiveclauses).Inarelativeclause,therelativepronounfunctionsinoneofthreeways:asthesubjectoftheclause,astheobjectoftheclause’sverb,orasapossessivedeterminer.Forexample:•“There’sthewomanwhoalwayssitsnexttomeonthebus.”(restrictiveclause;whofunctionsasthesubject)•“ThebookthatIwroteisbeingpublishedinJanuary.”(restrictiveclause;thatfunctionsastheobjectofwrote)•“Theescapedgiraffe,whichhadbeenonthelooseforweeks,wasfinallycaptured.”(non-restrictiveclause;whichfunctionsasthesubject)•“Theperson,whosenamecan’tberevealed,appearedincourttoday.”(non-restrictiveclause;whosefunctionsasapossessivedeterminer,modifyingname)

ReciprocalpronounsWeusereciprocalpronounswhentwoormorepeoplebothactasthesubjectofaverb,andboth(orall)individuallyandequallyreceivetheverb’saction.Theycanbetheobjectofeithertheverbitselforaprepositionusedtocompletetheverb’smeaning.

Therearetworeciprocalpronouns—eachother(traditionallyusedfortwopeople)andoneanother(traditionallyusedformorethantwopeople).Forexample:•“JakeandIcalleachothereveryday.”•“MyneighborsandIspentalotoftimeateachother’shouseswhenwewerekids.”

DummyPronouns“Dummy”pronouns(moretechnicallyknownasexpletivepronouns)arewordsthatfunctiongrammaticallyaspronounsbutdonothaveantecedents—thatis,theydonotreplaceanoun,phrase,orclause.Theyrefertonothinginparticular,insteadhelpingthesentencetofunctionproperlyinagrammaticalcontext.Therearetwodummypronouns,thereandit.•“Thereisashipintheharbor.”•“Therewereflowersinthemeadow.”•“Itlookslikeitmaysnowtonight.”•“Couldyoutellmewhattimeitis?”


1.Whatisthetermforanounthatisreplacedbyapronoun?a)Remnantb)Descendentc)Antecedentd)Precedent2.Whichofthefollowingpronounsareusedwhenasubjectisalsotheobjectofthesameverb?a)Reflexivepronounsb)Relativepronounsc)Personalpronounsd)Demonstrativepronouns3.Whichofthefollowingpronounsareusedtoindicatethenearnessandnumberofaspecificnoun?

a)Reflexivepronounsb)Relativepronounsc)Personalpronounsd)Demonstrativepronouns4.Pronounshavethesamegrammaticalfunctionas_______inasentence.a)Nounsb)Adjectivesc)Adverbsd)Prepositions5.Identifythetypeofpronoun(inbold)usedinthefollowingsentence:“Letmeknowifyouneedanything.”a)Reciprocalpronounb)Interrogativepronounc)Indefinitepronound)Dummypronoun

PersonalpronounsDefinitionApersonalpronounisapronoun(awordthatfunctionsasandactsasasubstituteforanounornouns)thatrepresentsagrammaticalpersonwithinasentence.Whilepersonalpronounsoftendoindicateanactualperson,theycanalsorefertoanimals,inanimateobjects,orevenintangibleconcepts.Forinstance,thewordtheyintheprevioussentenceisapluralthird-personneuter(genderneutral)pronounrepresentingthewords“personalpronouns”asagrammaticalperson.Herearesomeotherexamples:•“AssoonasJohncomeshome,Iamgoingtogivehimbackhishat.”•“Myteamlostagain.Wereallystinkthisyear!”•“Hespoketothebossyesterdayandalreadygotherapproval.”Whichpersonalpronounisusedineachinstancevariesdependingonfourgrammaticalelements:number(singularorplural),person(first,second,orthirdperson),gender(male,female,orneuter/neutral),andcase(subjective,objective,orpossessive).Thisshiftingofformiscalledinflection.Quiteoften,

theinflectionofapersonalpronounwillchangewithinthesamesentence.Thereisalsoadifferentkindofpronouncalledareflexivepronoun,whichisusedwhenthesubjectofaverbisalsotheobject(receivingtheaction)ofthesameverb.Forexample:•“Helookedathimselfinthemirrorbeforeheleft.”•“Ihurtmyselfontheplaygroundtoday.”Althoughnottechnicallyconsideredpersonalpronouns,reflexivepronounsaresosimilarinformandusethattheyhavebeenincludedinthissection.Wewillexamineeachofthesegrammaticalelementsinrelationtopersonalpronounsmorein-depthinthesub-sectionsofthischapter,buthereisaquickbreakdownofallthepersonalpronounsandtheirdifferentinflections.

Person Number Gender SubjectiveCase

ObjectiveCase

PossessiveDeterminer

FirstPerson Singular Masculine/feminine I Me My

FirstPerson Plural Masculine/feminine We Us Our

SecondPerson Singular/Plural Masculine/feminine You You Your

ThirdPerson Singular Feminine She Her Her

ThirdPerson Singular Masculine He Him His

Thirdperson Singular Neuter It It Its

Thirdperson Plural* Neuter(Gender

Neutral)They Them Their

(*Seetheusagenoteunder“Gender”forinformationaboutusingtheyasasingularpronoun.)

PersonalPronouns-NumberDefinitionGrammaticalnumberinEnglishsimplymeanswhethersomethingorsomeoneissingularorplural—thatis,isthereoneofsomethingorsomeone(singular),oraretheremorethanone(plural)?Thisisansweredbythepronoun’santecedent(theword,phrase,clause,etc.,thatindicateswhatpronounshouldbeused,andinwhatform).Fornouns,weusuallyjustaddan“-s”totheendofthewordtosignifythatitisplural(thoughtherearemanyexceptionstothis).Personalpronouns,however,havespecificinflections(differentformsoftheword)dependingonwhethertheyaresingularorplural.Forthemostpart,onlythefirst-personandthird-personpersonalpronounshavepluralforms.Theonlypluralsecond-personpronounisthereflexivepronounyourselves.Forsecond-personpronounsthatdon’tinflectfornumber,yousometimeshavetouseinformationfromanotherpartofthesentenceorparagraphtodetermineifitispluralorsingular.(Seetheexamplesbelow.)Unfortunately,thereisnoruletohowpersonalpronounschangewhentheybecomeplural;yousimplyhavetomemorizethem.Refertothetableinthechapteroverviewtolearnthem.

Examples:•“I(first-personsingular)ammeetingmy(first-personsingular)writingclubthisafternoon.We(first-personplural)alwaysmeetonWednesdaysafterclass.”•“I(first-personsingular)reallyenvyyou(second-personsingular)!”•“They(third-personplural)can’ttellyou(second-personplural)whatitwillbelike;you(second-personplural)willjusthavetofindoutforyourselves(second-personpluralreflexive).”•“ThemainreasonMarthaissobeautifulisbecauseshe(third-personfemininesingular)issotall.”


1.Whichpersonalpronounscanbeinflectedfornumber?(Choosetheanswer

thatismostcorrect.)a)Allofthemb)First-personandthird-personpronounsc)Reflexivepronounsd)Second-personpronounse)B&C2.Whichofthefollowingsentenceshasatleastonepronounthatisplural?(Choosetheanswerthatismostcorrect.)a)“ItoldyouthatIneededitdonebyyesterday,Jeff.”b)“Shewentforawalkbyherself.”c)“Don’ttakeyoursister’stoys,oryouwillmakehercry.”d)“Iaskedallofyouheresowecoulddiscussthestateofthebusiness.”3.Whichofthefollowingisthepluralformofthesecond-personreflexivepronoun?a)yourselvesb)itselvesc)themselvesd)ourselves4.Whatisthepluralformofthefirst-personpossessivepronounmine?a)ourb)myc)oursd)theirs

PersonalPronouns-Person(Firstperson,Secondperson,Thirdperson)DefinitionGrammaticalpersonreferstotheperspectivesofthepersonalpronounsusedtoidentifyapersoninspeechandtext—thatis,itdistinguishesbetweenaspeaker(firstperson),anaddressee(secondperson),andothersbeyondthat(thirdperson).

Firstperson•Singular:I,me,my,mine,myself•Plural:we,us,our,ours,ourselvesFirst-personpronounsareusedtoexpressanautobiographicalpointofview—theytellwhatisdirectlyhappeningtothespeaker,writer,orfictionalcharacter.Forexample:•“Idon’tknowwheremyhatis!”•“Janetismeetingmeintownlater.”•“Hey,thatbookismine!Iboughtit!”Whenthespeakerispartofagroup,thefirst-personpronounsinflecttothepluralform:•“Webroughtourowncar.”•“Theytoldustohelpourselves.”

Secondperson•Singular/Plural:you,you,your,yours,yourself(singular),yourselves(plural)Weusethesecond-personpronounstoindicatethosewhoarebeingaddresseddirectlybythespeaker.Unlikefirst-personpronouns,thereisnotadistinctionbetweensingularandpluralsecond-personpronouns(exceptinthereflexiveform).Herearesomeexamples:•“Bill,Iwaswonderingifyoucouldhelpmewiththedishes?”(secondperson

singular)•“Children,whereareyourmanners?”(secondpersonplural)•“Youreallymustlearntohelpyourself.”(secondpersonsingular)•“I’msickofcleaningupafterallofyou;fromnowon,youcancleanupafteryourselves!”(secondpersonplural)

Usagenote:Generic“you”Thesecond-personpronounsarealsooftenusedtoindicateanunspecifiedperson.Thisissometimesreferredtoasgenericyou,impersonalyou,orindefiniteyou.Thisislessformalthanitscounterpart,thepronounone,butitissometimespreferredbecauseitdoesnotsoundassnobbishorunnecessarilyformal.Ifoneiswritingsomethingveryformalorprofessional,thenonemightbebetteroffusingthegenericpronounone.Ifyou’rewritingsomethingabitlessformal,thenyouareprobablyjustfineusingthegenericpronounyou.

ThirdpersonThirdpersonisusedtotalkaboutsomeoneorsomethingthatisnotthespeakerandisnotbeingdirectlyaddressed.Thisismostwidelyusedinfictionwriting.Whenthepersonorthingissingular,thepronounsusedinthethirdpersonarethedifferentformsofshe,he,andit:•Femininesingular:she,her,hers,herself•Masculinesingular:he,him,his,himself•Neutersingular:it,its,itsown,itselfHowever,whentherearemultiplepeopleorthings,weusetheungenderedformsofthey:•Thirdpersonplural:they,them,their,theirs,themselvesSometimes,whenasinglepersonofanunknowngenderisbeingdiscussed,thethird-personpluralforms(they,them,etc.)areusedasagender-neutralalternativetothethird-personfeminine/masculineforms.Tolearnmoreaboutthis,pleaseseetheUsageNoteabout“Singularthey”underthechaptersectionexplaininggenderinpersonalpronouns.

Quiz


1.Whichperspectiveofgrammaticalpersonisusedforsomeonebeingaddresseddirectlybythespeaker?a)Firstpersonb)Secondpersonc)Thirdpersond)Third-personplural2.Whichofthefollowingsentencesusesafirst-personpluralpronoun?a)“JohnsaidthatIshouldbemorecarefulwithmywriting.”b)“Theyarenothappywithyoursalesthisquarter.”c)“I’mnotsurethatheknowswhatthey’redoing.”d)“Shedoesn’tthinkthatweshouldbepayingthatmuch.”3.Whoorwhatwouldberepresentedbythird-personpronounsinasentence?a)Apersonorthingwhoisnotbeingdirectlyaddressedbysomeoneb)Apersonorthingwhoisbeingdirectlyaddressedbysomeonec)Apersonwhoisdirectlyaddressingsomeoneorsomethingd)Apersonwhoisspeakingaboutsomeoneorsomethingwhoisnotpresent4.Whichperspective(orperspectives)ofgrammaticalpersonarebeingusedinthefollowingsentence?“Whenwewereyoung,myfatheroftentoldusthathedidn’thaveasmanyluxuriesgrowingup.”a)Firstpersonb)Secondpersonc)Thirdpersond)Bothfirstandthirdpersone)Bothsecondandthirdpersonf)First,second,andthirdperson

PersonalPronouns-GenderDefinitionModernEnglishislargelyanungenderedlanguage.Whereasotherlanguagesmighthavemasculineandfeminineformsfornounsdependingontheverbs,

articles,oradjectivestheyareusedwith,Englishnounsbyandlargeremainneutral.However,apersonalpronouncanbeinflectedforgendertocorrespondtothegenderoftheperson(and,insomecases,ananimal)itrepresents.Personalpronounsareonlyinflectedforgenderwhentheyareinthethirdpersonandsingular—first-personandsecond-personpronouns(singularorplural)andthird-personpluralpronouns*remaingenderneutral.HerearethegenderedpronounsinEnglish:•Third-personfemininesingular:she,her,hers,herself•Third-personmasculinesingular:he,him,his,himselfThethird-personsingularcanalsobeneuter.Thisisusedwhenapersonalpronounrepresentsathingorananimal.Animalscansometimestakegenderedpersonalpronounsiftheyarepetsordomesticatedanimals;otherwise,theytakethethird-personneuterform:•Third-personneutersingular:it,its,itsown,itselfRemember,whentherearemultiplepeopleorthings,weusetheungenderedformsofthey*:•Thirdpersonplural:they,them,their,theirs,themselves

Examples•“IreallyloveJenny.Sheismybestfriend.”•“Dannysaidthathewouldlendmehisjacketfortonight.”•“Lookatthatcutedogwagginghistail!”•“BillandSamanthatoldmetheywerecomingoverlater.”•“Youshouldnottrytocontrollove,butratherbeguidedbyit.”•“I’vegotthereportforyou.I’lljustsetitonyourdesk.”•“Thehorsegallopedby,itshoovespoundingthegroundviolently.”•“Theparadefloatsarespectacular!Ilovewatchingthemgodownthestreet.”

CountriesandshipsCountriesandvehicles,especiallyshipsorboats,willsometimesbegivenafeminineformwhenspokenofinthethirdperson.Forexample:•“TheSSFreedomisagoodship.Shehascertainlyseenherfairshareof

adventure.”•“ThePrimeMinisterpromisedthattheUnitedKingdomwouldbereturnedtoherformergloryduringhisterm.”Thisisamoretraditionalusage;itislesscommonthesedays,andbynomeansnecessary.Somestyleguidesgosofarastodiscourageitsuse.

*UsageNote:“Singularthey”Englishdoesnothaveawayofidentifyingasinglepersonwithapronounifhisorhergenderisnotknown,sosometimesthethird-personpluralforms(they,them,etc.)areusedasagender-neutralalternativetothethird-personfeminine/masculineforms.Thisissometimescalled“singularthey.”Forexample:•“Youshouldn’tjudgesomeoneuntilyouknowwhattheyarereallylike.”•“Ifanyoneneedsextrahelpwiththeirstudies,theyshouldfeelfreetoseemeafterclass.”“Singularthey”isgraduallybecomingacceptedasthenorm,especiallyininstanceswithindefinitepronounsthatsoundpluralbutaregrammaticallysingular(likeanyoneintheexampleabove).However,itisstillconsideredincorrectbymanywritersandwritingguides,especiallyinAmericanEnglish.Previously,itwasstandardpracticetosimplyusethemasculinethird-personsingularforms(he,him,his,himself),butthisisnowseenasbeingpotentiallysexist.Likewise,usingonlythefemininethird-personsingularwouldbeexclusionary,andmixinghimandherthroughoutapieceofwritingwouldbeconfusing.Therefore,informalorprofessionalwriting,thebestformtouseis“heorshe”or“himorher,”orelsesimplytorewritethesentencetoavoidsoundingclutteredorawkward.Ininformalwritingorspeech,though,using“singularthey”isgenerallyOK.


1.Whichofthefollowingisanappropriatethird-personpluralpronountousewhentalkingaboutmorethanonegirlorwoman?a)Hersb)Herselves

c)Theyd)We2.Withwhatnon-humanthingsisitsometimesconsideredacceptabletouseagenderedpronoun?a)Ashiporboatb)Acountryc)Apetordomesticanimald)Alloftheabovee)Noneoftheabove3.Whichofthefollowingsentencesusestheinformal“singularthey”?a)“Iaskedthemiftheywouldliketojoinusforlunch.”b)“Whenachildasksyouaquestion,youshouldalwaysstrivetoanswerthemtruthfully.”c)“Don’tpayanyattentiontothem;thatgroupisalwaysbullyingfreshmen.”d)“JohnandDanielsaidtheywouldlookafterthekidstonight.”4.Whenisananimalmostcommonlygivenagenderedpronoun?(Selecttheanswerthatismostcorrect.)a)Neverb)Ifitisawildanimalc)Ifthereisonlyoned)Ifitisapetordomesticanimale)C&D5.Inwhatinstancecanathird-personneutersingularpronounbeusedwithaperson?a)Ifhisorhergenderisnotknownorspecifiedb)Ifthereismorethanonepersonc)Neverd)A&Be)Always

PersonalPronouns-Case

DefinitionTheEnglishlanguagehaslargelydiscardeditscasesystem,whichisthemannerbywhichanounisinflecteddependingonitsgrammaticalfunctionasasubjectorobjectinasentence.Englishlargelyusesprepositionstoaccomplishthisnow,butpersonalpronounsareonepartofEnglishinwhichthecasesystemisstillactive,beinginflecteddependingonwhethertheyfunctionasasubject,object,possessivedeterminer,orpossessivepronoun.

SubjectiveCaseWhenapersonalpronounisactingasthesubjectofaverb(thatis,itisthepersonorthingdoingtheaction),itissaidtobeinthesubjectivecase.Forinstance:•“Iknowthatshesaidthat.”(Bothpronounsaresubjective,asbothareagentsoftheirrespectiveactions.)•“Hetoldhertobequiet.”(Here,onlyheisinthesubjectivecase;her,therecipientor“object”ofhisaction,isintheobjectivecase.)

ObjectiveCaseApersonalpronounisintheobjectivecasewhenitisadirectorindirectobjectofaverb,orelseifitistheobjectorapreposition.Adirectobjectdirectlyreceivestheactionofaverb.Forexample:•“Pleasesendtheminstraightaway.”•“Takehimaway!”Anindirectobject,ontheotherhand,istherecipientofthedirectobject—itthereforeindirectlyreceivestheactionoftheverbviathedirectobject.Forexample:•“Pleasetellmeanynewsimmediately!”Here,anynewsisactingasthedirectobjectoftheverbtell—itisthethingbeingtold.Me,ontheotherhand,islookingtoreceiveanynewsbymeansoftheactionoftell,makingittheindirectobject.•“Ican’tbelievehebroughtyouflowers.Howsweet!”Again,youisreceivingtheflowers,whichisthedirectobjectofbrought.Becarefulwiththepersonalpronounsyouandit,however—theirsubjectiveand

objectiveformsarethesame.Takethefollowingsentence,forexample:•“YousaidtogiveyouthemoneyassoonasIhadit.”ThepronounsyouandIinitalicsareinthesubjectivecasebecausetheyareeachperformingtheactionoftheirverbs.Thepronounsyouanditinboldareintheobjectivecasebecausetheyarefunctioningasindirectanddirectobjectsoftheirverbs(respectively).

AfterLinkingVerbs(SubjectComplements)Oneconfusingareaiswhenapronounisasubjectcomplementtoalinkingverb.Forpersonalpronouns,thisisalmostalwayswithformsoftheverbbe.Inthissituation,thepersonalpronounshouldbeinthesubjectivecase.Forexample,“ItwasIwhodidthis”ismorecorrectthan“Itwasmewhodidthis.”Itiseasytomistakeitasthedirectobjectbecauseitseemslikeitisreceivingtheactionoftheverb,butlinkingverbsbehavedifferentlyfromactionverbs.Onewaytobesureyouareusingthecorrectpronounistoreversetheorderoftheverbandpronounandseeifthestatementstillmakessense.Let’slookagainattheexamplesabove:✖ “Itwasmewhodidthis.”(incorrect)✔ “ItwasIwhodidthis.”(correct)Ifyoureversetheorderoftheverbandpronoun,youcanseewhythefirstsentenceisincorrect:✖ “Mewastheone*whodidthis.”(incorrect)✔ “Iwastheone*whodidthis.”(correct)(*Becauseinmostinstanceswedon’trefertoapersonasbeingitinasubjectcomplement(exceptmaybeinagameoftag),theindefinitepronounphrasetheoneisusedinsteadtoidentifythespeakerasthepersonwhodidsomething.)Herearesomemoreexamples:•“Herhusbandtookallthecredit,butitwasshewhodidallthework.”•“Itwastheywhoassuredusthattherewouldbenoproblems.”Inmanycases,itmightbebettertosimplyrewordthesentencetosoundlessawkward.Forexample,“itwashewhowontherace”wouldsoundbettersimplyas“hewontherace.”

InconversationalEnglish,thisdistinctionismuchlessfrequentlyobservedforsimplesentenceslikeourfirstexamples,andyouwilloftenhearpeopleusingphrasessuchas“it’sme”or“thatwasher”inresponsetoquestions.Butinwriting(especiallyformalorprofessionalwriting),alwaysusethesubjectivecaseforapersonalpronounifitisfunctioningasasubjectcomplementafteralinkingverb.

PossessiveCase(GenitiveCase)Asthenameimplies,thepossessivecasechangestheinflectionofapersonalpronountomarkpossession.Therearetwoformsofpersonalpronounsinthepossessivecase:possessivedeterminers,andpossessivepronouns.Possessivedeterminersfunctiongrammaticallylikeadjectives,modifyinganounornouns.However,theycannotfunctionasnounsinasentence.Forexample:✔ “Mydad’sglasseswentmissing.”(Myiscorrectlyusedasapossessivedeterminer,modifyingdadtoshowhisrelationtothespeaker.)✖ “Hey,thoseglassesaremy!”(Myisincorrectlyusedasapossessivepronoun;itshouldread“Hey,thosearemyglasses!”or“Hey,thoseglassesaremine!”)Possessivepronounsarepersonalpronounsinthepossessivecasewhichhavethegrammaticalfunctionofnouns.Forexample:•“Icanseeminethroughthewindow!”•“Yousaidyouboughtyoursfor$50?”•“Jennyseemsprettysurethatthebookishers.”Beawarethatthepossessivedeterminersandpossessivepronounsforthethird-personmasculineandthird-personneuterarethesame(hisandhis,itsandits),althoughitsismoreoftenusedasapossessivedeterminerinthephraseitsown.Forexample:•“Hesaiditwashiscomputer,butIdon’tthinkitisactuallyhis.”•“Asthecampaignreachedthepeakofitssuccess,itseemedtotakeonalifeofitsown.”


1.Whatdeterminesifapersonalpronounisinthesubjectivecase?

a)Ifitisthepersonorthingperformingtheactionofaverbb)Ifitisthepersonorthingreceivingtheindirectactionofaverbc)Ifitisthepersonorthingreceivingthedirectactionofaverbd)Ifthepersonorthingdemonstratespossessionoftheobjectofaverb2.Howdoesapossessivedeterminerfunctiongrammatically?a)Asaverbb)Asanadjectivec)Asanadverbd)Asanoun3.Whichofthefollowingpossessivedeterminersisthesamewhenitisfunctionsasapossessivepronoun?a)Herb)Hisc)Itsd)A&Be)B&Cf)Noneoftheabove4.Inthefollowingsentence,whichpersonalpronounisintheobjectivecase?“Ihavetoldhimathousandtimesthatheshouldn’tactthatway!”a)heb)Ic)himd)that5.Whichofthefollowingsentenceshasapossessivedeterminer?a)“Itoldyouthatmyrecipewasgood!”b)“Shestillclaimsthatthebagisn’thers.”c)“He’shadhissincehewasakid.”d)“Donaldsaidtheyboughttheirsduringasale.”

PersonalPronouns-ReflexivePronouns

DefinitionReflexivepronounsareusedwhensomeoneorsomethingisboththesubjectandtheobjectofthesameverb—thatis,boththatwhichisperformingtheactionoftheverbandthatwhichisreceivingtheaction.Whenthishappens,thereflexiveverbisusedastheobjectoftheverbtorepresentthepersonorthing.Forexample,inthesentence“Iheardyouspeaking,”“I”isthesubject,and“you”istheobject—theyarenotthesameperson,soareflexivenounisnotused.Likewise,“I’llbesuretothankhimself”isnotcorrect:“him”shouldbetheobjectof“thank,”while“I”isthesubject.Butinthesentence“Iheardmyselfspeaking,”thespeaker(“I”)isboththesubjectoftheverb“heard”anditsobject(whatwasheard),andthusisrepresentedbythereflexivenoun“myself.”Thereflexivepronounsaremyself,ourselves,yourself,yourselves,herself,himself,itself,themselves,andoneself.Thelastoftheseisformedfromthegender-neutralindefinitepronounone(whichalsohasthepossessiveformone’s);however,thepronounoneisnotapersonalpronoun.Herearesomemoreexamples:•Iwishyoucouldhearyourselvesrightnow!•Sheadmittedtoherselfthatshewaswrong.•Thevolehidesitselfbeneaththegroundforsafety.•Theplayershavereallyoutdonethemselvestoday!•Oneshouldstrivetobetteroneselfeveryday.Onafinalnote,areflexivepronouncanneverbeusedasthesubjectofaverb—itcanonlyactastheobject,andonlywhenthepersonorthingitrepresentsisalreadybeingusedasthesubject.Forexample,“myselftaughtmetoread”isveryclearlywrong,becausemyselfshouldbeusedastheobjectof“taught,”whilethepersonalpronounIshouldbeusedasthesubject.“Johnandmyselfwillbeinattendance”isalsoincorrectbecausethespeaker(andJohn)isthesubjectoftheverb“be,”withoutanobject—itshouldread“JohnandIwillbeinattendance.”Formoreinformationonthesubjectiveandobjectivecases,pleaseseethechaptersectionongrammaticalcaseinpersonalpronouns.


1.Whichofthefollowingsentencesusesreflexivepronounscorrectly?a)“Icouldn’tbelievethepicturesofmyselfaftertheparty!”b)“Andhowishimselfthesedays?”c)“Ireallyhaven’tfeltlikemyselflately.”d)“PleasesendtherelevantinformationtoBob,Jane,andmyself.”2.Whichofthefollowingsentencesusesareflexivepronounincorrectly?a)“Myselfandafewothersaregoingtoseeamovielater.”b)“IcanseemyselftakingupgolfwhenIretire.”c)“Tomsawhimselfinthereflectionofthewater.”d)“Studentswhohavenotdonetheworkthemselveswillbepenalized.”3.Whichisthecorrectsingularfirst-personreflexivepronoun?a)Ourselvesb)Yourselfc)Themselvesd)Myself4.Whendoyouuseareflexivepronoun?a)Whenapersonalpronounistheobjectofapreposition.b)Whenapersonorthingisthesubjectandtheobjectofthesameverb.c)Whenapersonorthingisthesubjectofoneverbandtheobjectofanotherverbinthesamesentence.d)Whenapersonalpronounandanothernounarebothsubjectsofaverb.

IntensivePronounsDefinitionIntensivepronounsareidenticaltoreflexivepronouns—myself,yourself,ourselves,himself,herself,itself,andthemselves.However,intensivepronounsdonotserveagrammaticalfunctioninasentence;instead,theyaddemphasisbyreiteratingthesubjectofthesentence(knownasthepronoun’santecedent).

UsingintensivepronounsinasentenceWhenweuseanintensivepronountoaddemphasistoasentence,wegenerallyplaceitaftereitheritsantecedentorthedirectobjectoftheverb.Forinstance:•“Thesurgeongeneralhimselfwilloverseetheoperation.”•“Theythemselvesindicatedthatthetransactionsmightbeillegal.”•“Hedidithimself,muchtohisfather’ssurprise.”•“Wedesignedthealbumartworkourselves.”Ifweuseanintensivepronountoaddapointedorargumentativeemphasistothesentence,itcomesafterthedirectobject,asin:•“IcanoperatetheTVremotemyself,thankyouverymuch.”•“Oursoncandotheprojecthimself,Hank.”

DistinguishingbetweenintensiveandreflexivepronounsAlthoughintensiveandreflexivepronounsareidenticalinappearance,thereisacleardistinctionbetweenthem.Reflexivepronounsareusedwhenthesubjectofasentencealsoreceivestheactionofthesentence—thatis,thesubjectoftheverbisalsotheobjectthesameverb.Forexample:•“Isawmyselfinthemirror.”•“Sheaskedherselfifitwasworththehassle.”•“Theactorplayedhimselfinthefilmabouthislife.”Inallofthesesentences,weusereflexivepronounstoindicatethatthesubjectoftheverbisalsotherecipientofitsactions.However,weuseanintensivepronounifwewanttoplacespecialemphasisonwhoisperformingtheactionofthesubjectonaseparateobject.Becauseofthis,theintensivepronounisnotgrammaticallyintegraltothemeaningofthesentence.Take,forexample,thesethreesentences:•“Johnplayedthetuba.”•“Johnplayedthetubahimself.”

Aswecansee,theadditionofhimselfhasnobearingonthelogicalmeaningofthesentence—inbothcases,itisJohnwhoplayedthetuba.However,byaddingtheintensivepronounhimselfinthesecondsentence,weletthereaderorlistenerknowthatitissomehowremarkableornoteworthythatitwasJohnwhoplayedthetuba,asopposedtosomeoneelse.


1.Intensivepronounsareidenticaltowhatotherkindofpronoun?a)indefinitepronounsb)relativepronounsc)reflexivepronounsd)reciprocalpronouns2.Whatisthefunctionofintensivepronounsinasentence?a)Toaddemphasistotheroleofthesubjectb)Toaddemphasistotheroleofthedirectobjectc)Toindicatethatthesubjectisalsotheobjectoftheverbd)Toindicatethattheobjectoftheverbisalsotheobjectcomplement3.Wheredoesanintensivepronountypicallyoccurinasentence?a)Immediatelyafterthesubjectofthesentenceb)Immediatelyafterthemainverbofthesentencec)Immediatelyafterthedirectobjectoftheverbd)A&Be)B&Cf)A&Cg)Alloftheabove4.Whichofthefollowingsentencesusesanintensivepronoun?a)“Icouldreallyseemyselfcompetinginatriathlonsomeday.”b)“Aftermuchconsideration,hedecidedtowritehimselfoutofthewill.”c)“Shedidherselfadisservicebynotrenegotiatinghercontract.”d)“Hewrotethemusichimselftoavoidextracopyrightcosts.”

IndefinitePronouns

DefinitionAnindefinitepronounisusedinplaceofanounwithoutspecifyingaparticularpersonorthingthatisbeingrepresented.Therearequiteafewindefinitepronouns,whichyoucanseelistedinthetablebelow.Lookthemover,andthenreadontolearnabouttheirusage.

TableofIndefinitePronounsPeoplevs.Things Singular Plural Singularor

Plural

EitherPeopleorThings

anotherone(quantifier)eacheitherother

bothfewfewermanyothersseveral

allanymoremostneithernoneplentysome

Peopleonly

anybody/anyoneeverybody/everyoneone("impersonal"pronoun)nobody/noone/no-onesomebody/someonewhoever/whosoeverwhomever/whomsoeveryou(seeusagenote)

they(seeusagenote)

Thingsonly

anythingenougheverythinglesslittlemuchnothingsomething

such

suchthiswhateverwhichever

Singularvs.PluralManypronounsthatrefertomorethanone—e.g.,everything,everyone,much,etc.—areconsideredsingular.Thisisbecause,grammatically,theyfunctionasasingleunit(likethecollectivenounsteam,group,collection,etc.,whicharemadeupofmultiplepeopleorthings).Asaresult,theymusttakeasingularverbandhaveagreementwiththerestofthetext.Forexample:•“Everyoneisinvited.”•“Ihopeeverythingisalright;Iwouldhateifitwasn’t.”Likewise,thepluralpronounsmusthavepluralagreementwiththeirverbsandotherpartsofthetext:•“Manyareinagreementwiththeirpeers.”Somepronounscanfunctioneitherassingularorplural,dependingoncontextandusage;thus,theirverbagreementchangesaccordingly.Forexample:•“Allarewelcomeshouldtheywishtoattend.”(plural)•“Allisrightwiththeworld.”(singular)

Peoplevs.ThingsBothpeopleandthingscanbeidentifiedinasentencebyanindefinitepronoun.Manypronounsareonlyusedtorefertopeopleortothings;aswe’llseelateron,though,therearealsomanywhichcanbeusedforeither.

PeopleTakethefollowingsentence,forexample:•“Wouldanyonelikeadrink?”Here,anyoneisstandinginforanyperson,butitdoesn’tspecifywhothatpersonisormightbe—itcouldbeanyone!(Ifwewantedtouseapronounthatspecifiedaperson,wewoulduseapersonal

pronoun,asin“Wouldyoulikeadrink?”)However,wewouldn’tuseanyonetorefertoathing.Anyindefinitepronounwith“one”or“body”initisreservedforidentifyingpeople.Incidentally,“one”and“body,”whenusedaspartofanindefinitepronoun,canbeusedinterchangeably.Althoughsomepeoplefeelthatusing“body”soundsabitlessformal,itisuptothediscretionofthewriter.Let’slookatexamplesforeachindefinitepronounthatrelatestopeople:•“Idon’tthinkanybody/anyonewantstodance.”•“Everybody/everyoneisleavingearly.”•“One*wouldhopethatthissortofbehaviorwouldn’tbetolerated.”•“You*wouldthinkthatthegovernmentwouldhavethoughtofthatalready.”•“Ican’tbelievenobody/noone/no-onecametomyplay!”•“She’shopingsomebody/someonewillhelpherwithherwork.”•“Whoever/whosoeverwouldliketojoinusismorethanwelcome.”•“Hirewhomever/whomsoeveryouthinkwouldbethemostappropriateforthejob.”•“They*sayyoushouldalwayswearahelmetonabicycle.”(Notethatwhosoeverandwhomsoever,whileperfectlyacceptable,havecometosoundabitantiquatedcomparedtowhoeverandwhomever.)

*Usagenote:Generic“you”and“they”

Thesecond-personpronouns(you,your,yours,yourself,yourselves)arealsooftenusedasindefinitepronounstoindicateanunspecifiedperson.Thisissometimesreferredtoasgenericyou,impersonalyou,orindefiniteyou.

Youisfarlessformalthanitscounterpart,theindefinitepronounone,butitissometimespreferredbecauseitdoesnotsoundassnobbishorbecausesuchformalityisunnecessary.Becauseoneisusedtorefertopeople,butwithoutspecifyingwhoitrepresents,itissometimescalledanimpersonalpronoun.

Ifoneiswritingsomethingveryformalorprofessional,thenonemightbebetteroffusingtheindefinitepronounone.Ifyou’rewritingsomethinga

bitlessformal,thenyouareprobablyjustfineusingthegenericpronounyou.

(Alsonotethatonehasasecondfunctionasanindefinitepronounthatisusedasaquantifier,asin“IthinkI'llgettheredone"or“Mostofourgroupishere,butoneisrunninglate.”)

Similarly,thethird-personpluralpronountheycanbeusedasanindefinitepronountorefertopeopleingeneral.Itisusuallyusedintheform“Theysay…,”asin“Theysaythatdrinkingtoooftenisbadforyourhealth.”However,thisisconsideredveryinformal,andwouldbefrowneduponinformal,professional,oracademicwriting.

ThingsWecanalsouseindefinitepronounstorepresentthingsinthesamemanner:•“Istheresomethingyou’dliketosay?”Anyindefinitepronounthatisformedwith“-thing”is,understandably,onlyusedtorefertothings.(Onecanalsorefertothings,butonlyasaquantifier,whichfunctionsdifferentlyinasentencethantheimpersonalpronounone.)Let’slookatexamplesoftheindefinitepronounsthatonlyapplytothings:•“Idon’tcarewhatIeat,sojustordermeanything.”•“Ithinkshehashadenough.”•“Hewantedtobuyeverythingintheshop.”•“Thelessyouknow,thebetter.”•“AsI’vegottenolder,I’verealizedthatIknowverylittle.”•“Therewasnothingshefeltlikedoing.”•“Thereisstillmuchtobedone.”•“I’msurethatI’mforgettingsomething.”•“Shefindstouristsveryirritating,andshehatesbeingtreatedassuchwhenshetravels.”•“Hehadthistosayinhisdefense.”•“I’lljusthavewhateveryou’rehaving.”

•“It’syourmoney,sobuywhicheveryoulike.”

PeopleandThingsQuiteafewindefinitepronounscanbeusedtorefertoeitherpeopleorthings.Insuchcases,werelyoncontextorotherelementsofthesentencetoknowwhich:•“Onewasshortandstout;theotherwaslongandskinny.”Intheabovesentence,wedon’tknowwhetheroneandotherrefertopeopleortothings;wehavetorelyoncomesbeforeorafterthesentencetoknowwhich.Nowlet’slookatanotherexample:•“Eachtohisown—that’swhatIalwayssay!”Becauseitisusedinconjunctionwiththepersonalpronounhis,wecaninferthattheindefinitepronouneachisreferringtoaperson.Likewise:•“Getbothifyoulikethemsomuch.”Youdon’t“get”(asin“acquire”)people,sowecansafelyassumethatbothisreferringtothings.Let’slookatexamplesoftheindefinitepronounsthatcanrefertoboththingsandpeople.Trytoseeifyoucanfigureoutwhicheachisreferringtobytheinformationinthesentence,orwhetheryouwouldneedmoreinformationtoknowforsure.•“Comeon,let’sgetanother!”•“Eachwillgetaturntospeak.”•“Ithinkeitherwilldofornow.”•“Fewcametotheservice,intheend.”•“TherearefewerthanIremember.”•“Manyarevoicingtheirconcerns.”•“Onelikestoplaythebanjo,whiletheotherprefersthepiano.”•“Thereareafewothersthatstillneedtobecollected.”•“Mosthaveleft,butseveralarestillhere.”•“Therewereplentythere.”•“Allareaccountedfor.”•“Idon’tthinkthereareanyleft.”•“There’sabitmoretobedonestill.”

•“Neitherseemwillingtonegotiate.”•“Therearenoneleft.”•“Savesomeforme!”

IndefiniteAdjectivesvs.IndefinitePronounsSomeindefinitepronounscanalsofunctionasindefiniteadjectivesiftheycomeimmediatelybeforeanoun.Forexample:

•“Thereismoretobedone.”(indefinitepronoun)•“Thereismoreworktobedone.”(indefiniteadjective)

•“Thereisanotherwhocanfillin,ifnecessary.”(indefinitepronoun)•“Thereisanotherstudentwhocanfillin,ifnecessary.”(indefiniteadjective)Ifyou’retryingtodeterminewhetherawordisanindefinitepronoun,justseeifit’sonitsown;ifitispairedwithanoun,thenitisanindefiniteadjective.


1.Whichofthefollowingindefinitepronounscanonlybeusedtorefertothings?a)Allb)Manyc)Muchd)Several2.Identifytheindefinitepronounusedinthefollowingsentence:“Peoplearesayingallsortsofthings,butlittleisworthlisteningto.”a)Peopleb)Allc)Littled)B&C3.Whatisthedifferencebetweenanindefinitepronounandanindefinite

adjective?a)Anindefinitepronounstandsalone;andindefiniteadjectiveprecedesanoun.b)Anindefiniteadjectivestandsalone;andindefinitepronounprecedesanoun.c)Anindefiniteadjectivealwaysmodifiesanindefinitepronoun.d)Theyarethesamething.4.Howdoyoutellifanindefinitepronounrepresentsapersonorathing,ifitiscapableofboth?a)Otherinformationwithinthesentenceb)Contextaround(beforeorafter)thesentencec)Determineifitcouldbereplacedbyanound)A&Be)B&Cf)A&C

DemonstrativePronounsDefinitionDemonstrativepronounsarepronounsusedtoreplacenounsornounphrasesinasentence,representingthatwhichisnearbyorfarawayinspaceortime.Becausedemonstrativepronounsarelessspecificthanthenounsornounphrasestheyreplace,youmustusecontexttoclarifywhatisbeingreferredto.InspokenEnglish,thiscanmeanhavingtogesturetoward,pointto,orlookatthethingorthingsindicatedbythedemonstrativepronoun.InwrittenEnglish,demonstrativepronounsareusuallyusedtorefertopreviouslymentionednouns,ideas,ortopics.Hereisacompletelistofdemonstrativepronouns:

thisthatthesethosenonesuchneither

FunctionsofmajordemonstrativepronounsThemostcommondemonstrativepronounsarethis,that,these,andthose.Theirfunctionsareexplainedinthefollowingtable:

DemonstrativePronoun Singular/Plural Nearby/FarAway

this singular nearby

that singular faraway

these plural nearby

those plural farawayEachofthefourmajordemonstrativepronounsdescribessomethingthatiseithersingularorpluralandeithernearornotneartothespeaker.Forexample:•“Thisisn’tmine.”(singular,nearby)•“Givemethat.”(singular,notnear)•“Thesearereallygross.”(plural,nearby)•“Iforgottobringthose.”(plural,notnear)Demonstrativepronounscanalsobeusedtoindicatemoreabstractthings,suchaschronologicaleventsorideas:•“Ireallylovethis!”(Thiscanpossiblyrepresentaphysicallyclosething,acurrentevent,orarecentlydevelopedidea.)•“Thatwassocool.”(Thatcanpossiblyrepresentaphysicallydistantthing,apastevent,oranoldidea.)•“ThesearethetimesIremembertostaycalm.”(Theserepresentsrecentlyoccurringeventsinthissentence,madeclearbythewordtimes.)•“Thoseweresomefantasticdays,right?”(Thoseinthiscaserepresentspastevents,madeclearbytheworddays.)Thoughthedemonstrativepronounsintheabovecasesdonotreferspecificallytophysicalthings,therulesofsingularandpluralstillapply.Inotherwords,youcannotreplacethiswiththeseorthatwiththoseunlessthenumberofthings

indicatedhasincreasedtomorethanone.

FunctionsofotherdemonstrativepronounsThelesscommonlyuseddemonstrativepronounsarenone,such,andneither.Noneandsuchcanbeusedasbothsingularandpluraldemonstrativepronouns.Forexample:•“Noneofthismakessense.”(Noneissingularbecausethisissingular.)•“NoneofthepeoplehereseemtolikethecakeImade.”(Noneispluralbecausethepeopleisplural.*)•“Suchisthewayoflife.”(Suchissingularbecausethewayoflifeissingular.)•“Sucharetherules.”(Suchispluralbecausetherulesisplural.)(*Thereisdebateastowhethernonecandenoteplurality.Somesourcesarguethatnonecanonlyrepresentthesingularnotone,whereasothersclaimitcanalsorepresentthepluralnotany.Sincenonehasalonghistoryofbeingusedasbothasingularandpluraldemonstrativepronoun,thereislittlehistoricalorgrammaticalbasistosupporttheclaimthatitcanonlybetreatedassingular.)Ontheotherhand,neitherisalwaystreatedasasingulardemonstrativepronoun,regardlessofthepresenceofanypluralnouns:✔ “Neithersoundsgoodtome.”(correct)✔ “Ithinkneitherofthetwinswantsababysitter.”(correct)✖ “Neitherofhisparentsworkatthefirm.”(incorrect)

DescribingpeoplewithdemonstrativepronounsDemonstrativepronounsalwaysrepresentnouns,typicallythings,places,events,ideas,andanimals.Incertaincases,however,someofthesepronounsmayalsobeusedtodescribepeople.Thiscanonlybedonewhenthepersonisidentifiedbythepronoun’santecedentwithinthesamesentence.Forexample:•“ThatisAmystandingbythedoor.”•“ThismustbeJake.”

•“ThatappearstobethewomanIsawearlier.”•“Whoisthat?”✖ “Gotalktothat.”(incorrect;noantecedent)✔ “Gotalktothatwoman.”(correct)✖ “Thatisquitehandsome.”(incorrect;noantecedent)✔ “Thatmanisquitehandsome.”(correct)

Demonstrativepronounsvs.demonstrativeadjectivesanddeterminersSomedemonstrativepronounsmayalsobeusedasdemonstrativeadjectivesordeterminers,buttheirusageisquitedifferent.Asdemonstrativepronouns,this,that,these,those,such,andneitherrepresentnouns.Asdemonstrativeadjectivesanddeterminers,however,thesesamewordsinsteadmodifynouns,appearingimmediatelybeforetheminasentence.Wecanseethisintheexamplesbelow:•“Shewantstophotographthis.”(demonstrativepronoun)•“Shewantstophotographthispainting.”(demonstrativeadjective)•“Thatisoneofmyfavorites.”(demonstrativepronoun)•“Thatbookisoneofmyfavorites.”(demonstrativeadjective)•“Thesetastethebest.”(demonstrativepronoun)•“Thesechocolatestastethebest.”(demonstrativeadjective)•“Hewantedtotrythose.”(demonstrativepronoun)•“Hewantedtotrythoserecipes.”(demonstrativeadjective)•“Suchistheman’spoorchoice.”(demonstrativepronoun)•“Suchmenmakepoorchoices.”(determiner)•“Neitherismine.”(demonstrativepronoun)•“Neitherlocketismine.”(determiner)Noneistheonlydemonstrativepronounthatdoesnotalsofunctionasademonstrativeadjective:✔ “I’lleatnone.”(correct)✖ “I’lleatnonesandwiches.”(incorrect)


1.Whichofthefollowingisnotademonstrativepronoun?a)thoseb)thatc)thered)this2.Whichsentenceusesademonstrativepronouncorrectly?a)Thosewasaninterestingmovie.b)Thisaren’tsomethingtocryabout.c)Theseisn’ttheworstrestaurantsintown.d)Iwanttodothatrightnow.3.Whichsentenceusesademonstrativepronounincorrectly?a)Neitherofmydreamsaretoogrand.b)Sucharethehabitsofteenagers.c)Billysaidhewantedtousethose.d)Noneofthismatterstome.4.Whichsentencecontainsademonstrativeadjective,asopposedtoademonstrativepronoun?a)Iwouldn’tmindgivingthoseatry.b)Iamprettysurethat’sNinawalkingbythebookstore.c)They’dlovetotakeastrollthroughthispark.d)Neitherisinterestedinattendingtheconcert.

InterrogativePronounsDefinitionInterrogativepronounsareusedininterrogativesentencestoaskquestions,functioningeitherasthesubjectorobjectofsuchsentences.Therearefiveprimaryinterrogativepronouns:who,whom,whose,which,andwhat.Thereareotherinterrogativepronounsaswellthatareusedforemphaticpurposes,whichwe’llcoverlaterinthissection.

UsinginterrogativepronounsDirectQuestionsMostoften,interrogativepronounsareusedindirectquestions,representingthepersonorthingthatisbeingaskedabout.Indirectquestions,theinterrogativepronounusuallycomesatornearthebeginningoftheinterrogativeclause,actingaseitherthesubjectorobjectofthesentence.Forexample:•“Whoiscomingtothepartytonight?”(subject)•“WhomdidyouasktofillinforMr.Smith?”(object)*•“Whoseisthiscomputer?”(subject)•“So,whichwillitbe:$10,000oranewsportscar?”(object)•“Whatdoyouexpectmetodo,exactly?”(object)Aninterrogativepronouniseasytoidentifybecauseitcanstandonitsowninasentenceandtakesthegrammaticalfunctionofanoun.Otherquestionwords,ontheotherhand,actasadverbswhentheystandalone,asin:•“Howdidyoufindme?”(Howmodifiestheverbfind.)•“Whenareweleaving?”(Whenmodifiestheverbleaving.)•“Whydidwestay?”(Whymodifiestheverbstay.)(*UsageNote:WhomisbecomingincreasinglyrareinmodernEnglish.Althoughitistechnicallycorrecttousewhomwhenitfunctionsastheobjectofaverbandwhowhenitfunctionsasthesubject,itismuchmorecommontousewhoinbothcases.)

IndirectQuestionsInterrogativepronounscanalsoappearwithinindirectquestions.Whenthishappens,theyappearinthemiddleofthesentence.Indirectquestionsaresometimesusedtoasksomethinginamorepoliteway,asin:•“Couldyoutellmewhosetheseare?”•“WouldyoumindtellingmewhichI’msupposedtobring?”•“Doyouknowwhatwe’redoinghere?”Othertimes,indirectquestionsareusedforemphasistoconveysurprise:•“Shewantswhotocometotheparty?”•“You’regoingtodowhatinNewYorkCity?”•“He’sgoingtoaskwhomoutonadate?”*Insuchcases,emphasisisputontheinterrogativepronoun—wecanhearthestressonthewordswhenwesaythesentencesaloud.

ReportedQuestionsInterrogativepronounsalsoappearinthemiddleofreportedquestions.Reportedquestionsareactuallyaformofdeclarativesentencesusingreportedspeech(alsocalledindirectspeech):theytellusaboutsomethingsomeoneelseasked,butdonotaskaquestionthemselves.Assuch,theydonotendinaquestionmark.Forexample:•“Shewantstoknowwhosetheseare.”•“Hewonderedwhichiscorrect.”•“Iaskedyouwhatweweresupposedtodotoday.”•“Shewaswonderingwhowouldbecomingtomorrow.”•“Theyaskedwhomtoconsultinthematter.”Thespeakerineachoftheexamplesisn’taskinganactualquestion,butratherisreportingorclarifyingaquestionthathasalreadybeenasked.

OtherinterrogativepronounsTherearetechnicallysevenotherinterrogativepronouns—whoever,whomever,whichever,whatever,whatsoever,whosoever,andwhomsoever—thatareusedfor

emphaticpurposes,buttheyaretypicallyusedinmoreformalorold-fashionedEnglish.Forexample:•“Whoeverwouldbelievesuchastory?”•“WhatevercouldIhavedonetomakeyousoangry?”•“Whomeverdidyouasktoaccompanyyoutothegalaonsuchshortnotice?”•“Whicheverwillthegentlemanchoose,Iwonder?Thelastthree,whatsoever,whosoever,andwhomsoever,aresynonymouswithwhatever,whoever,andwhomever.However,theyareconsideredevenmoreantiquatedinmodernEnglish,borderingonarchaic.Itisuncommontocomeacrossthemeveninmoreformalspeechorwriting.

OthergrammaticalrolesManyoftheinterrogativepronounswe’veexaminedaboveoftenserveothergrammaticalfunctionsindifferentcontexts.It’simportanttoknowthedifferencebetweenthem.

InterrogativeAdjectivesThreeoftheinterrogativepronouns—whose,which,andwhat—canalsofunctionasinterrogativeadjectives,meaningtheycomebeforeandmodifyanothernoun.Aneasywaytobesurewhetheryouaredealingwithaninterrogativeadjectiveoraninterrogativepronounistocheckwhetherthequestionwordisimmediatelyfollowedbyanounitmodifies.Forexample:•“Whatbookisyourfavorite?”

Inthisexample,whatisimmediatelyfollowedbythenounbook,whichitismodifying.Wecanbesurethat,inthiscase,whatisapossessiveadjective.•“Whatareyoureading?”Inthissentence,whatisnotimmediatelyfollowedbyanounthatitmodifies,whichmeansthatitisaninterrogativepronoun.Herearesomeotherexamples:•“WhichshirtshouldIwear?”(interrogativeadjective)•“Whichwouldyouchooseifyouwereme?”(interrogativepronoun)•“Whosebookisthisonthetable?”(interrogativeadjective)•“WhoseisthisthatI’mholding?”(interrogativepronoun)

RelativePronounsWho,whom,which,andwhosecanalsobeusedasrelativepronounsindeclarativesentences.Theyarenotconsideredinterrogativeinthisform,becausetheyarenolongerassociatedwithaquestion;rather,theyareusedtohelpclarifywhomorwhatasentenceistalkingabout,orelsegiveextrainformationaboutit.Forexample:•“Ihelpedtheoldmanwholivesdowntheroadwithhisgroceries.”•“Thecomputer,whichbelongedtomybrother,isveryslow.”•“Couldthepersonwhosecarisparkedoutsidepleasemoveit?”•“Amanwho/whomIhadnevermetbeforegreetedmeinthestreet.”Inaddition,thepronounswhoever,whichever,andwhateverarealsousedasindefiniterelativepronouns.TheyaremuchmorecommonlyusedinthiswayinmodernEnglishthantheyareasinterrogativepronouns.Forexample:•“Dowhateveryouplease;Idon’tcare.”•“Whoeverdecidestojoinusismorethanwelcome.”•“Takewhicheverrouteisfastest.”Whomevercanalsobeusedinthiswaywhenthepronounfunctionsasanobject,asin:•“Bewithwhomevermakesyouhappy.”However,thisisbecomingincreasinglyuncommon,withwhoevermoreoftenbeingusedinstead.


1.Whichofthefollowingisafunctionofinterrogativepronouns?a)Tohelpclarifywhoorwhatasentenceistalkingaboutb)Toaskorreportaquestionc)Tomodifyanounthatisbeingaskedaboutd)Toprovideadditionalinformationtoasentence2.Whichofthefollowingisnotoneoftheprimaryinterrogativepronouns?a)whichb)who

c)whosed)whatever3.Identifytheinterrogativepronounthatcompletesthefollowingsentencecorrectly:“______shallIasktocometodinnertonight?”a)whob)whichc)whomd)A&Be)B&Cf)A&Cg)Alloftheabove4.Whichofthefollowinginterrogativepronounsisusedforemphasis?a)whicheverb)whichc)whosed)whom

RelativePronounsDefinitionArelativepronounisatypeofpronounusedtoconnectarelativeclause(alsoknownasanadjectiveclause)tothemainclauseinasentence.Relativeclauseseitherhelpclarifywhoorwhatasentenceistalkingabout(knownastheantecedent),orelsegiveextrainformationaboutit.Herearethefivemostcommonlyusedrelativepronouns:

thatwhichwhowhomwhose

Lesscommonlyusedrelativepronounsincludethefollowing:where

whenwhoeverwhosoeverwhomeverwhicheverwhereverwhateverwhatsoever

FunctionsoftherelativepronounSubjects,objects,andpossessionInarelativeclause,therelativepronounfunctionsinoneofthreeways:asthesubject,theobject,orapossessivepronoun(thoughwhoseistheonlypossessiverelativepronoun).Theusageofarelativepronounultimatelydependsonitsantecedentandtherelativeclauseitintroduces.Wecanusethistableasaquickguide:

TypeofAntecedent Subject Object Possessive

People Who Who/Whom Whose

Things Which Which Whose

PeopleorThings That That Let’slookathoweachofthesecanbeusedinasentence:

Subject•“Thewomanwhocametomyhousewasasalesperson.”(Whoisthesubjectoftherelativeclausewhocametomyhouse,whichdescribestheantecedentthewoman.)•“Themalebirdsdancedandsang,whichattractednearbyfemales.”(Whichisthesubjectofthenon-restrictiverelativeclausewhichattractednearbyfemalesthatdescribestheantecedentdancedandsang.)

•“Ihavetogomendthefencethatisbroken.”(Thatisthesubjectoftherestrictiverelativeclausethatisbroken,describingtheantecedentthefence.)•“Iwantacomputerwhichcandownloadalotofgames.”(Whichisthesubjectoftherelativeclausewhichcandownloadalotofgamesanddescribestheantecedentacomputer.)

Object•“Idon’tknowifIpassedthetestthatItookyesterday.”(ThatistheobjectofrelativeclausethatItookyesterdayanddescribestheantecedentthetest.)•“ThenewemployeewhomIhiredisadedicatedworker.”(WhomistheobjectoftherelativeclausewhomIhiredanddescribestheantecedentthenewemployee.)

PossessionTherelativepronounwhoseisuniqueinthatitistheonlyonethatcandescribepossession.Itcomesbeforeanouninasentence,modifyingitlikeanadjectivetoindicatethatitbelongstotheantecedent.•“Shetriedtohelpthestudentwhoselunchmoneyhadbeenstolen.”(Whosemodifieslunchmoneyandintroducestherelativeclausewhoselunchmoneyhadbeenstolen,whichdescribestheantecedentthestudent.)

SubstitutingrelativepronounsMostrelativepronounsarecapableofmultiplefunctionsandusages,meaningtheycanbeusedinplaceofoneanotherincertaincircumstances.Thetablebelowgivesaquickbreakdownofwhenitisacceptabletouseeachrelativepronoun:

Canbeused...

asasubject?

asanobject?

asapossessive?

todescribethings?

todescribepeople?

who ✔ ✔(informal) ✖ ✖ ✔

whom ✖ ✔(formal) ✖ ✖ ✔

whose ✖ ✖ ✔ ✔ ✔

which ✔ ✔ ✖ ✔ ✖

that ✔ ✔ ✖ ✔ ✔

Relativepronounsthatcanbereplaced•“Thewomanwho/thatcametomyhousewasasalesperson.”(Whoandthatareinterchangeablewhendescribingpeople.)•“Thenewemployeewhom/who/that*Ihiredisadedicatedworker.”(Inadditiontowhom,whoandthatcanalsobeusedasanobjectininformalEnglishwhendescribingapersoninarestrictiverelativeclause.)•“Themailman,whom/who*myfatherknewinhighschool,isrunningforthestatesenate.”(Whenwhomistheobjectofanon-restrictiverelativeclause,itcanonlybereplacedbywho)•“Iwantacomputerthat/which**candownloadalotofgames.”(Whichandthatcanbothdescribethings.)(*Usagenote1:Traditionally,whomisconsideredtheonlycorrectrelativepronounwhenfunctioningastheobjectofarelativeclause,butnowadayswhoisalsoacceptable(asisthatinrestrictiverelativeclauses).Infact,mostpeoplethesedaysonlyusewho,whilewhomtendstobereservedforformalEnglish.)(**Usagenote2:Ingeneral,therelativepronounthatispreferabletowhichinrestrictiverelativeclauses;however,whichislargelyconsideredacceptable,especiallyininformalwriting.Wewilldiscussthedifferencesbetweenrestrictiveandnon-restrictiveclausesinmoredetaillater.)

Relativepronounsthatcannotbereplaced•“Themalebirdsdancedandsang,whichattractednearbyfemales.”(Sincewhichisthesubjectofanon-restrictiverelativeclausedescribingathing(theactofdancingandsinging),itcannotbereplacedbyanyotherrelativepronoun.)•“Shetriedtohelpthestudentwhoselunchmoneyhadbeenstolen.”(Only

whosecanbeusedasapossessiverelativepronoun,whetheritdescribesapersonorathing.)

Restrictivevs.non-restrictiverelativeclausesRestrictive(defining)relativeclausesRestrictiverelativeclauses(alsoknownasdefiningrelativeclauses)areclausescarryingessentialinformation.Withoutitsrestrictiverelativeclause,amainclausewilllackavitaldescriptionandfailtoconveythefullorappropriatemeaning.Becauseofthenecessityoftheirinformation,restrictiverelativeclausesarenotsetapartbycommas:•“I’veneverunderstoodpeoplewhohatesports.”•“ThatbookthatIreadwhenIwasyoungisbeingmadeintoamovie.”•“Hereisthewebsitewhichmysistercreated.”•“Didyouhearaboutthesailorwhoseshipwashauntedbyaheadlessghost?”•“Ithinkamanwhommyfatherhiredhasbeenstealingfromthecompany.”Ifyouweretoremoveeachexample’srelativeclause,thecorrespondingmainclausewouldchangeinmeaningandappeartobelackingnecessaryinformationoutofcontext.Forexample:•“I’veneverunderstoodpeoplewhohatesports.”•“I’veneverunderstoodpeople.”(Thespeakerdoesn’tunderstandpeopleortheirintentions.)•“ThatbookthatIreadwhenIwasyoungisbeingmadeintoamovie.”•“Thatbookisbeingmadeintoamovie.”(Someunspecifiedbookisbeingmadeintoamovie.)•“Hereisthewebsitewhichmysistercreated.”•“Hereisthewebsite.”(Thespeakerisindicatingsomeunidentifiedwebsite.)•“Didyouhearaboutthesailorwhoseshipwashauntedbyaheadlessghost?”•“Didyouhearaboutthesailor?”(Thespeakerisaskingthelistenerwhetherheorshehasheardaboutsomeunidentifiedsailor.)•“Ithinkamanwhommyfatherhiredhasbeenstealingfromthecompany.”•“Ithinkamanhasbeenstealingfromthecompany.”(Someunspecifiedmanis

thoughttohavebeenstealing.)

Thatvs.whichinrestrictiveclausesAsdiscussedearlier,thatispreferabletowhichinrestrictiverelativeclauses,thoughmanywriterstendtouseboth,especiallyinlessformalwriting.Asageneralrule,though,whichisnormallyreservedfornon-restrictiverelativeclauses,whichwewilllearnaboutinthefollowingsection.

Non-restrictive(non-defining)relativeclausesUnlikerestrictiverelativeclauses,non-restrictiverelativeclauses(ornon-definingrelativeclauses)containnon-essentialoradditionalinformationtothemainclausethat,whentakenaway,doesnotaffectordramaticallychangetheoverallintentandmeaningofthesentence.Non-restrictiveclausesrequiretheuseofcommastodistinguishthenon-essentialinformationfromtherestofthesentence.Whichisusedtointroducenon-restrictiveclausesthatdescribethingsornon-domesticanimals:•“Thelargepark,whichsheusedtovisitwhenshewasyoung,hadbeenaroundformanyyearsandwasapopulargatheringspotforchildren.”•“Ihadtosearchextensivelyforthemissingcookbook,whichtookmemanyhourstofind.”•“Thesong,whichwashisfavorite,couldbeheardfrommilesaway.”•“Thecattle,whichalwayswanderawayfromtheranch,didn’treturnuntilnightfall.”Whoandwhommayalsobeusedinnon-restrictiveclausesthatdescribepeopleordomesticanimals:•“Thewoman,whovolunteersatalocalhomelessshelter,wonthelottery.”•“Myfriend,Tom,whomIhaven’tseeninyears,iscomingtostaywithustomorrow.”•“Ourdog,whoismissingoneofhishindlegs,ranawayyesterday.”Whosecanbeusedwithbothpeopleandthingsinnon-restrictiveclauses:

•“Jane,whoseprimarygoalistobecomeadoctor,sentouthermedicalschoolapplicationslastmonth.”•“Theoldbank,whoseexteriorisfallingapart,isremarkablybeautifulontheinside.”Itisimportanttorememberthatthat,asarelativepronoun,canonlybeusedinrestrictiverelativeclauses.Onthecontrary,who,whom,whose,andwhichareallcapableofintroducingbothrestrictiveandnon-restrictiverelativeclauses(although,inrestrictiverelativeclauses,thatispreferabletowhich).

OmittingrelativepronounsSometimes,especiallyininformalwriting,relativepronounscanbeomittedaltogether.Thiscanonlybedonewhentherelativepronounistheobjectofarestrictiverelativeclause.Forexample,ifarelativepronounistheobjectofaclause,thereareseveralwaysyoucanphrasethesentence,dependingonhowformalorinformalyouwantittosound:•“ThegirltowhomIgavemyicecreamlookedupandsmiledatme.”(veryformal)•“ThegirlwhomIgavemyicecreamtolookedupandsmiledatme.”(formal)•“ThegirlwhoIgavemyicecreamtolookedupandsmiledatme.”(casual)•“ThegirlthatIgavemyicecreamtolookedupandsmiledatme.”(verycasual)•“ThegirlIgavemyicecreamtolookedupandsmiledatme.”(mostcasual)Unlikewhom,whichcanonlyactasanobjectofarelativeclause,whoandthatcanfunctionasbothobjectsandsubjectswhendescribingpeople;therefore,inrelativeclauses,itisacceptabletoreplacetheratherformal-soundingwhomwitheitherwhoorthat,oromittherelativepronounentirely.Whendescribingthingsinsteadofpeople,therelativepronounsthatandwhichmaybeomittedaslongastheyareused,likewhom,asanobjectofarestrictiverelativeclause:•“ThehousethatIwanttobuyisgoingonsaletoday.”•“ThehousewhichIwanttobuyisgoingonsaletoday.”•“ThehouseIwanttobuyisgoingonsaletoday.”Similarly,ifarelativeclauseusesanauxiliaryverb(suchastobe)+apresent

orpastparticipleaftertherelativepronoun,itcanbewordedlikethis:•“Thegirlwhoisjumpingintothelakeisaworld-famousdiver.”•“Thegirlthatisjumpingintothelakeisaworld-famousdiver.”•“Thegirljumpingintothelakeisaworld-famousdiver.”

RelativepronounsasobjectsofprepositionsIncertaincases,relativepronounscanbeusedasobjectsofprepositions,meaningtherelativepronounworksinconjunctionwithaprepositiontomodifythesubjectorverboftherelativeclause.Onlywhose,which,andwhomcanfunctionasobjectsofprepositions.InmoreformalEnglish,weplaceaprepositionbeforethepronoun.Herearesomeofthecombinationsyoumightsee:

withwhomtowhomforwhomthroughwhichofwhichaboutwhichfromwhichatwhoseinwhosewithwhose

InmodernEnglish,positioningprepositionsinfrontofrelativepronounsoftensoundsoverlyformal,inparticularwhenitcomestotherelativepronounwhom.Asaresult,itisgenerallyacceptableforaprepositiontocomeafterarelativeclauseinsteadofbeforearelativepronoun.Forexample:•“TheteacherwithwhomIspokehadmanyinterestingthingstosay.”(Veryformal)•“Theteacherwhom/who/thatIspokewithhadmanyinterestingthingstosay.”(Lessformal.Whomismostoftenreplacedbyeitherwhoorthat,andtheprepositionwithismovedtotheendoftherelativeclause.)

•“TheteacherIspokewithhadmanyinterestingthingstosay.”(Mostcasual.Therelativepronounisomitted,andtheprepositioniskeptattheendoftherelativeclause.)Itisalsoacceptabletoplaceaprepositionattheendofarelativeclausewhenusingthepronounwhich:•“ThehomeinwhichIgrewupholdsmanydearmemoriesforme.”(Veryformal.Inthiscase,youcannotreplacewhichwiththat,asthatcannotbeusedasanobjectofaprepositioninarelativeclause.)•“Thehomethat/whichIgrewupinholdsmanydearmemoriesforme.”(lessformal)•“ThehomeIgrewupinholdsmanydearmemoriesforme.”(mostcasual)Thepronounwhosefollowsthissamepatternofprepositionalplacement,exceptthatitcannotbesubstitutedwithanotherpronounanditcannotbeomitted:•“Myfriend,inwhosehouseI’mstaying,invitedmetoseeamoviewithhim.”(veryformal)•“Myfriend,whosehouseI’mstayingin,invitedmetoseeamoviewithhim.”(lessformal)

WhenandWhereWhenandwherearealsousedasrelativepronouns,especiallyinlessformalwritingandconversation.Theyarealwaysusedinrestrictiverelativeclauses.Weusewhentodescribeantecedentsthathavetodowithtime,asin:•“That’sthedaywhenwemet.”•“I’mlookingforwardtoatimewhentheworldwillbeatpeace.”Weusewheretodescribeantecedentsthathavetodowithlocation,asin:•“ThecaféwherewewentonSundaywasverynice.”•“Thetownwhereshelivesisonlyanhouraway.”

UsingprepositionsforformalEnglishInmoreformalEnglish,whereandwhenareoftenreplacedwithapreposition+whichtomarkpreciselocationsorpointsintime.Forexample:•“Wepreferredapartofthecountrywherewecouldliveinpeaceandquiet.”•“Wepreferredapartofthecountryinwhichwecouldliveinpeaceandquiet

.”•“Benislookingforwardtothedaywhenhecanfinallyjointhearmy.”•“Benislookingforwardtothedayonwhichhecanfinallyjointhearmy.”


1.Whichofthefollowingisnotoneofthefivemostcommonlyusedrelativepronouns?a)whomb)wherec)whosed)which2.Whichofthefollowingsentencesusesarelativepronounincorrectly?a)“Shetriedtofixthemirrorwhomhadbrokenmanyyearsearlier.”b)“Iwatchedadogthatwaschasingitstail.”c)“Hedecidedtotakethemysteriousmotorcycle,whoseownerhadseeminglydisappeared.”d)“Thebartendertookthedayoff,whichgavehersometimetorelax.”3.Choosethesentencethatcontainsanon-restrictiverelativeclause.a)“Mrs.Andersonrereadthebookshe’dlovedasachild.”b)“Ican’thelpbutwonderwherethey’regoing.”c)“Isitrightbeneathalightthatconstantlyflickers.”d)“TheymovedtoFlorida,whichtheyhopedwouldleadtobetterjobprospects.”4.Whichofthefollowingsentencesistheleastformal?a)“TheboxI’dreturnedappearedonmydoorstepagain.”b)“TheboxwhichI’dreturnedappearedonmydoorstepagain.”c)“TheboxthatI’dreturnedappearedonmydoorstepagain.”d)“TheboxwhomI’dreturnedappearedonmydoorstepagain.”5.Selecttherelativepronounthatcorrectlycompletesthefollowingsentence:“Thepizza,____waspepperoni,wasleftintheoventoolong.”a)which

b)thatc)whod)whom6.Selecttherelativepronounthatcorrectlycompletesthefollowingsentence:“Themalecandidate,____Ihadn’tvotedfor,wontheelectionanyway.”a)whichb)whosec)thatd)who/whom

ReciprocalPronounsDefinitionReciprocalpronounsareusedtorefertotwoormorepeoplewhoareorwerethesubjectofthesameverb,withbothorallpartiesmutuallyreceivingorbenefitingfromthatactioninthesameway.Reciprocalpronounsalwaysfunctionastheobjectsofverbs,referringbacktothetwoormorepeoplewhoareorwerethesubject(s).ThetworeciprocalpronounsinEnglishareeachotherandoneanother.Inmoretraditionalgrammar,eachotherisusedtoidentifyonlytwopeoplewhoareengagedinthemutualaction,whileoneanotherdescribesmorethantwopeople.However,thissupposed“rule”islesscommonlyappliedinmodernEnglish,witheachotherandoneanotheroftenbeingusedinterchangeably.

ReciprocalPronounsvs.ReflexivePronounsBecausethesubjectsofthesentencearealsotheobjectsofthesameverb,itmightseemlogicaltouseoneofthereflexivepronounstorepresenttheminstead,asin:✖ “Wecallourselveseveryday.”However,thisisincorrect.Reflexivepronounsareusedwith“one-way”actions,sosaying“wecallourselves”meanseachpersoniscallinghim-orherselfindividually—i.e.,personAcallspersonAeveryday,personBcallspersonB

everyday,andsoon.Becausewearedescribingareciprocalactionoftheverb(meaningtheactionismutuallygivenandreceivedbetweenthepartiesinvolved),wemustthereforeuseareciprocalpronoun.Thecorrectexpressionwouldthusbe:•“Wecalleachothereveryday.”or•“Wecalloneanothereveryday.”NowthesentencemeansthatpersonAcallspersonBeveryday,andpersonBcallspersonAeveryday.

Usingeachothervs.oneanotherAswesaidalready,wecanusebotheachotherandoneanothertorefertoreciprocalactionbetweentwoindividualsorbetweenmultiplepeopleinlargergroups—itdependsentirelyonthecontext.IfwehavealreadybeentalkingaboutMaryandSusanbeforewesay“theyloveoneanother,”thenitisobviousthattheactionislimitedtothosetwo.Likewise,ifwehadbeentalkingaboutthevariousmembersofalargefamilyandthensay“theyloveeachother,”thenitisclearthattheactionisreciprocalamongalloftheindividualsinthegroup.Again,whiletraditionalandprescriptivegrammarianssometimesinsistthateachothercanonlybeusedbetweentwopeopleandoneanothercanonlybeusedbetweenmorethantwopeople,thisguidelineisnotbasedonhistoricalorlinguisticevidence.Thetwoareinterchangeable.

Eachother’sandOneanother’sWhenwewishtomakereciprocalpronounspossessive,wealwaystreatthemassingularandadd“-’s”totheend.Becausebotheachotherandoneanotherrefertotheindividualswithinapairorgroup,theycannottakethepluralpossessiveform(i.e.,eachothers’oroneanothers’).However,becausewearetalkingaboutthingsbelongingtotwoormorepeople,thenounsthatfollowtheirpossessiveformareusuallypluralized.Forexample:•“MyneighborandIspentalotoftimeateachother’shouseswhenwewerekids.”•“Thestudentsweresentoffinpairstocorrectoneanother’sassignments.”•“Everyoneattherallywasbolsteredbyeachother’senergy.”


1.Whichreciprocalpronounisusedwhentalkingabouttwopeople?a)eachotherb)oneanotherc)themselvesd)A&Be)B&C2.Whatgrammaticalroledoreciprocalpronounstakeinasentence?a)thesubjectb)theobjectc)theobjectcomplementd)thesubjectcomplement3.Whichofthefollowingdoweaddtoreciprocalpronounstoindicatepossession?a)-’sb)-s’c)-’s’d)-’4.Whendoweuseareciprocalpronouninsteadofareflexivepronoun?a)Whenthesubjectofthesentencereceivestheactionofthesameverbb)Whentheobjectofthesentencereceivestheactionofthesameverbc)Whenthesubjectsofthesentencereceivetheactionofthesameverbindividuallyandseparatelyd)Whenthesubjectsofthesentencereceivetheactionofthesameverbmutuallyandequally

DummyPronounsDefinitionDummypronounsarewordsthatfunctiongrammaticallyaspronouns,butwhichdonothaveantecedentslikenormalpronounsdo.Thismeansthat,unlike

normalpronouns,dummypronounsdonotreplaceanoun,phrase,orclause.Theyrefertonothinginparticular,butinsteadhelpthesentencetofunctionproperlyinagrammaticalcontext.Dummypronounsarealsocommonlyreferredtoasexpletivepronouns.Therearetwodummypronouns,thereandit.

ThereasadummypronounThereisprimarilyusedasadummypronounincircumstanceswherethesentenceisexplainingthataperson,place,orthingexists.Whenthewordthereisbeingusedinthismanner,itisoftenreferredtoastheexistentialthere.Forexample,thefollowingsentencescontainthedummypronountheretoexplaintheexistenceofpeople,places,orthings:•“Thereisashipintheharbor.”•“Thereisabowlonthetable.”•“Therewereflowersinthemeadow.”•“Thereisariverthatpassesthroughthemountain.”•“TherearemanyreasonstogotoJamaica.”

Singularvs.PluraluseofthereThedummypronountherecanbeusedineitherasingularorpluralcontext.Whenitisusedinasingularcontext,thecorrelatingnounsandverbshavesingularendings;whenitisusedinapluralcontext,thecorrespondingnounsandverbshavepluralendings.

Singular•“Thereisafencearoundtheyard.”Inthiscase,theexistenceofonlyonething,afence,isbeingdiscussed.Therefore,thesingularverbisandthesingularnounfenceareused.Hereisanotherexampleoftherebeingusedinasingularcontext:•“Thereisacanoeonthelake.Again,theexistenceofonlyonecanoeisbeingdiscussed,sothesingularverbisandthesingularnouncanoeareused.

Plural•“Therearetwofencesaroundtheyard.”Thissentencediscussestheexistenceoftwofences,andthusthepluralformisused.Thisisdemonstratedbytheuseofthepluralverbareandthepluralnounfences.Hereisanotherexample:•“Therearemanycanoesonthelake.”Thissentencediscussestheexistenceoftwoormorecanoes.Becauseofthisfact,thepluralverbareandthepluralnouncanoesareused.

DifferencefromadverbialthereAlthoughthewordtherecanbeusedasadummypronoun,itcanalsobeusedasanadverb.Becauseofthisfact,itisimportanttoknowthedifferencebetweenthetwo.Whenthereisbeingusedasanadverb,itistakingtheplaceofanadverbialphrase,oftentimesanadverbialprepositionalphrase.Forexample,considerthefollowingsentences:•“Theyswaminthewater.”•“I’mgoingtohidethecookiesupabovethefridge.”Inthissentence,inthewaterisaprepositionalphrasethatfunctionsasanadverb.However,thisadverbialcanbereplacedbythewordthere:•“Theyswamthere.”•“I’mgoingtohidethecookiesupthere.”Inthesecases,thewordthereactsasanadverbialthatgivesfurtherinformationaboutwheretheactiontakesplace.But,ifthewordtherewasuseddifferentlyinasimilarsentence,itcouldfunctionasadummypronoun.Forexample:•“Therewerefishwheretheyswam.”•“Therearecookiesupabovethefridge.”Bothofthesesentencesusetheexistentialtheretoexplainthatcertainthings—namely,thefishandthecookies—exist.Therealsodoesnothaveanyantecedentsinthesesentences,soitisclearlyfunctioningasadummypronouninboth.

ItasadummypronounJustlikethedummypronounthere,itisalsousedasapronounwithoutanantecedentinsentences.Itiscommonlyusedinsituationswhenweather,distance,ortimeisbeingdiscussed.

WeatherThefollowingareexamplesofsentencesthatuseitasadummypronounrelatedtoweather.•“Itlookslikeitmaysnowtonight.”•“Isitraining?”•”Itwasverysunnyatthebeachlastweekend.”•“Italwaysseemstosleetwhenhedrivesonthehighway.”

DistanceThefollowingexamplesuseitasadummypronouninsentencesinvolvingdistance.•“ItisveryfarfromNorthAmericatoEurope.”•“Isitalongdrivetogettothemountain?”•“Itisashortwalkonceyougetoutoftheforest.”•“ItisfartherthanyouthinktodrivetoCalifornia.”

TimeThefollowingexamplesuseitasadummypronouninsentencesinvolvingtime.•“Itis4:30.•“Itwasearlierthanheexpected.”•“Couldyoutellmewhattimeitis?”•“ShetoldhimtocomebackwhenItwaslaterintheday.”

OtherusesThereareanumberofothersituationswhereitcanbeusedasadummypronoun,withoutpertainingtoweather,distance,ortime.

Whenitfunctionsasanemptysubjecttointroduceor“anticipate”somethingthatappearslaterinthesentence,itissometimesreferredtoasanticipatoryit:•“Itwasassumedthatthetourguideknewexactlyhowtogetthere.”•“Itseemsthatfourpeopleshowedupinsteadoftheexpectedtwo.”Itcanalsofunctionasanobjectwhenitisadummypronoun:•“Theteacherseemedabitoutofityesterday.•“Watchit,pal!”

Singularvs.PluralNoticethatinalloftheexamplesabove,itisonlyfunctioningasasingulardummypronoun.Thisisbecauseitcan’tbeplural.Thismeansthattheverbsandobjectsinsentenceswiththedummypronounithavetobesingularaswell.

Subjectvs.objectAsubjectisanounorpronounthatperformstheactionoftheverb.Anobjectisanounorpronounthatreceivestheactionoftheverb,Thedummypronounitcaneitherfunctionasthesubjectofasentenceorastheobject,althoughitismorecommonlyusedasthesubject.Existentialthere,ontheotherhand,canonlybeasubject.(Thewordtherecanfunctionastheobjectofapreposition,asin“Weleftfromthere.”However,itisconsideredanouninthiscase,notapronoun.)Herearesomeexamplesofsentenceswheredummypronounsareusedassubjects:•“Therearemanyducksinthepond.”•“Thereisatreeinthemiddleofthefield.”•“Itis12:30.”•“Itissunnyoutsidetoday.”Herearesomeexamplesofsentenceswheredummypronounsareusedasobjects:•“Willhemakeittothegame?”•“Coolitdown.”•“Watchit!”


1.Whichofthefollowingwordsisadummypronoun?a)andb)theb)itd)when2.Whichdummypronouncouldbeusedtocompletethefollowingsentence?“_____were12colorsinthepainting.”a)Itb)Therec)BothA&Bd)Noneoftheabove3.Dummypronounsarealsoreferredtoaswhat?a)Roundaboutpronounsb)Concretepronounsc)Ghostpronounsd)Expletivepronouns4.Thefollowingsentenceincludeswhattypeofdummypronoun?“Itwaswarmoutsidewhentheywenttothepool.”a)Subjectb)Objectc)Hyphenatedd)Noneoftheabove5.Dummypronounsaredifferentfromregularpronounsbecausetheydon'thavewhichofthefollowing?a)Clausesb)Periodsc)Antecedentsd)Adverbs

VerbsDefinitionVerbsareusedtoindicatetheactions,processes,conditions,orstatesofbeingsofpeopleorthings.Verbsplayanintegralroletothestructureofasentence.Theyconstitutetherootofthepredicate,which,alongwiththesubject(the“doer”oftheverb’saction),formsafullclauseorsentence—wecannothaveasentencewithoutaverb.Whenwediscussverbs’roleinthepredicate,weusuallydividethemintotwofundamentalcategories:finiteandnon-finiteverbs.

FiniteandNon-FiniteVerbsThepredicaterequiresatleastonefiniteverbtobeconsideredcomplete.Afiniteverbhasadirectrelationshiptothesubjectofasentenceorclause,anddoesnotrequireanotherverbinthesentenceinordertobegrammaticallycorrect.Forexample:•“Iswimeveryday.”•“Shereadsmanybooks.”•“Hetalkedforseveralhours.”Eachoftheaboveisafiniteverb,expressinganactionthatisdirectlyrelatedtothesubjectofthesentence.Non-finiteverbs,ontheotherhand,donotexpressthatrelationshipdirectly.Theonlyverbsthatcanbeconsideredfinitearethoseintheirbaseform(theinfinitiveformwithouttheparticleto),theirpasttenseform,ortheirthird-personsingularform.Verbformsthatareneverconsideredfinitearegerunds,infinitives,andparticiples(bothpastandpresent).Let’slookatanexamplecontainingbothafiniteandnon-finiteverb:•“WearelearningabouttheAmericanRevolutioninschool.”Thissentenceusesthepresentcontinuousverbarelearning.Thisfunctionsasasingleunit,withlearningexpressingmostofthemeaning.However,learningisapresentparticiple,whichisconsideredanon-finiteverb;thefiniteverbofthesentenceisactuallyjusttheauxiliaryverbare.Itisaninflectionoftheverbbeusedforafirstpersonpluralsubject(we).

Wecanseethedifferenceifweuseeachverbinisolationwiththesubject:•“Weare”•“Welearning”Wecanseethatthefirstverbisfinitebecauseitexpressesadirectrelationshipwiththesubject,anditcangoontoformanynumberofcompletesentences.Forexample:✔ “Wearetired.”✔ “Wearealmostthere.”✔ “Wearealargegroup.”Thesecondverb,thepresentparticiplelearning,cannotmakesuchsentences,andsoisnotfinite.Thefollowingexamplesallrequireafiniteverbtobecorrect:✖ “Welearningmath.”✖ “Welearningalot.”✖ “Welearninginschool.”Tolearnmoreaboutthedifferencesbetweenthesetwoclassesofverbs,gotothesectionFiniteandNon-finiteVerbsinthischapter.

TransitiveandIntransitiveVerbsEveryverbisclassedasbeingeithertransitiveorintransitive.Transitiveverbsdescribeanactionthatishappeningtosomeoneorsomething.Thispersonorthingisknownasthedirectobjectoftheverb.Forexample:•“He’sreadingabook.”(Theactionofreadingishappeningtothebook.)•“Thepeoplewatchedthegamefromthebleachers.”(Theactionofwatchedishappeningtothegame.)•“Iwaseatingadelicioussteakfordinnerlastnight.”(Theactionofeatingishappeningtoadelicioussteak.)Transitiveverbscanalsotakeindirectobjects,whicharethepeopleorthingsreceivingthedirectobject.Forinstance:•“Isentmybrotheraletter.”(Mybrotherreceivestheletterthroughtheactionofsent.)Conversely,intransitiveverbsdonothaveobjects—theiractionisnot

happeningtoanyoneoranything.Forexample:•“Ican’tbelieveourdogranaway.”(Thereisnoobjectreceivingtheactionofranaway.)•“Therewasalotofdustintheair,whichmademesneeze.”(Thereisnoobjectreceivingtheactionofsneeze.)•“Don’tbetooloudwhilethebabysleeps.”(Thereisnoobjectreceivingtheactionofsleeps.)

RegularandIrregularVerbsJustaseveryverbiseithertransitiveorintransitive,eachoneisconsideredtobeeitherregularorirregularMostverbsareregularverbs,whichmeansthat“-d”or“-ed”canbeaddedtotheirbaseform(theinfinitiveoftheverbwithoutto)toconjugateboththepastsimpletenseandpastparticipleforms.Forexample:

BaseForm PastSimpleTense PastParticiple

“Iplayviolin.”“Ibakecakes.”“Ilistentomyteacher.”“Igatherfirewood.”“Iclimbtrees.”

“Iplayedviolin.”“Ibakedcakes.”“Ilistenedtomyteacher.”“Igatheredfirewood.”“Iclimbedtrees.”

“Ihadplayedviolin.”“Ihadbakedcakes.”“Ihadlistenedtomyteacher.”“Ihadgatheredfirewood.”“Ihadclimbedtrees.”

Irregularverbs,ontheotherhand,havepasttenseandpastparticipleformsthatdonot(ordonotseemto)adheretoadistinctorpredictablepattern,andtheyareusuallycompletelydifferentfromoneanother.Unfortunately,thismeansthatthereisgenerallynowayofdetermininghowtoconjugateirregularverbs—wejusthavetolearneachoneindividually.Therearemanyirregularverbs,buthereareafewcommonones:


“Iseethehorizon.”“Igrowbiggereveryday.”“Igivetocharity.”

“Isawthehorizon.”“Igrewbiggereveryday.”“Igavetocharity.”

“Ihadseenthehorizon.”“Ihadgrownbiggereveryday.”“Ihadgiventocharity.”

“IsingonTuesday.”“Iswimoften.”“Idrivetowork.”

“IsangonTuesday.”“Iswamoften.”“Idrovetowork.”

“IhadsungonTuesday.”“Ihadswumoften.”“Ihaddriventowork.”

Uniquely,theverbbeisconsideredhighlyirregular,havingthreedifferentpresenttenseforms(is,am,are)andtwopasttenseforms(was,were),inadditiontoitsbaseformanditspastandpresentparticiples(been,being).

FormsandcategoriesAllverbsareeitherfiniteornon-finiteandtransitiveorintransitiveinagivensentence,dependingontheirformandfunction.Therearemanydifferentformsandcategoriesofverbsthatwe’llbelookingatinthischapter,andwe’llgiveabriefsummaryofthedifferentkindsofverbsbelow.Youcancontinueontotheirindividualsectionstolearnmore.

VerbformsAuxiliaryVerbsAuxiliaryor“helping”verbsareverbsthatareusedtocompletethemeaningofotherprimaryor“main”verbsinasentence.Intheexamplewelookedatabove,areisanauxiliarytothemainverb,learning.Thethreeprimaryauxiliaryverbs—be,have,anddo—areusedtocreatedifferenttenses,toformnegatives,ortoaskquestions.Forexample:•“Iamworkingonmyproject.”(presentcontinuoustense)•“Shedoesnotworkhereanymore.”(negativesentence)•“Haveyouseenmykeys?”(question)Therearealsomodalauxiliaryverbs(oftenjustcalledmodalverbs),whichareusedtoexpressmodality—thatis,possibility,likelihood,ability,permission,obligation,orfutureintention.Thesearecan,could,will,would,shall,should,must,may,andmight.Theyaredistinguishedbythefactthattheyareunabletoconjugateintodifferentforms,andtheyareonlyfollowedbyaverbinitsbaseform.Forexample:•“Iwillbetheretonight.”(futureintention)•“Shecanwriteverywell.”(ability)

•“MayIbeexcusedfromthetable?”(permission)•“Wemustfinishthistoday.”(obligation)

InfinitivesInfinitivesarethemostbasicconstructionofaverb.Whenwetalkofaverbasageneralconcept,weusuallyusetheinfinitiveform,whichistheuninflectedbaseformoftheverbplustheparticleto.Forinstance:

toruntowalktoreadtobetolearntoact

Infinitivescanbeusedasnouns,adjectives,oradverbsinasentence,buttheydonotactuallyfunctionasverbs—theyareusedtoexpressanactionasaconcept,ratherthanwhatisbeingdoneorperformedbythesubjectofaclause.Forexample:•“Ilovetorun.”(functionsasanoun)•“IwishIhadsomethingtodo.”(functionsasanadjective)•“Irunalottostayhealthy.”(functionsasanadverb)

ParticiplesParticiplesareformsofverbsthateitherfunctionwithauxiliaryverbstocreatethecontinuousandperfectverbtenses,orasadjectivestomodifynouns.Everyverb(exceptthemodalauxiliaryverbs)hastwoparticipleforms:apresentparticipleandapastparticiple.Thepresentparticipleisalwaysthebaseformoftheverb+“-ing.”Althoughthespellingofsomeverbschangesveryslightlytoaccommodatethissuffix,everyverbtakes“-ing”forthepresentparticiple.Weusepresentparticipleswiththeauxiliarybetoformcontinuoustenses,asin:•“Can’tyouseethatIamreading?”(presentcontinuoustense)•“Iwaswatchingthat.”(pastcontinuoustense)

•“Theywillbearrivingsoon.”(futurecontinuoustense)Thepastparticipleisusuallythesameasaverb’ssimplepasttenseform,whichismadebyadding“-d”or“-ed”totheendoftheverb.However,manyverbsareirregular,meaningtheydonotfollowthisspellingpattern,andtheyhavedifferentpasttenseandpastparticipleforms.(We’lllookatregularandirregularverbslateron.)Thepastparticipleisusedwiththeauxiliaryhavetoformtheperfecttenses:•“Youhaveworkedlongenough.”(presentperfecttense)•“Wehadseentoomuch.”(pastperfecttense)•“They’llhavearrivedbeforewegetthere.”(futureperfecttense)Wecanalsouseparticiplesasadjectivestoadddescriptiontonouns.Thoughtheystillrelatetoaction,theyarenotfunctioningasverbswhenusedthisway.Forexample:•“Themotherlookeddownathersmilingchild.”•“Icouldtellbytheexhaustedlookonhisfacethatheneededsleep.”

CategoriesofverbsTherearemanydifferentcategoriesofverbsthatdescribedifferentkindsofactionsorstatesofbeing.

Action(Dynamic)VerbsActionverbs(alsoknownasdynamicverbs)describeanactiveprocessthatresultsinaneffect.Forexample:•“Irantoschool.”•“Shereadabook.”•“Theytalkedduringlunch.”•“Weswamforoveranhour.”

StativeVerbsIncontrasttoactionverbs,stativeverbsdescribestatesofbeingofasubject.Theseincludelinkingverbs,suchasbeandverbsofthesenses,whichareusedtodescribeorrenameasubjectusingapredicativeadjectiveornoun.Forexample:

•“Iamhungry.”•“Yousoundtired.”•“Heseemslikeabully.”Otherstativeverbsarethosethatexpressemotions,possession,cognition,andstatesorqualities.Forexample:•“Shelikesoldmovies.”•“Theyownthreecars.”•“Iunderstandtheissue.”•“Yourhappinessdependsondoingsomethingyouenjoy.”

LightVerbsLightverbsdonotcarryuniquemeaningontheirown,butinsteadrelyonanotherwordorwordsthatfollowthemtobecomemeaningful.Commonexamplesincludedo,have,andtake,asin:•“Doyourhomework!”•“Whydon’twehavesomethingtoeat?”•“Itookashowerbeforebreakfast.”Inmanycases,thesamelightverbwillhavedifferentmeanings,dependingonthewordorwordsitispairedwith.Forinstance:•“Pleasedon’tmakeamess.”•“Pleasemakeyourbed.”

PhrasalVerbsPhrasalverbsareverbsthatpairwithprepositionsorparticlestocreateunique,specificmeanings.Thesearelargelyidiomatic,whichmeansthattheydon’tmakeliteralsenseaccordingtotheirindividualparts.Forexample:•“Ican’tbelievethatyou’regivingup!”•“Theplanetookoffanhourlate.”•“Hehasbeenlookingafterhismother.”•“Stoppickingonyourbrother!”

ConditionalVerbsThetermconditionalverbsreferstoverbconstructionsthatareusedinconditionalsentences,whichdescribeahypotheticaloutcomethatisreliantuponanotherconditionalsituationbeingtrue.Thesesentencesmostoftenusetheconjunctionifwithoneoftheverbstoexpresstheconditionalsituation,andoftenusemodalauxiliaryverbstodescribethehypotheticaloutcome.Forexample:•“Theleaveswillfallifthewindblows.”•“Ifyouhaddoneyourchores,youcouldhavehadanicecreamcone.”•“Youwouldgetbettergradesifyoustudiedharder.”

CausativeVerbsCausativeverbsareusedtoindicatethatapersonorthingiscausinganotheractionoraneventtohappen.Theyaregenerallyfollowedbyanounorpronounsandaninfinitiveverbthatisnotcausative,whichdescribestheactionthatwascausedtohappen.Forexample:•“Helethisdogrunthroughthefield.”•“Thebiggerhouseenabledthefamilytohavemoreroomfortheirbelongings.”•“Thenewdresscodeforcedthestudentstoweardifferentshoes.”•“Thelawrequiresapersontoobtainapermitbeforehuntingonpublicland.”

FactitiveVerbsFactitiveverbsareusedtoindicateaconditionorstateofaperson,place,orthingthatresultsfromtheactionoftheverb.Forexample:•“Shewasappointedcommissionerbythemayor.”•“ThecommitteeelectedMr.Fullerchairmanoftheboard.”•“Thejuryjudgedthedefendantnotguilty.”

ReflexiveVerbsReflexiveverbshavesubjectsthatarealsotheirdirectobjects—thatis,theactionoftheverbisbothcommittedandreceivedbythesamepersonorthing.Theobjectsoftransitivereflexiveverbsareusuallyreflexivepronouns.For

example:•“Iaccidentallyburnedmyselfwiththehairdryer.”•“Theproblemseemstohaveworkeditselfoutintheend.”•“Thiscardoesn’tdriveproperlyanymore.”(intransitive—nodirectobject)

ConjugationWhenwediscussverbs,weusuallymusttouchuponconjugation.Thisistheinflection(changingofform)ofverbstocreatenewmeaninginspecificcontexts.Wegenerallyrefertotense(whichwelookedatbrieflyabove)whenwetalkaboutconjugation,butverbsexperiencealargeamountofinflectiondependingonhowtheyarebeingusedinasentence.Formoreinformation,gotothechapteronConjugationinthepartofthisguidecalledInflection(Accidence).


1.Whatisthefunctionofverbsinasentence?a)Toidentifythepersonorthingperformingorcontrollinganactionb)Todescribeanaction,stateofbeing,orconditionperformedorexperiencedbysomeoneorsomethingc)Toidentifythepersonorthingdirectlyreceivingtheeffectofanactiond)Toadddescriptiveinformationaboutanotherpartofthesentence2.Thepredicateofasentencealwayscontainswhatkindofverbs?a)Regularverbsb)Transitiveverbsc)Finiteverbsd)Non-finiteverbs3.Unlikeregularverbs,irregularverbsusuallyhavedifferent:a)Pasttenseandpastparticipleformsb)Presenttenseandpresentparticipleformsc)Pasttenseandpresenttenseformsd)Presenttenseandpastparticipleforms

4.Unliketransitiveverbs,intransitiveverbsarenotabletotakewhichofthefollowing?a)Subjectsb)Directobjectsc)Indirectobjectsd)Modifierse)A&Cf)B&Cg)Alloftheabove5.Identifytheformoftheverbinboldinthefollowingsentence:“Wewerelookingforaplacetoeat.”a)Transitiveverbb)Auxiliaryverbc)Infinitiveverbd)Participle5.Whatisthetermforchangingaverb’sformtoreflectthingsliketense?a)Conscriptionb)Transformationc)Conjugationd)Declension

FiniteandNon-finiteVerbsDefinitionFiniteverbsareverbsthathavesubjectsandindicategrammaticaltense,person,andnumber.Theseverbsdescribetheactionofaperson,place,orthinginthesentence.Unlikeothertypesofverbs,finiteverbsdonotrequireanotherverbinthesentenceinordertobegrammaticallycorrect.Herearesomeexamplesoffiniteverbs:•“Theywenttothemalltoday.”•“Theoutfielderleapedforthebaseball.”•“Manypeopletraveltotheoceaninthesummer.”•“Thesailboatglidesoverthewater.”

•“Thelionisthekingofthejungle.”

Differencefromnon-finiteverbsNon-finiteverbsareverbsthatdonothavetensesorsubjectsthattheycorrespondto.Instead,theseverbsareusuallyinfinitives,gerunds,orparticiples.Gerundsandpresentparticiplesendin“-ing,”whilepastparticiplesusuallyendin“-ed,”“-d,”or“-t.”Let’shavealookathowinfinitives,gerunds,andparticiplesfunctioninasentenceincontrasttofiniteverbs.

InfinitivesIfaninfinitiveisusedinitsfullform(to+baseformoftheverb),itcanfunctionasanoun,adjective,oradverbinthesentence.Bareinfinitives(baseformoftheverbwithoutto)ofnon-finiteverbsareusedinconjunctionwithmodalauxiliaryverbs,whichareconsideredthefiniteverb(s)ofthesentence.Forexample:•“Torunisoftentiresome.”(Theinfinitivetorunfunctionsasanoun,whileisfunctionsasthefiniteverb.)•“Ittakesawhiletolearntorideabicycle.”(Theinfinitivephrasetolearntorideabicyclefunctionsasanadjective,modifying“awhile.”)•“Ican’tswimyet.”(Thebareinfinitiveswimreliesonthefiniteauxiliaryverbcantobecomplete.)

GerundsGerundsare“-ing”formsofaverbthatfunctionasnounsinasentence.Becausetheydonothavethegrammaticalfunctionofaverb,gerundsarealwaysnon-finite.•“Seeingtheoceanforthefirsttimeisincredible.”•“Readingbooksisoftenveryenjoyable.”

ParticiplesPresentParticiples

Presentparticipleshavethesameformasgerunds,endingin“-ing.”However,theyfunctioninasentenceaseitherpartofacontinuoustense,relyingonanauxiliaryverbtobecomplete;asanadjuncttoafiniteverb,indicatingasecondaryaction;orasanattributiveorpredicativeadjective,modifyinganoun.•“Mydaughteriswatchingmework.”(Watchingisusedwithistoformthepresentcontinuoustense.)•“Thecarsatrustinginthedrivewayforoverayear.”(Rustingisusedinconjunctionwiththefiniteverbsattoindicateaparallelactivity.)•“Ireadaveryengagingbooklastweek.”(Engagingfunctionsasanattributiveadjectiveofbook.)•“Thisbookisengaging.”(Engagingfunctionsasapredicativeadjective,followingthefinitelinkingverbisandmodifyingbook.)

PastParticiplesPastparticiplesofverbsareusedtocreatenon-continuousperfectverbtenses(pastperfect,presentperfect,andfutureperfect),orelsefunctionasadjectivesmodifyingnouns(again,eitherattributivelyorpredicatively).Theyarealsousedwhenformingthepassivevoice.Itisimportanttonotethatnon-finitepastparticiplesandfinitepasttenseverbsoftenbothendin“-d”or“-ed.”Iftheworddirectlydescribestheactionofasubject,thenitisafiniteverb.However,ifthewordisbeingusedasanadjectiveorrequiresanotherverbtobecomplete,thenitisanon-finiteverb.•“Ihadalreadywalkedformanymiles.”(Walkedisapastparticiplethatdependsontheauxiliaryverbhavetocreatethepastperfecttense.)•“Thoseclothesarewashed.”(Washedisapastparticipleactingasanpredicativeadjectivetothenounclothes,followingthefinitelinkingverbare.)•“Shecarriedthewashedclothesupstairs.”(Carriedisapasttenseverbdescribingtheactionofthesubject,she;washedisapastparticipleactingasanattributiveadjectivetothenounclothes.)

ImportancetosentencestructureSentencesneedafiniteverbinordertobecomplete.Withoutafiniteverb,asentencewouldsimplybeasubject,orasubjectandotherpartsofspeechthatdonotexpressactionandarenotlinkedtogetherproperly.Inotherwords,sentences

donotfunctioncorrectlywithoutfiniteverbs.Toillustratethispoint,considerthefollowingexamples:•“Thecar.”•“Thecarontheroad.“•“Thecarontheroadthroughthemountains.”Intheaboveexamples,caristhesubject.Inordertomakecompletesentences,afiniteverbmustbeusedtodescribetheactionofthecar,aswellasshowhowtheotherpartsofthesentencerelatetoit.Inthefollowingexamples,afiniteverbisusedtoformcompletesentences:•“Thecardrove.”•“Thecardroveontheroad.”•“Thecardroveontheroadthroughthemountains.”Simplyaddingthefiniteverbdrovemakesallthreeofthesesentencescomplete.Thisisbecauseitletsthereaderknowwhatthecarisdoing,anditconnectsthesubjecttotheotherpartsofthesentence.Wecanalsoseehowausinganon-finiteverbinsteadofafiniteonewouldrenderthesentenceincompleteagain.Forexample:•“Thecardrivingontheroadthroughthemountains.”Becauseweusedthepresentparticipledriving,thesentenceisnowdisjointed—theactionisnotfullyexpressedbythesentence.Wewouldneedtoaddafiniteverbtocompleteit,asin:•“Thecarwasdrivingontheroadthroughthemountains.”

IdentifyingfiniteverbsDuetothefactthatmultipletypesofverbscanoftenexistinthesamesentence,itishelpfultoknowsomecommoninstancesoffiniteverbsthatcanhelpyouidentifythem.

Thirdpersonsingularpresentverbsendingin“-s”Anyverbthathasan“-s”endingforthethirdpersonsingularpresentformisafiniteverb.Non-finiteverbsdonothavetense,andthusneverswitchtheir

endingsto“-s”inthethirdpersonsingularpresentform.(Theexceptionstothisaremodalauxiliaryverbs:can,could,will,would,shall,should,may,might,andmust.Modalverbsalsocannottakean“-s”endingforthirdpersonsingularpresent;however,theyarealwaysfinite.Theycomedirectlyafterthesubjectandbeforemainverbs,andhelptodetermineaspect,tense,andmood.)Herearesomeexamplesoffiniteverbsinthethirdpersonsingularpresentformwith“-s”endings:•“Herunstothestoreeverymorning.”•“Thewomanswimsintheocean.”•“Theboykicksthesoccerballatthegoal.”•“Shehasthreecarsinherdriveway.”

PasttenseirregularverbsVerbsthatarefunctioninginthepasttense(notpastparticiples)areinherentlyfinite.Aswenotedabove,themajorityofverbshavethesameformforbothpasttenseandpastparticiple.Theseareknownasregularverbs.Todetermineifaregularverbisinthepasttenseorisapastparticiple(andthusfiniteornon-finite),wehavetoexaminehowitisfunctioninginthesentence.However,someverbsareirregular,andtheyhaveapasttenseformthatisseparatefromtheirpastparticipleform.Hereareafewexamplesofsentencesusingirregularverbs:Be•“Shewasfeelingunwell.”(pasttense–finite)•“Shehasbeenfeelingunwell.”(pastparticiple–non-finite)Go•“Iwenttothestore.”(pasttense–finite)•“Ihadgonetothestore.”(pastparticiple–non-finite)Fly•“TheyflewtoSanDiegoalready.”(pasttense–finite)•“TheyhaveflowntoSanDiegoalready.”(pastparticiple–non-finite)Therearequiteafewirregularverbs,andthereisnoruletohowtheyareconjugated(whichiswhytheyareirregular).Tolearnmore,gotothesectionaboutRegularandIrregularVerbs.

VerbsthatimmediatelyfollowsubjectsFiniteverbsoftendirectlyfollowthesubjectswhoseactionstheyaredescribing.Thislocationallowsforaclearconnectionbetweenthesubjectandtheverb—itmakesiteasyforthereaderorlistenertounderstandthattheverbisdescribingtheactionofthesubjectandnotanotherwordinthesentence.Herearesomeexamplesoffiniteverbsappearingdirectlyaftersubjectsinsentences:•“Everyonelistenedtothemusic.”•“Elephantstraveltogetherinherdstofindwater.”•“Acrossthefield,thetreesswayedinthewind.”Non-finiteverbshowever,generallydonotappeardirectlyafterthesubject.Thisisbecausetheyareoftennotdirectlydescribingtheactionofthesubject,butareinsteadservinganothergrammaticalpurposeinthesentence.


1.Whichofthefollowingisafiniteverb?a)tojumpb)swimmingc)isd)gone2.Identifythefiniteverbinthefollowingsentence.“Runninglate,thefamilyquicklydrovetotheirrelative'shouse.”a)Runningb)totheirc)relatived)drove3.Finiteverbscorrespondtoaspecificsubjectand________.a)atenseb)aninfinitivec)apastparticiple

d)apresentparticiple4.Whichofthefollowingverbsinthesentenceisnotafiniteverb?“Jumpingintotheoceancanbeveryrefreshingafteralongday.”a)canb)Jumpingc)bed)A&Be)B&C5.Inthepasttense,finiteverbscommonlyendin:a)“-ing”b)“-s”b)“-ed”d)“-er”

TransitiveandIntransitiveVerbsDefinitionEnglishverbsaresplitintotwomajorcategoriesdependingonhowtheyfunctioninasentence:transitiveandintransitive.Transitiveverbstakeoneormoreobjectsinasentence,whileintransitiveverbstakenoobjectsinasentence.

DistinguishingbetweenthetwoTransitiveVerbsPutsimply,atransitiveverbdescribesanactionthatishappeningtosomethingorsomeone,whichisknownastheverb’sdirectobject.Forinstance,inthesentence“Iamreadingabook,”bookisthedirectobject,whichtheactionreadingishappeningto.Toputitanotherway,theverbistransitiveifawordorwordsinthesentenceanswerthequestion“Whoorwhatdidtheactionoftheverbhappento?”

Examples

•“Thepeoplewatchedthegamefromthebleachers.”(Thegameiswhatthepeoplewatched.)•“Iwaseatingadelicioussteakfordinnerlastnight.”(AdelicioussteakiswhatIwaseating.)•“TheymetyourbrotherattheairportinDubai.”(Yourbrotheriswhotheymet.)

IntransitiveVerbsAnintransitiveverb,ontheotherhand,describesanactionthatdoesnothappentosomethingorsomeone.Forexample,inthesentence“Iarrivedlate,”arrivedisdescribinganaction,butthereisnothingandnooneforthatactiontohappento—theactioniscompleteonitsown.Theverbisintransitiveifwecannotanswerthequestion“Whoorwhatdidtheactionoftheverbhappento?”

Examples•“Ican’tbelieveourdogranaway.”(Whatdidthedogrunaway?Nothing,thereisnoobjectreceivingtheactionofranaway.)•“Therewasalotofdustintheair,whichmademesneeze.”(WhatdidIsneeze?Nothing,thereisnoobjectreceivingtheactionofsneeze.)•“Don’tbetooloudwhilethebabysleeps.”(Whatdidthebabysleep?Nothing,thereisnoobjectreceivingtheactionofsleeps.)

IntransitiveverbswithprepositionalphrasesWhenintransitiveverbsaremodifiedbyprepositionalphrases,theycanoftenlookliketheyaretransitivebecausetheprepositionhasitsownobject;however,thisisnotthecase.Take,forexample,thefollowingsentences:•“Ican’tbelieveourdogranawayfromhome.”•“Isneezedfromthedust.”•“Thebabyissleepinginourroom.”Itmayseemlikehome,dustandourroomareallobjectsoftheverbsinthesesentences,butthey’reactuallyobjectsoftheprepositions,whichtogetherformprepositionalphrasesthatmodifytheverbs.Theverbsremainintransitive,

regardlessoftheobjectsinprepositionalphrases.

MnemonicdeviceOnewaytorememberthedifferencebetweenthetwoistothinkabouttheirnames:Transitiveverbstransitionortransferanactiontoapersonorthingthatreceivesit.In-meansnotinthiscase,sointransitiveverbsdonottransition/transferanactiontoapersonorthingthatreceivesit.

“AmbitransitiveVerbs”Someactionverbscanbebothtransitiveandintransitive,dependingonthecontextofthesentenceorwhatinformationthespeakerwishestoinclude.Thesearesometimesknownasambitransitiveorergativeverbs.Forexample:•“Sheeatsbeforegoingtowork.”(Intransitive—nodirectobjectreceivingtheactionoftheverbeats.)•“Sheeatsbreakfastbeforegoingtowork.”(Transitive—hasadirectobject(breakfast)receivingtheactionoftheverbeats.)Herearesomeotherexamplesofverbsthatfunctionbothtransitivelyandintransitively.•“I’vebeentryingtoreadmore.”(intransitive)•“I’vebeentryingtoreadmorenovels.”(transitive)•“I’mstillcooking,soI’mgoingtobealittlelate.”(intransitive)•“I’mstillcookingdinner,soI’mgoingtobealittlelate.”(transitive)•“I’vebeenexercisingeverydaythismonth.”(intransitive)•“I’vebeenexercisingmyarmseverydaythismonth.”(transitive)

Monotransitive,Ditransitive,and“Tritransitive”VerbsAswe’veseen,atransitiveverbisbydefinitionaverbthattakesanobject.Mostverbsaremonotransitive,meaningtheyonlytakeoneobject.However,someverbs,knownasditransitiveverbs,cantaketwoobjectsinasentence,while

others,knownastritransitiveverbs,cantake(orseemtotake)threeobjects.

MonotransitiveVerbsAverbthatactsuponasingleobjectinasentenceisreferredtoasmonotransitive(monomeaningone).Thissingleobjectiscalleditsdirectobject.Alloftheexampleswe’veseensofarhavebeenmonotransitiveverbs;here’safewmore:•“Irodemybiketogethere.”•“Jimjusttoldafunnyjoke.”•“I’mmakinglasagnafordinner.”•“Iheardshe’swritinganovel.”

DitransitiveVerbsTherearesomeverbsinEnglishthattaketwoobjects:adirectobjectandanindirectobject.Theseareknownasditransitiveverbs.Thedirectobjectrelatestothepersonorthingthatdirectlyreceivestheactionoftheverb,whiletheindirectobjectrelatestothepersonorthingthatindirectlyreceivesorbenefitsfromtheactionasaresult.Theindirectobjectinaditransitiveverbcaneithercomeimmediatelybeforethedirectobjectinasentence,oritcanformtheobjectofaprepositionalphraseusingtoorforthatfollowsandmodifiesthedirectobject.Forexample:•“HegaveMaryapen.”(Theindirectobject,Maryimmediatelyfollowsthedirectobject,pen.)or•“HegaveapentoMary.”(Theindirectobject,Mary,formstheobjectoftheprepositionalphrasetoMary,whichfollowsandmodifiesthedirectobject,pen.)Herearesomeotherexamples:•“Sheteachesthestudentsmathematics.”•“Sheteachesmathematicstothestudents.”•“Isentmybrotheraletter.”•“Isentalettertomybrother.”•“Myfatherbakedourclassabatchofcupcakes.”

•“Myfatherbakedabatchofcupcakesforourclass.”

FactitiveVerbsFactitiveverbsareorappeartobeditransitiveaswell.Insteadofhavingadirectobjectthatimpactsonanindirectobject,factitiveverbsdescribeastatus,category,quality,orresultthatthedirectobjectisbecomingduetotheactionoftheverb.Thissecondaryelementcanbeeitheranobjectorobjectcomplementoftheverb.Forexample:•“TheAmericanpeopleelectedherthepresidentoftheUnitedStates.”•“HewasappointedSupremeCourtjustice.”•“ThecommitteeselectedMrs.Fullerchairmanoftheboard.”•“ThegroupdesignatedMarshalltheleaderfromthenon.”•“ThecoachmadeLindapointguard.”•“Wepaintedtheceilingwhite.”Seethesectiononfactitiveverbstolearnmore.

“Tritransitive”verbsAnunofficialthirdtypeoftransitiveverbiswhat’ssometimesknownasatritransitiveverb,meaningthatittakesthreeobjects.Thisthird“object”isformedfromaprepositionalphraseorclausethatappearstoreceivetheactionoftheverbbywayoftheindirectobject.Forexample:•“WewillmakeyouCEOfor$300,000.”•“I’dtradeyouthatsandwichforanicecreamcone.”•“Ibetyou50bucks(that)ourteamwillwinthechampionship.”Thereissomedisputeamonglinguists,however,astowhetherthesekindsofverbstrulyhavethreeobjects,orwhetherthethirdpieceofinformationismerelyconsideredanadjunct,asthesentencewouldbegrammaticallysoundwithoutit.


1.Whatdoalltransitiveverbshavethatintransitiveverbsdonot?a)apreposition

b)asubjectc)anobjectd)anadverbialclause2.Whatkindofverbcanbebothtransitiveandintransitive?a)monotransitiveb)ditransitivec)tritransitived)ambitransitive3.Whatkindofverbisinthefollowingsentence?“Iplayedmygrandmotherasong.”a)intransitiveb)monotransitivec)ditransitived)tritransitive4.Whatkindofverbisinthefollowingsentence?“Iswamforhalfanhourbeforemymeeting.”a)intransitiveb)monotransitivec)ditransitived)tritransitive5.Whatkindofverbonlyhasadirectobject?a)intransitiveb)monotransitivec)ditransitived)tritransitive

RegularandIrregularVerbsDefinitionAllEnglishverbsareeitherregularorirregular,dependingonhowtheyareconjugated.Themajorityareregularverbs,whichmeansthat“-d”or“-ed”isaddedtotheirbaseform(theinfinitiveoftheverbwithoutto)tocreateboththepastsimpletenseandpastparticiple.Thepastsimpletenseandpastparticiplesofirregularverbs,ontheotherhand,havemanydifferentformsthatdonotadheretoadistinctorpredictablepattern.Muchofthetime,theirpasttenseandpastparticipleformsarecompletelydifferentfromoneanother.Unfortunately,thismeansthatthereisnowayofdetermininghowtoconjugateirregularverbs—wejusthavetolearneachoneindividually.

ConjugatingRegularandIrregularVerbsInthefollowingsections,we’lllookatvariousexamplesofregularandirregularverbsandhowthepastsimpletenseandpastparticipleareformedforeachone.We’llalsolookatafewexamplesofhoweachofthesedifferentformsfunctionsinasentence.

RegularverbsAswesawabove,regularverbsaredefinedashavingboththeirpastsimpletenseandpastparticipleformsconstructedbyadding“-d”or“-ed”totheendoftheword.Formostregularverbs,thisistheonlychangetotheword.Herearesomeexamplesofcommonregularverbs.


playbakelistenapproachgather

playedbakedlistenedapproachedgathered

playedbakedlistenedapproachedgathered

climbwalkarrivebolt

climbedwalkedarrivedbolted

climbedwalkedarrivedbolted

Inalloftheaboveexamples,theonlyalterationtotheverbhasbeentheadditionof“-d”or“-ed.”Notice,too,thatthepasttenseandpastparticipleformsareidenticalineachcase—thisisadefiningfeatureofregularverbs.

ChangingspellingInsomecases,though,wehavetomodifytheverbslightlyfurtherinordertobeabletoadd“-d”or“-ed.”Forinstance,withverbsthatendina“short”vowelfollowedbyaconsonant,wedoublethefinalconsonantinadditiontoadding“-ed”;*whenaverbendsinaconsonant+“y,”wereplacethe“y”with“i”andadd“-ied”;andwhenaverbendsin“-ic,”weaddtheletter“k”inadditionto“-ed.”Forexample:


chopcopypanic

choppedcopiedpanicked

choppedcopiedpanicked

(*UsageNote:Anexceptiontothisruleoccursforwordsthatendinasoftvowelandtheconsonant“l”(asintravel,cancel,fuel,label,etc.).Inthiscase,wemerelyadd“-ed”toformthepastsimpleandthepastparticiple(asintraveled,canceled,fueled,labeled,etc.)—wedonotdoubletheconsonant.Note,however,thatthisexceptiononlyoccursinAmericanEnglish;inothervarietiesofEnglish,suchasBritishorAustralianEnglish,theconsonantisstilldoubled.)SeethechapteronSuffixestolearnmoreabouthowwordschangewhenweaddtotheirendings.

Examplesentences•“Iwalkaroundtheparkeachevening.”(baseform)

•“Iwalkedaroundtheparkintheafternoon.”(pastsimpletense)•“Ihavewalkedaroundtheparkafewtimesthismorning.”(pastparticiple)•“I’mgoingtochopsomevegetablesforthesalad.”(baseform)•“Hechoppedsomevegetablesforthesaladbeforedinner.”(pastsimpletense)•“Hehadalreadychoppedsomevegetablesforthesalad.”(pastparticiple)•“Don’tcopyotherstudents’answersoryouwillgetanF.”(baseform)•“Ithinkhecopiedmyanswers.”(pastsimpletense)•“Theonlyanswershegotrightweretheoneshehadcopied.”(pastparticiple)•“Yourfather’sfine,don’tpanic!”(baseform)•“IpanickedwhenIheardhewasinthehospital.”(pastsimpletense)•“Iwishhadn’tpanickedlikethat.”(pastparticiple)

IrregularverbsIrregularverbs,bytheirverydefinition,donothavespellingrulesthatwecanfollowtocreatethepastsimpletenseandpastparticiples.Thismeansthattheonlywayofknowinghowtospelltheseformsistomemorizethemforeachirregularverbindividually.Belowarejustafewexamplesofsomecommonirregularverbs.


beseegrowgivethinkthrowdriveriderunswimsit

was/weresawgrewgavethoughtthrewdroveroderanswamsat

beenseengrowngiventhoughtthrowndrivenriddenrunswumsat

Asyoucansee,irregularverbscanhaveendingsthataredramaticallydifferentfromtheirbaseforms;often,theirpastsimpletenseandpastparticiplesformsarecompletelydifferent,too.Again,theonlywaytolearnthesevariationsistomemorizethem.

ExamplesLet’slookatsomesentencesthatuseirregularverbsintheirvariousforms:•“Iamexcitedthatcollegeisstarting.”(baseform)•“Iwassadtoleavehome,though.”(pastsimpletense)•“Ihavebeenmakingalotofnewfriendsalready.”(pastparticiple)•“Idrivetoworkeverymorning.”(baseform)•“Idrovefornearlyanhouryesterday.”(pastsimpletense)•“IhadalreadydrivenhalfwaytotheofficewhenIrealizedIforgotmybriefcase.”(pastparticiple)•“Iwouldlovetogrowvegetablesinmygarden.”(baseform)•“Igrewsomejuicytomatoeslastsummer.”(pastsimpletense)•“Hehasgrownalotofdifferentvegetablesalready.”(pastparticiple)•“IthinkIwouldliketogetadog.”(baseform)•“Shethoughtadogwouldprovidesomegoodcompany.”(pastsimpletense)•“Shehadn’tthoughtabouthowmuchworktheyare.”(pastparticiple)

ConjugatingpresenttenseandthepresentparticipleAlthoughtherearestarkdifferencesbetweenregularandirregularverbswhenitcomestoconjugatingtheirpastsimpletenseandpastparticiples,bothkindsofverbsdofollowthesameconventionswhencreatingpresentparticiplesandpresenttenseinthethirdpersonsingular(theothertwoelementsofverbconjugation).Forexample:RegularVerbs

RegularVerb

PastSimpleTense

PastParticiple

ThirdPersonSingularPresentTense

PresentParticiple

bake baked baked bakes baking

tap tapped tapped taps tapping

tidy tidied tidied tidies tidying

mimic mimicked mimicked mimics mimickingIrregularVerbs

IrregularVerb

PastSimpleTense

PastParticiple

ThirdPersonSingularPresentTense

PresentParticiple

ride rode ridden rides riding

see saw seen sees seeing

give gave given gives giving

swim swam swum swims swimmingTheexceptiontothisistheverbbe,whichconjugatesthepresenttenseirregularlyforfirst,second,andthirdperson,aswellasforsingularandplural:

Verb PastSimpleTense

PastParticiple

PresentTense

PresentParticiple

be was/were been is/am/are beingForthisreason,beisknownasahighlyirregularverb.Note,however,thatitstillformsthepresentparticiplefollowingthesameconventionsasallotherverbs.


1.Whichofthefollowingisaregularverb?a)thinkb)findb)listend)ran2.Whichofthefollowingisanirregularverb?

a)happenb)talkc)walkd)swim3.Identifywhethertheverbinthefollowingsentenceisregularorirregular:“Thefamilyhikedoverthemountain.”a)regularb)irregular4.Identifytheirregularverbinthefollowingsentence:“Shegavemeabunchofpotatoes,whichsheharvestedherself,tocookfordinnerlater.”a)cookb)gavec)pickedd)bunch5.Inwhichofthefollowingwaysdoregularandirregularverbsconjugatedifferently?a)Whenformingthepastsimpletenseb)Whenformingthepastparticiplec)Whenformingthepresentparticipled)A&Be)B&Cd)Noneoftheabove6.Inwhichofthefollowingwaysdoregularandirregularverbsconjugateinthesameway?a)Whenformingthepastsimpletenseb)Whenformingthepastparticiplec)Whenformingthepresentparticipled)A&Be)B&Cd)Noneoftheabove

AuxiliaryVerbsDefinitionAuxiliaryverbs(alsocalledhelpingverbs)areverbsthataddfunctionalmeaningtoother“main”or“full”verbsinaclause.Theyareusedtocreatedifferenttensesoraspects,toformnegativesandinterrogatives,ortoaddemphasistoasentence.However,theydonothavesemanticmeaninguntothemselves.

TypesofAuxiliaryVerbsHereisthecompletelistofauxiliaryverbs:

bedohavecancouldwillwouldshallshouldmustmaymightoughttousedtoneeddare

Theprimaryauxiliaryverbsarebe,do,andhave,andtheyarethemostcommonlyoccurringauxiliariesinEnglish.Eachcanalsobeusedasamainverbinaclause,andeachisabletoconjugatetoreflectplurality,tense,oraspect.Theverbscan,could,will,would,shall,should,must,may,andmightareknownasmodalauxiliaryverbs.Thesearedistinguishedbythefactthatthey

areunabletoconjugateintodifferentforms,andtheyareonlyfollowedbyaverbinitsbaseform.Theremainingverbs—oughtto,usedto,need,anddare—areknownassemi-modalverbs,sincetheydonotshareallthecharacteristicsofthemodalverbsaboveandonlyfunctionasauxiliaryverbsincertainways.

CreatingverbtensesOneofthemostcommonusesofauxiliaryverbsistocreatethecontinuousandperfectcontinuousverbtenses(aswellasthefuturesimpletense).

FutureSimpleTenseThefuturetenseisstructuredaswill+themainverb,oris/am/are+goingto+themainverb:•“IwillarriveinNewYorkat10PM.”or:•“IamgoingtoarriveinNewYorkat10PM.”

PresentContinuousTenseThepresentcontinuoustenseisstructuredasam/is/are+thepresentparticipleofthemainverb:•“Iamworkingtomorrow.”•“SheislivinginNewYork.”•“Theyaretryingtosavesomemoney.”

PastContinuousTenseThepastcontinuoustenseisstructuredaswas/were+thepresentparticipleofthemainverb:•“Iwascookingbreakfastwhenshecalled.”•“Weweretalkingonthephoneatthetime.”

FutureContinuousTenseThefuturecontinuoustenseisstructuredaswillbe+thepresentparticipleofthe

mainverb,oram/is/are+goingtobe+thepresentparticipleoftheverb:•“Iwillbeleavinginthemorning.”or:•“Iamgoingtobeleavinginthemorning.”

PresentPerfectTenseThepresentperfecttenseisstructuredashave/has+thepastparticipleofthemainverb:•“Ihavelivedhereallmylife.”•“Shehasstudiedforthisexamforweeks.”•“Theyhavetriedtofindasolutiontotheproblem.”

PastPerfectTenseThepastperfecttenseisstructuredashad+thepastparticipleofthemainverb:•“IhadalreadymademyfortunewhenIwasyourage.”•“Wehadseenthattheresultswereconstant.”

FuturePerfectTenseThefutureperfecttenseisusuallystructuredaswillhave+thepastparticipleofthemainverb:•“Iwillhavefinishedbythattime.”•“Shewillhavesungwithaprofessionalorchestrabeforethetourbegins.”

PresentPerfectContinuousTenseThepresentperfectcontinuoustenseisstructuredashavebeen+thepresentparticipleofthemainverb:•“Ihavebeentryingtoreachyouforoveranhour.”

PastPerfectContinuousTenseThepastperfectcontinuoustenseisstructuredashadbeen+thepresentparticipleofthemainverb:

•“Wehadbeenworkingthroughthenight.”

FuturePerfectContinuousTenseThefutureperfectcontinuoustenseisstructuredaswillhavebeen+thepresentparticipleofthemainverb,oram/is/are+goingto+havebeen+thepresentparticipleoftheverb:•“Shewillhavebeenlivinghereformostofherlife.”•“Iamgoingtohavebeenworkingherefor10yearsnextweek.”

IdentifyingauxiliaryverbsAuxiliaryverbscanbeidentifiedbytwomaincriteria:whethertheverbiscapableofinversionwiththesubject,andwhetheritcantakethenegatingadverbnotasapostdependentmodifier.(Anexceptiontothefirsttworulesisthelinkingverbbe,whichcanbothinvertandtakenot,despitehavingthefunctionofamainverb.)

Subject-auxiliaryinversionInversionreferstothereversalofthenormalpositionofthesubjectandtheauxiliaryverbofaclause.Whileitistechnicallypossibleforamainverbtoinvertwithitssubject,itismuchlesslikelythanhavinganauxiliaryverbcauseaninversion,duetothefactthatsubject-auxiliaryinversioniscommonlyusedtocreateinterrogativesentences.Additionally,subject-auxiliaryinversioncanbeusedtocreateconditionalsentences,aswellasforemphasisinnegativesentenceswhennegatingphrasesareused.

InterrogativesentencesWhenasentenceisinthepresentsimpletenseorpastsimpletense,weusetheauxiliaryverbdotoformitintoaquestionword.Doisinvertedwiththesubject,comingbeforeitinthesentence.Forexample:•“Johnworksacrosstown.”(declarativesentence)•“DoesJohnworkacrosstown?”(interrogativesentence)Iftheverbisinacontinuoustense(present,past,orfuture)orthefuturesimpletense,thentheauxiliaryverbusedtocreatethetenseisinvertedwiththesubject;iftheverbisinaperfectcontinuoustense(present,past,orfuture),then

thefirstofthetwoauxiliaryverbsisinverted.Forexample:Presentcontinuoustense:•“Johnisworkingacrosstown.”(declarative)•“IsJohnworkingacrosstown?”(interrogative)Pastcontinuoustense:•“Johnwasworkingacrosstown.”(declarative)•“WasJohnworkingacrosstown?”(interrogative)Presentperfectcontinuoustense:•“Johnhasbeenworkingacrosstown.”(declarative)•“HasJohnbeenworkingacrosstown?”(interrogative)Pastperfectcontinuoustense:•“Johnhadbeenworkingacrosstown.”(declarative)•“HadJohnbeenworkingacrosstown?”(interrogative)Futuresimpletense:•“Johnwillworkacrosstown.”(declarative)•“WillJohnworkacrosstown?”(interrogative)or:•“Johnisgoingtoworkacrosstown.”(declarative)•“IsJohngoingtoworkacrosstown?”(interrogative)Futurecontinuoustense:•“Johnwillbeworkingacrosstown.”(declarative)•“WillJohnbeworkingacrosstown?”(interrogative)or:•“Johnisgoingtobeworkingacrosstown.”(declarative)•“IsJohngoingtobeworkingacrosstown?”(interrogative)Futureperfectcontinuoustense:•“Johnwillhavebeenworkingacrosstown.”(declarative)•“WillJohnhavebeenworkingacrosstown?”(interrogative)or:•“Johnisgoingtohavebeenworkingacrosstown.”(declarative)•“IsJohngoingtohavebeenworkingacrosstown?”(interrogative)

QuestionwordsandmodalverbsThisinversionholdstrueevenwhenaquestionwordisused,asin:•“WherewillJohnbeworkingacrosstown?”•“WhyhadJohnbeenworkingacrosstown?”•“WhenwasJohnworkingacrosstown?”Modalauxiliaryverbscanalsobeusedtocreatequestionswithspecificmeanings,asin:•“Canyouworkaforklift?”(questionofability)•“MayIwatchtelevisionforanhour?”(questionofpermission)•“Mustwesitthroughanotherboringplay?”(questionofobligation)

InversionofbeFinally,aswementionedearlier,beisabletoinvertwhenitfunctionsasalinkingverb(meaningitisamainverb)aswellaswhenitfunctionsasanauxiliary.Forexample:•“Iamcold.”•“Areyoucold?”•“Theywereallpresent.”•“Weretheyallpresent?”

ConditionalsentencesConditionalsentencesaremostoftenformedusingtheconjunctioniftocreateaconditionclause.Forexample:•“IfIweretomovetoFlorida,Iwouldbewarmallyearround.”•“Iftheyhadtrainedalittleharder,theywouldhavewon.”Wecanalsoachieveconditionalclausesbyusingsubject-auxiliaryinversion,althoughthesentencesoundsabitmoreformalasaresult:•“WereItomovetoFlorida,Iwouldbewarmallyearround.”•“Hadtheytrainedalittleharder,theywouldhavewon.”

Negativephrases

Negativephrasesaresometimesusedtoprovideextraemphasisinanegativesentence.Becausethemainverbremainsaffirmative,thenegativephraseappearsaheadofthesubjectandthemainverb,whichmeansthatanauxiliaryverbmustcomebetweenitandthesubject.Ifthenegativephraseweretocomeafterthemainverbofthesentence(asadverbialphrasesoftendo),thesentencewouldbecomeunclearbecausetheverbwouldshiftfromanaffirmativepositiontoanegativeone.Forexample:✖ “Youarespendingthenightthereundernocircumstances.”(Noinversion—thesentenceisunclearand/orlacksemphasis.)✔ “Undernocircumstancesareyouspendingthenightthere.”(Subject-auxiliaryinversion—thesentenceisnowclearwithproperemphasisonthenegativephrase.)✖ “Theytolduswhattheproblemwasatnopoint.”(noinversion)✔ “Atnopointdidtheytelluswhattheproblemwas.”(subject-auxiliaryinversion)

FormingnegativesentenceswithnotThemostcommonwaytomakeaverbnegativeistousetheadverbnot.However,mainverbsusuallydonottakenotontheirown—theyrequireanauxiliaryverbtoaccomplishthis.Forexample:•“Iworkinalawfirmdowntown.”(affirmativesentence)✖ “Iworknotinalawfirmdowntown.”(incorrectnegativesentence)✔ “Idonotworkinalawfirmdowntown.”(correctnegativesentence)Aswithsubject-verbinversion,beasamainverbisanexceptiontothisrule.Forinstance:✔ “Heisverywarm.”(affirmative)✔ “Heisnotverywarm.”(negative)Finally,itmustbenotedthatinolder,formal,andmoreliteraryEnglish,mainverbswereabletotakenotwithoutanauxiliary.Forexample:•“Iknownotwheretheproblemslie.”•“Betraynotyourkin.”However,thistypeofnegativeformationisrarelyusedinmodernspeechorwriting.


1.Whichofthefollowingisamodalauxiliaryverb?a)beb)doc)mustd)have2.Whatcantheprimaryauxiliaryverbsdothatmodalverbscannot?a)Taketheadverbnottobecomenegativeb)Invertwiththesubjectinaninterrogativesentencec)Formaverbtensed)Conjugatetoreflectplurality3.Whichofthefollowingcanperformsubject-verbinversionasamainverbinthesamewayasauxiliaryverbs?a)beb)doc)haved)will4.Identifytheauxiliaryverbinthefollowingsentence:“Ihavetotellyouthatyouarebeingridiculous.”a)haveb)tellc)ared)being5.Selecttheauxiliaryverbthatwillputthefollowingsentenceinthefutureperfectcontinuoustense:“Jameswill____beenstudyingforthreeyearscomethisSeptember.”a)beb)doc)haved)will

PrimaryAuxiliaryVerbsDefinitionThe“primary”auxiliaryverbsarebe,have,anddo—theyoccurmostcommonlyinEnglish.Theyarealsosomeofthetrickiesttomaster,becauseeachcanalsobeusedasamainverbinaclause,andeachisabletoconjugatetoreflectpluralityandtenseasaresult.Beandhaveareusedasauxiliariestoconjugatethecontinuous,perfect,andperfectcontinuoustenses.Doisusedtomakemainverbsnegativeortoforminterrogativesentences;itcanalsobeusedtoaddemphasistoasentence.Wewillbeginbyexaminingthesedifferentconjugations,andthenwe’lllookmorecloselyathowtheseverbsfunctionasauxiliaries.

Conjugatingbe,have,anddoBecausebe,have,anddoareabletofunctionasmainverbs,theymustalsobeabletoinflectforpluralityandtense;itisimportanttoknowtheseconjugations,astheymustbeusedcorrectlywhentheverbsfunctionasauxiliaries.Doconjugatesasdid(pasttense),does(third-personsingularpresenttense),done(pastparticiple),anddoing(presentparticiple);haveconjugatesashad(pasttense/participle),has(third-personsingularpresenttense),andhaving(presentparticiple).Be,meanwhile,hassevenconjugations:am(first-personsingularpresenttense);are(first-personpluralpresenttense,second-personsingular/pluralpresenttense,third-personpluralpresenttense);is(third-personsingularpresenttense);was(first-personsingularpasttense,third-personsingularpasttense);were(first-personpluralpasttense,second-personsingular/pluralpasttense,third-personpluralpasttense);been(pastparticiple);andbeing(presentparticiple).Thefollowingtableswillhelpillustratethesedifferentconjugations.Notethatonlyconjugationsusedinanauxiliarycapacityhavebeenincluded:

BeConjugations Form Auxiliaryexamplesentence

be baseform "Youmustbejoking."

am first-personsingularpresenttense

"IammovingtoGermanynextmonth."

are

first-personpluralpresenttense

second-personsingular/pluralpresenttense

third-personpluralpresenttense

"Weareleavingtomorrowmorning."

"Areyouworkinglater?"

"Wherearetheygoing?"

is third-personsingularpresenttense

"Sheiswonderingwherewe'regoing."

was

first-personsingularpasttense

third-personsingularpasttense

"Iwastalkingtomybrotheryesterday."

"Itwasrainingquitehardlastnight."

were

first-personpluralpasttense

second-personsingular/pluralpasttense

third-personpluralpasttense

"Wewerelookingforanewplacetolive."

"Youwerethinkingofrunningaway?"

"Whenweretheyplanningonelectinganewpresident?"

been pastparticiple "Everyonehasbeenworryingabouttheirjobs."

Have

Conjugations Form AuxiliaryExamplesentence

have baseform "Ihavebeentothispartoftownbefore."

third-person

has singularpresenttense

"Ithasbeenrainingforoveranhournow."

had pasttense "Theyhadbeenconfidentintheproject'ssuccess."

having presentparticiple "Havingworkedhiswholelife,Larryrelishedthethoughtofretirement."

Do

Conjugations Form AuxiliaryExamplesentence

do baseform "Dobecareful."

does third-personsingularpresenttense

"Doesheknowwhathe'stalkingabout?"

did pasttense "Wedidn'tknowanybetter."

AuxiliaryFunctionsFormingTensesTheverbsbeandhaveareusedasauxiliaryverbstoformdifferenttensesofmainverbs.Beisusedonitsowntoformthecontinuoustenses,whilehaveisusedtoformtheperfecttenses.Bothhaveandbeen(thepastparticipleofbe)areusedtogethertoformtheperfectcontinuoustenses.Aswesawabove,beandhavebothhavemultipleconjugations,allofwhichmustbeusedcorrectlywhentheyfunctionasauxiliaries.

PresentContinuousTense(Progressive)Thepresentcontinuoustenseisstructuredasam/is/are+thepresentparticipleofthemainverb:•“Iamworkingtomorrow.”

•“SheislivinginNewYork.”•“Theyaretryingtosavesomemoney.”

PastContinuousTenseThepastcontinuoustenseisstructuredaswas/were+thepresentparticipleofthemainverb:•“Iwascookingbreakfastwhenshecalled.”•“Weweretalkingonthephoneatthetime.”

FutureContinuousTenseThefuturecontinuoustenseisstructuredaswillbe+thepresentparticipleofthemainverbORam/is/are+goingtobe+thepresentparticipleoftheverb:•“Iwillbeleavinginthemorning.”•“Iamgoingtobemeetingwithmyprofessorlater.”•“Heisgoingtobestudyingabroadnextyear.”

PresentPerfectTenseThepresentcontinuoustenseisstructuredashave/has+thepastparticipleofmainverb:•“Ihavelivedhereallmylife.”•“Shehasstudiedforthisexamforweeks.”•“Theyhavetriedtofindasolutiontotheproblem.”

PastPerfectTenseThepastcontinuoustenseisstructuredashad+thepastparticipleofthemainverb:•“IhadalreadymademyfortunewhenIwasyourage.”•“Wehadseenthattheresultswereconstant.”

FuturePerfectTenseThefuturecontinuoustenseisusuallystructuredaswillhave+thepastparticipleofthemainverb:

•“Iwillhavefinishedbythattime.”•“Shewillhavesungwithaprofessionalorchestrabeforethetourbegins.”(Noticethathavedoesnotconjugateforthethird-personsingularinthistense.)

PresentPerfectContinuousTenseThepresentperfectcontinuoustenseisstructuredashavebeen+thepresentparticipleofthemainverb:•“Ihavebeentryingtoreachyouforoveranhour.”

PastPerfectContinuousTenseThepastperfectcontinuoustenseisstructuredashadbeen+thepresentparticipleofthemainverb:•“Wehadbeenworkingthroughthenight.”

FuturePerfectContinuousTenseThefutureperfectcontinuoustenseisstructuredaswillhavebeen+thepresentparticipleofthemainverb:•“Iwillhavebeenworkingherefor10yearsnextweek.”(Noticethathavedoesnotconjugateforthethird-personsingularinthistense.)Youmayhavenoticedthatthefuturetensesalsousetheauxiliaryverbwill.Thisisoneofthemodalauxiliaryverbs,whichwillbecoveredinaseparatesection.

FormingnegativesentenceswithnotThemostcommonwaytomakeaverbnegativeistousetheadverbnot.However,mainverbscannottakenotontheirown—theyrequireanauxiliaryverbtodothis.

UsingdoIfaverbdoesnotalreadyuseanauxiliaryverb(i.e.,toformoneofthetensesabove),weusetheauxiliaryverbdo/doestoaccomplishthis.Forexample:•“Iworkontheweekends.”(affirmativesentence)

✖ “Iworknotontheweekends.”(incorrectnegativesentence)✔ “Idonotworkontheweekends.”(correctnegativesentence)•“Shelivesinthecity.”(affirmative)✖ “Shelivesnotinthecity.”(incorrectnegativesentence)✔ “Shedoesnotliveinthecity.”(correctnegativesentence)Noticethatbecausetheauxiliaryverbdoconjugatestoreflectthethird-personsingular,themainverbofthesentencerevertsbacktoitsbaseform.Likewise,ifasentenceisinthepastsimpletense,doconjugatestodid,andthemainverbremainsinthepresent-tensebaseform.Forinstance:•“HestudiedinEurope.”(affirmativesimplepasttense)✖ “HestudiednotinEurope.”(incorrectnegativepasttense)✔ “HedidnotstudyinEurope.”(correctnegativepasttense)

UsingnotwithothertensesIfaverbisalreadyusingoneormoreauxiliaryverbstocreateaperfect,continuous,orperfectcontinuoustense,thenitistheauxiliaryclosesttothesubjectthattakesthewordnot.Forexample:•“Iamworkinglater.”(affirmativepresentcontinuoustense)•“Iamnotworkinglater.”(negativepresentcontinuoustense)•“Shehadbeenlivingthereforamonth.”(affirmativepastperfectcontinuoustense)•“Shehadn’tbeenlivingthereforamonth.”(negativepastperfectcontinuoustense)•“Theywillhavebeenwritingtheirdissertationsforalmostayear.”(affirmativefutureperfectcontinuoustense)•“Theywillnothavebeenwritingtheirdissertationsforalmostayear.”(negativefutureperfectcontinuoustense)

ErrorswithhavenotAfrequenterroristomaketheverbhavenegativeinthepresentsimpletense.Weneedtoalwaysrememberthatthepresentsimplenegativeisdonot(contractedasdon’t)or,inthirdpersonsingular,doesnot(contractedasdoesn’t).Forexample:✖ “Ihaven’tadog.”(incorrect)✔ “Idon’thaveadog.”(correct)

✖ “Shehasn’tacat.”(incorrect)✔ “Shedoesn’thaveacat.”(correct)Ifwesay“Ihaven’tadog,”weareusinghaveasanauxiliaryratherthanasamainverbmeaning“topossess”—indoingso,themainverbisnowmissing.Andjustasinthepresentsimplenegative,weneedanauxiliaryverbwhenusingthepastsimplenegative:✖ “Ihadn’tacar.”(incorrect)✔ “Ididn’thaveacar.”(correct)

HaveandhavegotHave,whenusedasamainverbmeaning“topossess,”meansthesamethingasthelessformalhavegot.Theycanusuallybeusedinterchangeably,thoughnotineverycase.Inhavegot,haveisactingasanauxiliaryverbforgot.Becauseofthis,haveisnowabletotakenotinthenegativepresentsimpletense,usuallycontractedashaven’t(orhasn’tinthethird-personsingular):•“Hehasgotanideaaboutwhathappened.”(affirmativepresentsimpletense)•“Hehasn’tgotanideaaboutwhathappened.”(negativepresentsimpletense)•“They’vegotaplantoincreasesales.”(affirmativepresentsimpletense)•“Theyhaven’tgotaplantoincreasesales.”(negativepresentsimpletense)

Forminginterrogativesentenceswithsubject-verbinversionInversionreferstothereversalofthenormalpositionofthesubjectandtheauxiliaryverbofaclause.Wecannotusesubject-verbinversionwithmainverbstocreateinterrogativesentences—wehavetoeitheraddtheauxiliaryverbdo,orelseinvertanexistingauxiliaryverb.

InversionwithauxiliarydoWhenasentenceisinthepresentsimpletenseorpastsimpletense,weusetheauxiliaryverbdotoformitintoaquestionword.Thisisinvertedwiththesubject,comingbeforeitinthesentence.Forexample:•“Johnworksacrosstown.”(presentsimpletensedeclarativesentence)

•“DoesJohnworkacrosstown?”(presentsimpletenseinterrogativesentence)•“Theylivedinanapartment.”(pastsimpletensedeclarativesentence)•“Didtheyliveinanapartment?”(pastsimpletenseinterrogativesentence)

InversionwithotherauxiliaryverbsAswesawalready,beandhaveareusedtocreatethecontinuous,perfect,andperfectcontinuousverbtenses.Inthesecases,theauxiliaryverbusedtocreatethetenseisinvertedwiththesubjecttocreateaquestion;iftheverbisinaperfectcontinuoustense(andthushastwoauxiliaries),thenthefirstofthetwoauxiliaryverbsisinverted.Forexample:Presentcontinuoustense:•“Johnisworkingacrosstown.”(declarative)•“IsJohnworkingacrosstown?”(interrogative)Pastcontinuoustense:•“Johnwasworkingacrosstown.”(declarative)•“WasJohnworkingacrosstown?”(interrogative)Presentperfecttense:•“Johnhasworkedacrosstownforalongtime.”(declarative)•“HasJohnworkedacrosstownforalongtime?”(interrogative)Pastperfecttense:•“Johnhadworkedacrosstownforalongtime.”(declarative)•“HadJohnworkedacrosstownforalongtime?”(interrogative)Presentperfectcontinuoustense:•“Johnhasbeenworkingacrosstownforalongtime.”(declarative)•“HasJohnbeenworkingacrosstownforalongtime?”(interrogative)Pastperfectcontinuoustense:•“Johnhadbeenworkingacrosstownforalongtime.”(declarative)•“HadJohnbeenworkingacrosstownforalongtime?”(interrogative)

ErrorswithhaveAswesawwhenformingthenegativewithnot,weoftenrunintoerrorswhenhaveisfunctioningasamainverbandthesentenceismadeintoaquestion.Justlikeanyothermainverb(withtheexceptionofbe),havecannotinvertwith

thesubjecttoformaquestion—itmusttaketheauxiliaryverbdotoaccomplishthis,likewesawabove.Forexample:•“YouhadacarwhenyoulivedinLondon.”(declarative)✖ “HadyouacarwhenyoulivedinLondon?”(incorrectinterrogative)✔ “DidyouhaveacarwhenyoulivedinLondon?”(correctinterrogative)

QuestionwordsTherulesofinversionthatwe’veseenaboveholdtrueevenwhenaquestionwordisused.Forexample:•“WhereisJohnworking?”•“WhyhasJohnbeenworkingacrosstown?”•“WhendidJohnworkacrosstown?”

InversionofbeItisimportanttorememberthatwedonotusedo,doesordidwhenbeisamainverb.Aswementionedearlier,beisabletoinvertwhenitisfunctioningasalinkingverb(meaningitisamainverb)aswellasanauxiliary.Forexample:•“Iamcold.”(declarative)✖ “Doyoubecold?”(incorrectinterrogative)✔ “Areyoucold?”(correctinterrogative)•“Theywereallpresent.”(declarative)✖ “Didtheybeallpresent?”(incorrectinterrogative)✔ “Weretheyallpresent?”(correctinterrogative)Theinversionofbealsoholdstruewhenthereisaquestionword,asin:•“Whyareyoucold?”•“Whenweretheyallpresent?”•“Whoisattendingtheparty?”

EmphaticdoInadditiontomakinginterrogativesentences,doisalsousedasanauxiliarytocreateemphaticsentences.Thisissometimesreferredtoastheemphaticmood,oneofthegrammaticalmoodsinEnglish.Itspurposeinthiscaseisnottoaddanynewmeaningtothesentence,butrathertoemphasizethefactthatsomething

happenedorsomeonedidsomething.Emphaticdocomesbeforethemainverbinasentence.Asisthecasewhendoisusedtocreateinterrogativesentences,ittakestheconjugationfortenseorplurality,leavingthemainverbinthebaseform.Forexample:•“Iwashedthedishes.”(noemphasis)•“Ididwashthedishes.”(emphasizesthefactthatthespeakerwashedthedishes)•“Helookslikeanhonestman.”(noemphasis)•“Hedoeslooklikeanhonestman.”(emphasizesthewaythemanlooks)Aswithinterrogativesentences,however,wecannotusedowhenbeisthemainverbofthesentence:•“Iamcold.”(noemphasis)✖ “Idobecold.”(incorrectemphasis)

InimperativesentencesWecanalsouseemphaticdoinimperativesentencestoaddemphasistoacommand,instruction,orrequest,thoughthisusuallyaddsamoreformalorold-fashionedtonetothesentence.Unlikeindeclarativesentences,wecanuseemphaticdowhenbeisamainverbofanimperativesentence.Forexample:•“Dobecareful!”•“Dotrytobequiet.”•“Pleasedoavoidwalkingonthegrass.”


1.Whichofthefollowingisnotoneofthe“primary”auxiliaryverbs?a)beb)willc)dod)have2.Whichofthefollowingisthecorrectconjugationoftheverbbeinthethird-personpresentsingular?a)am

b)arec)isd)was3.Whichauxiliaryverbisaddedtoamakeaverbnegativeinthepresentorpastsimpletense?a)beb)willc)dod)have4.Identifytheauxiliaryverbusedinthefollowingsentence:“Haveyoubeenworkingonthisprojectforlong?”a)haveb)beenc)workingd)A&Be)B&Cf)Noneoftheabove5.Whichofthefollowingisafunctionofdoasanauxiliaryverb?a)Toformnegativeswithverbsinthepresentorpastsimpletenseb)Toformthecontinuous,perfect,orperfectcontinuoustensesc)Toexpressthesubject’sabilitytoperformthefunctionofthemainverbd)A&Be)B&Cf)Noneoftheabove

ModalAuxiliaryVerbsDefinitionAmodalauxiliaryverb,oftensimplycalledamodalverborevenjustamodal,isusedtochangethemeaningofotherverbs(commonlyknownasmainverbs)byexpressingmodality—thatis,asserting(ordenying)possibility,likelihood,ability,permission,obligation,orfutureintention.Modalverbsaredefinedbytheirinabilitytoconjugatefortenseandthethird

personsingular(i.e.,theydonottakean“-s”attheendwhenhe,she,oritisthesubject),andtheycannotforminfinitives,pastparticiples,orpresentparticiples.Allmodalauxiliaryverbsarefollowedbyamainverbinitsbaseform(theinfinitivewithoutto);theycanneverbefollowedbyothermodalverbs,loneauxiliaryverbs,ornouns.Aswiththeprimaryauxiliaryverbs,modalverbscanbeusedwithnottocreatenegativesentences,andtheycanallinvertwiththesubjecttocreateinterrogativesentences.

TheModalVerbsTherearenine“true”modalauxiliaryverbs:will,shall,would,should,can,could,may,might,andmust.Theverbsdare,need,usedto,andoughttocanalsobeusedinthesamewayasmodalverbs,buttheydonotshareallthesamecharacteristics;forthisreason,theyarereferredtoassemi-modalauxiliaryverbs,whicharediscussedinaseparatesection.

WillAsamodalauxiliaryverb,willisparticularlyversatile,havingseveraldifferentfunctionsandmeanings.Itisusedtoformfuturetenses,toexpresswillingnessorability,tomakerequestsoroffers,tocompleteconditionalsentences,toexpresslikelihoodintheimmediatepresent,ortoissuecommands.

ShallThemodalauxiliaryverbshallisusedinmanyofthesamewaysaswill:toformfuturetenses,tomakerequestsoroffers,tocompleteconditionalsentences,ortoissuemaximsorcommands.AlthoughwillisgenerallypreferredinmodernEnglish,usingshalladdsanadditionaldegreeofpolitenessorformalitytothesentencethatwillsometimeslacks.Generally,shallisonlyusedwhenIorweisthesubject,thoughthisisnotastrictrule(anddoesnotapplyatallwhenissuingcommands,aswe’llsee).

WouldThemodalauxiliaryverbwouldhasavarietyoffunctionsanduses.Itisusedinplaceofwillforthingsthathappenedorbeganinthepast,and,likeshall,itissometimesusedinplaceofwilltocreatemoreformalorpolitesentences.Itis

alsousedtoexpressrequestsandpreferences,todescribehypotheticalsituations,andtopolitelyofferoraskforadviceoranopinion.

ShouldThemodalverbshouldisusedtopolitelyexpressobligationsorduties;toaskfororissueadvice,suggestions,andrecommendations;todescribeanexpectation;tocreateconditionalsentences;andtoexpresssurprise.TherearealsoanumberofusesthatoccurinBritishEnglish,butthatarenotcommoninAmericanEnglish.

CanAsamodalauxiliaryverb,canismostoftenusedtoexpressapersonorthing’sabilitytodosomething.Itisalsousedtoexpressoraskforpermissiontodosomething,todescribethepossibilitythatsomethingcanhappen,andtoissuerequestsandoffers.

CouldThemodalverbcouldismostoftenusedasapast-tenseversionofcan,indicatingwhatsomeoneorsomethingwasabletodointhepast;itcanalsobeusedinsteadofcanasamorepolitewayofmakingarequestoraskingforpermission.Couldisalsousedtoexpressaslightoruncertainpossibility,aswellasformakingasuggestionoroffer.

MayThemodalverbmayisusedtorequest,grant,ordescribepermission;topolitelyoffertodosomethingforsomeone;toexpressthepossibilityofsomethinghappeningoroccurring;ortoexpressawishordesirethatsomethingwillbethecaseinthefuture.Wecanalsousemayasarhetoricaldevicetoexpressorintroduceanopinionorsentimentaboutsomething.

MightThemodalverbmightismostoftenusedtoexpressanunlikelyoruncertainpossibility.Mightalsoactsasaveryformalandpolitewaytoaskforpermission,anditisusedasthepast-tenseformofmaywhenaskingpermissioninreportedspeech.Itcanalsobeusedtosuggestanaction,ortointroducetwodiffering

possibilities.

MustThemodalverbmustismostoftenusedtoexpressnecessity—i.e.,thatsomethinghastohappenorbethecase.Wealsousethissenseofthewordtoindicateastrongintentiontodosomethinginthefuture,toemphasizesomethingpositivethatyoubelievesomeoneshoulddo,andtorhetoricallyintroduceoremphasizeanopinionorsentiment.Inadditiontoindicatingnecessity,mustcanbeusedtoindicatethatsomethingiscertainorverylikelytohappenorbetrue.

UsingModalVerbsModalauxiliaryverbsareusedtouniquelyshiftthemeaningofthemainverbtheymodify,expressingthingssuchaspossibility,likelihood,ability,permission,obligation,orintention.Aswewillsee,howandwhenweusemodalverbsgreatlyaffectsthemeaningofourwritingandspeech.

SubtletiesinmeaningModalverbsattachdifferingshadesofmeaningtothemainverbstheymodify.Itisoftenthecasethatthisdifferenceinmeaningisorseemstobeveryslight.Togetabettersenseofthesedifferencesinmeaning,let’slookattwosetsofexamplesthatuseeachofthemodalverbswediscussedaboveinthesamesentence,accompaniedbyabriefexplanationoftheuniquemeaningeachonecreates.

“Iwillgotocollegeinthefall.”(ItisdecidedthatIamgoingtoattendcollegeinthefall.)“Ishallgotocollegeinthefall.”(Amoreformalwayofsaying“Iwillgotocollegeinthefall,”possiblyemphasizingone’sdeterminationtodoso.)“Iwouldgotocollegeinthefall.”(Iwasplanningtoattendcollegeinthefall(butsomethingnotstatedispreventingordissuadingmefromdoingso).)“Ishouldgotocollegeinthefall.”(Itiscorrect,proper,orrightthatIattendcollegeintheall.)“Icangotocollegeinthefall.”(Iamabletoattendcollegeinthefall.)

“Icouldgotocollegeinthefall.”(Ihavetheabilitytoattendcollegeinthefall,butitisnotdecided.)“Imaygotocollegeinthefall.”(Iwillpossiblyattendcollegeinthefall,butitisnotdecided.)“Imightgotocollegeinthefall.”(Iwillpossiblyattendcollegeinthefall,butitisnotdecided.)“Imustgotocollegeinthefall.”(Ihavetoattendcollegeinthefall,butitisnotdecided.)“WillwespendthesummerinFlorida?”(IsitthefutureplanthatwearegoingtospendthesummerinFlorida?)“ShallwespendthesummerinFlorida?”(Amoreformalwayofasking“WillwespendthesummerinFlorida?”)“WouldwespendthesummerinFlorida?”(HastheplanbeenmadethatwespendthesummerinFlorida?)“ShouldwespendthesummerinFlorida?”(IsitcorrectorpreferablethatwespendthesummerinFlorida?)“CanwespendthesummerinFlorida?”(CanwehavepermissiontospendthesummerinFlorida?Or:AreweabletospendthesummerinFlorida?)“CouldwespendthesummerinFlorida?”(SlightlymorepolitewayofaskingforpermissiontospendthesummerinFlorida.)“MaywespendthesummerinFlorida?”(MoreformalorpolitewayofaskingforpermissiontospendthesummerinFlorida.)“MightwespendthesummerinFlorida?”(OverlyformalwayofaskingforpermissiontospendthesummerinFlorida.)“MustwespendthesummerinFlorida?”(VeryformalwayofaskingifitisnecessaryorrequiredthatwespendthesummerinFlorida.)

SubstitutingModalVerbsAswecanseefromtheabovesetsofexamples,thedifferentmodalverbsoftenhaveverysimilarmeanings,andit’ssometimesunclearwhenitisappropriatetouseoneinsteadofanother.Toexplorethesubtledifferencesinmeaningthatoccurwhenwesubstitutecertainmodalverbs,gotothesectiononSubstitutingModalVerbs.

OmittingmainverbsAmodalverbmustalwaysbeusedwithamainverb—theycannotstandcompletelyontheirown.However,itispossibletouseamodalverbonitsownbyomittingthemainverb,solongasitisimpliedbythecontextinoraroundthesentenceinwhichthemodalisused.Thiscanoccurwhenasentenceisinresponsetoanotherone,orwhentheclausewiththemodalverboccurslaterinasentenceinwhichthemainverbwasalreadystated.Forexample:•SpeakerA:“I’mthinkingabouttakingupscubadiving.”•SpeakerB:“Ithinkyoushould!”(Theverbtakingupisomittedinthesecondsentencebecauseitisimpliedbythefirst.)•“I’dliketoswitchmymajortomathematics,butI’mnotsureIcan.”(Theverbswitchisomittedinthefinalclausebecauseitappearsearlierinthesamesentence.)

UsingadverbsGenerallyspeaking,weuseadverbsafteramodalverbandeitherbeforeorafterthemainverbinaclause.Sometimesputtinganadverbbeforeamodalisnotincorrect,butitwillsoundbetterifplacedafterit.Forexample:✖ “Youonlymustreadthischapter.”(incorrect)✔ “Youmustonlyreadthischapter.”(correct)✔ “Youeasilycouldwintherace.”(correctbutnotpreferable)✔ “Youcouldeasilywintherace.”(correct)✔ “Youcouldwintheraceeasily.”(correct)However,thisisnotastrictrule,andcertainadverbsareabletogobeforethemodalverbwithoutanissue.Forexample:✔ “Youreallyshouldseethenewmovie.”(correct)✔ “Youshouldreallyseethenewmovie.”(correct)✔ “Idefinitelywilltrytomakeittotheparty.”(correct)✔ “Iwilldefinitelytrytomakeittotheparty.”(correct)Whenamodalverbismadenegative,though,itissometimesthecasethatanadverbmustgobeforethemodalverb.Forexample:✖ “Ican’tdefinitelygoouttonight.”(incorrect)

✔ “Idefinitelycan’tgoouttonight.”(correct)✖ “Hemustnotabsolutelytravelalone.”(incorrect)✔ “Heabsolutelymustnottravelalone.”(correct)Unfortunately,thereisnorulethatwillexplainexactlywhenonecanorcannotuseanadverbbeforeamodalverb—wejusthavetolearnthecorrectusagebyseeinghowtheyareusedinday-to-dayspeechandwriting.

CommonerrorsMixingmodalverbsRemember,amodalverbisonlyusedbeforeamainverb,orsometimesbeforebeorhavewhentheyareusedtocreateaverbtense.Wedonotuseamodalverbbeforeauxiliarydo,orinfrontofothermodalverbs.Forexample:✔ “WemightmovetoSpain.”(correct—indicatesfuturepossibility)✔ “WemightbemovingtoSpain.”(correct—indicatesfuturepossibilityusingthepresentcontinuoustense)✖ “Doyoucango?”(incorrect)✔ “Canyougo?”(correct)✖ “Imustwillfinishthisbeforelunch.”(incorrect)✔ “Imustfinishthisbeforelunch.”(correct—indicatesthatitisnecessary)✔ “Iwillfinishthisbeforelunch.”(correct—indicatesafutureaction)

Conjugatingthethird-personsingularWhenmainverbsfunctionontheirown,weconjugatethemtoreflectthethird-personsingular(usuallyaccomplishedbyadding“-s”totheendoftheverb).However,wedonotconjugatemodalverbsinthisway,nordoweconjugateamainverbwhenitisbeingusedwithamodal.Forexample:✔ “Heswimswell.”(presentsimpletense)✖ “Hecansswimwell.”(incorrect)✖ “Hecanswimswell.”(incorrect)✔ “Hecanswimwell.”(correct—indicatesability)

ConjugatingpasttenseSimilarly,wecannotusemodalverbswithmainverbsthatareinapast-tenseform;theverbthatfollowsamodalmustalwaysbeinitsbaseform(theinfinitivewithoutthewordto).Instead,weeitherusecertainmodalverbsthathavepast-tensemeaningsoftheirown,orauxiliaryhavetocreateaconstructionthathasaspecificpast-tensemeaning.Forexample:✔ “Iguessedwhatherresponsewouldbe.”(pastsimpletense)✖ “Icanguessedwhatherresponsewouldbe.”(incorrect)✖ “Icouldguessedwhatherresponsewouldbe.”(incorrect)✔ “Icouldguesswhatherresponsewouldbe.”(correct—indicatespastability)✔ “Icouldhaveguessedwhatherresponsewouldbe.”(correct—indicatespotentialpastability)✔ “Itriedharder.”(pastsimpletense)✖ “Ishouldtriedharder.”(incorrect)✔ “Ishouldtryharder.”(correct,butindicatesacorrectorproperfutureaction)✔ “Ishouldhavetriedharder.”(correct—indicatesacorrectorproperpastaction)

FollowingmodalverbswithinfinitivesAswesawabove,allmodalauxiliaryverbsmustbefollowedbythebaseformofathemainverb.Justaswecannotuseamodalverbwithamainverbinitspast-tenseform,wealsocannotuseamodalverbwithaninfinitive.✖ “Shecouldtospeakfivelanguages.”(incorrect)✔ “Shecouldspeakfivelanguages.”(correct—indicatespastability)✖ “Imusttoseetheboss.”(incorrect)✔ “Imustseetheboss.”(correct—indicatesnecessity)


1.Whichofthefollowingisanotafunctionofamodalauxiliaryverb?a)Toindicatefrequencyb)Toindicatepossibilityorlikelihood

c)Toindicateabilityd)Toindicatefutureintention2.Whichofthefollowingmodalverbsindicatesnecessity?a)mayb)canc)wouldd)must3.Whichofthefollowingmodalverbsisusedtorequestpermission?a)mayb)shouldc)wouldd)must4.Whichofthefollowingissomethingthatamodalverbcannotdo?a)Indicateafutureactionb)Expressapossibleactionoroutcomec)Conjugateforthethird-personsingulard)Becomenegativewiththewordnot5.Whencanamodalverbstandonitsown?a)Whenanadverbisusedbeforethemodalverbb)Whenthemainverbisimpliedelsewherec)Whenitisusedinaninterrogativesentenced)Anytimee)Never6.Whichofthefollowingisnotoneofthe“true”modalverbs?a)mustb)needc)willd)should

ModalAuxiliaryVerbs-Will

DefinitionAsamodalauxiliaryverb,willisparticularlyversatile,havingseveraldifferentfunctionsandmeanings.Itisusedtoformfuturetenses,toexpresswillingnessorability,tomakerequestsoroffers,tocompleteconditionalsentences,toexpresslikelihoodintheimmediatepresent,ortoissuecommands.

CreatingthefuturetenseOneofwill’smostcommonusesasamodalverbistotalkaboutthingsthatarecertain,verylikely,orplannedtohappeninthefuture.Inthisway,itisusedtocreateanapproximationofthefuturesimpletenseandthefuturecontinuoustense.Forexample:•“Iwillturn40tomorrow.”(futuresimpletense)•“Shewillbesingingattheconcertaswell.”(futurecontinuoustense)Willcanalsousedtomakethefutureperfecttenseandthefutureperfectcontinuoustense.Thesetensesbothdescribeascenariothatbeganinthepastandwilleitherfinishinorcontinueintothefuture.Forexample:•“It’shardtobelievethatbynextmonthwewillhavebeenmarriedfor10years.”(futureperfecttense)•“BythetimeIgetthere,she’llhavebeenwaitingforoveranhour.”(futureperfectcontinuoustense)Ifwewanttomakeanyofthefuturetensesnegative,weusenotbetweenwillandthemainverborthenextoccurringauxiliaryverb.Weoftencontractwillandnotintowon’t.Forexample:•“Iwon’tbeseeingthemoviewithyoutonight.”•“Atthispace,shewon’tfinishinfirstplace.”Ifwewanttomakeaquestion(aninterrogativesentence),weinvertwillwiththesubject,asin:•“Whatwilltheydowiththemoney?”•“Won’tyoubecomingwithus?”

AbilityandwillingnessWealsosometimesusewilltoexpressorinquireaboutapersonorthing’sability

orwillingnesstodosomething.Itisverysimilartothefuturetense,butisusedformoreimmediateactions.Forexample:•“Youwashthedishes;I’lltakeoutthetrash.”•“Thisdarnwashingmachinewon’tturnon.”•“Won’tMarycomeoutofherroom?”

RequestsandoffersWeoftencreateinterrogativesentencesusingwilltomakerequestsorpoliteoffers.Theyareusuallyaddressedtosomeoneinthesecondperson,asin:•“Willyouwalkthedog,Jim?”•“Willyouhaveacupoftea,Sam?”However,wecanusesubjectsinthefirstandthirdpersonaswell.Forinstance:•“WillJonathanbringhistruckaroundheretomorrow?”•“Willyourfriendjoinusforsomelunch?”

ConditionalsentencesInpresent-tenseconditionalsentencesformedusingif,weoftenusewilltoexpressanexpectedhypotheticaloutcome.Thisisknownasthefirstconditional.Forexample:•“IfIseehim,Iwilltellhimthenews.”•“Iwon’thavetosaygoodbyeifIdon’tgototheairport.”

LikelihoodandcertaintyInadditiontoexpressingactionsorintentionsofthefuture,wecanalsousewilltoexpressthelikelihoodorcertaintythatsomethingisthecaseintheimmediatepresent.Forinstance:•(inresponsetothephoneringing)“ThatwillbeJane—I’mexpectinghercall.”•SpeakerA:“WhoisthatwithJeff?”•SpeakerB:“That’llbehisnewhusband.TheywerejustmarriedinMay.”

CommandsFinally,wecanusewilltoissuecommands,orders,ormaxims.Thesehavean

addedforcefulnessincomparisontoimperativesentences,astheyexpressacertaintythatthecommandwillbeobeyed.Forexample:•“Youwillfinishyourhomeworkthisinstant!”•“Thishousewillnotbeusedasahotelforyourfriends,doyouunderstandme?”

SubstitutingModalVerbsInmanycases,modalauxiliaryverbscanbeusedinplaceofotherstocreateslightlydifferentmeanings.Forexample,wecanusethewordshallinplaceofwillintoexpresspoliteinvitations.Similarly,wouldcanalsobesubstitutedforwillinrequeststomakethemmorepolite.ExplorethesectiononSubstitutingModalVerbstoseehowandwhenothermodalauxiliaryverbsoverlap.


1.Whichofthefollowingisnotafunctionofwillasamodalverb?a)Toformthefuturetenseb)Toissueacommandormaximc)Toexpresswhatsomeoneisallowedtodod)Tomakearequestoranoffer2.Whichofthefollowingsentencesisaconditionalsentence?a)“IwillbegoingtoEuropeinAugust.”b)“She’llbemovingtoAlaskaifshecansaveupenoughmoney.”c)“Thatwillbeyourfatheratthedoor.”d)“Youwillnotputoffdoingyourchoresanylonger!”3.Wheredoesthemodalverbwillappearinaninterrogativesentence?a)Beforethesubjectofthesentenceb)Afterthesubjectofthesentencec)Beforethemainverbofthesentenced)Afterthemainverbofthesentence

ModalAuxiliaryVerbs-Would

DefinitionThemodalauxiliaryverbwouldhasavarietyoffunctionsanduses.Itisusedinplaceofwillforthingsthathappenedorbeganinthepast,and,likeshall,itissometimesusedinplaceofwilltocreatemoreformalorpolitesentences.Itisalsousedtoexpressrequestsandpreferences,todescribehypotheticalsituations,andtopolitelyofferoraskforadviceoranopinion.

CreatingthefuturetenseinthepastWhenasentenceexpressesafuturepossibility,expectation,intention,orinevitabilitythatbeganinthepast,weusewouldinsteadofwill.Forexample:•“Ithoughthewouldbeherebynow.”•“Sheknewtheywouldn’tmakeittotheshowintime.”•“IthoughtJohnwouldbemowinglawnbythispoint.”

PastabilityandwillingnessWealsousewouldforcertainexpressionsofapersonorthing’sabilityorwillingnesstodosomethinginthepast,thoughtheyareusuallynegative.Forexample:•“Thisdarnwashingmachinewouldn’tturnonthismorning.”•“Marywouldn’tcomeoutofherroomallweekend.”

LikelihoodandcertaintyLikewesawwithwill,wecanalsousewouldtoexpressthelikelihoodorcertaintythatsomethingwasthecaseintheimmediatepast.Forinstance:•SpeakerA:“Therewasamanherejustnowaskingaboutrentingthespareroom.”•SpeakerB:“ThatwouldbeKenneth.HejustmovedherefromIowa.”

PoliterequestsWecanusewouldinthesamewayaswilltoformrequests,exceptthatwouldaddsalevelofpolitenesstothequestion,asin:•“Wouldyoupleasetakeoutthegarbageforme?”

•“WouldJohnmindhelpingmecleanoutthegarage?”

ExpressingdesiresWeusewouldwiththemainverbliketoexpressorinquireaboutaperson’sdesiretodosomething.(Wecanalsousethemainverbcareformoreformalorpolitesentences.)Forexample:•“Iwouldliketogotothemovieslater.”•“Wherewouldyouliketogoforyourbirthday?”•“Iwouldnotcaretoliveinahotclimate.”•“Wouldyoucaretohavedinnerwithmelater?”Wecanusethissameconstructiontoexpressoraskaboutadesiretohavesomething.Ifweareusinglikeasthemainverb,itcansimplybefollowedbyanounornounphrase;ifweareusingcare,itmustbefollowedbytheprepositionfor,asin:•“Wouldyoulikeacupoftea?”•“Hewouldlikethesteak,andIwillhavethelobster.”•“Askyourfriendsiftheywouldcareforsomesnacks.”

WouldthatWouldcanalsobeusedtointroduceathatclausetoindicatesomehypotheticalorhopefulsituationthatonewishesweretrue.Forexample:•“Wouldthatwelivednearthesea.”•SpeakerA:“Lifewouldbesomucheasierifwewonthelottery.”•SpeakerB:“Wouldthatitwereso!”Thisisanexampleofthesubjunctivemood,whichisusedtoexpresshypotheticalsanddesires.Whilewestillusewouldinthesubjunctivemoodtoexpresspreferenceorcreateconditionalsentences(likeSpeakerA’ssentenceabove),thewouldthatconstructionisgenerallyonlyfoundinveryformal,literary,old-fashioned,orhighlystylizedspeechorwritinginmodernEnglish.

PreferenceWeusewouldwiththeadverbsratherandsoonertoexpressorinquireaboutaperson’spreferenceforsomething.Forinstance:

•“Therearealotoffancymealsonthemenu,butIwouldratherhaveahamburger.”•“Theywouldsoonergobankruptthansellthefamilyhome.”•“Wouldyourathergobikingorgoforahike?”

ConditionalsentencesConditionalsentencesinthepasttensearecalledsecondconditionals.Unlikethefirstconditional,weusethesecondconditionaltotalkaboutthingsthatcannotorareunlikelytohappen.Tocreatethesecondconditional,weusethepastsimpletenseaftertheifclause,followedbywould+thebareinfinitivefortheresultofthecondition.Forexample:•“IfIwenttoLondon,IwouldvisitTrafalgarSquare.”•“IwouldbuyayachtifIeverwonthelottery.”

HypotheticalsituationsWecanalsousewouldtodiscusshypotheticalorpossiblesituationsthatwecanimaginehappening,butthataren’tdependentonaconditionalifclause.Forexample:•“Theywouldbeanamazingbandtoseeinconcert!”•“Don’tworryaboutnotgettingin—itwouldn’thavebeenaveryinterestingclass,anyway.”•“Shewouldjoinyourstudygroup,butshedoesn’thaveanyfreetimeafterschool.”•“Inormallywouldn’tmind,exceptthattodayismybirthday!”

PoliteopinionsWecanusewouldwithopinionverbs(suchasthinkorexpect)todampentheforcefulnessofanassertion,makingitsoundmoreformalandpolite:•“Iwouldexpectthattheboardofdirectorswillbepleasedwiththisoffer.”•“Onewouldhavethoughtthatthesituationwouldbeimprovedbynow.”Wecanalsoaskforsomeoneelse’sopinionwithwouldbypairingitwitha

questionwordinaninterrogativesentence,asin:•“Whatwouldyousuggestwedoinstead?”•“Wherewouldbeagoodplacetotravelthissummer?”

AskingthereasonwhyWhenweusethequestionwordwhy,weoftenfollowitwithwouldtoaskthereasonsomethinghappenedoristrue.Forinstance:•“Whywouldmybrotherlietome?”•“Whywouldtheyexpectyoutoknowthat?”IfweuseIorweasthesubjectofthequestion,itisoftenusedrhetoricallytosuggestthataquestionoraccusationisgroundlessorfalse,asin:•“WhywouldItrytohideanythingfromyou?”•“Whywouldwegiveupnow,whenwe’vecomesoclosetosucceeding?”

PoliteadviceWecanusewouldinthefirstpersontopolitelyofferadviceaboutsomething.(Itiscommontoaddthephrase“ifIwereyou”attheend,thuscreatingaconditionalsentence.)Forexample:•“IwouldapologizetothebossifIwereyou.”•“Iwouldtalktohertonight;there’snopointinwaitinguntiltomorrow.”Wecanalsousewouldinthesecondandthirdpersontoofferadvice,usuallyintheconstruction“youwouldbewise/smarttodosomething,”asin:•“Ithinkyouwouldbewisetobemorecarefulwithyourmoney.”•“Recentgraduateswouldbesmarttosetupasavingsaccountasearlyaspossible.”

SubstitutingModalVerbsInmanycases,modalauxiliaryverbscanbereplacedwithotherstocreateslightlydifferentmeanings.Forexample,inadditiontousingwouldtoformthesecondconditional(whichweusetodescribesomethingwewoulddefinitelydo),wecanalsousecouldforwhatwewouldbeabletodo,aswellasmightforwhatitispossible(but

unlikely)wewoulddo.Forexample:•“IfIwonthelottery,Icouldbuyanewhouse.”•“IfIwereolder,Imightstayupallnightlong.”InBritishEnglish,shouldisoftenusedinplaceofwouldinmanyconstructionstoaddpolitenessorformality.Forinstance:•“IshouldapologizetothebossifIwereyou.”(politeadvice)•“Ishouldlikeapoachedeggforbreakfast.”(desire)ExplorethesectionSubstitutingModalVerbstoseehowandwhenothermodalverbsoverlap.


1.Whichofthefollowingisnotafunctionofwouldasamodalverb?a)Toformthefuturetenseb)Toissueacommandormaximc)Toexpressawishordesired)Topolitelyofferadvice2.Whichofthefollowingsentencesuseswouldtoexpresspreference?a)“Wewouldhavewonthegameifyouhadn’tmissedthatshot.”b)“She’dbewisetostartherassignmentsearlier.”c)“Ithinkthiswouldbeagreatcitytolivein.”d)“I’dratherhaveasaladforlunch.”3.Whatkindofconditionalsentenceisformedusingwould?a)Zeroconditionalb)Firstconditionalc)Secondconditionald)Thirdconditional4.Whichofthefollowingsentencesusesaveryformal,old-fashionedconstructionwithwouldtoexpressawishordesire?a)“WouldthatI’dmadecontactwithhimbeforehisdeparture.”

b)“Hewouldpayforcollegehimselfifhecouldaffordit.”c)“Ithinkthey’drathergotothebeachtoday.”d)“Wouldyoucareforsomelunch?”

ModalAuxiliaryVerbs-ShallDefinitionThemodalauxiliaryverbshallisusedinmanyofthesamewaysaswill:toformfuturetenses,tomakerequestsoroffers,tocompleteconditionalsentences,ortoissuemaximsorcommands.AlthoughwillisgenerallypreferredinmodernEnglish(especiallyAmericanEnglish),usingshalladdsanadditionaldegreeofpolitenessorformalitytothesentencethatwillsometimeslacks.Generally,shallisonlyusedwhenIorweisthesubject,thoughthisisnotastrictrule(anddoesnotapplyatallwhenissuingcommands,aswe’llsee).

CreatingthefuturetenseThefuturetensesaremostoftenformedusingwillorbegoingto.Wecanalsouseshalltoaddformalityorpolitenesstotheseconstructions,especiallythefuturesimpletenseandthefuturecontinuoustense.Forexample:•“Ishallcallfromtheairport.”(futuresimpletense)•“Weshallbestayinginprivateaccommodation.”•“Ourcompanyshallnotbeheldaccountableforthis.”•“Ishan’t*beparticipatinginthesediscussions.”(*Contractingshallandnotintoshan’t,whilenotincorrect,soundsoverlyformalandstuffyinmodernspeechandwriting;forthemostpart,itisnotusedanymore.)Itisalsopossible,thoughfarlesscommon,touseshallinthefutureperfectandfutureperfectcontinuoustensesaswell:•“Asofnextweek,Ishallhaveworkedherefor50years.”•“Bythetimetheoperabegins,weshallhavebeenwaitingforoveranhour.”

Offers,suggestions,andadvice

Whenwecreateinterrogativesentencesusingshallandwithoutquestionwords,itisusuallytomakepoliteoffers,invitations,orsuggestions,asin:•“Shallwewalkalongthebeach?”•“ShallIwashthedishes?”Whenweformaninterrogativesentencewithaquestionword(who,what,where,when,orhow),shallisusedtopolitelyseektheadviceoropinionofthelisteneraboutafuturedecision,asin:•“WhatshallIdowiththissparepart?”•“Whereshallwebegin?”•“WhoshallIinvitetothemeal?”

ConditionalsentencesLikewill,wecanuseshallinconditionalsentencesusingiftoexpressalikelyhypotheticaloutcome.Thisisknownasthefirstconditional.Forexample:•“Ifmyflightisdelayed,Ishallnothavetimetomakemyconnection.”•“Ishallcontactthepostofficeifmypackagehasnotarrivedbytomorrow.”

FormalcommandsWhilewillisoftenusedtoformcommands,weuseshallwhenissuingmoreformaldirectivesormaxims,asmightbeseeninpublicnoticesorinaformalsituation,ortoexpressareprimandinaformalway.Whenusedinthisway,shallnolongerhastobeusedsolelywithIorweasthesubject.Forexample:•“Thisestablishmentshallnotbeheldliableforlostorstolenproperty.”•“Studentsshallremainsilentthroughouttheexam.”•“Thenewlawdictatesthatnocitizenshallbeoutonthestreetsafter11PM.”•“Youshallceasethisfoolishnessatonce!”

SubstitutingModalVerbsInmanycases,modalauxiliaryverbscanbeusedinplaceofotherstocreateslightlydifferentmeanings.Forexample,wecanusethewordshouldinplaceofshallwhenissuingacommandthatisnotmandatory,butratherisaguidelineorrecommendation.If,however,wewanttoexpressthatthecommandormaximisanabsoluterequirement,wecanusemustinsteadofshallinthiscontext.

ExplorethesectionSubstitutingModalVerbstoseehowandwhenothermodalauxiliaryverbsoverlap.


1.Whichofthefollowingisnotafunctionofshallasamodalverb?a)Toexpresswhatsomeoneisallowedtodob)Toissueacommandormaximc)Toformthefuturetensed)Tocreateconditionalsentences2.Whichofthefollowingsentencesisaconditionalsentence?a)“IshallbeattendingHarvardthisfall.”c)“Whatshallwedothisweekend?”d)“Employeesshallclockinatthebeginningandendofeveryshift.”d)“Theyshallbeginresearchimmediatelyiffundsareavailable.”3.Whichofthefollowingisareasonshallmightbeusedinsteadofwillinasentence?a)Toaddintensitytoacommandb)Toexpressanopinionaboutwhatisproperorcorrectc)Toaddpolitenessorformalityd)Todescribeahabitualactioninthepast

ModalAuxiliaryVerbs-ShouldDefinitionThemodalverbshouldisusedtopolitelyexpressobligationsorduties;toaskfororissueadvice,suggestions,andrecommendations;todescribeanexpectation;tocreateconditionalsentences;andtoexpresssurprise.TherearealsoanumberofusesthatoccurinBritishEnglishthatarenotcommoninAmericanEnglish.

PoliteobligationsShouldisusedinthesameconstructionasothermodalverbs(suchaswill,shall,andmust)toexpressanobligationorduty.However,whereasmustorwill(andevenshall)makethesentenceintoastrictcommand,whichmightappeartobetooforcefulandcouldbeseenasoffensive,shouldisusedtocreateamorepoliteformthatismorelikeaguidelinethanarule.Forexample:•“Guestsshouldvacatetheirhotelroomsby10AMonthemorningoftheirdeparture.”•“Ithinksheshouldpayforhalfthemeal.”•“Youshouldn’tplayloudmusicinyourroomatnight.”•“Ithinkhealthcareshouldbefreeforeveryone.”•“Sheshouldnotbehere;it’sforemployeesonly.”

AskingthereasonwhyWecanfollowthequestionwordwhywithshouldtoaskthereasonforacertainobligationorduty.Forinstance:•“WhyshouldIhavetopayformybrother?”•“Whyshouldn’twebeallowedtotalkduringclass?”

AdviceandrecommendationsShouldcanalsobeusedtoissueadviceorrecommendationsinmuchthesameway.Forinstance:

•“YoushouldgetagoodmapofLondonbeforeyougothere.”(recommendation)•“Youshouldn’teatsomuchjunkfood—it’snotgoodforyou.”(advice)Wecanalsouseshouldininterrogativesentencestoaskforsomeone’sadvice,opinion,orsuggestion,asin:•“WhatshouldIseewhileI’minNewYork?”•“Shouldshetellherbossaboutthemissingequipment?”•“Isthereanythingweshouldbeconcernedabout?”

ExpectationsUsingshouldinaffirmative(non-negative)sentencescanbeusedtoexpressanexpectedoutcome,especiallywhenitisfollowedbytheverbbe.Forexample:•“Sheshouldbeherebynow.”•“Theyshouldbearrivingatanyminute.”•“Ithinkthisbookshouldbeinteresting.”Wecanalsofollowshouldwithotherverbstoexpressexpectation,butthisislesscommon.Forinstance:•“Theyshouldfindthisreportuseful.”•“Weshouldseetheresultsshortly.”Ifweusethenegativeofshould(shouldnotorshouldn’t),itimpliesamistakeorerror,especiallywhenweuseitwithafuturetimeexpression.Forexample:•“Sheshouldn’tbehereyet.”•“Heshouldn’tbearrivingforanotherhour.”Wenormallydonotuseshouldnottorefertoexpectedfutureactionslikewedointheaffirmative;itgenerallyreferstosomethingthatjusthappened(inthepresentorimmediatepast).

Shouldvs.besupposedtovs.bemeanttoInmanyinstances,shouldcanbereplacedbybesupposedtoorbemeanttowithlittletonochangeinmeaning.Forinstance,wecanusebesupposedtoorbe

meanttoinplaceofshouldforsomethingthatisexpectedorrequiredtohappen.Forexample:•“Heshouldbehereat10AM.”•“Heismeanttobehereat10AM.”•“Heissupposedtobehereat10AM.”Wecanalsousethesethreevariationsinterchangeablywhenaskingthereasonwhysomethingisthecase.Forinstance:•“WhyshouldIhavetopayformybrother?”•“WhyamImeanttopayformybrother?”•“WhyamIsupposedtopayformybrother?”However,whenweareexpressinganobligationorduty,wecanonlyreplaceshouldwithbesupposedtoorbemeanttowhenitisinthenegative.Forinstance:•“Youshouldn’tplayloudmusicinyourroomatnight.”•“Youaren’tmeanttoplayloudmusicinyourroomatnight.”•“Youaren’tsupposedtoplayloudmusicinyourroomatnight.”Inaffirmativesentencesinwhichshouldexpressesanobligationorduty(asopposedtoanexpectation),theseverbsarenotinterchangeable.Forinstance:•“Ithinksheshouldpayforhalfthemeal.”(obligation)•“Ithinksheissupposedtopayforhalfthemeal.”(expectation)•“Ithinksheismeanttopayforhalfthemeal.”(expectation)Besupposedtoandbemeanttoarealsousedtoexpressgeneralbeliefs,whichisnotawaywecanusethemodalverbshould.Forexample:•“Heissupposedtobeoneofthebestlawyersintown.”(generalbelief)•“Heismeanttobeoneofthebestlawyersintown.”(generalbelief)•“Heshouldbeoneofthebestlawyersintown.”(obligation)Wecanseehowthemeaningchangessignificantlywhenshouldisusedinstead.

ConditionalSentencesShouldcanbeusedinconditionalsentencestoexpressanoutcometoapossible

orhypotheticalconditionalsituation.Sometimesweuseshouldalongsideiftocreatetheconditionalclause,asin:•“Ifanyoneshouldask,Iwillbeatthebar.”•“Ifyourfathershouldcall,tellhimIwillspeaktohimlater.”Wecanalsouseshouldonitsowntosetupthiscondition,inwhichcaseweinvertitwiththesubject.Forexample:•“Shouldyouneedhelponyourthesis,pleaseaskyoursupervisor.”•“Thebankismorethanhappytodiscussfinancingoptionsshouldyouwishtotakeoutaloan.”

ExpressingsurpriseOccasionally,shouldisusedtoemphasizesurpriseatanunexpectedsituation,outcome,orturnofevents.Wedosobyphrasingthesurprisinginformationasaquestion,usingaquestionwordlikewhoorwhatandofteninvertingshouldwiththesubject.(However,thesentenceisspokenasastatement,sowepunctuateitwithaperiodorexclamationpoint,ratherthanaquestionmark.)The“question”partofthesentenceisintroducedbythewordwhen,withthe“answer”introducedbythewordbut.Forexample:•“Iwasmindingmyownbusiness,whenwhoshouldIencounterbutmybrotherTom.”•“Thefestivalwasgoingwellwhenwhatshouldhappenbutthepowergoesout!”

UsesofshouldinBritishEnglishThereareanumberoffunctionsthatshouldcanperformthataremorecommonlyusedinBritishEnglishthaninAmericanEnglish.Severalofthesearesubstitutionsofwould,whileotherusesareuniqueuntothemselves.

Shouldvs.wouldinBritishEnglishThereareseveralmodalconstructionsthatcaneithertakewouldorshould.AmericanEnglishtendstofavorthemodalverbwouldinmostcases,but,inBritishEnglish,itisalsocommontouseshould,especiallytoaddformality.

PoliteadviceWecanuseshould/wouldinthefirstpersontopolitelyofferadviceaboutsomething.(Itiscommontoaddthephrase“ifIwereyou”attheend,thuscreatingaconditionalsentence.)Forexample:•“Ishould/wouldapologizetothebossifIwereyou.”•“Ishouldn’t/wouldn’tworryaboutthatrightnow.”

ExpressingdesiresWecanuseeithershouldorwouldwiththemainverblikeinthefirstpersontoexpressorinquireaboutaperson’sdesiretodosomething.(Wecanalsousethemainverbcareformoreformalorpolitesentences.)Forexample:•“Ishould/wouldliketogotothemovieslater.”•“Weshouldn’t/wouldn’tcaretoliveinahotclimate.”•“Ishould/wouldlikeacupoftea,ifyoudon’tmind.”•“Idon’tknowthatIshould/wouldcareforsuchanexpensivehouse.”

AskingthereasonwhyInadditiontoaskingthereasonwhyacertainobligationorrequirementisthecase,wecanalsouseshouldinthesamewayaswouldtoaskthereasonsomethinghappenedoristrue.Forinstance:•“Whyshould/wouldmybrotherlietome?”•“Whyshould/wouldtheyexpectyoutoknowthat?”IfweuseIorweasthesubjectofthequestion,itisoftenusedrhetoricallytosuggestthataquestionoraccusationisgroundlessorfalse,asin:•“Whyshould/wouldItrytohideanythingfromyou?”•“Whyshould/wouldwegiveupnow,whenwe’vecomesoclosetosucceeding?”

ToshowpurposeShouldandwouldcanalsobeusedafterthephrase“sothat”and“inorderthat”toaddasenseofpurposetothemainverb,asin:

•“IbroughtabooksothatIshouldn’t/wouldn’tbeboredonthetrainridehome.”•“Heboughtnewbootsinorderthathisfeetshould/wouldremaindryonthewaytowork.”

AfterotherwordsandphrasesThereareseveralinstancesinBritishEnglishinwhichshouldisusedaftertherelativepronounthatorcertainotherphrasestocreatespecificmeanings,especiallyinmoreformallanguage.

ToexpressanopinionorfeelingWhenweuseanounclausebeginningwiththatasanadjectivecomplement,wecanuseshouldinittoexpressanopinionorsentimentaboutwhatissaid.Forexample:•“It’sverysadthatsheshouldbeforcedtoleaveherhouse.”•“Isn’titstrangethatweshouldmeeteachotheragainafteralltheseyears?”

ConditionalcircumstancesSimilarly,shouldcanbeusedafterthephrasesforfear(that),incase(that),and(lesscommonly)lest(that)todemonstratethepossibleconditionalcircumstancesthatarethereasonbehindacertainaction.Forexample:•“IalwayspackmyrainjacketwhenIcycleforfear(that)itshouldstartrainingmidway.”•“Youshouldpackatoothbrushincase(that)youshouldbedelayedattheairportovernight.”•“Shemakessuretosetthealarmbeforeleavinglest(that)someoneshouldtrytobreakin.”


1.Whichofthefollowingisnotafunctionofshouldasamodalverb?a)Toformthefuturetenseb)Toexpressanobligationordutyc)Toexpresssurprise

d)Topolitelyofferadvice2.Whichofthefollowingsentencesusesshouldtoexpressanexpectation?a)“IwillbejustaroundthecornershouldIbeneeded.”b)“Wereallyshouldn’tlietoyourparentslikethis.”c)“Don’tforgetasparepencillestyoursshouldbreak.”d)“Themovieshouldfinisharound5PM.”3.WhichofthefollowingisasituationinwhichshouldcanbeusedinsteadofwouldinBritishEnglish?a)Toexpresspastabilityorwillingnessb)Topolitelyofferadvicec)Toformapoliterequestd)Toexpresssurprise4.TrueorFalse:Shouldisabletoformconditionalsentenceswithoutthewordif.a)Trueb)False

ModalAuxiliaryVerbs-CanDefinitionAsamodalauxiliaryverb,canismostoftenusedtoexpressapersonorthing’sabilitytodosomething.Itisalsousedtoexpressoraskforpermissiontodosomething,todescribethepossibilitythatsomethingcanhappen,andtoissuerequestsandoffers.

ExpressingabilityCanisusedmostoftenandmostliterallytoexpresswhenapersonorthingisphysically,mentally,orfunctionallyabletodosomething.Whenitisusedwithnottobecomenegative,itformsasingleword,cannot(contractedascan’t).Forexample:•“JohncanrunfasterthananyoneIknow.”

•“It’sraretofindaphonethatcannotconnecttotheInternetthesedays.”•“Wedon’thavetostay—wecanleaveifyouwantto.”•“Canyourbrotherswim?”•“Idon’tthinkhecanread.”•“Justdothebestyoucan.”•“Can’tyoujustrestartthecomputer?”•“Whencanyoustart?”

“Cando”Inresponsetoarequestoraninstruction,itiscommon(especiallyinAmericanEnglish)tousetheidiomaticphrase“cando.”Thisusuallystandsonitsownasaminorsentence.Forexample:•SpeakerA:“Ineedyoutofixthistirewhenyouhaveachance.”•SpeakerB:“Cando!”•SpeakerA:“Wouldyoumindmakingdinnertonight?”•SpeakerB:“Cando,darling!”Thephrasehasbecomesoprolificthatitisalsooftenusedasamodifierbeforeanountodenoteanoptimistic,confident,andenthusiasticcharacteristic,asin:•“Hiscan-dospiritisinfectiousintheoffice.”•“We’realwayslookingforcan-doindividualswhowillbringgreatenergytoourteam.”Wecanalsomakethisphrasenegative,butweusethewordnoatthebeginningofthephraseratherthanusingtheadverbnotaftercan,aswenormallywouldwithamodalverb.Forexample:•SpeakerA:“IsitallrightifIgetaridehomewithyouagaintonight?”•SpeakerB:“Sorry,nocando.Ineedtoheadtotheairportafterwork.”

PermissionWeoftenusecantoexpresspermission*todosomething,especiallyinquestions(interrogativesentences).Forexample:•“CanIgotothebathroom,Ms.Smith?”

•“CanJennycometothepartywithus?”•“Youcanleavetheclassroomonceyouarefinishedwiththetest.”•“Youcan’thaveanydessertuntilyou’vefinishedyourdinner.”(*Usagenote:Althoughitissometimesconsideredgrammaticallyincorrecttousecaninsteadofmaytoexpresspermission,itisacceptableinmodernEnglishtouseeitherone.Canisverycommonininformalsettings;inmoreformalEnglish,though,mayisstillthepreferredmodalverb.)

AsarhetoricaldeviceSometimes,weusecaninthiswayasarhetoricaldevicetopolitelyintroduceoremphasizeanopinionorsentimentaboutsomething,inwhichcaseweinvertcanwiththesubject.Forinstance:•“CanIjustsay,thishasbeenthemostwonderfulexperienceofmylife.”•“Canwebeclearthatourfirmwillnotbeinvolvedinsuchadubiousaplan.”•“And,canIadd,profitsareexpectedtostabilizewithinamonth.”Notethatwecanaccomplishthesamethingbyusingtheverbsletorallowinstead,asin:•“Letmebeclear:thisdecisionisinnowayareflectiononthequalityofyourwork.”•“Allowustosay,weweregreatlyimpressedbyyourperformance.”

AddingangryemphasisCanissometimesusedtogivepermission(sometimesironically)asameansofaddingemphasistoanangrycommand,especiallyinconditionalsentences.Forexample:•“Youcanjustwalkhomeifyou’regoingtobesoungrateful!”•“Ifhecontinuesbeingsoinsufferable,hecanhavehispartyallalone!”•“Youcangotoyourroomandstaythere,youngman!I’msickoflisteningtoyourbacktalk.”

PossibilityandlikelihoodSimilartousingcantoexpressability,wealsousecantodescribeactionsthatarepossible.Itmayappeartobenearlythesameincertaincases,buttheusage

relateslesstophysicalormentalabilitythantothepossibilityorlikelihoodofaccomplishingsomethingorofsomethingoccurring.Forinstance:•“Youcangethelponyourpapersfromyourteachingassistant.”•“Mymother-in-lawcanbeabitoverbearingattimes.”•“Peopleforgetthatyoucangetskincancerfromtanningbeds.”•“Itcanseemimpossibletoovercomethedebtfromstudentloans.”

NegativecertaintyanddisbeliefWeusethemodalverbmusttoexpresscertaintyorhighprobability,butwegenerallyusecan’t(or,lesscommonly,cannot)toexpressnegativecertainty,extremelylowlikelihood,oradisbeliefthatsomethingmightbetrue.Forexample:•“Youcan’tbetired—you’vebeensleepingallday!”•“Ican’thaveleftmyphoneathome,becauseIrememberpackingitinmybag.”•“Afterthreeyearsofcollege,shewantstodropout?Shecannotbeserious.”

MakingrequestsItiscommontousecantomakearequestofsomeone.Forexample:•“Canyougetthatbookdownfromtheshelfforme?”•“Yoursisterisalawyer,right?Canshegivemesomelegaladvice?”•“Canyoukidsturnyourmusicdown,please?”However,thisusagecansometimesbeseenasbeingtoodirectorforceful,andsometimescomesacrossasimpoliteasaresult.Inmoreformalorpolitecircumstances,wecanuseothermodalverbssuchascouldorwouldtocreatemorepoliteconstructions,asin:•“Wouldyoupleasebequiet?”•“Couldyouhelpmewiththisassignment?”

MakingoffersWhileitmightbeseenasimpolitetousecantomakearequest,itisperfectlypolitetouseittomakeanoffer.Forexample:

•“CanIdoanythingtohelpgetdinnerready?”•“CanIhelpyoufindwhatyouneed?”•“CanIgiveyouaridehome?”Ifwewanttobeevenmorepoliteoraddformalitytotheoffer,wecanusemayinstead,asin:•“MayIbeofsomeassistance?”•“Maywehelpyouinanyway?”•“Howmayourstaffbeofservicetoyou?”


1.Whichofthefollowingisnotafunctionofcanasamodalverb?a)Toaskforpermissionb)Torequestsomethingc)Tooffertodosomethingd)Toexpressanopinionorfeeling2.Whichofthefollowingsentencesusescantoexpressability?a)“CanIwatchTVlater?”b)“Itcangetabittoohothereinthesummer.”c)“I’msuregladIcandrive.”d)“Youcanhavesomeicecreamifyoubehaveyourselves.”3.Whichofthefollowingisaninformaluseofthemodalverbcan?a)“Youcanjustgowithoutyourdinnerifyou’regoingtobehavethatway!”b)“Whencanweexpectthepackagetoarrive?”c)“CanIspendthenightatmyfriend’shouse?”d)“Canwecarrythosegroceriesforyou?”

ModalAuxiliaryVerbs-CouldDefinitionThemodalverbcouldismostoftenusedasapast-tenseversionofcan,indicatingwhatsomeoneorsomethingwasabletodointhepast;itcanalsobe

usedinsteadofcanasamorepolitewayofmakingarequestoraskingforpermission.Couldisalsousedtoexpressaslightoruncertainpossibility,aswellastomakeasuggestionoroffer.

PastabilityWhendescribingwhatapersonorthingwasphysically,mentally,orfunctionallyabletodointhepast,weusecouldinsteadofcan.Forexample:•“WhenIwasyounger,Icouldrunfor10mileswithoutbreakingasweat!”•“OurTVgrowingupcouldonlygetaboutfourchannels.”•“Shecouldn’treaduntilshewasnearly12yearsold.”•“CouldyourfamilyaffordanyfoodduringtheGreatDepression,Grandma?”Wealsousecouldinsteadofcanwhendescribinganabilitythatisdesiredorwishedfor.(Thisisknownasthesubjunctivemood,whichisusedfordescribinghypotheticalorunrealsituations.)Forexample:•“IwishIcouldswim;itlookslikesomuchfun.”

ConditionalsentencesConditionalsentencesinthepasttensearecalledsecondconditionals.Unlikethefirstconditional,weusethesecondconditionaltotalkaboutthingsthatcannotorareunlikelytoactuallyhappen.Tocreatethesecondconditional,weusuallyusethepastsimpletenseaftertheifclause,followedbywould+abareinfinitivetodescribewhatwouldbetheexpected(ifunreal)resultofthecondition.However,ifwewanttodescribewhatwewouldbeabletodounderacertaincondition,wecanusecouldinstead.Forexample:•“IfIgotthatpromotionatwork,Icouldfinallyaffordanewcar!”•“IfwemovedtoCalifornia,Icouldsurfeveryday!”Weoftenusecouldinwhat’sknownasamixedconditional,whichoccurswhenthetenseinonepartofaconditionalsentencedoesnotmatchtheotherhalf.Thisoftenoccurswithcouldwhenapresent-tenseverbisbeingusedinanifconditionalclausetoexpressahypotheticalscenariothatislikelytoorpossiblycouldhappen.Forexample:•“IfIgetsomemoneyfrommyparents,wecouldgotothemovies.”

•“WecouldvisitourfriendsatthebeachifyouaskyourbossforFridayoff.”

AskingforpermissionWhenweasksomeoneforpermissiontodosomething,itisoftenconsideredmorepolitetousecouldinsteadofcan.However,wecanonlymakethissubstitutionwhenaskingforpermission—whenstatingorgrantingpermission,wecanonlyusecan(or,morepolitely,may).Forexample:•“Dad,couldIspendthenightatmyfriend’shouse?”•“CouldweinviteSarahtocomewithus?”•“IwaswonderingifIcouldtakeabitoftimeoffwork.”

MakingarequestJustasweusecouldinsteadofcantobemorepolitewhenaskingforpermission,itisalsoconsideredmorepolitetosubstitutecouldwhenmakingageneralrequest.Forexample:•“Couldyoupleasebequiet?”•“Couldyouhelpmewiththisassignment?”Notethatwecanalsodothiswiththemodalverbwould:•“WouldyouaskJefftocomeoverhere?”•“WouldTinahelpmepaintthisfence?”

AsarhetoricaldeviceSometimes,weusecouldasarhetoricaldevicetopolitelyintroduceoremphasizeanopinionorsentimentaboutsomething,inwhichcaseweinvertcouldwiththesubject.Forinstance:•“CouldIjustsay,thishasbeenamostwonderfulevening.”•“AndcouldIclarifythatIhavealwaysactedsolelywiththecompany’sinterestsinmind.”•“CouldIaddthatyourtimewithushasbeengreatlyappreciated.”Notethatwecanaccomplishthesamethingbyusingtheverbsletorallowinstead,asin:

•“Letmeclarify:thisdecisionisinnowayareflectiononthequalityofyourwork.”•“Allowmetoadd,weweregreatlyimpressedbyyourperformance.”

PossibilityandlikelihoodLikecan,wecanalsousecouldtodescribeactionsoroutcomesthatarepossibleorlikely.Unlikeusingcouldtotalkaboutanability,thisusageisnotrestrictedtothepasttense.Forinstance:•“Ithinkitcouldrainanyminute.”•“Shecouldbeinbigtroubleoverthis.”•“Duetothisnews,thecompanycouldseeasharpdropinprofitsnextquarter.”•“Becareful,youcouldhurtsomeonewiththatthing!”•“Answerthephone!Itcouldbeyourfathercalling.”

MakingasuggestionSimilartoexpressingapossibleoutcome,wecanalsousecouldtosuggestapossiblecourseofaction.Forinstance:•“WecouldgooutforpizzaafterworkonFriday.”•“Youcouldseeifyourbosswouldletyouextendyourvacation.”•“Iknowitwillbetrickytoconvinceyourparents,butyoucouldtry.”

AddingangryemphasisWealsousecouldtoaddemphasistoanangryorfrustratedremark.Forexample:•“Mymotherhastraveledalongwaytobehere—youcouldtrytolookalittlemorepleasedtoseeher!”•“Youcouldhavetoldmethatyoudidn’twantapartybeforeIspentallthistimeandeffortorganizingone!”

MakingoffersInadditiontousingcouldtomakeasuggestion,wecanalsouseittomakeanoffertodosomethingforsomeone.Forexample:

•“CouldIgiveyouahandwithdinner?”•“Couldwehelpyoufindwhatyouneed?”•“CouldIgiveyouaridehome?”

RhetoricalquestionsCouldissometimesusedinformallyinsarcasticorrhetoricalquestionsthathighlightabehaviorsomeonefindsirritating,unacceptable,orinappropriate.Itisoften(butnotalways)usedwithbeasamainverb.Forexample:•“Couldyoubeanylouder?Icanbarelyhearmyselfthink!”•“OhmyGod,Dad,couldyoubeanymoreembarrassing?”•“Danny,we’regoingtobelate!Couldyouwalkanyslower?”


1.Whichofthefollowingisnotafunctionofthemodalverbcould?a)Toaskforpermissionb)Tocreateafuturetensec)Torequestsomethingd)Tooffertodosomething2.Whichofthefollowingsentencesusescouldtoexpresspossibilityorlikelihood?a)“CouldIpleasehaveasecondhelpingofdessert?”b)“IwishIcoulddrive.”c)“Ihaveafeelingitcouldsnowtonight.”d)“IcouldmoveoutofthisdumpifIgetaroleinthatbigmovie.”3.Whichofthefollowingsentencesusescouldincorrectly?a)“Youandyourfriendscouldgotothemovieslater,ifyou’relookingforsomethingtodo.”b)“IthoughtJonathancouldbeherebynow.”c)“CouldIspendThanksgivingwithGrandpathisyear?”d)“Couldyoubeanymoreinsulting?”

ModalAuxiliaryVerbs-MayDefinitionThemodalverbmayisusedtoask,grant,ordescribepermission;topolitelyoffertodosomethingforsomeone;toexpressthepossibilityofsomethinghappeningoroccurring;ortoexpressawishordesirethatsomethingwillbethecaseinthefuture.Wecanalsousemayasarhetoricaldevicetoexpressorintroduceanopinionaboutsomething.

AskingorgrantingpermissionMayisverycommonlyusedtoexpressoraskforpermissiontodosomething.Thereareotherwaystodothis(byusingthemodalscanorcould,forinstance),butmayisconsideredthemostpoliteandformallycorrectwaytodoso.Forexample:•“MayIborrowyourpen,please?”•“Mayweaskyousomequestionsaboutyourexperience?”•“General,youmayfirewhenready.”•“Shemayinviteoneortwofriends,butnomorethanthat.”•“Maywebefrankwithyou,Tom?”•“Studentsmaynotleavetheclassoncetheirexamsarecomplete.”

MakingapoliteofferLikecan,wecanusemaytoofferdosomethingforsomeoneelse,thoughitisgenerallyamorepolite,formalwayofdoingso.Forexample:•“MayIhelpyousetthetable?”•“Maywebeofassistanceinanyway?”

ExpressingpossibilityAnothercommonuseofmayistoexpressthepossibilitythatsomethingwillhappenoroccurinthenearfuture,especiallywhenthatpossibilityisuncertain.Forinstance:•“I’mworriedthatitmaystartrainingsoon.”

•“Wemayrunintosomeproblemsdownthelinethatwedidn’texpect.”•“Imaybecominghomeforthewinterbreak,dependingonthecostofaplaneticket.”•“Althoughwemayseethingsimproveinthefuture,there’snoguaranteeatthemoment.”•“Theremaynotbeanyissuesatall;we’lljusthavetosee.”

ExpressingwishesforthefutureMayisalsousedinmoreformallanguagetoexpressawishordesirethatsomethingwillbethecaseinthefuture.Whenusedinthisway,mayisinvertedwiththesubject,asin:•“Mayyoubothhavealong,happylifetogether.”•“Mayyoubesafeinyourjourneyhome.”•“We’vehadgreatsuccessthisyear;maywecontinuetodosoforyearstocome.”•“Maythisnewfoundpeaceremainforeverbetweenourtwocountries.”

AsarhetoricaldeviceSometimes,weusemayinthiswayasarhetoricaldevicetopolitelyintroduceoremphasizeanopinionorsentimentaboutsomething,inwhichcaseweinvertmaywiththesubject.Forinstance:•“MayIjustsay,thishasbeenthemostwonderfulexperienceofmylife.”•“Maywebeclearthatourfirmwillnotbeinvolvedinsuchadubiousplan.”•“MayIbefrank:thisisnotwhatIwashopingfor.”Notethatwecanaccomplishthesamethingbyusingtheverbsletorallowinstead,asin:•“Letmebeclear:thisdecisionisinnowayareflectiononthequalityofyourwork.”•“Allowustosay,weweregreatlyimpressedbyyourperformance.”

Maynotvs.Mayn’t(vs.Can’t)Grammatically,itisnottechnicallyincorrecttocontractmaynotintothesingle-

wordmayn’t.Forinstance:•“Youmayn’twishtosharethesedetailswithothers.”•“No,youmayn’tgotothedinnerunaccompanied.”However,thishasbecomeveryrareinmodernEnglish,andgenerallyonlyoccursincolloquialusage.Indeclarativesentences,itismuchmorecommontousethetwowordsseparately,asin:•“Employeesmaynotusecompanycomputersforrecreationalpurposes.”•“Theremaynotbemuchwecandotopreventsuchproblemsfromoccurring.”Itisalsouncommon,though,tousemaynotinquestions,inwhichmayisinvertedwiththesubject.Theresultingconstruction(e.g.,“mayInot”or“maywenot”)soundsoverlyformalinday-to-dayspeechandwriting.Becauseofthis,itismuchmorecommontousethecontractioncan’tinstead,asin:•“Can’twestayforalittlewhilelonger?”•“Can’tIbringafriendalongwithme?”


1.Whichofthefollowingisnotafunctionofthemodalverbmay?a)Toaskforpermissionb)Toexpressawishforthefuturec)Torequestsomethingfromsomeoned)Tooffertodosomething2.Whichofthefollowingsentencesusesmaytoexpresspossibilityorlikelihood?a)“Youmaynotwatchtelevisionuntilyourhomeworkisdone.”b)“Mayyoualwayslivelifeinthewayyouseefit.”c)“Wemaynothaveachoiceinthematter.”d)“Theymaystayfordinnerifthey’dliketo.”3.WhichofthefollowingsentencesisconsideredthemostcorrectinmodernEnglish?a)“Thetwocompaniesmayn’thaveanyoptionbuttoabandontheproposedmerger.”

b)“Can’twecomewithyoutothemovielater?”c)“MayInotstayupalittlelatertonight?”d)“Mayn’twewatchsomeTVbeforestartingourhomework?”4.Identifythefunctionofmayinthefollowingsentence:“MayIstatefortherecord,I’vealwayssupportedthegovernor’sdecisions.”a)Toexpresspermissionb)Tomakeapoliteofferc)Toexpresspossibilityd)Asarhetoricaldevice

ModalAuxiliaryVerbs-MightDefinitionThemodalverbmightismostoftenusedtoexpressanunlikelyoruncertainpossibility.Mightisalsousedtoveryformallyorpolitelyaskforpermission,anditisusedasthepast-tenseformofmaywhenaskingpermissioninreportedspeech.Itcanalsobeusedtosuggestanaction,ortointroducetwodifferingpossibilities.

ExpressingpossibilityWhenweusemighttoindicatepossibility,itimpliesaveryweakcertaintyorlikelihoodthatsomethingwillhappen,occur,orbethecase.Forinstance:•“I’mhopingthatshemightcallmelater.”•“Wemightgotoapartylater,ifyouwanttocome.”•“Youshouldpackanumbrella—itlookslikeitmightrain.”•“Theremightbesomedinnerleftoverforyouinthefridge.”

InconditionalsentencesWealsooftenusemighttoexpressapossibilityasahypotheticaloutcomeinaconditionalsentence.Forexample:•“Ifwedon’tarriveearlyenough,wemightnotbeabletogetintotheshow.”•“Westillmightmakeourflightifweleaverightnow!”

•“Ifwe’relucky,wemighthaveachanceofreversingthedamage.”

PolitelyaskingforpermissionAlthoughmayisthe“standard”modalverbusedtopolitelyaskforpermission,wecanalsousemightifwewanttoaddevenmorepolitenessorformalitytothequestion.Forexample:•“Mightwegototheparkthisafternoon,father?”•“MightIaskyouafewquestions?”•“I’mfinishedwithmydinner.MightIbeexcusedfromthetable?”However,eveninformalspeechandwriting,thisconstructioncancomeacrossasratherold-fashioned,especiallyinAmericanEnglish.Itmorecommonlyoccursinindirectquestions—i.e.,declarativesentencesthatarewordedinsuchawayastoexpressaninquiry(thoughthesearetechnicallynotquestions).Forexample:•“IwashopingImightborrowthecarthisevening.”•“IwonderifwemightinviteSamanthatocomewithus.”

PasttenseofmayWhenweusereportedspeech,wetraditionallyconjugateverbsonedegreeintothepast.Whenmayhasbeenused,especiallytoaskforpermission,inasentencethatisnowbeingreported,weusemightinitsplace,asin:•“Heaskedifhemightusethecarforhisdatetonight.”•“Shewonderedifshemightbringafriendtotheshow.”However,thisruleofconjugatingintothepasttenseislargelyfallingoutofuseinmodernEnglish,anditisincreasinglycommontoseeverbsremainintheiroriginaltenseevenwhenbeingreported.

MakingsuggestionsMightcanalsobeusedtomakepolitesuggestionstosomeone.Thisismuchlessdirectandforcefulthanusingshould:itexpressesasuggestionofapossiblecourseofactionratherthanassertingwhatiscorrectorrighttodo.Forexample:•“Youmightaskyourbrotheraboutrepayingthatloanthenexttimeyouseehim.”

•“Ittastesverygood,thoughyoumightaddabitmoresalt.”•“Youmighttryrebootingthecomputer;thatshouldfixtheproblemforyou.”

SuggestingapossibilityInasimilarway,wecanusemighttosuggestapossibleactionorsituationtoanotherperson.Forexample:•“Iwaswonderingifyoumightbeinterestedinseeingaplaywithmelater.”•“Ithoughtyoumightlikethisbook,soIboughtyouacopy.”

AddingangryemphasisJustaswecanwiththemodalverbcould,wecanusemighttomakeasuggestionasameansofaddingemphasistoanangryorfrustratedremark.Forexample:•“Mymotherhastraveledalongwaytobehere—youmighttrytolookalittlemorepleasedtoseeher!”•“Youmighthavetoldmethatyoudidn’twantapartybeforeIspentallthistimeandeffortorganizingone!”

IntroducingdifferinginformationAnotheruseofmightistointroduceastatementthatiscontrarytoordifferentfromasecondstatementlaterinthesentence.Thiscanbeusedasameansofhighlightingtwodifferentpossibleoutcomes,scenarios,orcoursesofaction.Forexample:•“Sure,youmightbeabletomakemoneyquicklylikethat,butyou’reinevitablygoingtorunintodifficultiesdowntheline.”•“Imightnothavemuchfreetime,butIfindgreatsatisfactioninmywork.”•“Ourorganizationmightbeverysmall,butweprovideaunique,tailoredservicetoourclientele.”

AsarhetoricaldeviceSometimes,weusemightasarhetoricaldevicetopolitelyintroduceoremphasizeanopinionorsentimentaboutsomething,inwhichcaseweinvertmightwiththesubject.Forinstance:

•“MightIjustsay,thishasbeenamostwonderfulevening.”•“AndmightIclarifythatIhavealwaysactedsolelywiththecompany’sinterestsinmind.”•“MightIaddthatyourtimewithushasbeengreatlyappreciated.”Notethatwecanaccomplishthesamethingbyusingtheverbsletorallowinstead,asin:•“Letmeclarify:thisdecisionisinnowayareflectiononthequalityofyourwork.”•“Allowmetoadd,weweregreatlyimpressedbyyourperformance.”


1.Whichofthefollowingisnotafunctionofthemodalverbmight?a)Toaskforpermissionb)Toexpressapossibilityc)Torequestsomethingfromsomeoned)Tosuggestsomething2.Inwhichofthefollowingsituationsdoweusemightasthepasttenseofmay?a)Inconditionalsentencesb)Whenmakingasuggestionc)Whenarequestforpermissionisbeingreportedd)Toexpressapossibility3.WhichofthefollowingsentenceswouldoccurleastcommonlyinmodernEnglish?a)“MightIinquireaboutyourstakeinthisclaim?”b)“I’mworriedthatwemightnotmakethetrain.”c)“IwashopingImightgooutwithmyfriendsafterschool.”d)“Youmighthavewarnedmethatthebosswasgoingtobehere!”4.Identifythefunctionofmightinthefollowingsentence:“Jonathan,youmightseeaboutsecuringtheloanbeforecommittingtoanythingelse.”a)Toexpresspermission

b)Tointroducedifferinginformationc)Toexpresspossibilityd)Tomakeasuggestion

ModalAuxiliaryVerbs-MustDefinitionThemodalverbmustismostoftenusedtoexpressnecessity—i.e.,thatsomethinghastohappenorbethecase.Wealsousethissenseofthewordtoindicateastrongintentiontodosomethinginthefuture,toemphasizesomethingpositivethatwebelievesomeoneshoulddo,andtorhetoricallyintroduceoremphasizeanopinionorsentiment.Inadditiontoindicatingnecessity,mustcanbeusedtoindicatethatsomethingiscertainorverylikelytohappenorbetrue.

NecessityWhenmustindicatesthatanaction,circumstance,orsituationisnecessary,weusuallyuseitinadeclarativesentence.Forexample:•“Thisdoormustbeleftshutatalltimes!”•“Weabsolutelymustgetapprovalforthatfunding.”•“Youmustnottellanyoneaboutwhatwesaw.”•“Now,youmustn’tbealarmed,butwe’vehadabitofanaccidentinhere.”Wecanalsousemustininterrogativesentencestoinquirewhethersomethingisnecessary,usuallyasacriticismofsomeobjectionableorundesirableactionorbehavior.Forinstance:•“Mustwegotodinnerwiththem?Theyaredreadfullyboring.”•“Mustyoubesorudetomyparents?”•“MustIspendmyentireweekendstudying?”However,thisusageisgenerallyreservedformoreformalspeechandwriting,andisn’tverycommonineverydayEnglish.

IndicatingstrongintentionWeusethesamemeaningofmusttoindicatesomethingwehaveaverystrongintentionofdoinginthefuture.Forexample:

•“Imustfilemytaxesthisweekend.”•“Imustgetaroundtocallingmybrother.”•“Wemusthavethecarcheckedoutsoon.”

EmphasizingasuggestionWealsousethismeaningtomakesuggestionstoothersofsomethingpositivewebelievetheyshoulddo,asin:•“YousimplymusttrythenewEthiopianrestauranton4thAvenue—it’sfantastic!”•“Itwassolovelytoseeyou.Wemustgettogetheragainsoon!”•“Youmustcomestaywithusatthelakesometime.”

AsarhetoricaldeviceFinally,wecanalsousethismeaningofmustasarhetoricaldevicetopolitelyintroduceoremphasizeanopinionorsentimentaboutsomething:•“Imustsay,thishasbeenamostwonderfulevening.”•“AndImustaddthatMr.Joneshasbeenanabsolutedelighttoworkwith.”•“Imustbeclear:wewilldisavowanyknowledgeofthisincident.”Notethatwecanaccomplishthesamethingbyusingtheverbsletorallowinstead,asin:•“Letmebeclear:thisdecisionisinnowayareflectiononthequalityofyourwork.”•“Allowustosay,weweregreatlyimpressedbyyourperformance.”

CertaintyandlikelihoodInadditiontobeingusedtoindicateanecessaryactionorsituation,mustisalsooftenusedtodescribethatwhichiscertainorextremelylikelyorprobabletohappen,occur,orbethecase.Forexample:•“Youmustbeabsolutelyexhaustedafteryourflight.”•“Surelytheymustknowthatwecan’tpaythemoneybackyet.”•“Theremustbesomewaywecanconvincetheboardofdirectors.”•“Imusthaveleftmykeysonmydeskatwork.”

•SpeakerA:“Ijustgotbackfroma12-weektriparoundEurope.”•SpeakerB:“Wow,thatmusthavebeenanamazingexperience!”Generallyspeaking,wedonotusethenegativeofmust(mustnotormustn’t)toexpressanegativecertaintyorstrongdisbelief.Instead,weusecannot(oftencontractedascan’t),asin:•“Youcan’tbetired—you’vebeensleepingallday!”•“Ican’thaveleftmyphoneathome,becauseIrememberpackingitinmybag.”•“Afterthreeyearsofcollege,shewantstodropout?Shecannotbeserious.”


1.Whichofthefollowingisnotafunctionofthemodalverbmust?a)Toaskforpermissionb)Toexpressacertaintyc)Toindicateanintentiond)Tosuggestsomething2.Inwhichofthefollowingsituationsdowegenerallyusecaninsteadofmust?a)Whenexpressinganecessityb)Whenmakingasuggestionc)Whenexpressingdisbelieforanegativecertaintyd)Whenindicatingastrongintention3.Whichofthefollowingsentencesusesmusttoindicateastrongintention?a)“Employeesmustsigninbeforeandaftereveryshift.”b)“Wemustn’tletthissetbackdeterus.”c)“Imustseeaboutgettingarefundonthissoftware.”d)“Youmustcomeoverandseethenewhousesometime!”4.Identifythefunctionofmustinthefollowingsentence:“Jonathan,youmusthavedriventhroughthenighttohavearrivedsoearly!”a)Tointroduceoremphasizeanopinionorsentimentb)Toindicateastrongintentionc)Toexpressnecessity

d)Toexpressacertaintyorhighprobability

SubstitutingModalVerbsModalauxiliaryverbsexpressdifferentshadesofmeaning;veryoften,theycanbequitesimilarinhowtheyareused,anditissometimesunclearwhenitisappropriatetouseoneinsteadofanother.Below,we’lllookatsomecomparisonsbetweencommonlyconfusedmodalverbs.

Indicatingthefuture–Will/ShallWillisthemostcommonmodalverbusedtoindicateoneofthefuturetenses,asin:•“Iwillwalktoworktomorrow.”(futuresimpletense)•“Iwillbewalkingtoworkthisweek.”(futurecontinuoustense)•“Iwillhavewalkedtoworkeachdaythisweek.”(futureperfecttense)•“ByDecember,Iwillhavebeenwalkingtoworkeachweekforayear.”(futureperfectcontinuoustense)Wecanalsouseshallinplaceofwilltoformthefuturetense,butonlywhenthesubjectisinthefirstperson(Iorwe).However,thismakesthesentenceveryformal,anditismorecommonlyfoundinBritishEnglishorinpoliteinvitations.Forinstance:•“IshallbeattendingadinnerwiththeprimeministerinApril.”•“Shallwedance,mydear?”

Requestingpermission–Can/Could/May/MightEachofthesefourmodalverbscanbeusedtoaskforpermission,andeachchangeshowformalthesentenceis.•“CanIopenthewindow,please?”•“CouldIopenthewindow,please?”•“MayIopenthewindow,please?”•“MightIopenthewindow,please?”

Intheaboveexamples,can,could,may,andmightareallusedtorequesttopermissiondosomething.Canistheleastformalofthefour,andsomesticklersforgrammaticaletiquettewillclaimthatitshouldnotbeusedinthiswayatall;however,itisperfectlyacceptableininformalconversation.Couldismorepoliteandabitmoreformalthancan.Wecanusethisinmostsituations,exceptperhapsinveryformalconversation.Mayismoreformalthaneithercanorcould,anditiscommonlyusedasthestandardmodalverbtoexpressorrequestpermission.Mightisthemostformalofthemall;however,itcanonlybeusedtorequestpermission(nottostatethatsomeonehaspermission),anditisnotcommonlyusedexceptinextremelyformalcircumstances.

Indicatingability–Can/CouldWeoftenusecantoindicatephysical,mental,orfunctionalabilityindoingsomething.Forexample:•“Icanspeakthreelanguages.”(Ihavethementalabilitytodothis.)•“Hecanswimverywell.”(Hehasthephysicalabilitytodothis.)Couldisalsousedtoindicateabilitybutasthepasttenseofcan.Forexample:•“Hecouldspeakthreelanguageswhenhewasfouryearsold.(Hehadthisabilitybythetimehewasfouryearsold.)•“Shecouldn’tskiuntilshewasateenager.(Shedidnothavethisabilityuntilshewasateenager.)

Indicatingpossibility–May/MightWeusemayandmighttoexpressapossibility.Whendescribingapossibleaction,theygenerallyindicatethesame50percentchanceoflikelihood.Forexample:•“Imightgotothecinematoday.”•“Imaygotobedearlythisevening.”Mayisregardedasbeingmoreformalinthisuse.Bothmayandmightarealsousedtoindicateapossibleoutcomeorsetofcircumstances.Inthiscase,mighttendstoexpresslesscertaintyoralower

likelihoodthanmay,althoughthedifferenceisslight.Forexample:•“We’vetestedthoroughly,buttheremightbesomeissueswe’veyettodiscover.”•“Hemayhaveachanceofmakingacomebackinthepolls.”

Makinganoffer–Can/May/ShallShall,may,andcancanallbeusedtooffertodosomethingforsomeone.Forexample:•“CanIgetthedoorforyou?”•“MayIgetthedoorforyou?”•“ShallIgetthedoorforyou?”Mayisconsideredmoreformalandpolitethancan,althoughcanisperfectlyacceptable.Canandmay,however,arebothalittlelessdirectthanshall,whichisusedasmoreofapolitesuggestion.

Makingarequest–Will/Can/Could/WouldAllfourofthesemodalscanbeusedtomakearequestofsomeone,withdifferingdegreesofpoliteness:•“Willyougetthedoorforme,please?”(mostdirect–leastpolite)•“Canyougetthedoorforme,please?”(slightlylessdirect–slightlymorepolite)•“Couldyougetthedoorforme,please?”(lessdirect–morepolite)•“Wouldyougetthedoorforme,please?”(leastdirect–mostpolite)Couldandwouldarethemostpolitemodalstouseforrequests;however,theaccompanyinglanguageweuse(saying“please,”“ifyoudon’tmind,”“ifyoucouldbesokind,”etc.)makesabiggerdifferenceonthepolitenessoftherequest,nomatterwhichmodalverbisused.

Indicatinganobligation–Must/Shall/Should/Will

Whenexpressinganobligationtodosomething,weoftenusemust,whichisparticularlydirectandforceful.Thismightbefoundinapublicnotice,asin:•“Employeesmustwashtheirhandsbeforereturningtowork.”•“Ownersmustcleanupaftertheirpets.”Mustcanalsobeusedindirectcommandsordirectives,suchas:•“Youmustfinishyourhomeworkbeforeyoucangooutsidetoplay.”•“Studentsmustputtheirnamesontheirassignments,ortheywon’tbegraded.”Weusuallyonlyfindshallbeingusedtoexpressobligationsincontractsorlegaldocuments;itisusedasamorepoliteandformalconstructionthanmust.Forinstance:•“Thedefendantshallpaytheplaintiff$5,000indamages.”•“Thepurchaseragreesthatheorsheshallforegoanyrighttoarefundafter90days.”WhenindicatingobligationinmoreconversationalEnglish,wetendtouseshouldinstead,whichislessformalthaneithershallormust.Itisalsolessforcefulthaneither,anditisusedasmoreofastrongsuggestionofwhatisbestormostpropertodo.Forexample:•“StudentsshouldhandintheirassignmentsbeforeFriday.”•“Sheshouldapologizeforherbehavior!”•“Youshouldalwayspayyourbillsontime.”Wecantechnicallyusewillinthesamewayasmust,shallandshould,butitisevenmoreforcefulthanmustandislesscommonlyused;itisgenerallyreservedforstrongcommandsordirectives,asin:•“Youwilleatyourvegetablesoryouwon’tgetanydessert!”•“Theywillagreetothetermsoftheleaseorfaceeviction.”


1.InAmericanEnglish,whencanweuseshallinsteadofwilltoformthefuturetense?a)Ininformalspeechorwritingb)WhenthesubjectisIorwe

c)Toexpressapoliteinvitationd)Alloftheabovee)A&Bonlyf)B&Conly2.Whichofthefollowingmodalverbsisconsideredthemostpolitewhenrequestingpermission?a)canb)couldc)mayd)might3.Whichofthefollowingismostcommonlyusedtoindicateobligation?a)mustb)shallc)shouldd)will4.Whichofthefollowingmodalverbscanbesubstitutedfortheunderlinedwordinthefollowingsentence?“Excuseme,canyoutellmewherethenearestgasstationis?”a)willb)couldc)wouldd)Alloftheabovee)A&Bonlyf)B&Conly

Semi-ModalAuxiliaryVerbsDefinitionSemi-modalauxiliaryverbs,oftensimplycalledsemi-modalverbs,areverbsthatsometimesbehavelikemodalauxiliaryverbs.(Theyarealsosometimesknownasmarginalmodalverbs.)Likethe“proper”modalverbs,theyareusedwiththebaseformofverbs(theinfinitivewithoutto)tocreateauniquemeaning.

Dare,need,usedto,andoughttoNotallsourcesagreeonthecompletelistofsemi-modalverbs,buttherearefourthatarewidelyconsideredasthestandardset:dare,need,usedto,andoughtto.Dareandneedareconsideredsemi-modalbecausetheycanalsofunctionasmainverbs,abletotakenounsandinfinitivesasobjectsandtoconjugateforperson,tense,andnumber.Oughttoandusedto,whileunabletobemainverbs,areconsideredsemi-modalbecausetheyarealwaysfollowedbyinfinitives(comparedto“true”modals,whichcanneverbefollowedbyinfinitives).Assemi-modalverbs,theseverbsareusedinconjunctionwith“main”verbstocreateacompleteverbexpression;theydonotconjugateforthird-personsingularsubjects;theydonothaveasimplepasttense;andtheycannotforminfinitives,presentparticiples,orpastparticiples.We’lllookateachoftheseverbsindividually,examiningwhenandhowtheyfunctionassemi-modalverbs.

DareWhendareisusedasasemi-modalverb,itmeans“tobebrave,reckless,orrudeenoughtodoortrysomething.”Remember,whenfunctioningmodally,itdoesnotconjugateforpersonortense.Forexample:•“Ifhedarecrossmeagain,I’llmakesurehepaysdearlyforit.”Asasemi-modalverb,daremoreoftentakesnottoformanegativestatement(veryrarelycontractedasdaren’t),orisinvertedwiththesubjecttoformaninterrogativesentence.Forexample:•“Idarenotpresstheissueanyfurther.”

•“Howdareshetalktomelikethat?”•“Darehemeddlewiththelawsofnature?”•“Theydaren’tgivehimareasontobeangry.”However,withtheexceptionofthenowidiomaticphrase“Howdare(someone),”theuseofdareasamodalverbhasbecomerareinmodernEnglish.

AsamainverbDarecanalsobeusedasanintransitivemainverbwiththesamemeaningasthemodalversion.Whenitfunctionsasamainverb,however,itisabletoconjugateforpersonandtense,anditcanbefollowedbyaverbineitheritsbaseorinfinitiveform(thetobecomesoptional).Forexample:•“Ican’tbelievehedared(to)standuptotheboss.”•“Noonedares(to)questionmyauthority!”Whendareisusedasamainverb,itmusttaketheauxiliaryverbdotoformquestionsorbemadenegative.Aswesawinthesectiononprimaryauxiliaryverbs,itisdo,ratherthanthemainverb,thatconjugatesfortense,person,andnumberinthiscase.Forexample:•“Didtheydare(to)gothroughwithit?”•“Hedoesn’tdare(to)arguewiththeprincipal.”Darecanalsomean“tochallengesomeoneto(do)somethingthatrequirecourage,boldness,orrecklessness,”inwhichcaseitmusttakeanoun,pronoun,orinfinitiveasadirectobject.Itcannotbeusedmodallywiththismeaning.Forexample:•“IdareyoutoaskSuzyonadate.”•“I’veneverbeendaredtoracesomeonebefore.”

NeedNeedasasemi-modalverbisalmostalwaysusedinnegativesentencestoexpressalackofobligationornecessity,eithertakingtheadverbnot(usuallycontractedasneedn’t)orpairedwithanegativewordorphrase,suchasnever,noone,nothing,etc.Forexample:•“Nooneneedknowaboutthis.”•“Heneedn’thavecalled;ItoldhimIwouldbelate.”

•“Youneedn’tworryaboutmygrades.”•“Nothingneedchangesimplybecausemyfatherisnolongerhere.”Itcanalsobeusedtoforminterrogativesentencesbyinvertingwiththesubject,asin:•“Needwebeconcerned?”•“NeedIgotothemarketlater?”Likedare,though,themodaluseofneedhasbecomequiteuncommoninmodernEnglish,exceptinveryformalspeechorwriting.

AsamainverbNeedismuchmorecommonasamainverb.Thismeansitconjugatesforperson(becomingneedsinthethird-personsingular)ortense(becomingneeded),anditusesauxiliarydidtoformnegativesandquestions.Asamainverb,needcanbefollowedbynouns,nounphrases,pronouns,gerunds,orinfinitives.Forexample:•“Heneedsthatreportbytomorrow.”•“Doessheneedtoknowwherethehouseis?”•“Youhaveplentyoftime,soyoudon’tneedtorush.”•“Heneededaplacetostay,soIofferedhimone.”

UsedtoWhenwespeakaboutapasthabit,condition,orfactthatisnolongerthecase,wecanusethesemi-modalusedtowiththebaseformoftheverb.Forexample:•“IusedtogetupearlywhenIlivedinNewYork.”•“SheusedtoliveinIreland.”•“Weusedtobeinabandtogether.”•“Thiswatchusedtobelongtomyfather.”Uniquelyamongthemodalandsemi-modalverbs,weformthequestionandnegativeofusedtothesamewayasformainverbsinthepasttense—thatis,byusingtheauxiliarydidforthequestionanddidnotforthenegative.Example:•“DidyouusetoliveinManchester?”

•“Ididn’tusetolikecoffee.”•“Shedidn’tusetogotothegymeveryday.”(Technicallyspeaking,weshouldremovethe“-d”fromusedtowhenformingquestionsandnegatives,astheauxiliaryverbdidtakesthepasttense.Becauseoftoimmediatelyfollowinguse,however,thepronunciationstaysthesame,andmanywritersincludethe“-d”regardless.ItiscommontoseeitwrittenbothwaysinmodernEnglish.)

AsamainverbAlargesourceofconfusionarisesaroundthedifferencebetweenthesemi-modalverbusedtoandtwosimilarlystructuredmainverbs—beusedtoandgetusedto.

BeusedtoWhenweusebeusedtowithanoun,nounphrase,orthegerundofaverb,itmeans“tobeaccustomedtosomething.”Forexample:•“Iamusedtogettingupat7AMeverymorning.”•“Shewasusedtothestressbythatpoint.”Toformthenegativeofbeusedto,weaddnotaftertheauxiliaryverbbe,whichcanbecontractedtoisn’t,aren’t,wasn’t,orweren’t.Toforminterrogativesentences,weinvertbewiththesubject.Forexample:•“Iamnotusedtolivinginthecity.”•“Hewasn’tusedtosomuchwork.”•“Areyouusedtolivingwithroommates?”

GetusedtoGetusedtohasaslightlydifferentmeaningfrombeusedto;getheremeansbecome.Infact,inmoreformalEnglish,itisconsideredpreferabletosaybecomeusedtoinstead.Ineverydayspeechandwriting,however,getusedtoisperfectlyacceptable.Weoftenusegetusedtointhepresentcontinuoustense.Forexample:•“Iamgettingusedtolivinginthecity.”(Iambecomingaccustomedtolivinginthecity.)

•“Heisgettingusedtopublicspeaking.(Heisbecomingaccustomedtotheactofpublicspeaking.)Wecanalsousegetusedtointhepastsimpletense,butusuallyinnegativeconstructionswiththewordnever,asin:•“Shenevergotusedtothesilenceofthecountryside.”Often,weusegetusedtowiththemodalverbscould,will,andcannot(orcan’t).Couldisusedtocreateahypotheticalscenario,willcreatesthefuturetense(oftenpairedwithnever),andcannotisusedtomean“unable.”Forexample:•“Ican’tgetusedtoworkingsomanyhours.Iamsotired.”(Iamunabletobecomeaccustomedtothis.)•“Icouldgetusedtodoingnothingallday.”(ThisissomethingthatIcouldfindeasytodo.)•“Iwillnevergetusedtothesecrampedconditions.”(AtnopointinthefuturewillIbecomeaccustomedtothis.)

OughttoOughttoisconsideredsemi-modalbecause,likeusedto,itendsintoandsomakesverbsinfinitive.Itiscommonlycomparedtoshouldbecauseitexpressesthatsomethingisviewedascorrect,preferable,ornecessary—orasprobable,likely,orexpected.Itcanalsobeusedtoaskfororofferadviceaboutsomething.Forexample:•“Withthecostofairfaresohigh,in-flightmealsoughttobefree.”(Itiscorrectorpreferablethatthemealsbefree.)•“Weoughttoarriveintheevening.”(Itisprobableorexpectedthatwe’llarriveintheevening.)•“Ithinkweoughttoturnback.”(Turningbackisthenecessaryorbestcourseofaction—wordedasadvice.)•“YououghttoseetheGrandCanyonsomeday.”(ItismyadviceorrecommendationforyoutovisittheGrandCanyon.)Whenoughttoismadenegative,notcomesbetweenought(sometimescontractedasoughtn’t)andto;itiscommontoomittowhenoughttoisusedwithnot.Forexample:•“Yououghtnottoreadinsuchdimlight.”

•“Weoughtn’tleavethehouse;itisn’tsafe.”Wecanalsoformquestionsbyinvertingoughtwiththesubject;thisisnotverycommon,though.Again,toissometimesomittedinthisform.Forexample:•“Oughtwefindsomeplacetoeat?”•“Oughtn’tshestudyforherexam?”•“Oughttheytobemoreworriedaboutthestorm?”•“Oughtnothetofinishhishomeworkfirst?”OughttoisbecomingfarlesscommonthanshouldinmodernEnglish,especiallyinAmericanEnglish.


1.Whichofthefollowingisnotoneofthesemi-modalverbs?a)dareb)shouldc)oughttod)need2.Whichofthefollowingissomethingthatsemi-modalverbscannotdo?a)Conjugateforthird-personsingularsubjectsb)Comebeforemainverbstocreateuniquemeaningsc)Formthepasttensed)Becomenegativewiththewordnote)A&Bf)A&Cg)B&C3.Inwhichofthefollowingsentencesisneedusedasasemi-modalverb?a)“Nobodyneedhearaboutthisdisaster.”b)“Heneedstolearnsomerespect.”c)“Ithinkyouneedahaircut.”d)“Doessheneedtostudymore?”4.Whichistheonlysemi-modalverbthattakestheauxiliaryverbdotobecomenegative?

a)dareb)needc)usedtod)oughtto5.Whichofthefollowingsentencesdoesnotuseasemi-modalverb?a)“NeedIaskwhythisreportislate?”b)“We’dalllikesomemore,butwhodaresask?”c)“Weallusedtoliveherewhenwewereyounger.”d)“Yououghtn’tconcernyourselfwiththismatter.”

InfinitivesDefinitionAninfinitiveisthemostbasicformofaverb.Itis“unmarked”(whichmeansthatitisnotconjugatedfortenseorperson),anditisprecededbytheparticleto.Infinitivesareknownasnon-finiteverbs,meaningtheydonotexpressactionsbeingperformedbythesubjectsofclauses.Instead,infinitivesfunctionasnouns,adjectives,oradverbstodescribeactionsasideas.Infinitivesaredistinctfromasimilarconstructionknownasbareinfinitivesorthebaseformsofverbs,whicharesimplyinfinitiveswithouttheparticleto.Althoughnearlyidentical,weusethemindifferentwaysthan“full”infinitives,whichwe’lllookatlaterinthissection.

UsinginfinitivesInfinitivesareusedtoexpressanactionasaconcept,ratherthanwhatisbeingdoneorperformedbythesubjectofaclause.Inthisway,theycanfunctionasnouns,adjectives,oradverbs—thatis,nearlyanyroleinasentenceexceptthatofamainverb.Infinitivescanstandontheirowntocompletethesefunctions,ortheycanworktogetherwiththeirownpredicates(anyadditionalinformationthatmodifiesorcompletesthem)toforminfinitivephrases.Infinitivephrasesfunctionasanouns,adjectives,oradverbsasasingle,holisticunit.(Intheexamplesinthissection,infinitivephraseshavebeenputinbold,whiletheinfinitiveverbsthatbeginthemareinitalics.)

MakinginfinitivesnegativeTomakeaninfinitiveorinfinitivephrasenegative,weusethewordnotbeforetheinfinitive.Wecanalsoputgreateremphasisonnotbyplacingitafterto.*(*Thiscreateswhatisknownasasplitinfinitive—aninfinitivethathasanadverbbetweentoandthebaseformoftheverb.Whilesometraditionalgrammarguidesstatethatthisshouldneverbedone,inrealitythereisnosuch“rule”inEnglish;itisperfectlygrammaticaltosplitaninfinitive,andinmanycasesitsoundsmorenaturaltodoso.)

InfinitivesasnounsBecauseinfinitivesandinfinitivephrasescanfunctionasnouns,itmeansthattheycanbethesubjectofaclause,thedirectobjectofaverb,orapredicatenoun.

SubjectsThesubjectperforms,occupies,orcontrolstheactionoftheverb.•“Toerrishuman;toforgiveisdivine.”•“TostudymathematicsatHarvardwasherultimatedream.”•“Toliveinthecitymeansadjustingtoacompletelydifferentlifestyle.”

ObjectsAsdirectobjectsAdirectobjectisapersonorthingthatdirectlyreceivestheactionoftheverbinaclause.Aninfinitivethatactsastheobjectofanotherverbissometimesknownasaverbcomplement.Rememberthatintransitiveverbsdonottakedirectobjects,soyouwillonlyfindinfinitivesusedastheobjectsoftransitiveverbs.•“I’mnotgoingunlessyouagreetogowithme.”•“Youappeartobecorrect.”•“Pleasebequiet;I’mtryingtostudy.”•“They’reattemptingtosolvetheequation.”

•“Letmeknowifyoudecidetoleaveearly.”•“Wehopetogointhenearfuture.”•“Werarelymanagetogetoutofthehouseforthenight.”

AsobjectsinreportedspeechWhenweusereportedspeech,weoftenuseinfinitivesasthedirectobjectofa“reportingverb”toexpresswhatwassaidoraskedinthepast.Forexample:•“Heaskedtohelpusfixthecar.”•“Shesaidnottoanswerthephone.”•“Hedemandedtospeaktothemanager.”•“Theyofferedtotakemetotheairport.”•“Ipromisedtobuyheradiamondring.”•“HethreatenedtoreportmetothepoliceifIdidn’tgivehimbackthemoney.”

AsobjectcomplementsCertainverbsdonotmakesensewithonlyadirectobject,especiallywhenthatdirectobjectisaperson.Moreinformationisrequiredabouttheobject’srelationshipwiththeverbtoformacompletethought.Thisextrainformationisknownastheobjectcomplement.Aninfinitivecanalsoactasanobjectcomplement,whichiswordorgroupofwordsthatdescribe,rename,orcompletethedirectobjectoftheverb.Forexample:•“Idon’texpectyoutoapproveofmydecision.”•“She’sforcingmetoworkthroughtheweekend.”•“Weneedyoutomakeafewmorecopies.”•“Janet’sfatherwantshertogotoHarvard.”•“Iwouldlikethebosstoseethesereports.”•“Hepersuadedmetomarryhim.”•“Theytaughtme(how)toworkthephotocopier.”Weoftenuseinfinitivesasobjectcomplementsinreportedspeechtoexpresswhatsomeonesaidtooraskedofsomeone.Forexample:•“Heaskedmetohelphim.”

•“Shetoldmenottoanswerthephone.”

Gerundsvs.InfinitivesCertainverbscantakeeithergerundsorinfinitivesasdirectobjects.Insomecases,thisresultsinnodifferenceinmeaning.Forexample:

Infinitive Gerund

“Iliketohikeontheweekend.” “Ilikehikingontheweekend.”

“Shelovestoread.” “Shelovesreading.”

“Theyhatetogetbadnews.” “Theyhategettingbadnews.”

“IprefertogooutonaFridaythantostayathome.”

“IprefergoingoutonaFridaythanstayingathome.”

Inotherinstances,however,themeaningoftheclauseissignificantlychangedasaresult.Forinstance,theverbsremember,forget,try,andstopcanhavebothinfinitivesandgerundsasdirectobjects,butthemeaningchangesdependingonwhichisused.Forexample

Infinitive Gerund

“Irememberedtoclosethewindow.”(Ididn’tforgettodoit.)

“Irememberclosingthewindow.”(Iclearlyrecallit.)

“IforgottomeetJohnearlier.”(Ididn’tremembertodoit.)

“IforgetmeetingJohnearlier.”(Idon’trememberthisfacteventhoughithappened.)

“Trytogetsomerest.”(Attempttodothis.)

“Trygettingsomerest.”(Trythisasapossiblesolutiontotheproblem.)

“Istoppedtodrinkwaterbeforebed.”(IinterruptedwhatIwasdoingtodrinkwater.)

“Istoppeddrinkingwaterbeforebed.”(Idon’tdrinkwaterbeforebedanymore.)

PredicatenounsPredicatenounsareasubsetofalargercategoryknownassubjectcomplements(includingpredicatepronounsandpredicativeadjectives),whichrenameorre-identifythesubjectafteralinkingverb(usuallyaformoftheverbbe).Forexample:•“AllIwantistobeleftalone.”•“Thebestthinginlifeistospendtimewiththoseyoulove.”•“Thebestwecanhopeforistobreakeven.”

InfinitivesasadjectivesWheninfinitivesareusedasadjectives,theyfunctioninasimilarwaytorelativeclauses(alsoknownasadjectiveclauses),providingmoreinformationaboutanounorpronounthattheyappeardirectlyafter.Forexample:•“Thisisagoodplacetostartreading.”(Tostartreadingmodifiesthenounplace.)•“Giveyourbrothersomethingtoplaywith.”(Toplaywithmodifiesthepronounsomething.)•“Findafriendtohelpyoustudy.”(Tohelpyoustudymodifiesthenounfriend.)

InfinitivesasadverbsWecanalsouseinfinitivesasadverbstomodifythemainverbinasentence,describingareasonwhyanactionis,was,orwillbedone.Infinitivesusedinthiswayareoftenknownasinfinitivesofpurpose.Forexample:•“Istartedrunningtoimprovemyhealth.”Wecanalsousethephrasesinorderandsoastoaddformalemphasistoaninfinitiveofpurpose,asin:•“Wemustleavenowinordertocatchourtrain.”•“He’sbeenstudyingallweeksoastoimprovehisgrades.”Notethatwedonotusetheprepositionforbeforetheinfinitive;weonlyuseforwithanounornounphrasetocreateaprepositionalphrasethatmodifiestheverbtodescribeitspurpose.Consider,forexample,thesethreesentences:

✔ “Iwenttothesupermarkettobuysomebread.”(correct—infinitivephrase)✔ “Iwenttothesupermarketforsomebread.”(correct—prepositionalphrase)✖ Iwenttothesupermarketfortobuysomebread.”(incorrect—prepositionusedwithinfinitivephrase)

LoneinfinitivesWecanalsouseinfinitivesinthiswayasisolatedresponsestoquestionsaskingwhysomethingisdoneoristhecase.Forexample:•SpeakerA:“WhyareyougoingtoNewYork?”•SpeakerB:“ToseetheEmpireStateBuilding.”•SpeakerA:“WhydidyouturnontheTV?”•SpeakerB:“Towatchthenews.”Theseresponsesareknownasellipticalsentences,meaningthatpartofthesentencehasbeenomittedbecauseitisimplied.Inthiscase,theimpliedsectionis“becauseIwanted….”Asthiselementisimplicitlyunderstood,weoftenleaveitoutentirelyandsimplyusetheinfinitiveonitsown.

Infinitivesvs.BaseForms(BareInfinitives)Thebaseformofaverbissimplytheinfinitivewithouttheparticleto—likeaninfinitive,itisuninflectedfortenseandperson.Becauseofthissimilarity,thebaseformofaverbisoftenknownasabareinfinitive,andsomegrammarguidesandwritersmakelittledistinctionbetweenthetwoforms.However,infinitivesandbase-formverbsfunctiondifferently,soitisimportanttodistinguishbetweenthem.Aninfinitivecanbeusedinasentenceasanoun,anadverb,oranadjective,butitcannotactasatrueverbthatexpressestheactionofasubject.Thebaseformofaverb,ontheotherhand,canbeusedinconjunctionwiththeauxiliaryverbdotobecomenegativeortoformquestions.Theyarealsousedwithmodalauxiliaryverbstoexpressthingslikepossibility,necessity,obligationandpermission,aswellastocreatethesimplefuturetense.

Verbsthattakebareinfinitives

Thebaseformisalsousedafterthedirectobjectofcertainactionverbs,suchaslet,help,andmake,aswellasafterverbsofthesenses,suchashear,see,andfeel.Let’slookatsomeexamplesofthesebelow.Thebareinfinitives(baseforms)areinbold,whilethemainverbsareunderlinedandthedirectobjectsareitalicized:•“Pleaseletmegototheparty,mom.”(Pleasegivemepermissiontogo.)•“Hisfathermakeshimstudy.”(Hisfatherforceshimtostudy.)•“Jackishelpingmecleanthegarage.”(Jackiscleaningthegaragewithme.)•“Heheardmeshout.”(HecouldthatIwasshouting.)•“Isawherlookinmydirection.”(Icouldseethatshewaslookinginmydirection.)•“Ifelthimtouchmyarm.”(Icouldfeelthathetouchedmyarm.)(Notethatthesearenottheonlyverbsthatcanbefollowedbybareinfinitives.)

AfterhadbetterThebaseformsofverbsarealsousedafterthephrasehadbetter,whichactslikethemodalverbshouldtosuggestarequiredordesirableaction.Forexample:•“Youhadbettercleanthisupbeforeyourfathergetshome.”•“Ithinkwe’dbettergohomesoon.”

AfterwhyBareinfinitivescanalsofollowthewordwhytoformquestions,asin:•“WhystudywhenIalreadyknowthematerialbyheart?”•“WhywatchTVwhenwecouldplayoutside?”Thesetypesofquestionsarecalledelliptical,which,aswesawabove,meansthatpartofthesentencehasbeenleftoutbecauseitisimplied.Thefullquestionsmightread:•“WhyshouldIstudywhenIalreadyknowthematerialbyheart?”•“WhywouldwewatchTVwhenwecouldplayoutside?”Sincetheitalicizedpartsofthesesentencescanbeimplied,theyaresometimesleftoutentirely.


1.Whichofthefollowingisadistinguishingfeatureofinfinitives?a)Theycannotconjugatefortenseorpersonb)Theycanfunctionasanoun,adjective,oradverbc)Theyareprecededbythewordtod)A&Ce)B&Cf)Alloftheabove2.Whichofthefollowingisnotsomethinganinfinitivecanfunctionas?a)Thesubjectofaclauseb)Themainverbofaclausec)Thedirectobjectofaverbd)Anadverbmodifyingaverb3.TrueorFalse:Infinitivesandgerundsarealwaysinterchangeableasdirectobjectsofverbs.a)Trueb)False4.Identifythegrammaticalfunctionoftheinfinitivephrase(inbold)inthefollowingsentence:“Ineedtheemployeestoworkalittleharder.”a)Objectcomplementb)Predicatenounc)Adjectived)Adverb5.Whichofthefollowingdistinguishesthebaseformofaverbfromtheinfinitiveform?a)Itconjugatesfortenseorpersonb)Itcanfunctionasadirectobjectofamainverbc)Itisnotprecededbythewordtod)A&C

e)B&Cf)Alloftheabove

ParticiplesDefinitionParticiplesarewordsformedfromverbsthatcanfunctionasadjectivesorgerundsorcanbeusedtoformthecontinuoustensesandtheperfecttensesofverbs.Therearetwoparticipleforms:thepresentparticipleandthepastparticiple.

FormThepresentparticipleThepresentparticipleisthe“-ing”formofaverb.Thisverbformisalwaysthesame,whethertheverbisregularorirregular.Forexample:Regularverbs

Regularverb PresentParticiple

apologize apologizing

close closing

follow following

look looking

remember rememberingIrregularverbs

Irregularverb PresentParticiple

eat eating

run running

sing singing

think thinking

write writing

be being

ThepastparticipleUnlikethepresentparticiple,thepastparticipleformchangesdependingontheverb.Thepastparticipleofregularverbsendsin“-ed,”andisgenerallythesameasthesimplepasttenseoftheverb.Forexample:

Regularverb PastSimple PastParticiple

apologize apologized apologized

close closed closed

follow followed followed

look looked looked

remember remembered rememberedThepastparticipleformofirregularverbshasavarietyofendingsthatmustbememorized.Notethatthepastparticipleisusually(butnotalways)differentfromthepastsimpleformforirregularverbs.Forexample:

Irregularverb PastSimple PastParticiple

eat ate eaten

run ran run

sing sang sung

think thought thought

write wrote written

be was/were been

UsingparticiplesasadjectivesandinparticiplephrasesPresentandpastparticiplescanbeusedasadjectivesoraspartofaparticiplephrase.Participlesallowustocondensetwosentencesintoone,expressingideasthatwouldotherwiserequirerelativeclauses,subordinatingconjunctions,etc.,inamoreeconomicalway.Forexample:

LongerForm Usingaparticiple

“Shesoothedthebaby,whowascrying.” “Shesoothedthecryingbaby.”

“IwasoblivioustothedoorbellringingbecauseIwassingingintheshower.”

“Singingintheshower,Iwasoblivioustothedoorbellringing.”

“WefinallyfoundJames,whowashidingunderthebed,afterhoursofsearching.”

“Afterhoursofsearching,wefinallyfoundJameshidingunderthebed.”

AsadjectivesWhenweformanadjectiveusingthepresentparticiple,weimplyactiononthepartofthenounbeingmodified.Forexample:•“Shesoothedthecryingbaby.”(Thebabyiscrying).•“Thespeedingcarcrashedintothetree.”(Thecarwasspeeding.)•“Hugging,thetwosisterssaidgoodbyetoeachother.”(Thesisterswerehugging.)Whenweformanadjectiveusingthepastparticiple,ontheotherhand,wedon’timplyactiononthepartofnounthatitmodifies.Instead,wedescribeacharacteristicofthatnoun.Forexample:•“Ipickedupthebrokenbottle.”(Thebottleisbroken.)

•“Thejumbledpuzzlepieceswerealloverthefloor.”(Thepuzzlepiecesarejumbled.)•“Pleasegetmeabagoffrozenvegetables.”(Thevegetablesarefrozen.)

AsparticiplephrasesParticipialphrases(sometimesknownasparticipialclauses)aregroupsofwordsthatcontainaparticipleandfunctionasadjectivephrases.

PresentparticiplephraseIfweusethepresentparticipleinaphrase,wegivetheclauseanactivemeaning.Inotherwords,thenounbeingmodifiedistheagentoftheaction.Forexample:•“Singingintheshower,Iwasoblivioustothedoorbellringing.”(Iwassinging.)•“James,hidingunderthebed,wascompletelysilent.”(Jameswashiding.)

PastparticiplephraseIfweusethepastparticiple,thenounbeingmodifiediseithergivenapassiveroleintheaction,orelseisbeingdescribed.Forexample:•“Theturkey,burnttoacrisp,wasthrowninthegarbage.”•“Mysister,exhaustedafteralongday’swork,hasfallenasleeponthesofa.”Inthefirstexample,theturkeyisnottheagentoftheaction,butisbeingactedupon;ithasbeenburntbytheovenorbythepersoncooking,andsoithasapassiverole.Inthesecondexample,mysisterisalsonottheagentoftheverbexhaust.Instead,exhaustedisusedtodescribehowshefeels.

Perfectparticiplephrase(Having+pastparticiple)Whenwewanttoemphasizethatoneeventhappenedbeforeanother,wecanusethestructurehaving+pastparticiple,alsoknownastheperfectparticiple.Forexample:•“Havingseenthemoviebefore,Iwouldn’twanttoseeitagain.”

•“Havingdonealotofexercisethismorning,weshouldeatabiglunch.”•“Shewasexhausted,havingstayedupallnightwatchingTV.”

SentencePlacementInitialpositionWhenaparticipleorparticiplephraseoccursintheinitialposition,itisusuallyseparatedfromtherestofthesentencebyacomma.Forexample:•“Runningtothecar,theboywelcomedhisfatherhomeafterthreemonthsaway.”•“Singingintheshower,Iwasoblivioustothedoorbellringing.”•“Scared,mysistersleptwiththelighton.”

MiddlepositionWhentheparticipleorphraseoccursinthemiddleposition,andisnotessentialtothemeaningofthesentence,itshouldbesetapartfromtherestofthesentencebytwocommas.Forexample:•“Mysister,exhausted,hasfallenasleeponthesofa.”•“James,hidingunderthebed,wascompletelysilent.”•“Theturkey,burnttoacrisp,wasthrowninthegarbage.”However,ifitoccursinthemiddlepositionandisessentialtothemeaningofthesentence,itshouldnotbesetapartbycommas.Forexample:•“Thestudentsfinishedwiththeirworkmayhaveabreak.”•“Jacketsleftbehindwillbedonated.”•“Participantsbreakingtheruleswillberemovedfromthecompetition.”

FinalpositionIftheparticipleorphraseoccursinthefinalpositionimmediatelyafterthenounthatitmodifies,itdoesn’tneedacomma.Forexample:•“WelookedforhoursandfinallyfoundJameshiding.”•“Thecathadnointerestinthepoordogwaggingitstail.”•“IwasinsuchahurryIdidn’tnoticemyjacketleftonthetable.”

However,whenitoccursinfinalpositionbutnotimmediatelyafterthenounthatitmodifies,itdoesneedacomma.Forexample:•“Itwasobvioushereallyenjoyeddinner,havinghadasecondhelpingofdessert.”•“Mysistercriedasshepackedupherbelongings,saddenedattheideaofmovingoutofherchildhoodhome.”•“Mostofthepuzzlepieceshavedisappeared,misplacedaftersomanyyears.”

CommonmistakesWhenweuseparticiplesasadjectives,it’simportantthatthenounmodifiedisclearlystatedandthattheparticipleappearsasclosetoitaspossible.Otherwise,weruntheriskoferrorsknownasmisplacedmodifiersanddanglingmodifiers.

MisplacedmodifierAmisplacedmodifiercanoccurwhenthereismorethanonenouninthesentence.Ifwedon’tplacetheparticiplecloseenoughtothenounthatitmodifies,itmayseemthatitmodifiesanothernoun.Forexample:•“Terrifiedafterwatchingascarymovie,myfatherhadtocomfortmylittlesister.”Intheabovesentence,theparticiplephraseterrifiedafterwatchingascarymovieissupposedtomodifymylittlesister.However,sincemyfatherappearsclosertotheparticiplephrase,itseemsitisthefatherthatisterrified.Thesentenceshouldberewrittentocorrectthemisplacedmodifier.Forexample:•“Myfatherhadtocomfortmysister,terrifiedafterwatchingascarymovie.”or•“Terrifiedafterwatchingascarymovie,mysisterhadtobecomfortedbymyfather.”or•“Mysister,terrifiedafterwatchingascarymovie,hadtobecomfortedbymyfather.”

Danglingmodifier

Adanglingmodifieroccurswhenwedon’tclearlystatethenounthatissupposedtobemodifiedbytheparticiple.Forexample:•“Walkingdowntheroad,thebirdsweresinging.”Becausethesentencedoesnotstatewhowaswalkingdowntheroad,isseemsthatitwasthebirds,whichprobablyisnottheintendedmeaning.Thesentenceneedstoberewrittentocorrectthedanglingmodifier.Forexample:•“Walkingdowntheroad,Iheardthebirdssinging.”

UsingparticiplesasgerundsThepresentparticipleisalsousedtocreategerunds.Agerundisaformofaverbthatcanbeusedasanoun,functioningasasubject,complement,orobjectofasentence.Forexample:•“Swimmingismyfavoritesport.”(subject)•“Mybrother’sfavoritesportiscycling.”(complement)•“Doyouenjoyrunning?”(object)

UsingparticiplesinverbtensesBothpresentandpastparticiplesareusedalongwithauxiliaryverbstoformmulti-partverbtenses.

ThepresentparticipleinverbtensesThepresentparticipleisusedtoformthepast,present,andfuturecontinuoustenses.

PresentContinuousThepresentcontinuoustenseismainlyusedforstatinganactionthatistakingplaceatthemomentofspeaking,oranactionthatwilltakeplaceinthenearfuture.Itisformedusingthepresenttenseoftheauxiliaryverbbe+thepresentparticipleofthemainverb.Forexample:•“I’msinging.”•“He’srunning.”•“We’rehiding.”

PastContinuousThepastcontinuoustenseisprimarilyusedtodescribeanactionthattookplaceoveraperiodoftimeinthepast,especiallyifinterruptedbyanotheraction.Itisformedusingwas(thepasttenseoftheauxiliaryverbbe)+thepresentparticipleofthemainverb.Forexample:•“Iwassingingintheshowerwhenthedoorbellrang.”•“ShewaseatingdinnerwhenIcalled.”•“Theywerehelpingtheirmomcleanthehouseallday.”

PresentperfectcontinuousThepresentperfectcontinuoustenseismainlyusedtodescribeanactionthathasrecentlytakenplaceandstillhasaneffectonthepresent.Itplacestheemphasisonthedurationoftheactionratherthantheresult.Itisformedusinghave/has+been+thepresentparticipleformofthemainverb.Forexample:•“Ihavebeensingingloudly,somythroat’ssore.”•“Ithinkshe’sbeencrying—hereyesarereallyred.”•“They’vebeenrunningfor20minutesalready.”

PastperfectcontinuousThepastperfectcontinuoustenseisusedtodescribeanactionthatbeganinthepast,andcontinueduntilanotherpointinthepast.Itisformedusinghad+been+thepresentparticipleformofthemainverb.Forexample:•“Theyhadbeensingingfortwohourswhentheconcertfinished.”•“ShehadbeenwaitingforabusforalongtimewhenIsawher.”•“Ihadbeenreadingmybookforabout20minuteswhenIrealizeditwastimetoleave.”

FutureContinuousThefuturecontinuoustenseisusedtodescribeanactionthatwillbeinprogressatacertainpointinthefuture.Itisformedusingwill+be+thepresentparticipleformofthemainverb.Forexample:•“Tomorrowateighto’clockIwillbewaitingformyflight.”

•“Don’tcallatsixo’clockbecausethey’llbehavingdinner.”•“She’llbedrivingallafternoontomorrow.”

FuturePerfectContinuousThefutureperfectcontinuoustenseisusedtodescribeanactionthatwillcontinueupuntilacertainpointinthefuture.Itemphasizesthedurationoftheaction,andisformedusingwill+have+been+thepresentparticipleformofthemainverb.Forexample:•“Ateighto'clockI’llhavebeenwaitinghereforanhour.”•“She’llhavebeenlivinginNewYorkCityfor10yearsnextmonth.”•“Wewillhavebeenworkingonthisprojectforthreeweeksasoftomorrow.”

ThepastparticipleinverbtensesThepastparticipleisusedinformingthepresent,past,andfuturesimpleperfecttenses.

PresentPerfectThepresentperfecttenseisusedtodescribeanactionorexperienceintherecentpastthatstillhasaneffectonthepresent.Itissimilartothepresentperfectcontinuous,butinsteadofplacingtheemphasisonthedurationoftheaction,itsubtlyemphasizestheresult.Itisformedusinghave/has+thepastparticipleformofthemainverb.Forexample:•“Ihaveeatenalready.”•“I’vespentallmymoney.”•“Shehasn’tbeenherebefore.”

PastPerfectThepastperfecttenseisusedtodescribeanactionthatwascompletedinthepast,priortoanotherpastaction.Itisformedusinghad+thepastparticipleformofthemainverb.Forexample:•“Ihadeatenwhenshecalled.”•“WhydidyouvisitLasVegasagainwhenyouhadbeentherebefore?”•“Shehadcookeddinnerandhaditwaitingonthetablewhenwegothome.”

FutureperfectThefutureperfecttenseisusedtodescribeanactionthatwillbecompletedatacertainpointinthefuture.Itisformedusingwill+have+thepastparticipleformofthemainverb.Forexample:•“Whenyougethere,we’llhaveeatenalready.”•“They’llhavefinishedbylatetonight.”•“Thebabywillhavewokenupbysixo’clocktomorrowmorning.”


1.Participlesareusedtoform________.a)adjectivesb)gerundsc)verbtensesd)A&Be)alloftheabove2.Thepresentparticipleendsin________.a)“-ed”b)“-ing”c)A&Bd)noneoftheabove3.Whichofthefollowingwordsisnotapastparticiple?a)beenb)eatenc)rand)sung4.Completethefollowingsentence:“________underthebed,thedogwasterrifiedofthethunder.”a)Havinghidingb)Havehiddenc)Hid

d)Hiding5.Whichofthefollowingsentencesispunctuatedcorrectly?a)“James,scaredhewasgoingtofailthetest,stayedupallnightstudying.”b)“Jamesscaredhewasgoingtofailthetest,stayedupallnightstudying.”c)“James,scaredhewasgoingtofailtheteststayedupallnightstudying.”d)“Jamesscaredhewasgoingtofail,theteststayedupallnightstudying.”

ActionVerbsDefinitionActionverbs(alsoknownasdynamicverbs)areverbsthatareusedtoexplainwhatthesubjectofasentenceisactivelydoing.Forexample,ran,swim,jump,move,look,andcatchareallactionverbs.Herearesomeexamplesofactionverbsbeingusedinsentences:•“Themanstretchedhisarmbeforehethrewthebaseball.”•“Thekittensleapedfromthetabletothechair.”•“Aftershedoveintothewater,theswimmerracedtotheothersideofthepoolasfastasshecould.”•“Aboyrolleddownthehillonaskateboard.”•“Beforeitstoppedforabreak,thehorseranforfivemiles.”

ImportancetosentencesConsiderthefollowingsentences:•“Thetrainisonthetrack.”•“Thegazellesareinthefield.”Neitherofthesesentencescontainsaverbthatdescribesanactionthesubjectistaking.Instead,theyusethestativeverbbetodescribetheconditionsorstatesofbeingofthesubjects.However,addingactionverbshelpstoidentifywhatthesubjectofthesentenceisactivelydoing:•“Thetrainracedalongthetrack.”•“Thegazellesaregallopinginthefield.”Actionverbscanalsodramaticallyimpactthemeaningofthesentence.Theynot

onlysaywhatthesubjectisdoing,butcanalsodemonstratethemannerinwhichthesubjectisdoingit.Forexample,considerthefollowingsentence:•“Susiesatonthecouchattheendofherworkday.”TheactionverbsatletsthereaderknowthatSusiemovedfromastandingpositiontoasittingpositiononhercouch.Thefollowingsentencealsotellsthereaderthisinformation,butthedifferentchoiceofactionverbprovidesmoremeaningtothesentence:•“Susiecollapsedontohercouchattheendoftheworkday.”Inthissentence,theactionverbcollapsednotonlyindicatesthatSusiemovedfromastandingpositiontoarestingposition,butthatthetransitionwasmuchmoredramatic.ThiscouldbeusedtoillustratethatSusiewasverytiredorperhapsnotfeelingwell.Inanycase,itprovidesamoredescriptiveactionthansat.Hereisanotherexampleofsimilaractionverbsprovidingdifferentinformation:•“Themantossedthestonetothesideofthepath.”•“Themanheavedthestonetothesideofthepath.”Inbothoftheabovesentences,themanismovingthestoneoffthepath.However,theactionverbtossedimpliesthatthestonewaslightenoughtothrow,whileheavedindicatesthatthestonewasveryheavy.Asyoucansee,bychangingtheactionverb,wehavesignificantlychangedthesentence’smeaning.

DifferencefromotherverbtypesAllsentencesrequireaverbtobecomplete,butitdoesnothavetobeanactionverb:therearealsostativeverbs,linkingverbs,andauxiliaryverbs.

StativeverbsUnlikeactionverbs,stativeverbsindicatethestateorconditionofthesubject,suchasthoughtsoropinions(agree,recognize,doubt),possession(own,possess,belong,have),emotion(love,hate,like,fear,enjoy),orsenses(seem,look,hear,taste,feel).Wecanseehownoactionisbeingdescribedbytheseverbsinthefollowingexamples:•“Iown10cars.”•“Thekidslovetoplayoutsideinthesummer.”

•“Janetfeelsthatweshouldgohome.”Youmayhavenoticedthatsomeofthestativeverbscanfunctionasactionverbsincertaincontexts.Inthiscase,asimplifiedruleforidentifyingifaverbisstativeoractiveistoconjugatetheverbintooneofthecontinuoustenses(byusingitspresentparticiple)andseeifthesentencestillmakessense.Forexample:✔ “Iown10cars.”✖ “Iamowning10cars.”(incorrect—stativeverb)✔ “Iseeyourpoint.”✖ “Iamseeingyourpoint.”(incorrect—stativeverb)However:✔ “Iamseeingamovielater.”(correct—actionverb)(TherearesomeexceptionsandpeculiaritiesinEnglisharoundthisrule,butitisagoodstartingpointfordifferentiatingstativeandactionverbs.GotothesectiononStativeVerbstolearnmore.)

LinkingverbsLinkingverbsareasubsetofthestativeverbswelookedatabove—theyalsodescribeconditionorstateasopposedtoanaction.Linkingverbsareusedtoconnectasubjecttoanadjectiveorphrasethatdescribesit.Forexample:•“Sheissmart.”•“Theyseemverystrong.”•“Thissouptastesfunny.”

AuxiliaryverbsAuxiliaryverbsareverbsthatprecedestative,linking,oractionverbstohelpcompletetheirmeaning.Forexample:•“Theyshouldrunfaster.”•“Youcanseethelakefromtheporchonthelakehouse.”•“Ihavebeenthinkingaboutanewmethodfortheproject.”


1.Whichofthefollowingwordsisanactionverb?a)isb)canb)jumpd)shall2.Identifytheactionverbinthefollowingsentence.“Ithinkthemanwhodeliversourmailiscute.”a)thinkb)isc)whod)delivers3.Whichofthefollowingsentencesdoesnotcontainanactionverb?a)“Ihopetopossessmyowncompanysomeday.”b)“Hejumpedfromtherooftopintothepool.”c)“Shehasbeensmilingatmefromacrosstheclassroom.”d)“Let’sdrivetothemountainsfortheweekend.”4.Actionverbsarealsoknownaswhichofthefollowing?a)stylisticverbsb)stateverbsc)dynamicverbsd)holdingverbs

StativeVerbsDefinitionStativeverbs(alsoknownasstateverbs)areverbsthatdescribeastaticcondition,situation,orstateofbeing.Theyarecontrastedwithactionverbs(alsocalleddynamicverbs),whichdescribeanactive,dynamicactionthatcanbeperformedbyapersonorthing.Stativeverbscanbeinthepresent,past,orfuturetense;however,becausetheydescribestaticconditions,theyareusuallyunabletoprogressthroughtime,andtheythereforecannotbeusedwhenformingthecontinuousorprogressive

formsofverbtenses.Forthisreason,theyaresometimesreferredtoasnon-continuousverbsornon-progressiveverbs.However,somestativeverbscanbeusedinacontinuoustenseincertainsituations,aswhendescribingatemporarystatethathasbegunandwillend.ThisisbecomingmorecommoninmodernEnglish,andtheprescriptiverulethatstativeverbscanneverbecontinuousisbecominglessstrict.We’lllookatsomeoftheseexceptionsinthesectionsbelow.

TypesofstativeverbsLinkingverbsareusuallyusedasstativeverbs;theseincludetheverbbeandtheverbsofthesenses.Otherverbsthatareconsideredstativearethosethatexpressemotions,possession,cognition,andstatesorqualities.Below,we’lllookatcommonexamplesofdifferenttypesofstativeverbs.Aswewillsee,certainverbscanbeeitherdynamicorstative,dependingontheiruseandcontextinasentence.(It’simportanttonotethatthesectionsbelowdonotcontainexhaustivelistsofstativeverbs;theyareonlymeanttoprovideillustrativeexamples.)

TobeTheverbbeisthemostcommonlinkingverb.Itisusedfordescribinggeneralcharacterizations,sensations,measurements,location,ortorenamethesubject.Forexample:

“Youarewrong.”“Itwashotyesterday.”“Iamnothungry.”“Theywereconfused.”“Icantellthatyouareupset.”“Ourdaughterisoneweekold.”“Sheisfivefeettall.”“Johnisintheotherroom.”“Thisisalostcause.”

Usingthecontinuousform

However,thelinkingverbbecanfunctionasanactionverbwhenitisusedtomean“tobehave.”Wecantestwhetherbeisactingasastativeoractionverbbyputtingitintooneofthecontinuoustenses.Forexample:✔ “Thechildrenarebeingtoonoisy.”(Correct—itisanactionverb.)✖ “Thechildrenarebeingoutside.”(Incorrect—itisastativeverb.)

SenseverbsVerbsofthesenses,or“senseverbs”forshort,areusedtoindicateperceptionsbasedonphysicalormentalsensations.Thesenseverbsare:

tastesmellsoundseemfeellookappear

Whensenseverbsareusedaslinkingverbs,theymerelyrelatethemeansbywhichthespeakerhasarrivedatsuchasensationaboutthesubject.Wepairthemwithpredicativeadjectives.Forexample:

“Ifeelterribletoday.”“Yousoundtired.”“Shedidn’tsoundIrish.”“Youlookfabuloustoday.”“Hedoesn’tlookveryhappy.”“Thisdoesn’tseemright.”“ThecarappearsOK,butI’llhavetodriveittobesure.”“Thatsmellsnice.”“Thismilktastesstrange.”

UsingthecontinuousformNote,however,thatsomeofthesenseverbscantakethecontinuoustensetodescribeatemporarystateinsomecontexts;theyaremorecommoninmore

casualspeechandwriting.Forexample:•“Youarelookinggreat,Suzy!”•“Itisseeminglesslikelybythedaythatwewillsucceed.”Thesenseverbfeelisunique,though,inthatitisveryoftenusedinthecontinuousformwhentalkingaboutone’sorsomeoneelse’shealth,asin:•“I’mnotfeelingwellatall.”•“AreyoufeelingOK,John?”Certainsenseverbsalsofunctionasactionverbsinothercontexts,andthesecantakethecontinuousform.Forexample:•“Iwasfeelinggentlyaroundthetableinthedark.”•“Theguardsaresoundingthealarm!”•“What’sthatdeliciousfoodIamsmelling?”•“Hewaslookingacrossthetableatme.”•“Birdshavebeenappearingoutofnowhere.”•“Heistastingthesouptodecidewhetheritneedsalt.”

VerbsofemotionVerbsthatdescribeouremotionsaboutsomethingarealsoconsideredstative.Thesetransitiveverbstakenouns,nounphrases,gerunds,andsometimesinfinitivesastheirobjects.Herearesomecommonexamplesusingstativeverbsofemotion:

“Shelikesoldmovies.”“Mysonlovestoread.”“Ienjoywalkingalongthebeach.”“Ihatetoeatdinneralone.”“Thekidsdislikesharingtheirtoys.”“IprefersaladtoFrenchfries.”“Idon’tmindeatingvegetables.”

Mostofthetime,averbofemotioncantakeeitheragerundoraninfinitivewithlittletonodifferenceinmeaning.However,aninfinitivesometimesreferstoapotentialactivity,whileagerundreferstoanactivityingeneral.Otherverbsofemotion,suchasenjoyordon’tmind,can’ttaketheinfinitiveat

all:✖ “Ienjoytoplaytennis.”(incorrect)✔ “Ienjoyplayingtennis.”(correct)✖ “Idon’tmindtoworkonmyown.”(incorrect)✔ “Idon’tmindworkingonmyown.”(correct)

UsingthecontinuousformAswiththesenseverbs,wecansometimesuseverbsofemotioninthecontinuousformtodescribeanongoingbuttemporarysensation.However,suchusesaregenerallyquiteinformal.Forexample:•“Wearelovingthisneighborhood.”•“I’mlikingourchancesofwinningthechampionship.”•“I’mhatingthesecondseasonofthisshow.”Althoughenjoyisaverbofemotion,itisoftenusedinthecontinuousformandisnotconsideredinformal.Forinstance:•“Heisenjoyinghisnewfoundwealth.”•“Areyouenjoyingyourmeal?”However,therearestillsomeverbsofemotionthatgenerallydonottakeacontinuousform,asin:✖ “Sheispreferringheroldschool.”(incorrect)

VerbsofpossessionandattributionPossessionandattributionarestaticactions,notdynamicones.Verbsthatrefertoownershipareconsideredstativeanddonottakethecontinuousform.Forexample:

“Ihavealargehouse.”“Sheownsthreecars.”“Thatstereobelongstome.”“Theyhavealargefamily.”“Heholdsseveralpostgraduatedegrees.”“Shepossessesagreatwealthofknowledge.”

UsingthecontinuousformWeoftenfindsomeoftheseverbsusedinthecontinuousforms,buttheirmeaningsaredifferentandtheyarefunctioningasactionverbsinstead,asin:•“You’renotholdingontothehammertightenough!”(Holdmeans“togripwithone’shands”inthiscontext.)•“Hethinksthataghostispossessinghim.”(Possessmeans“togaincontrolorpowerover”inthiscontext.)•“She’shavingababyinafewmonths.”(Havemeans“togivebirthto”inthiscontext.)•“They’rehavingapartynextdoor.”(Havemeans“toarrangeorcarryout”inthiscontext.)However,iftheverbisindicatingpossessionorattribution,wecannotuseitinacontinuousform:

✖ “Iamhavingalargehouse.”(incorrect)✖ “Sheisowningthreecars.”(incorrect)✖ “Thatstereoisbelongingtome.”(incorrect)✖ “Theyarehavingalargefamily.”(incorrect)✖ “Heisholdingseveralpostgraduatedegrees.”(incorrect)✖ “Sheispossessingagreatwealthofknowledge.”(incorrect)

VerbsofcognitionVerbsofmentalcognition,suchasunderstand,know,recognize,,orthink,aregenerallyusedasstativeverbsanddonottakecontinuousforms.Forexample:✔ “Iunderstandtheissue.”(correct)✖ “Iamunderstandingtheissue.”(incorrect)✔ “SheknowsJanetverywell.”(correct)✖ “SheisknowingJanetverywell.”(incorrect)

UsingthecontinuousformSomeverbsofcognitioncanbestativeordynamic,dependingonthecontext.Iftheycancorrectlybeusedinacontinuousform,theyareexpressingadynamic

action.Forexample:•“IconsidermyoptionsbeforeImakeadecision.”✔ “IamconsideringmyoptionsbeforeImakeadecision.”(correct—actionverb)•“Iconsidermyselfarationalperson.”✖ “Iamconsideringmyselfarationalperson.”(incorrect—stativeverb)•“Theythoughtofananswer.”✔ “Theywerethinkingofananswer.”(correct—actionverb)Thestativeverbunderstand,however,hassomeinformalusesinwhichthecontinuousformisoftenconsideredacceptable,asin:•“I’msorry,I’mnotunderstandingyourquestion.”•AmIunderstandingyoucorrectly?”

VerbsofstatesorqualitiesBesidesthelinkingverbbeandtheverbsofthesenses,wecanuseotherverbs,suchasweigh,depend,involve,owe,orconsist,todescribethestateorqualitiesofsomething.Forexample:✔ “Heweighs160pounds.”(correct)✖ “Heisweighing160pounds.”(incorrect)✖ “Thisreportinvolvesmultiplesitesacrosstheworld.”(correct)✖ “Thisreportisinvolvingmultiplesitesacrosstheworld.”(incorrect)✔ “Yourhappinessdependsondoingsomethingyouenjoy.”(correct)✖ “Yourhappinessisdependingondoingsomethingyouenjoy.”(incorrect)✔ “Johnowesme20dollars!”(correct)✖ “Johnisowingme20dollars!”(incorrect)✔ “Thebookconsistsofresearchfromseveralprominentscientists.”(correct)✖ “Thebookisconsistingofresearchfromseveralprominentscientists.”(incorrect)

UsingthecontinuousformSomeoftheseverbscanbedynamicorstative,dependingonthecontextandthewaytheyareused.Whentheverbisdescribinganattributeofthesubject,itfunctionsasstativeverb(aswesawabove).Whentheverbdescribesanactiontakenbythesubject,though,itisfunctioningasanactionverb,asin:

•“Heisweighingeachbagbeforedelivery.”•“Iaminvolvinganumberofpeopleinthisproject.”Thephrasalverbdependon,however,isalwaysstative,butweoftenfinditbeingusedinthecontinuousform,especiallywhenitssubjectisaperson.Forinstance:•“Wearedependingonyoutogetthisdoneintime.”

ContinuousFormsvs.GerundsWithsomuchemphasisplacedonwhetherornotastativeverbisabletouseoneofthecontinuousforms,itisimportanttodistinguishbetweencontinuousformsandgerunds.Thecontinuous(orprogressive)formsrefertosixspecificverbtenses:presentcontinuoustense,presentperfectcontinuoustense,pastcontinuoustense,pastperfectcontinuoustense,futurecontinuoustense,andfutureperfectcontinuoustense.Theseallusethepresentparticiplesofverbstoexpressanactionthatiscontinuously(orprogressively)happening.Generallyspeaking,onlyactionverbscantakethecontinuousforms.(Although,aswe’veseenabove,therearemanyexceptionstoandinterpretationsofthisrule.)Gerunds,ontheotherhand,refertothe“-ing”formoftheverbwhenitisusedasanoun.Whenagerundtakesadditionalinformationaspartofitspredicate,theentirephrase(knownasagerundphrase)functionsasanoun.Anyverb,evenastativeone,canbeusedasagerund.Forexample:•“Knowingyourownweaknesseswillhelpyoubecomestronger.”•“IenjoybeinginParis.”•“WhatIlikemostisreadinginaquietroom.”•“Lovingone’sworkisararebutwonderfulaccomplishment.”Becausethegerundandpresentparticipleofaverblookidentical,itcanoftenbeconfusingtodeterminehowaverbisbehaving.However,justrememberthatiftheverbanditsconstituentpartsarefunctioningasanounwouldinasentence,thenitisagerund;ifitisdescribinganactionthatthesubjectisperforming,thenitisapresentparticipleusedtocreateacontinuoustense.


1.Whichofthefollowingisthefunctionofastativeverb?a)Todescribeadynamicactiontakenbythesubjectb)Todescribeaconditionthatmustbemetforsomethingtohappenc)Todescribethesubject’sstateofbeingd)Tomodifythemeaningofotherverbs2.Ingeneral,whichofthefollowingissomethingastativeverbcannotdo?a)Beusedasagerundb)Beusedinacontinuousformc)Beusedinthefuturetensed)Takeadirectobject3.Whichofthefollowingcannotbeusedasastativeverb?a)thinkb)seemc)exercised)have4.Whichofthefollowingisnotanothernameforstativeverbs?a)Stateverbsb)Non-continuousverbsc)Non-progressiveverbsd)Non-finiteverbs5.TrueorFalse:Thelinkingverbbeisalwaysconsideredastativeverb?a)Trueb)False

LinkingVerbsDefinitionLinkingverbs(alsoknownascopulasorcopularverbs)areusedtodescribethestateofbeingofthesubjectofaclause.Unlikeactionverbs(alsocalleddynamicverbs),theyconnectthesubjecttothepredicateoftheclausewithoutexpressinganyaction.

TobeTheverbtobeisthemostcommonlinkingverb.UniqueamongEnglishverbs,behaseightdifferentconjugations:be,am,is,are,was,were,been,andbeing.Itcanlinkthesubjecttoanadjective(knownasapredicativeadjective)thatdescribesit,ortoanoun,nounphrase,orpronounthatrenamesit.Thesearecollectivelyknownassubjectcomplements.

GeneraldescriptionsWecanusenearlyanyadjectiveafterbetodescribethesubject.Forexample:•“Youarewrong.”•“Itiscoldtoday.”•“Itwashotyesterday.”•“Theteamisterriblethisyear.”•“Theywerefortunatetohavewon.”•“Shehasbeensostubborn.”•“Heisreallyannoying.”

PhysicaloremotionalsensationsBeisveryoftenusedtodescribeasensationbelongingtothesubject.Thesecanbephysical,asin:•“Iamcold.”•“Wearethirsty.”•“Theyweretired.”Becanalsodescribeemotionalsensations:•“Heissad.”•“Hehasbeenanxiouslately.”•“Icantellthatyouareupset.”

PrecisephysicaldescriptionsBeisalsousedforspecificphysicaldescriptionsofthesubject,suchasexactage,weight,orheight.

AgeWhenwedescribeasubject’sage,wecanexpressitsimplyasanumber,asin:•“Iam32.”•“Ourdaughterisone.”Wecanalsouseaunitoftimebetweenthenumberandtheadjectiveold,asin:•“Iam32yearsold.”•“Ourdaughterisoneweekold.”(However,wecannotuseonlythenumberandyearsorthenumberandold—“Iam32years”and“Ourdaughterisoneold”arebothincorrect.)

HeightForheight,weusuallyusethenumber,theunit,andtheadjectivetallalltogether,asin:•“Theyarefivefeettall.”•“Heistwometerstall.”Ifweareusingfeetandinchesasourunits,thereareanumberofwaysthatwecanwritethesentencewithoutusingtheadjectivetall.TheseareespeciallyprevalentininformalEnglish.Forexample:•“Heissixfoot.”•“Sheisfivefootthree.”•“Iamfivefeet,threeinches.”

WeightWhendescribingthesubject’sweightwithbe,weonlyusethenumber+theunitofmeasurement,asin:•“Iam185pounds.”•“Thisbrickisfourkilograms.”

WithprepositionalphrasesAlinkingverbcanalsobefollowedbyaprepositionalphrasethatactsasanadjectivetodescribethesubject.Theseusuallydescribethesubject’slocation,

thoughtheycanbeusedtoprovideotherdescriptionsaswell.Forexample:•“Johnisintheotherroom.”(Johnisphysicallylocatedintheotherroom.)•“Iwillbeawayfromtheofficethisweek.”(Iwillnotbepresentintheofficethisweek.)•“Theyareagainstthisplan.”(Theydonotagreewithorsupportthisplan.)

RenamingthesubjectWecanalsofollowthelinkingverbbewithapredicatenoun,nounphrase,orpronounthatrenamesorre-identifiesthesubject.Theseaddadescriptiveelement,withoutdirectlyfunctioningasadjectives.Forexample:•“Sheisabully.”•“That’shim;that’sthemanwewerelookingfor.”•“Theyarealostcause.”•“Ihavebeenamesslately.”

BeasanauxiliaryverbWemustbecarefulnottoconfusehowbefunctionsasalinkingverbwithhowitfunctionsasanauxiliaryverb.Whenitisusedasanauxiliary,beisnolongeranindependentverbdescribingthesubjectofthesentence.Instead,ithelpsotherverbstocreatethecontinuoustensesortochangethevoiceofthewriting.

CreatingverbtensesBefrequentlyfunctionsasanauxiliaryverbbycombiningwiththepresentparticipleofaverbtoformoneofthecontinuoustenses.Forexample:•“Iamlisteningtoyou.”(presentcontinuoustense)•“Shewasworkingveryhard.”(pastcontinuoustense)•“Theywillbewaitingforyouattheairport.”(futurecontinuoustense)

PassivevoiceWecanalsousebeasanauxiliarytocreatethepassivevoice.Forexample:•“Thebookwaswrittenbyananonymousauthor.”•“Thevictorywillbesavoredforyears.”

•“Thehospitalswerebuiltin1805.”

SenseverbsCertainverbsareusedtoindicateperceptions,opinions,orbodilysensations.Theseareknownasverbsofthesenses,or“senseverbs”forshort.Thesenseverbsare:•taste•smell•sound•seem•feel•look•appearSenseverbsmerelyrelatethemeansbywhichthespeakerhasarrivedatsuchasensationaboutthesubject.Whenweusethemlikethis,theyarefunctioningaslinkingverbs(ratherthanactionverbs)andwepairthemwithpredicativeadjectives.(However,unlikebe,wedonotfollowsenseverbswithpredicativenouns,nounphrases,orpronouns.)Forexample:•“Ifeelterribletoday.”(Afeelinginsideofbeingveryunwell.)•“Yousoundtired.”(Aperceptionoftirednessinyourvoice.)•“Shedidn’tsoundItalian.”(Anopinionbasedonthewayhervoicesounds.)•“Youlookfabuloustoday.”(ThisismyopinionwhenIlookatyou.)•“Hedoesn’tlookveryhappy.”(Thisismyopinionbasedonwhathelookslike.Notethattheadverbveryismodifyingtheadjectivehappy,nottheverblook.)•“Thisdoesn’tfeelright.”(Anopinionorperceptionofsomethingnotbeingasitshould.)•“ThecarappearsOK,butI’llhavetodriveittobesure.”(FromwhatIcansee,thecarlookslikeit’singoodcondition.)•“Thatsmellsnice.”(Sensationofapleasantaroma.)•“Thismilktastesfunny*.”(Sensationofanoddorunpleasanttaste.)(*Theadjectivefunnyhastwomeanings.Itcandescribesomethingthatmakesyoulaugh,orsomethingthatisstrange,unpleasant,dubious,ornotasitshould

be.Itcarriesthelattermeaningintheaboveexample.)Ifanyoftheseverbswereusedasactionverbs,theycouldnolongerbefollowedbyanadjective—theywouldinsteadbemodifiedbyanadverb.Forexample:•“Ifeltgentlyaroundthetableinthedark.”(Describestheactionoffeelingwithone’shand.)•“Helookedquicklytotheright.”(Describestheactionoflookinginacertaindirection.)•“Thecarappearedoutofnowhere.”(Describestheactionofcomingintosight,usingaprepositionalphraseasanadverb.)•“Yes,youheardright!”(Rightinthiscaseisanadverbmeaning“accuratelyorcorrectly.”)

VerbsofprogressionVerbsthatshowprogression,growth,ordevelopmentarealsooftenusedaslinkingverbs.Becomeisaprimeexampleofthiskindofverb—itlinksanadjectivethatdescribesadevelopmentorprogressionbythesubject.Herearesomeotherverbsthatcanfunctionaslinkingverbsinasimilarway:•get•grow•prove•remain•turnAswiththesenseverbs,thesecanbefollowedbyanadjectivethatdescribesthesubject.Forexample:•“Thecrowdgrewquiet.”•“Thekidsarebecomingrestless.”•“Ihopeyougetwellsoon.”•“Trytoremainupbeat.”•“Hopefullythingsdon’tturnugly.”Theseverbscansometimesbefollowedbynouns,nounphrases,orpronounsthatrenameorre-identifythesubject,asin:•“Theleaderbecameadictatoraftersomanyyearsinpower.”•“He’llalwaysremainmyfriend.”

•“Theyhaveprovenvaluableallies.”

Linkingverbsvs.actionverbsTheverbsbe,seem,andbecomearealwaysusedaslinkingverbs(exceptwhenbeisanauxiliaryverb,aswelookedatalready).However,theotherlinkingverbsallhavethecapacitytobehaveasactionverbsinasentence.Sometimesitistrickytoknowwhetheraverbisfunctioningasalinkingverborasanactionverb,buttherearewaysthatwecanbesure.

CheckingthepredicateThepredicateofalinkingverbis,bydefinition,anadjective,noun,nounphrase,orpronounthatdirectlydescribes,renames,orre-identifiesthesubjectoftheclause.Ifwewanttoseeifaverbisfunctioningasalinkingverb,wecansimplycheckwhetherthepredicatethatfollowsisdescribingthesubject.Ifitis,thenitisalinkingverb;ifitisnot,thenitisfunctioningasanactionverb.Forexample:•“Helookedunwellyesterday.”(Linkingverb—thepredicateunwellyesterdaydescribesthesubjectoftheclause,he.)•“Helookedquicklytotheright.”(Actionverb—thepredicatequicklytotherightdescribestheactionoftheverb.)•“Ihopeyougetbettersoon.”(Linkingverb—thepredicatebettersoondescribesthesubjectoftheclause,you.)•“Wouldyoupleasegetaglassofwaterforme?”(Actionverb—thepredicateaglassofwateristhedirectobjectoftheverb.)

ReplacingtheverbwithbeIfwearestillnotcertainaboutthekindofverbwe’redealingwith,wecanalsotryreplacingtheverbinquestionwithbe.Becausebeisonlyalinkingverbwhenitfunctionsonitsown,theresultingsentencewillonlymakesenseiftheoriginalverbwasalsoalinkingverb.Let’slookatthetwosetsofexamplesabove,thistimereplacingtheverbineachcasewithbe:•“Helookedunwellyesterday.”•“Hewasunwellyesterday.”(Thesentencemakessense,sotheverblookedwasalinkingverb.)

•“Helookedquicklytotheright.”•“Hewasquicklytotheright.”(Thesentencenolongermakessense,sotheverblookedwasanactionverb.)•“Ihopeyougetbettersoon.”•“Ihopeyouarebettersoon.”(Thesentencemakessense,sotheverbgetwasalinkingverb.)•“Wouldyoupleasegetaglassofwaterforme?”•“Wouldyoupleaseareaglassofwaterforme?”(Thesentencenolongermakessense,sotheverbgetwasanactionverb.)

Sourcesofconfusion–Goodvs.WellAcommonstumblingblockfornativespeakersandlearnersofEnglishalikeisthecorrectusageofgoodversuswell.Inmostinstances,goodisanattributiveadjectivedirectlydescribinganoun,whilewellisanadverbdescribingaverb,adjective,orotheradverb.Forexample:•“Heisagooddriver.”•“Shewriteswell.”Wecannotusegoodandwellinterchangeablyintheseinstances,andwecanseeimmediatelythatthefollowingwouldbeincorrect:✖ “Heisawelldriver.”✖ “Shewritesgood.”However,wellcanalsofunctionasapredicativeadjective,whereitusuallymeans“healthy”or“notill.”Weuseitinthissenseafterlinkingverbssuchasbe,get,orthesenseverbswelookedabove:•“Jennylookswelllately.”•“Getwellsoon!”Intheseexamples,welldoesnotmodifytheverbs,butratherdescribesthesubjectsoftheclauses(impliedinthesecondexample).Goodcanbeusedasapredicativeadjectiveaswell,meaning“ofahighorsatisfactoryquality.”Thiscanbeusedafterlinkingverbstotalkaboutanopinionofsomething,anemotionalstate,orgeneralwell-being(asopposedtophysicalhealth,specifically).Forexample:•“Themoviewasgood.”(opinionofthequalityofthemovie)

•“I’mfeelinggoodaboutmychances!”(emotionalstate)•“Janetlooksgoodlately.”(opinionofJanet’sappearance)•A:“Howareyou,Bob?”B:“I’mgood,thanks!”(generalwell-being)Thelastexampleisperfectlycorrect,anditisveryfrequentlyusedasastockresponsetothequestion“Howareyou?”Youcouldalsosay“I’mwell,”andnooneislikelytotakeissuewithit.However,ifsomeoneaskshowyouareafteranillnessorinjury,forinstance,itwouldbebettertorespondwith“I’mwell.”Ifsaying“I’mgood”stilldoesnotsoundquiterighttoyou,youcouldalsosay“Iamdoingwell,”inwhichcasewellisusedadverbiallyoncemore.Youcanlearnmoreaboutsuchadjective/adverbodditiesintheirregularadverbssectionofthechapteronAdverbs.


1.Whichofthefollowingisdescribedormodifiedbythepredicateofalinkingverb?a)Theverbb)Thedirectobjectoftheverbc)Thesubjectoftheverbd)Theclause2.Aprepositionalphrasethatfollowsalinkingverbdoeswhichofthefollowing?a)Actsasanadverbmodifyingtheverbb)Actsasanadjectivemodifyingthesubjectc)Actsasanadjectivemodifyingthedirectobjectoftheverbd)Actsasanadverbmodifyingtheentireclause3.Whichofthefollowingcanbethepredicateofalinkingverbofthesenses?a)Apredicativeadjectiveb)Apredicatenounc)Anadverbd)Aprepositionalphrase4.Whichofthefollowingcanbethepredicateofalinkingverbofprogression?

a)Apredicativeadjectiveb)Apredicatenounc)Anadverbd)A&Be)A&Cf)B&C5.Whatkindoflinkingverbisusedinthefollowingsentence?“I’mnotsurewhy,butDavidseemsabitunhappytoday.”a)Tobeb)Senseverbc)Verbofprogressiond)Noneoftheabove6.Ifweareunsurewhetheraverbisanactionverboralinkingverb,whichkindofverbcanweuseasasubsitutetocheck?a)Tobeb)Senseverbc)Verbofprogressiond)Noneoftheabove

LightVerbsDefinitionLightverbs(alsoknownasdelexicalverbs,thinverbs,semanticallyweakverbs,oremptyverbs)areverbsthatdonotcarryuniquemeaningontheirown,butinsteadrelyonanotherwordorwordsthatfollowthemtobecomemeaningful.Becauseofthis,lightverbscanhaveagreatvarietyofmeanings,dependingontheword(s)withwhichtheyarepaired.Sometimes,themeaningofdifferentlightverbscanoverlapiftheyshareacommonpredicate.Commonexamplesoflightverbsincludedo,have,make,get,take,andgive,thoughthereareothersthatcanworkthesameway.

UsingLightVerbs

Lightverbsfunctionbypairingwithawordorwords(usually,butnotalways,anounornounphrase)toachievetheirmeaning.Theverbitselfdoesnotcontributeverymuchmeaningtothesentence;rather,weknowwhatismeantbythewordit’spairedwith.Forexample:•“Doyourhomework!”•“Wedidsomejumpingjackstowarmup.”•“Ihopeyoudowellonyourexam.”•“Whydon’twehavesomethingtoeat?”•“Itookashowerbeforebreakfast.”•“She’stakinganaprightnow.”•“Doyoutakesugarinyourcoffee?”•“Givemeabreak!”•“Giveyourfatherakissbeforeyougotobed.”•“Igetsomanyemailseveryday.”•“Let’strytogetwarmbythefire.”•“Stopmakingsuchafuss!”•“Besuretomakeyourbedafteryougetupinthemorning.”Ineachoftheseexamples,theverbitselfdoesnotdescribeaspecific,uniqueaction.Weonlyknowwhat’shappeningbecauseofthewordorwordsthatarecollocatedwiththeverb.

SharedmeaningInsomecases,wecanevenusedifferentlightverbstoachievethesameorverysimilarmeaning;thisisparticularlytruefortheverbshaveandtake.Forexample:•“I’mgoingtohaveashower.”•“I’mgoingtotakeashower.”•“OK,everyone,let’shavelunch!”•“OK,everyone,let’stakelunch!”•“She’shavinganaprightnow.”•“She’stakinganaprightnow.”However,thiscanalsooccurwithotherlightverbs.Forinstance:

•“Besuretotakeabowattheendoftheperformance.”•“Besuretomakeabowattheendoftheperformance.”•“Willyougetaphotoofallofustogether?”•“Willyoutakeaphotoofallofustogether?”•“Didyougetsomebreakfast?”•“Didyouhavesomebreakfast?”

FullVerbsandAuxiliaryVerbsMostverbscarryauniquesemanticmeaningoftheirown,andtheydonotrelyonanyadditionalpredicateinformationtomakesense.Whencontrastedwithlightverbs,thesearesometimesknownasfullverbsorheavyverbs.Auxiliaryverbs,meanwhile,aresimilartolightverbsinthattheydonotcarrymeaningontheirown;however,unlikelightverbs,theseworkwithotherverbstocreateacomplete,uniquemeaning.Auxiliaryverbsareusedtocreatedifferentverbtenses,tomakeaverbnegative,ortoexpressmodality—thatis,toassert(ordeny)possibility,likelihood,ability,permission,obligation,orfutureintention.Certainlightverbsfunctionasfullverbsdependingonhowtheyareused;likewise,doandhavecanfunctionaseitherauxiliaryverbsorlightverbs.Forexample:•“Let’stakesomelunchtoapark.”(fullverb,meaning“bringtoaplace”)•“Let’salltakeabreak.”(lightverb,reliantonbreakformeaning)•“Iliketomaketoyfigurinesinmysparetime.”(fullverb,meaning“tocreateorassemble”)•“I’mafraidImadeaterriblemistakeinhiringhim.”(lightverb,reliantonmistakeformeaning)•“Didyouseethegamelastnight?”(auxiliaryverb,servestomodifytheverbseetocreateaninterrogativesentence)•“Johndidafewjobsformethissummer.”(lightverb,dependentonthenounjobsformeaning)•“Shehadheardtherumorsalready.”(auxiliaryverb,servestomodifytheverbheardtocreatethepastperfecttense)•“Shehadasnoozeafterlunch.”(lightverb,dependentonthenounsnoozeformeaning)

CommonLightVerbsUnfortunately,theonlywaytobecomefamiliarwiththevariousmeaningsandusesoflightverbsistostudytheminadictionaryortocomeacrosstheminday-to-dayspeechandwriting.Below,we’lllookatsomeexamplesusingfourparticularlycommonlightverbsthathaveavarietyofdifferentmeanings—do,make,get,andtake.Eachsentencewillbeaccompaniedbyanexplanationofthelightverb’smeaning.

DoDoisusedforgeneralactions;theseactionsaredictatedbythewordorwordsthatfollowdo.•“Youcanplayifyoudoyourhomework.”(finishorcompleteyourhomework)•“Willyoupleasedothedishes?”(washthedishes)•“Willyoupleasedothewashingup?”(ThisisaBritishEnglishexpressionwiththesamemeaningas“dothedishes.”)•“Ihopeyoudowellonyourexam.”(performwell;inthiscontext,doreliesonanadverbforitsmeaning)•“Hewasalwayswillingtodosomeoneafavor.”(giveorperformafavor)•“Myhusbandalwaysdoesthecooking.”(prepareandcookfood)•“I’mtryingtoavoiddoingtheironing.”(ironclothes)•“John,willyoudothedusting?”(cleanthedustfromthefurnitureandaroundthehouse)•“Italwaysfallsonmetodothehousework.”(cleanandtidyuparoundthehouse)•“Shehastodoherhairbeforewego.”(styleherhair)•“Ihopeyoucancontinuetodobusinesstogether.”(engageinorperformbusinessactivities)

MakeAsalightverb,makecarriesthegeneralmeaningof“create”or“assemble”;thespecificmeaningcomesfromwhataccompaniestheverb.

•“Imademanymistakesinmyexam.”(commiterrors)•“Besuretomakeyourbedafteryougetupinthemorning.”(putinorderorneatenthesheets,covers,andpillowsonone’sbed)•“Afteryearsoffighting,theydecidedtomakepeace.”(achieve,arrange,produce,orattainastateofpeace)•“Mymotherisgoingtomakeachocolatecaketonight.”(prepareand/orbakeacake)•“Ijustneedtomakedinner.”(prepareandcookdinner)•“Imadefriendswithmynewneighbors.”(earnoracquirethefriendshipoftheneighbors)•“Youneedtomakeadecision.”(formorarriveatadecision)•“Theneighborsmakesomuchnoise.”(createalotofnoise)•“Hemadeanexcellentspeechathisbrother’swedding.”(orallyperformordeliveraspeech)•“Haveyoumadeanyplansforthesummeryet?”(formorestablishplans)•“Hecalledtherestaurantandmadeareservationforfour.”(arrangeorestablishareservation)•“Youwouldmakeagreatteacher!”(besuitedfortheroleofateacher)•“Hereallymadeagoodimpressionatthejobinterviewyesterday.”(achieveorproduceagoodimpression)•“Iwillmakeanexceptionthistime.”(allowanexception)•“Thisdoesn’tmakeanysensetome.”(tobecoherentorintelligible)•“Makeitaprioritytoturnoffthegasbeforeyougoout.”(establishitasapriority)•“I’mmakingafortuneinmynewjob.”(earnalargeamountofmoney)•“Itwillmakeabigdifferencetothehouseifwepaintalltheroomswhite.”(createoramounttoasignificantdifference)

GetGetisaparticularlyversatileverb.Forexample,itcanmeananyofthefollowingdependingonthecontext:fetch,obtain,understand,answer,receive,hit,be,become,hear,understand,earn,buy,win,secure,reach/arriveat,cause,convince,open,orsucceed.

Weareentirelydependentuponwhatiscollocatedwithgettoknowwhichmeaningitcarries:•“Igetsomanyemailseveryday.”(receiveemails)•“Igotgoodgradesonmyexams.”(obtain/earngoodgrades)•“Howdoyougettothestationfromhere?”(reach/arriveatthestation)•“IgotareallygoodpriceforthecarIsold.”(obtainagoodprice)•“Wemanagedtogetanexcellentdeal.”(secureanexcellentdeal)•“Hedidn’tlaughatthejokebecausehedidn’tgetit.”(understandit(thejoke))•“Ididn’tgetthejobbecauseIdidn’thavetherightqualifications.”(succeedinobtainingthejob)•“Howmuchdoyougetpermonthinyournewjob?”(earnwhatamount?)•“Didyougettheseshoesatthenewmall?”(buytheshoes)•“Shegotamedalforcominginfirst.”(win/beawardedamedal)•“Ican’tgetthechildrentogotobedearly.”(convinceorforcethechildren)•“Ifinallygotthecomputertoworkagainafterithadcrashed.”(causethecomputertowork)•“Canyougetthephone,please?”(answerthephone)•“Myhandsarefull;couldyougetthedoorforme?”(openthedoor)•“Sorry,Ididn’tgetyourname.”(hear/understandyourname)•“IgotreallysickwhileIwasonvacation,butI’mfeelingalotbetternow.”(becamesick)•“Hegotarrestedforrobbingabank.”(wasarrested)•“Thebulletgothiminthehead.”(hithim)

TakeAsalightverb,takebroadlymeanshave,obtain,oruse,butithassomeotherspecificmeaningsincertaincircumstances:•“Let’salltakeabreak.”(haveabriefrest)•“Wouldyouliketotakeawalk?”(engageinawalk)•“We’lltakeataxihome.”(useataxitotravel)

•“Ihavetotakethebusintotown.”(usethebustotravel)•“Don’tforgettotakeyourmedicine.”(ingestyourmedicine)•“He’stakinganexaminthemorning.”(completeanexam)•“Willyoutakenotesformeinclasstoday?”(writenotes)•“He’sbeensosickthatwe’vehadtotakehistemperatureeveryhour.”(obtain(throughmeasurement)histemperature)•“Itmightnotwork,butI’mwillingtotakethatchance.”(behaveoractinariskyway)•“Hey,comehereandtakealookatthis!”(examineorviewthis)•“We’lljusthavetotakeyourwordforit.”(trustinwhatyousay)•“Shetookaseatneartheback.”(assumeoccupancyofaseat)


1.Whichofthefollowingdolightverbsrelyonfortheirmeaning?a)Thesubjectb)Thepredicatec)Thefullverbd)Theauxiliaryverb2.Identifythelightverbinthefollowingsentence:“I’mhopingtotrainwiththeOlympicsquadthissummer,butIamnotsuretheywilltakeme.”a)hopingb)trainc)amd)wille)take3.Whichofthefollowingisnotanothernameforlightverbs?a)delexicalverbsb)hollowverbsc)emptyverbsd)thinverbs

4.TrueorFalse:Sometimesdifferentlightverbscanhavethesamemeaningiftheyhavethesamepredicate.a)Trueb)False5.Whichofthefollowingcanbebothalightverbandanauxiliaryverb?a)haveb)getc)maked)take

PhrasalVerbsDefinitionPhrasalverbsareverbphrasesthathaveidiomaticmeanings—thatis,theirmeaningisnotobviousfromtheindividualwordsthatmakeupthephrase.Becauseofthis,wehavetolearnwhattheymeanbyunderstandingthemincontext.Inthissection,we’lllookathowphrasalverbsareformedandhowtheyaredistinctfromprepositionalverbs,andthenlookatalistofcommonphrasalverbexamples.

ConstructingPhrasalVerbs–Particlesvs.PrepositionsPhrasalverbsaremadeupofaverb+aprepositionoranadverbialparticle,andtheirmeaningisuniquelytiedtoeachparticularcombination.Aparticleisverysimilartoapreposition—infact,theyarealmostalwaysidenticalinappearance.(Thereareafewwordsthatwillonlyfunctionasparticlesinverbphrases:away,back,out,backward,forward,upward,anddownward.)However,particlesareusedmorelikeadverbs,modifyinganduniquelyexpandingthemeaningoftheverbstheyarepairedwith.Forthisreason,particlesaresometimesreferredtoasadverbialparticles,orevenjustadverbs.Thekeydifferencebetweenparticlesandprepositions,however,isthatparticlesdonot(andcannot)introduceaprepositionalphrase,whiletheprepositioninaphrasalverbalwayswill.Below,we’lllookatsomeexamplesofphrasalverbsthatuseparticles,prepositions,andcombinationsofboth.

ParticlePhrasalVerbs•“Mytabletakesuptoomuchroom.”(Thetableoccupiestoomuchspace.)Takesupismadeupoftheverbtake+up.Upchangesthemeaningoftheverb,butitdoesnotintroduceaprepositionalphraseexpressingdirection,location,

time,orpossession—therefore,itisfunctioningasaparticle.•“Pleaselookovertheproposalandletmeknowwhatyouthink.”(Pleasequicklyexaminetheproposal.)Again,theparticleoverischangingthemeaningoftheverblook,butitisnotintroducingaprepositionalphrase.Herearesomeotherexamplesofphrasalverbsformedwithparticles:•“Ican’tbelievethatyou’regivingup!”(I’msurprisedthatyou’regoingtostoptrying.)•“Therewillalwaysbesetbacksthatwehavetoallowfor.”(Wealwayshavetoconsiderandbereadyforpossiblesetbacks.)•“Wehavetowaitforthefiretodiedownbeforewecanenterthebuilding.”(Wehavetowaitforthefiretobecomelessintense.)•“Theplanetookoffanhourlate.”(Theplaneroseintotheairandbegantoflylaterthanscheduled.)•“Sheisalwaysmakingupexcuses.”(Sheisalwaysinventingexcusesthatarenottrue.)•“WhenIamonthebus,Ialwaysgiveupmyseattotheelderly.”(Ivacatemyseatandgiveittoanolderpassenger.)

PrepositionPhrasalVerbsAswe’veseen,aphrasalverbcanbeformedfromaprepositionwhenthatprepositionactsastheheadofaprepositionalphrase,followedimmediatelybyitsobject.Forexample:•“Hehasbeenlookingafterhismother.”(Hehasbeencaringforhismother.)•“IcameacrossthatoldwatchofminewhenIwascleaningoutthedrawers.”(Ifoundmyoldwatchunexpectedly.)•“Stoppickingonyourbrotherlikethat!”(Stopteasingorharassingyourbrotherinthatway.)Wecanseethat,ineachoftheabove,thephrasalverbiscomprisedofaverb+apreposition—theprepositionalwaysformsaprepositionalphrasewiththeobjectofthephrasalverb.

Particle-prepositionalphrasalverbs

Somephrasalverbshavebothaparticleandapreposition.Thesearesometimesknownasparticle-prepositionalphrasalverbs.Allthreeelements—verb,particle,andpreposition—acttogethertoformauniquemeaning.Forexample:•“Shecomesacrossasareallyconfidentperson.”(Shegivestheimpressionofbeingconfidentbythewaysheacts.)Inthiscontext,acrossfunctionsasaparticle,whileasfunctionsasapreposition,introducingtheprepositionalphraseasareallyconfidentperson.•“You’regoingtoofast,soIcan’tkeepupwithyou.”Thephrasalverbhereismadeupoftheverbkeep+theparticleup+theprepositionwith.Upchangesthemeaningoftheverbkeep,whilewithintroducestheprepositionalphrasewithyou.Let’slookatsomeotherexamples.•“I’llmakesurethatshedoesn’tgetawaywithherplan.”(I’llmakesuresheiscaughtand/orpunished.)•“AsubstituteteacherhasbeenfillinginforMr.Davisallweek.”(ThesubstituteteacheristakingtheplaceofMr.Davis.)•“I’vebeentryingtocutbackonjunkfoodlately.”(I’mtryingnottoeatasmuchjunkfoodasIhadbeenbefore.)

DifferentiatingprepositionalandparticleverbphrasesIntransitiveverbsBecauseaprepositioninaphrasalverbmustalwaysformaprepositionalphrase,thephrasalverbmustbetransitivebecauseitrequiresadirectobject.Therefore,ifaphrasalverbisintransitive,wecanassumethatitisformedfromaverbandaparticle.Forexample:•“Pleasedon’tgiveup.”•“Iknowyouwantmetolie,butIjustwasn’tbroughtupthatway.”•“Ihopethatmyideacameacrosswell.”Noneoftheabovephrasalverbshasadirectobject,andsoeachoneis

intransitiveandaparticlephrasalverb.

TransitiveverbsWhenphrasalverbsaretransitive,theyalwaystakedirectobjects.Thiscanmakeitdifficulttotellwhetheraparticleorprepositionalphrasalverbisbeingused.However,thereisaquicktestthatwecanperformtobesure.First,wesubstituteapersonalpronounfortheobjectofthephrasalverb.Ifitcanbearrangedbeforetheparticle/prepositionandstillmakesense,thenaparticleisbeingused;ifithastocomeaftertomakesense,thenaprepositionisbeingused.Phrasalverbsthatcanbedividedbyobjectsarecommonlyreferredtoasbeingseparable;thosethatcannotbedividedareknownasbeinginseparable.Let’slookatthisinoneofourpreviousexamples:•“Pleaselookovertheproposalandletmeknowwhatyouthink.”Itmightseemasthoughoverdoesinfactintroduceaprepositionalphrase:overtheproposal.However,ifwesubstitutethepersonalpronounitfortheproposal,wecanseethattheobjectcancomeimmediatelyaftertheverb:•“Pleaselookitoverandletmeknowwhatyouthink.”Therefore,lookoverisaparticlephrasalverbandisconsideredseparable.Let’slookatanotherexampletoseewhenthiscan’tbedone:•“Hehasbeenlookingafterhismother.”Usingthepersonalpronounherinsteadofhismother,thesentencenowreads:•“Hehasbeenlookingafterher.”Nowlet’stryrearrangingitinthesentence:✖ “Hehasbeenlookingherafter.”(incorrect)Wecanseethatthesentencenolongermakessense:theobject,her,mustfollowthephrasalverbandformaprepositionalphrasetobelogicallycomplete.Therefore,lookafterisaprepositionalphrasalverbandisinseparable.

TransitiveandIntransitivePhrasalVerbsFinally,somephrasalverbscanbebothtransitiveandintransitive,dependingonwhichidiomaticmeaningisbeingused.

Considerthesesetsofexamplesthatusethesamephrasalverb:•“Iwasabitofaskinnykid,butIfilledoutnicelyduringhighschool.”(Intransitive,meaning“tobecomelargerorfullerinone’sfigure.”)•“Makesurethatyoufillouttheformcorrectly.”(Transitive,meaning“tocomplete(adocument)byprovidingtherequiredinformation.”)•“Thetwofriendsmadeupaftertheirbitterargument.”(Intransitive,meaning“toreconcileorresolveaquarrel.”)•“Pleasestopmakingupexcuses.”(Transitive,meaning“tofabricateorinvent.”)

Prepositionalverbsvs.phrasalverbsSometimes,aprepositionalverbmaybemistakenforaphrasalverb.Althoughbothcombinationsappeartobeverysimilar,youcandifferentiatethembyexaminingtheirmeaning.Prepositionalverbsusetheliteralmeaningsofverbs,whereasphrasalverbstendtobeidiomatic.Forexample,themeaningoftheverbaskdoesn’tchangewhencombinedwiththeprepositionfor;however,itchangesdramaticallywhencombinedwiththeparticleout:•“Kellyaskedforaraise.”(Theliteralmeaningoftoaskistoinquire.Kellyinquiredaboutaraise,makingitaprepositionalverb.)•“KellyaskedoutChad.”(Askoutmeanstoinvitesomeoneonadate,makingitanidiomaticphrasalverb.)Wecanseethisdifferenceevenmoreclearlywithasetofexamplesthatusethesameverb-prepositionpairing:•“Theysailedthroughthewaterswithplentyoftimetospare.”•“Theysailedthroughtheirexamswithplentyoftimetospare.”Bothexamplesusetheverbsail+theprepositionthrough.However,becausethefirstsentenceusestheliteralmeaningofsail,weknowitisaprepositionalverb—theprepositionismerelydescribingthemovementoftheverb,withoutchangingthemeaningoftheverbitself.If,forinstance,wechangethesentenceto“Theysailedalongthecoast,”themeaningofsaildoesnotchange.Theverbphraseofthesecondsentence,however,hastheidiomaticmeaningof“tocompletewitheaseandspeed.”Itcanonlyhavethismeaningifsailandthrougharepairedtogether.Changingtheprepositionwouldalsocompletelychangethemeaningoftheverbphrase;therefore,itisfunctioningasaphrasal

verbinthiscontext.

RecognizingCommonPhrasalVerbsTheonlywaytotrulyfeelcomfortablewithphrasalverbsistorecognizethemineverydaywritingandspeech,understandtheiruniquemeanings,andthenbegintousetheminthesamewayinyourownwritingandspeech.Withthatinmind,headtothesectiononCommonPhrasalVerbstoseeanextensivelistofexamplesofcommonphrasalverbsastheyareusedinbothspokenandwrittenEnglish.


1.Whichofthefollowingisnotacomponentofaphrasalverb?a)verbb)particlec)participled)preposition2.Whatistheprimarydifferencebetweenprepositionalverbsandphrasalverbs?a)Prepositionalverbshavealiteralmeaning;phrasalverbshaveanidiomaticmeaning.b)Prepositionalverbshaveanidiomaticmeaning;phrasalverbshavealiteralmeaning.c)Prepositionalverbsarealwaystransitive;phrasalverbsarealwaysintransitive.d)Prepositionalverbsarealwaysseparable;phrasalverbsarealwaysinseparable.3.Whatdoprepositionsdothatparticlescannotdoinphrasalverbs?a)Comeaftertheobjectoftheverbb)Createauniquemeaningoftheverbc)Makethephrasalverbtransitived)Introduceaprepositionalphrase4.Identifythephrasalverbinthefollowingsentence.“Itappearstomethatyouhavethoroughlymuckedupthecaseagain.”

a)appearstob)havethoroughlyc)muckedupd)caseagain5.Whichofthefollowingcanbeseparableinasentence?a)intransitivephrasalverbsb)transitiveparticlephrasalverbsc)transitiveprepositionalphrasalverbsd)particle-prepositionalphrasalverbs

CommonPhrasalVerbsLearningcommonphrasalverbsAswesawwhenwelookedathowphrasalverbsareformed,theirmeaningstendtobecompletelyidiomatic—youcannotguesswhattheymeansimplybylookingattheirindividualcomponents.Unfortunately,theonlywaytolearnphrasalverbsisbyencounteringtheminspeechandwriting,untilyoubecomefamiliarenoughwiththemthatyouareabletousethemyourself.Below,we’lllookatanextensivelistofexamplesentencesthatusecommonverbstocreatevariousphrasalverbs.Themeaningofeachphrasalverbwillbebesideeachsentence,butremember:phrasalverbsoftenhaveseveralcompletelyunrelatedmeanings.It’sbesttocheckareliabledictionarytolearntheirothermeanings.Thisisalsonotbyanymeansanexhaustivelist—thereareseveralhundreddifferentphrasalverbsinEnglish.Foroneofthelargestdictionariesofidiomsandphrasalverbs,gotoTheFreeDictionary’sCollectionofIdiomsandPhrasesatidioms.thefreedictionary.com.

PhrasalverbswithbePhrasalVerb Definition Examplesentence

Tointendtodoorbenearto“HiJohnny,Iwasaboutto

beaboutto doingsomethingintheimmediatefuture

callyou.”

beafter(someone)

Tobehunting,lookingfor,and/orchasingafter(someone)

“Thepoliceareafteramanwhorobbedabankyesterday.”

beafter(something)

Towant(something)fromsomeone

“He’sbeingsonicetomethesedays.Heisaftersomething,forsure.”

bedowntoTohaveanamountofsomethingreducedtoalowerorminimalnumber

“Aftermonthsofdieting,Iamdownto190pounds.”

“Iamdowntomylastdollar.”

bedownto Tobetheresultoforprimarilycausedbysomething

“Alargenumberofdiseasesaredowntogenetictraits.”

bedownwith

Tobesufferingfrom,asadiseaseorillness

“Ican’tgotoworktodaybecauseIamdownwiththeflu.”

bein Tobepresentinagivenlocation

“I’mafraidMollyisnotinatthemoment.”

“Iwillletyouknowassoonasthedoctorisin.”

beintoTolikesomethingverymuch;tobeparticularlyenthusiasticaboutsomething

“I’mreallyintothisbandrightnow.”

beover Tobefinished,ended,orcomplete

“Theworstisover.Heshouldstarttorecoverinafewdays.”

“It’soverbetweenus;wecan’tseeeachotheranymore.”

beoutof Tonolongerhavesomething“Sorry,butweareoutofcoffeeatthemoment.”

beup Tobeatahigherlevel “Thepriceofgasisupagain.”

beupTobeoccurring,especiallyinreferencetostrangeornoteworthyevents

“Somethingisup;thestaffareallactingstrange.”

beup Tobeawakeandoutofbed “John’snotupyet.He’sstillsleeping.”

beupagainst

Tomeetorcontendwithdifficultiesorimpediments

“I’mupagainstalotofcompetitionthesedays.”

beupto Tobesomeone’sdecisionorresponsibility

“Fornow,theplanningstageisuptoyou.”

beupto Tobeinthemidstofdoingorplanning

“Iamgoingtoseewhatthechildrenareupto.”

beupto Tobecapableofdoing(something)competently

“We’llhavetofirehim.Heisn’tuptothejob.”

PhrasalVerbswithcomePhrasalVerb Definition Examplesentence

comeacross Tofindunexpectedly

“IcameacrossthatoldwatchofminewhenIwascleaningoutthedrawers.”

comeacross

Togiveacertainimpressionthroughthewayoneacts

“Shecomesacrossasareallyconfidentperson.”

Toacquire,especially “Johnhasbeenbuyingsomeflashy

comeinto

throughinheritanceorchance

carslately.Hemusthavecomeintoabitofmoney.”

comeupwith

Tothinkof,develop,orinvent

“I’mfindingitdifficulttocomeupwithnewideas.”

comeupagainst

Tomeetandbeforcedtodealwithsomeimpediment,obstacle,ordifficulty

“We’vecomeupagainstseveralpoliticalandlegalproblems.”

comedownwith

Tocatchorbecomeinfectedwith,asavirusordisease

“Idon’tfeelverywelltoday.IthinkI’vecomedownwiththeflu.”

come(a)round

Tochangeone’smindaboutandagreetosomethingaftersomepersuasionortime

“Yourfatherdoesn’twantyoutohaveadog,butgivehimadayortwoandI’msurehe’llcome(a)round.”

comebackto

Toberecalledinone’smemory

“Icouldn’trememberhername,butafterafewminutesitcamebacktome.”

PhrasalVerbswithgetPhrasalVerb Definition Examplesentence

getoverTorecoverfromorfeelbetteraboutsomesadortraumaticevent

“Ican’tseemtogetoverthedeathofmycat.Ifeelsadderasthedaysgoby.”

getoverTobelieve,understand,ornolongerbesurprisedbysomething

“Ican’tgetoverthewayshespoketome.Shehasnomannerswhatsoever.”

getonTohaveaneasy,friendlyrelationshipwithsomeone;to “MyhusbandandIgetonso

beongoodtermswithsomeone welltogether.”

getaway Toescape,asfromtrouble,danger,orpursuit

“Thepolicetriedtocatchthebankrobbersbuttheymanagedtogetaway.”

getawaywith

Toavoidblame,responsibility,orconvictionforsomewrongdoing

“Thecriminalgotawaywiththecrime.Therewasn’tenoughevidencetoconvicthim.”

getoutof

Tofindawayofavoidinghavingtodo,confront,ordealwithsomething

“HowcanIgetoutofthismessI'min.”

get(a)roundto

Tofindthetimetodoorcompletesomethingthatonehasbeenmeaningtodo

“Istillhaven’tgotten(a)roundtofixingthebrokenshutter.”

getback Toreturn,usuallyhome “Whattimedidyougetbacklastnight?”

getridof

Todisposeofsomethingthatisnolongerneededorwanted

“Iwanttogetridofthatoldmattress.”

getthroughto

Tomakecontactwithsomeone,especiallybyphone

“Ican’tgetthroughtoSally.Herphonehasbeenbusyallmorning.”

getthroughto

Tomakesomeoneunderstandorcomprehendsomething

“Itisdifficulttogetthroughtohim—heneverlistenstoawordyousay.”

getthroughto

Toadvancetoahigherstageinacompetition

“Wewoninovertimeandmanagedtogetthroughtothefinals.”

PhrasalVerbswithgivePhrasal

Verb Definition Examplesentence

giveawayTodonatesomething;tobestowsomethinguponsomeone

“He’sagenerousman.Hegivesawayhalfofhissalarytocharityeachmonth.”

giveaway

Topresentthebridetothegroom,traditionallybythebride’sfather

“Insomecountries,itisthecustomforthefatherofthebridetogivehisdaughterawayatthewedding.”

giveback Toreturnsomethingtosomeone

“CanyougivebackthatbookIlentyou?”

givein(tosomething)

Tosurrender(to)orstopresisting(something)

“Nomatterhowmuchtheytrytogetyoutoacceptaloweroffer,don’tgivein.”

“Ifyouareonadiet,it'shardnottogiveintotemptation.”

givein Tocollapse “Thefloorgaveinaftertheflood.”

giveout Todistributetoothers “Canyougiveoutthesebookstotherestoftheclassplease?”

giveupTorelinquishone’spositiontosomeoneelse

“WhenIamonthebus,Irarelyseeanyonegiveuptheirseattotheelderly.”

giveupTostopdoingsomething,oftenpermanently

“Thedoctorhastoldmetogiveupsmoking.”

giveup Toabandon“Aftersearchingforhoursonend,themountainrescueteamfinallygaveupallhopeoffindingthemissinghikers.

PhrasalVerbswithlookPhrasalVerb Definition Examplesentence

lookinto Toinvestigate “Thepolicearelookingintoreports

ofarobberylastnight.”

lookupTofindorseekinformation,asfromalistorsomereferencesource

“CanyoulookupJohn’sphonenumberformeplease?”

lookforwardto

Toanticipatewithpleasureorexcitement

“Iamlookingforwardtoseeingmyfamilyagainaftersixmonthsoflivingabroad.”

lookoutTopayattentiontoorbecarefulofsomething,especiallydanger

“Lookout,there’sacarcoming!”

lookafter

Totakecareoforberesponsibleforsomeoneorsomething

“CanyoulookaftermycatwhileI’maway?”

lookdownon

Toregardasinferior “Myneighborslookdownonusbecausewehavelessmoney.”

lookon Toobserveasaspectator “Thecrowdlookedonasthefirementriedtoputoutthefire.”

lookover Toexamineorinspect “Hecarefullylookedoverthe

contractbeforesigningit.”

lookupto Toadmireandrespect “Shereallylooksuptoherboss.He

hastaughthermanythings.”

PhrasalVerbswithbreak

PhrasalVerb

Definition Examplesentence

breakdown Tostopfunctioning “Mycarbrokedownonthe

highwaytoday.”

breakdown

Tobecomeveryemotionallyupset;tobegincrying

“Shebrokedownwhenshewastoldhercathaddied.”

breakup Toendaromanticrelationship “Haveyouheardthenews?

SallyandJohnbrokeup.”

breakinto Toforceentry “Burglarsbrokeintomy

houselastnight.”

breakawayfrom

Tobecomefreefromsomerestrictionorrestraint

“Thepolicecaughtoneoftheburglars,buthemanagedtobreakawayfromthem.”

breakout

Toescapefromsomeconfinementorimprisonment

“Theotherburglarwasputinprison,buthemanagedtobreakout.”

breakout

Toappearorbeginsuddenlyandspreadquickly

“Anepidemicoffluhasbrokenout.”

breakoutin

Tohavealargeamountofsomething,usuallyaskincondition,appearsuddenlyandspreadquickly

“Myfacehasbrokenoutinpimples,andIlookterrible.”

breakeven

Toachievearesultwithnolossorgaininprofit

“Thecompanybrokeeventhisyear.”

PhrasalVerbswithpickPhrasalVerb Definition Examplesentence

Togoandcollectsomeoneor “Canyoupickupthechildren

pickup something,especiallybycar afterschool?”

pickup Toreceive,asaradiosignal “MycellphoneneverpicksupasignalwhenI’minthehouse.”

pickupToattempttofindorbecomeacquaintedwithsomeoneforromanticorsexualpurposes

“Healwayswantstogopickupgirlsatbars.”

pickon Todeliberatelyharassorteasesomeone

“You’realwayspickingonme,andIwishyouwouldstop.”

pickon Toselectorchoosesomeone“TheteacheralwayspicksonJane.Shenevergivestheotherstudentsachancetoanswer.”

PhrasalVerbswithputPhrasalVerb Definition Examplesentence

putoutToextinguishsomething,suchasaflame

“Wehavetoputoutthefirebeforeitspreadstotherestofthehouse.”

putout Toputananimaloutsidethehouse

“Wouldyouputthecatoutforawhile?”

put(someone/oneself)out

Toinconveniencesomeoneoroneselfonsomeoneelse’sbehalf

“Itwouldbegreatifyoucoulddothisforme,butdon’tputyourselfout.”

put(someone)up Tohost(someone)inone’shouse

“Icanputyouupfortheweekend,butnolongerthanthat.”

putupwith Totolerate “Hecouldn’tputupwithheranylonger.”

putupwithTomakesomething “They’veputuptheirhousefor

availabletobesold sale.”

putin Tospendorinvest,especiallytime

“Heputsin12hoursatworkeveryday.”

putoffTodelaydoingorcommencingsomething

“Seeifyoucanputthemeetingoffforanhour.Westillneedmoretime.”

put(someone)off

Tomakesomeoneuninterestedinordisinclinedtodosomething

“Thesightoftheoctopusreallyputmeoffmyfood.”

putaside/away Tosaveforfutureuse “I’veputaway/asideenoughmoneytoretireearly.”

putasideforToreservesomethingforsomeoneuntilalatertime

“Couldyouputthisblouseasideforme.”

putthroughtoToconnectsomeonewithanotherperson,usuallyviatelephone

“Couldyouputmethroughtothemanagerplease?”

putthroughTosubjectsomeonetosomethingunpleasantorundesirable

“Thisjobhasputmethroughsomuchalready.”

putaway Tostoreinorreturntotheproperlocation

“Canyoupleaseputawayallthosebookslyingaround?”

putdownTomock,belittle,ormaketoappearfoolish

“She’salwaysputtingherboyfrienddown.”

putdown Toeuthanizeananimal

“Ourpoorcatissooldthatwehavetohavehimputdown.”

putonToaddtoorincreasetheamountof

“I’veputonalotofweightrecently.”

puton Topretendoract “Heseemsangry,butIknowhe’sjustputtingiton.”

put(someone)on Todeceiveorteasesomeone

“IreallythoughtIhadwontheprize.Ican’tbelievehewasputtingmeonthewholetime!”

putdown Topassatelephonetosomeone

“Givemeonesecond,andI’llputhimon.”

PhrasalVerbswithrunPhrasalVerb Definition Examplesentence

runinto

Toencountersomeonebychance

“IranintoanoldfriendofmineyesterdaywhileIwasoutshopping.”

runoutof

Toexhaustthesupplyofsomething

“We’verunoutofcoffeeagain.Couldyougetsomeonyourwayhome?”

runupToaccrueoraccumulate,especiallyindebtedness

“Heranupahugebillatdinner.”

runawaywith

Tohurriedlyleavewithsomeoneelse,astoelope

“Hishusbandranawaywiththesecretary.”

runover

Tohitsomeoneorsomethingwithavehicle,usuallyacar

“He’sstillveryupsetafterrunningoverthecatlastnight.”

runthrough

Toquicklydiscuss,summarize,oroutline

“OK,canwejustrunthroughthemainpointsagain?”

runtoToimmediatelyseekassistancefromsomeone

“Healwaysrunstohismotherwheneverhe’sintrouble.”

runon Tobepoweredby “Thosenewcarsrunonelectricity,buttheyaresoexpensive.”

runupagainst

Toencounteranobstacle,difficulty,orproblem

“Thecompanyranupagainstsomeproblemsinitially,butnowthingsareoperatingsmoothly.”

PhrasalVerbswithtakePhrasalVerb Definition Examplesentence

takeup Tobegin,especiallyahobbyorpastime

“I’mthinkingoftakingupanewhobby.”

takeup Tooccupy,suchasspaceortime

“I’mgoingtobuyasmallertable.Thistakesuptoomuchroom.”

takeup Ofclothes,toshortenortighten

“Mynewpantsaretoolongforme.I’mgoingtohavetothemtakenupabit.”

taketo Tohaveanewfoundlikingorappreciationfor

“Thebosshasreallytakentothenewintern.”

takeout

Toobtainalegalagreement,suchasinsuranceorafinancialloan

“I’vetakenoutaninsurancepolicyonmyhouse.”

takeover Toobtaincontrolof “Thecompanyhasbeentakenoverby

aSpanishcorporation.”

takeoff Toleavethegroundandbeginflight

“You’vejustmissedtheplane:ittookoffafewminutesago.”

takeoff Toremoveanarticleofclothing “Takeoffyourjacket.It’shotinhere.”

Tobecomesuccessfulor “Businesshasreallytakenoffthis

takeoff popular year.”

takeoffTonotgotoworkorschoolforacertainperiodoftime

“I’mreallytired.I’mgoingtotakeadayofftomorrow.”

takesafter

Tobesimilarincharacterorappearancetoacloserelative

“Hetakesafterhisfatherinhisloveoftennis.”

takeback

Toreturnsomethingtotheplacewhereitwaspurchased

“Mynewcellphonedoesn’twork.I’mgoingtotakeitbacktomorrowandaskforarefund.”

takeon Torecruitoremploy“Whydon’tyouapplyforajobatthenewphonecompany?Theyaretakingonnewstaff.”

takeon Toagreeorcommittodoingsomething

“I’vetakenontoomuchwork.HowwillIeverfindthetimetofinishitall?”

takein Togiveshelterand/orassistance

“She’saverykindperson.Shealwaystakesinstraydogsthatshefindsinthestreet.”

Aswesaidalready,therearehundredsofdifferentphrasalverbsinEnglish.Ifyouwouldliketolearnmoreaboutthedifferentmeaningsofphrasalverbs,aswellassomeinterestingidiomsandproverbs,gotoTheFreeDictionary’sCollectionofIdiomsandPhrasesatidioms.thefreedictionary.com.

ConditionalVerbsDefinitionConditionalverbsareconstructionsofverbsthatareusedinconditionalsentences.Conditionalsentencesexpresssomethingthatmighthappen,dependingonwhetherornotaparticularconditionismet.Thewordifiscommonlyusedwithoneoftheverbstodenotesuchaconditioninconditional

sentences.Herearesomeexamplesofconditionalverbsbeingusedinsentences.•“Theleaveswillfallifthewindblows.”•“Ifyoudriveonthisroadfor20miles,youwillreachyourdestination.”•“Ifonlythestrikerhadshottheballearlier,hewouldhavescoredagoal.”•“Ifyoudoyourchores,youcanhaveanicecreamconelater.”•“Youcangetagoodgradeifyoustudyveryhard.”

ConstructingconditionalverbsConditionalverbsaretypicallyformedwhenaclauseinthesentencecontainsthewordif,andtheactionofthesentencedependsontheconditionestablishedbythisclause.Modalauxiliaryverbs(suchascan,will,would,shall,should,andcould)areoftenusedtohelpindicatethetenseandintentionoftheverbsintheconditionalorresultingclause(s).Forexample•“Ifyouseethedesert,itcouldmeanthatyouhavegonetoofar.•“Ifyouseeher,youcantellherIsaid‘Hello.’”•“IfIcouldbeanyoneinhistory,IwouldbeLeonardodaVinci.”

TensesConditionalverbscanbeinthepast,present,orfuturetense.Whichtensetheytakedependsonwhetherthesentenceisreferringtoaconditionorpossibleresultinthepast,thepresent,orthefuture.Conditionalsentencesoftenfeatureamixoftensesdependingontherelationshipbetweentheconditionandtheresult.

PasttenseThepasttenseisusedforconditionalverbswhenthesentencereferstoanactionoreventthatmighthavehappenedinthepastdependingonahypotheticalpastcondition.Forexample:•“Shewouldhavesucceededifshehadtriedharder.”•“Thecakewouldhavebeenreadyifthebakerhadhurriedupalittlebitmore.”

Presentsimpletense

Aconditionalsentencethatisonlyinthepresentsimpletensereferstosomethingthatalwayshappenswhenaconditionismet.Forexample:•“Thetelevisionturnsonifyoupressthepowerbutton.”•“Thecarmovesfasterifyoupressthepedaldownharder.”

FuturetenseThefuturetenseisusedtodescribehypotheticalfutureresults.Itisoftenusedwithconditionsinthepresenttensetodescribewhatmighthappen.Forexample:•“IfourteamwinstheWorldSeries,itwillbeamazing.”•“Thesheepwillescapeifthefenceisleftunlocked.”

TypesofConditionalsTherearedifferenttypesofconditionalsthatexpressarangeofhypotheticalinformationdependingonthecombinationofverbtensesusedintheconditionalsentence.

ZeroconditionalThezeroconditionalreferstoconditionalsentencesinwhichthe“ifclause”andthemainclausebothcontainconditionalverbsthatareinthesimplepresenttense.Itisusedtotalkaboutfactsthatarealwaystrue.

FirstconditionalFirstconditionalsentencescontainaconditionalverbinthesimplepresenttenseinthe“ifclause,”andafuturetenseverbprecededbytheauxiliaryverbwillinthemainclause.Firstconditionalsentencesexplainahypotheticalresultinthefuturedependingonanon-realconditioninthepresent.

SecondconditionalSecondconditionalsentencesincludeasimplepasttenseverbinthe“ifclause”andafuturetenseverbinthemainclause,precededbytheauxiliaryverbwould.Thesesentencesrefertothingsthatwouldhappeninthefutureifsomethingelsehappens.

ThirdconditionalThirdconditionalsentenceshaveapastperfectverbinthe“ifclause”andhaveapastparticipleverbinthemainclause,precededbytheauxiliaryverbswouldhave.Thirdconditionalsentencesdescribeahypotheticalsituationorconditioninthepastthatmighthaveledtoadifferentoutcomeinthepresent.Ifyouwanttolearnmoreaboutthesetypesofsentences,seetheConditionalSentencessectioninthechapteronSentences.


1.Whichwordinthefollowingsentenceisaconditionalverb?“Ifcloudsformonthehorizon,itwilllikelyrain.”a)likelyb)Ifc)formd)wille)rainf)A,B,&Cg)C,D,&E2.Theconditionalverbsinthefollowingsentenceareinwhichtense?“Thepiewilltastedeliciousifyoumakeitproperly.”a)pastb)presentc)futured)A&Be)B&Cf)Noneoftheabove3.Whichsetofconditionalverbsisinthepasttense?a)hadplayedb)willrunc)iswalkingd)willdrive

4.Whichwordinthefollowingsentenceisnotaconditionalverb?“Thebandwillhaveplayedforthreehoursifitplaysforanother20minutes.”a)willb)ifc)haved)played5.Identifytheconditionalverbsinthefollowingsentence.“Ifeverythinggoesaccordingtoplan,thegroupwillarriveonTuesday.”a)everything,goes,planb)goes,then,willc)according,will,arrive,d)goes,will,arrive

CausativeVerbsDefinitionCausativeverbsindicatethataperson,place,orthingiscausinganactionoraneventtohappen.Causativeverbsarefollowedbyanounorpronounandanon-causativeverbineithertheinfinitiveorbaseform;thesenon-causativeverbsdescribetheactionthatthesubjecthascausedtohappen.Examplesofcausativeverbsincludethewordsenable,cause,have,force,let,keep,hold,gotandrequire.Herearesomeexamplesofcausativeverbsbeingusedinsentences.•“Helethisdogrunthroughthefield.”•“Yougottogotothebasketballgamelastnight?”•“Thebiggerhouseenabledthefamilytohavemoreroomfortheirbelongings.”•“Thenewdresscodeforcedthestudentstoweardifferentshoes.”•“Thelandlordkepthispropertytorentouttomanydifferenttenants.”

TenseBecausethenon-causativeverbisalwaysintheinfinitiveform,thetenseofthesentencedependsontheconjugationofthecausativeverb.Causativeverbscan

takethepast,present,orfuturetense.Herearesomeexamplesofeach:

Past•“Thewomancausedtheaccidenttooccurbydrivingcarelessly.”•“Thelawrequiredapersontoobtainapermitbeforehuntingonpublicland.”

Present•“Thestoreholdscertainitemsonlayawaytoselltoparticularcustomersatalaterdate.”•“Theygetataxbreakonanypurchasesrelatedtothebusiness.”

Future•“Themanagerofthestorewillforceheremployeestoworkshorterhoursinordertocutcosts.”•“Theywillallowthecompanytoinstallmoresolarpanelsontheirroof.”

CausativeverbswithotherverbsinthesentenceAspreviouslymentioned,thenon-causativeverbsthatfollowcausativeverbsexplaintheactionthatisbeingcausedinthesentence.Dependingonthecausativeverbthat’sused,thesenon-causativeverbswilleitherbeintheinfinitiveorbaseformoftheverb,or,incertaincircumstances,thepastparticipleform.

InfinitivesInfinitivesarebase-formverbsthatareprecededbytheparticleto—forexample,torun,tosee,toclimb,etc.Themajorityofcausativeverbsarepairedwithinfinitivestocompletetheirmeaning,asin:•“Heforcedhimselftotrainharder.”•“Thewomanholdsontoherpastmemoriestorememberallthegoodtimesshehad.”•“Thegovernmentisrequiringallcitizenstocarryidentificationatalltimes.”

BaseformBase-formverbsappearexactlyastheywouldintheinfinitive,excepttheyarenotprecededbythewordto—theyarenotconjugatedfortenseinanyway.Onlythreecausativeverbspairwiththebaseformoftheverbinsteadofaninfinitive:have,make,andlet.Forexample:•“Theyletthelightstayonuntilmorning.”•“Albertmadepeopleremovetheirshoeswhenenteringhishouse.”•“Shehadhimpreparelotsoffingerfoodsbeforetheguestsarrived.”Thereisanexceptiontothese,however:whenweusethepassivevoicewithmake,itwilltaketheinfinitiveratherthanthebaseform,asin:•“I’msorry,butIwasmadetoreportmysuspicionstopolice.”•“Employeesareoftenmadetofeelresponsibleforthecompany’sfinancialwoes.”

PastparticiplesUniquely,thecausativeverbshaveandgetarealsoabletotakethepastparticipleofnon-causativeverbsiftheythemselvesareinthepasttense.Forexample:•“Mymotherhadthecarcleanedafteroursoccerpractice.”•“John’sdrinkingproblemfinallygothimfired.”


1.Whichofthefollowingwordsisacausativeverb?a)climbb)enablec)managed)face2.Identifythecausativeverbinthefollowingsentence:“Theykepttheirsnowblowertousewheneveritsnowedoutside.”a)snowedb)whenever

c)toused)kept3.Whichofthefollowingisnotacausativeverb?a)bounceb)havec)letd)force4.Thecausativeverbinthissentenceisinwhattense?“Thecoupleforcedthemselvestosavemoneysotheycouldbuytheirdreamhome.”a)baseb)presentb)pastd)future5.Trueorfalse:Causativeverbsrequireanotherverbinasentence?a)trueb)false

FactitiveVerbsDefinitionFactitiveverbsareusedtoindicatetheresultingconditionorstate(knownastheobjectcomplement)ofaperson,place,orthing(thedirectobject)causedbytheactionoftheverb.Examplesoffactitiveverbsincludeelect,appoint,make,choose,deem,assign,name,select,judge,anddesignate.Herearesomeexamplesoffactitiveverbsusedinsentences:•“ThepopulaceelectedhimpresidentoftheUnitedStates.”•“ThecommitteenamedMr.Fullerchairmanoftheboard.”•“Thejuryjudgedthedefendantnotguilty.”•“Shedeemedhimapersonofhighquality.”•“ThegroupdesignatedMarshallleaderfromthenon.”

•“ThecoachmadeTimothypointguard.”

DirectObjectsandObjectComplementsFactitiveverbshavebothdirectobjectsandobjectcomplements.Directobjectsarephrases,clauses,nouns,andpronounsthatdirectlyreceivetheactionoftheverb.Objectcomplementsareadjectives,nouns,orpronounsthatfollowdirectobjectsinordertoindicatewhatthedirectobject'snewstateis.Inotherwords,objectcomplementsrevealwhatthedirectobjecthasbecome.Factitiveverbsalwaysindicatethatthedirectobjecthasbeenchangedorplacedintoanewcondition,state,orcategoryasindicatedbytheobjectcomplement.Tounderstandthisconcept,considerthefollowingsentence:•“Thecompanyappointedthemostexperiencedemployeemanager.”Inthissentence,appointedisthefactitiveverb,themostexperiencedemployeeisthedirectobject,andmanageristheobjectcomplement.Appointedisafactitiveverbbecauseitindicatesthatsomeoneishavinghisorherstatuschanged.Themostexperiencedemployeeisthedirectobjectbecauseheorsheisreceivingtheactionoftheverb,whilemanageristheobjectcomplementbecauseitindicateswhatthedirectobjecthasbecome.Hereisanotherexample:•“Theteammadethestarquarterbackthenewcaptain.”Inthissentence,madeisafactitiveverbactingdirectlyuponthestarquarterback,itsdirectobject.Thenewcaptainistheobjectcomplement,indicatingwhatthestarquarterbackwasdesignatedas.

RoleinsentencesFactitiveverbsservethepurposeofhelpingtoanswerthequestionofhowaperson,place,orthingwaschanged.Forexample,considerthefollowingsentence,whichdoesnothaveafactitiveverb:✖ “TheschoolhiredMrs.McMillianprincipal.”Inthissentence,theverbhiredisnotsufficienttoconveyalloftheintendedinformation.However,thefollowingsentenceusesafactitiveverbtomakeit

clear:✔ “TheschoolappointedMrs.McMillianprincipal.”Bychanginghiredtothefactitiveverbappointed,itbecomesclearthatMrs.McMillian(thedirectobject)wasmadeprincipal.Thus,thefactitiveverbappointedsuccessfullyservesitsroleinthesentence.Herearetwomorecomparisonsofsentencestoillustratethisconcept:✖ “TheorganizationbroughtinBradRyanchiefexecutiveofficer.”(non-factitive)✔ “TheorganizationnamedBradRyanchiefexecutiveofficer.”(factitive)Theadditionofafactitiveverbrevealsthestatusorcharacteristicbeinggiventosomeoneorsomething.Inthiscase,BradRyanisbeinggiventhestatusofchiefexecutiveofficer.Thenon-factitiveverbbroughtindoesnotindicatethischangeatall,sothemeaningofthesentencebecomesincompleteorobscure.✖ “Thebuilderconstructedthehousemoremodern.”(non-factitive)✔ “Thebuildermadethehousemoremodern.”(factitive)Onceagain,thenon-factitiveverbconstructeddescribesastraightforwardaction,andsoisunsuitedtoindicatingacategoricalchangeinsomething.Byusingmade,wecanclearlyseetheintendedrelationshipbetweenthedirectobject,house,andtheobjectcomplement,moremodern.

DifferencefromlinkingandcausativeverbsFactitiveverbsaresimilartolinkingandcausativeverbs.However,therearesomeimportantdifferences.

LinkingverbsLinkingverbslinkasubjecttoanounoradjectivethatdescribesit.Linkingverbsincludewordssuchasappear,seem,andbecome,aswellasvariousformsofbe.Forexample:•“Sheappearscold.”•“Heisaverytallman.”•“Thegroupseemsinterestedinthediscussion”

Linkingverbsandfactitiveverbsbothtieasubjecttoanotherpartofspeechthatprovidesmoreinformationaboutit.However,unlikefactitiveverbs,linkingverbsdonotrevealthataperson,place,orthingisbeingmade,named,ordeemedsomethingelse.Instead,theyonlyaddinformationaboutthesubjectasitalreadyexists.

CausativeverbsCausativeverbsrequirethatanotheractionbementionedinthesentence,thusforcingthesentencetohaveatleastoneotherverb.Enable,cause,have,force,let,keep,hold,andrequireareallexamplesofcausativeverbs.Herearesomeexamplesofcausativeverbsbeingusedinsentences:•“Shewasrequiredtobringapenandpapertoherphysicsclass.”•“Hismomlethimgosleddingonhissnowday.”•“Theparentsforcedtheirchildtotiehisshoes.”Likelinkingverbs,causativeverbsalsotieasubjecttootherpartsofthesentencethatrevealmoreaboutthesubject.Inthisway,theyserveasimilarfunctiontofactitiveverbs.However,unlikefactitiveverbs,causativeverbssimplycauseanotheractiontobedescribedinthesentence.Theydonotdescribeachangeinthesubject’scategory,status,orcharacteristicslikefactitiveverbsdo.


1.Whichofthefollowingwordsisnotafactitiveverb?a)electb)assignc)jumpd)appoint2.Identifythefactitiveverbinthefollowingsentence:“TheboardoftrusteesmetonFridayandappointedRalphleader.”a)leaderb)metc)trusteesd)appointed

3.Whatisthedirectobjectofthefactitiveverbinthefollowingsentence?“AmericanselectedAbrahamLincolnpresidentintheyear1860.”a)AbrahamLincolnb)Americansc)presidentd)theyear18604.Whichofthefollowingwordsisafactitiveverb?a)beb)designatec)swimd)sing5.Inwhatwayarelinkingverbsdifferentfromfactitiveverbs?a)Linkingverbsrevealanaction.b)Linkingverbssometimestakeanobjectcomplement.c)Linkingverbsdonotrevealthataperson,place,orthingisbeingmadeordeemedsomethingelse.d)Linkingverbslinkasubjecttoanotherpartofthesentence.

ReflexiveVerbsDefinitionReflexiveverbsareverbswhosesubjectsarealsotheirdirectobjects—thatis,theactionoftheverbisbothcommittedandreceivedbythesamepersonorthing.Reflexiveverbsaresometimesidentifiedasbeinginthe“middlevoice”(asopposedtotheactivevoiceorthepassivevoice).

IdentifyingreflexiveverbsVerbswithreflexivepronounsReflexiveverbscanmosteasilybeidentifiedbytheuseofreflexivepronouns,whichareusedasthedirectobjectandreferbacktothesubjectofthesentence.Forexample:

•“Iaccidentallyburnedmyselfwiththehairdryer.”(Myselfreferstothesubject,I.)•“Thebabyissmilingatherselfinthemirror.”(Herselfreferstothesubject,thebaby.)•“Theproblemseemstohaveworkeditselfoutintheend.”(Itselfreferstothesubject,theproblem.)Whenthesameverbispairedwithanobjectthatisnotareflexivepronoun,thentheverbisnolongerconsideredreflexive.Forexample,considerhowthefirsttwoexampleschangeifweusenon-reflexivepronouns:•“Iaccidentallyburnedhim*withthehairdryer.”(Himreferstoasecondpersonwhoisnotthesubject,I.)•“Thebabyissmilingatherinthemirror.”(Herreferstoasecondpersonwhoisnotthesubject,thebaby.)(*WhenthesubjectisI,wemightbetemptedtousethepersonalpronounme,asin,“Iaccidentallyburnedmewiththehairdryer,”butthisisgrammaticallyincorrect.)Inthethirdexample,itwouldnotmakesensetouseadifferentpronounbecausethesubject,theproblem,isinanimateandcannothaveagencyoveraseparatedirectobject.

ReflexiveverbswithimpliedobjectsCertainreflexiveverbscanalsohavereflexivepronounsasdirectobjectsthatareimpliedandthereforeomittedfromthesentence.Forexample:•“Myfatherisshavinginthebathroom.”(withthereflexivepronounhimselfimplied)•“Shealwaysstretchesbeforedoingyoga.”(withthereflexivepronounherselfimplied)•“Children,pleasekeepquiet!”(withthereflexivethepronounyourselvesimplied)

Intransitiveverbsinthe“middle”voice

Whilethemajorityofreflexiveverbsaretransitive,withreflexivepronounsastheirobjects,certainintransitiveverbscanbeusedtomodifyasubject(usuallyaninanimateobject)thatisalsothereceiveroftheaction.Inthemiddlevoice,thistypeofverbdoesnottakeareflexivepronoun(oranydirectobject).Forexample:•“Mysister’slunchiscookingonthestove.”(Cookisanintransitiveverbindicatingwhatisbeingcooked.)•“Thiscardoesn’tdrivesmoothlyanymore.”(Driveisanintransitiveverbindicatingwhatisbeingdriven.)•“Herengagementringbrokeinhalf.”(Breakisanintransitiveverbindicatingwhatisbeingbroken.)Wecanseethatthesubjectsoftheseexamples(mysister’slunch,thiscar,andherengagementring)arealsotherecipientsoftheactionineachsentence,eventhoughtheverbsareintransitiveanddonottakedirectobjects.

ChangesinmeaningwithreflexiveverbsMostofthetime,averb’smeaningisnotinherentlydifferentwhenitbecomesreflexive.However,therearesomeinstancesinwhichreflexiveverbshaveslightlydifferentmeaningsfromstandardtransitiveverbs.Forexample:•“Hedecidedtoapplyhimselftotheworkathand.”(reflexiveverb,meaning“toengageinsomethingwithgreatdiligenceandpersistence”)•“Sheappliedpressuretothewound.”(non-reflexiveverb,meaning“tobringintocontactwith”)•“Theyfoundthemselveswithoutaleader.”(reflexiveverb,meaning“toperceiveoneselftobeinaspecificplaceorcondition”)•“Wefoundthesolutionwewerelookingfor.”(non-reflexiveverb,meaning“tocomeupon,discover,orascertain”)•“Please,helpyourselftothefood.”(reflexiveverb,meaning“toserveorprovideoneselfwith”)•“Pleasehelpyourbrotherwithhishomework.”(non-reflexiveverb,meaning“togiveassistanceto”)Wemustbecarefulwheneverwemakeaverbreflexive,asthereisnoruletoknowwhenorifaverb’smeaningmightbealtered.


1.Whichofthefollowingdistinguishesreflexiveverbsfromnon-reflexiveverbs?a)Theydonottakeadirectobjectb)Theagentsoftheiractionarealsotherecipientsoftheiractionc)Theagentsoftheiractionareimpliedinasentenced)Theyarealwaystransitive2.Whichofthefollowingisthemostobviousindicationthataverbisreflexive?a)Ithasapossessivepersonalpronounasadirectobjectb)Itisintransitivebutinthemiddlevoicec)Thedirectobjectisimpliedandomittedd)Thedirectobjectisareflexivepronoun3.Whichofthefollowingdetermineswhetheraverb’smeaningwillchangewhenitisusedreflexively?a)Ifareflexivepronounistheonlydirectobjectpossibleb)Iftheverbisusedintransitivelyinthemiddlevoicec)Ifthereflexivepronounisimpliedandomittedd)Thereisnorulethatdeterminesifitsmeaningwillchange4.Whichofthefollowingsentencesusesareflexiveverb?a)“Idon’tknowwhy,butIlovewashingintheriverwhenwe’recamping.”b)“Mybrotherneverstopshelpingothers.”c)“Thekidsarealloutswimmingtoday.”d)“Paulseemsfine,butJohnsaidhehurthimduringfootballpractice.”

AdjectivesDefinitionAdjectivesareusedalmostexclusivelytomodifynouns,aswellasanyphraseorpartofspeechfunctioningasanoun.Forexample:•“Johnwearsredglasses.”(Redmodifiesthenounglasses.)

•“Aloudgroupofstudentspassedby.”(Loudmodifiesthenounphrasegroupofstudents.)•“Excellentwritingisrequiredforthisjob.”(Excellentmodifiesthegerundwriting.)

Attributivevs.PredicativeAdjectivesAdjectivesarebrokendownintotwobasicsyntacticcategories:attributiveandpredicative.Adjectivesthatappeardirectlybefore(orsometimesdirectlyafter)thenounorpronountheymodifyareknownasattributiveadjectives.Thesecanappearanywhereinasentence,andcanmodifypartsofeitherthesubjectorthepredicate.Predicativeadjectives,ontheotherhand,alwaysappearafterthenountheymodify,connectedtoitbyalinkingverb.Theyareoneofthethreetypesofsubjectcomplements,andtheyarealwayspartofthepredicate—hencetheirname.Let’scomparetwoexamplestohighlightthisdifference:•“Theblackdogisbarking.”Inthissentence,blackisanattributiveadjective.Itispartofthenounphraseandisnotconnectedtothenoundogbyalinkingverb.Nowlet’slookatapredicativeadjective:•“Thedogwasblack.”Inthissentence,blackisapredicativeadjective.Itfollowsdog,thenounthatitmodifies,andisconnectedtoitbythelinkingverbwas.

ModifyingpronounsWhileadjectivesusuallymodifynouns,theycanalsomodifypronouns.Thismostcommonlyoccurswhenadjectivesarepredicative.Forexample:•“Thatwasgreat!”•“Sheisverynice.”•“Afewwerelate.”Attributiveadjectivescanalsomodifyindefinitepronouns,asin:•“Ahappyfewwereabletoattendtheshow.”

•“Theyweretheluckyones.”Ininformalspeechorwriting,itisnotuncommontomodifypersonalpronounsattributively,asin:•“Wow,luckyyou!”•“Sillyme,Iforgottoturnontheoven.”However,avoidusingattributiveadjectiveswithpersonalpronounsinanythingotherthancasualconversationorwriting.

OthercategoriesofadjectivesThereisahugevarietyofadjectivesinEnglish.Whilemanywordsareinherentlyadjectival,suchascolors(red,black,yellow,etc.)orcharacteristics(strong,weak,nice,etc.),therearealsoseveralcategoriesofadjectivesthatareformedfromothersources.Thetablebelowgivesabriefbreakdownofthesedifferentcategoriesofadjectives,alongwithsomeexamplesofhowtheyareusedinasentence.Gotoeachindividualsectiontolearnmore.

CategoryofAdjective Definition Example

adjectivesExamplesentence

ProperAdjectives

Formedfrompropernounstocreatedescriptivewords.

Italian,Shakespearean,Alaskan,MiddleEastern,Nordic

“HewritesinaShakespeareanstyle.”

CompoundAdjectives

Createdfromtwoormorewordsthatworktogethertomodifythesamenoun;theyareoftenjoinedwithoneormorehyphens.

top-right,last-minute,sugar-free,record-breaking,expensive-looking

“Iknowthisisalast-minutesuggestion,butit’sagoodidea.”

DemonstrativeAdjectives(orDemonstrativeDeterminers)

Usedtospecifywhatwearereferringtoandwhetheritissingularorplural,andtogivemoreinformationaboutits

this,that,these,those

“Thesecupsareverypretty.”

proximitytothespeaker.

InterrogativeAdjectives(orInterrogativeDeterminers)

Usuallyusedtoaskquestionsaboutsomething.

what,which,whose

“Whosecomputeristhis?”

NominalAdjectives

Adjectivesthatperformthefunctionofanouninasentence.Theyareprecededbythewordtheandcanbefoundasthesubjectortheobjectofasentenceorclause.

thebest,thestrongest,theblue

“Hewantstheredcar,butIwanttheblue.”

CollectiveAdjectives

Asubgroupofnominaladjectives,usedtorefertoagroupofpeoplebasedonasharedcharacteristic.

therich,thepoor,theinnocent,theFrench,theAmericans,theDutch

“Therichshouldhelpthepoor.”

AdjectivePhrasesandClausesInadditiontothesingle-wordadjectiveswelookedatabove,wecanalsouseadjectivephrasesandrelativeclauses(alsocalledadjectiveclauses)tomodifynouns.We’lllookatbothbrieflybelow,buttolearnmoreabouthowtheyareformedandused,gototheirrespectivesectionsinthischapter.

AdjectivePhrasesAnadjectivephraseisanadjectiveandanyadditionalinformationlinkedtoitthatworktogethertodescribeanounorpronouninasentence.Thisadditionalinformationcanincludedeterminersoradverbialmodifiers.Theadjectivearoundwhichanadjectivephraseisformedisknownastheheadwordorheadadjectiveofthephrase.Adjectivephrasescanbeeitherattributive(appearingbeforethenounstheymodify)orpredicative(appearingafteralinkingverb)

Forexample:•“Youhaveabeautifulvoice.”(headwordbeautifulplusthedeterminera)•“Heisaverygoodswimmer.”(headwordgoodplusthedetermineraandtheadverbvery)•“Thehelicoptersarecontrolledremotely.”(headwordcontrolledplustheadverbremotely)•“Iamperfectlycontentonmyown.”(headwordcontentplustheadverbperfectlyandtheadverbialprepositionalphraseonmyown)•“Theyfeltrelievedtoreturnhome.”(headwordrelievedplustheadverbialinfinitivephrasetoreturnhome)Notethatprepositionalphrasescanalsofunctionasadjectives.Theseareconsideredadjectivalphrasesratherthantrueadjectivephrases,becausethereisnotaheadadjectiveattherootofthephrase.Adjectivalprepositionalphrasesalwaysappeardirectlyafterthenountheymodify.Forexample:•“Thecatontheshedwasold.”(modifiesthenouncat)•“Pleasehandmethatbookoverthere.”(modifiesthenounbook)

RelativeClauses(AdjectiveClauses)Relativeclauses(alsoknownasadjectiveoradjectivalclauses)aredependentclausesthatprovidedescriptiveinformationaboutanounornounphrase.Iftheinformationitpresentsisessentialtothemeaningofthesentence,itisknownasarestrictiveclause;ifitisextrainformationthatisnotessential,itisknownasanon-restrictiveclause.Relativeclausesareintroducedbyeitherarelativepronounor,lesscommonly,arelativeadverb.Unlikeattributiveadjectives,theyalwaysappeardirectlyafterthenountheymodify.Forexample:•“There’sthewomanwhoalwayssitsnexttomeonthebus.”(restrictiveclauseintroducedbytherelativepronounwho,modifyingwoman)•“ThebookthatIwroteisbeingpublishedinJanuary.”(restrictiveclauseintroducedbytherelativepronounthat,modifyingbook)•“Theescapedgiraffe,whichhadbeenonthelooseforweeks,wasfinallycaptured.”(non-restrictiveclauseintroducedbytherelativepronounwhich,

modifyinggiraffe)•“ThehousewhereIwasbornisaveryspecialplace.”(restrictiveclauseintroducedbytherelativepronounwhere,modifyinghouse)•“IlovecasualFridays,whenwegettowearjeanstowork.”(non-restrictiveclauseintroducedbytherelativeadverbwhen,modifyingcasualFridays)

OrderofadjectivesWeoftenusemultipleadjectivestomodifythesamenounorpronoun.Notethatthesearenotcompoundadjectivesoradjectivephrases,butratherindividualadjectivesthatworkindependentlytomodifythesameword.Toavoidunnatural-soundingsentenceswhenweusemorethanoneadjectiveinthisway,weputtheminaspecificorderaccordingtothetypeofdescriptiontheyprovide.Thisisknownastheorderofadjectives:1.Opinion(good,bad,strange,lovely)2.Measurement(big,small,tiny,huge)3.Shape(curved,straight,round,square)4.Condition(wet,dry,clean,sad,happy)5.Age(old,young,new,ancient)6.Color(red,yellowish,transparent,blue)7.Pattern(checked,striped,plaid,flowered)8.Origin(American,British,eastern,western)9.Material(wooden,plastic,steel,cloth)10.Purpose(sleeping,shopping,work,gardening)Whilewewouldalmostneveruseasentencewithsomanyadjectivesinarow,it’sverycommontousetwoorthree.Inthiscase,wegenerallymustfollowtheorderabove,asin:•“IboughtanenormousrectangularTurkishrugonmyvacation.”•“Itisalong,heavytable.”Notethatinsomecircumstancesweseparateadjectiveswithcommasand/orthecoordinatingconjunctionand,whileinothercasesweusethemwithoutanyseparationatall.Tolearnmoreabouttherulesthatdeterminethis,gotothesectionontheOrderofAdjectiveslaterinthischapter.

DegreesofcomparisonWecanalsouseadjectivestocreatecomparisonsbetweentwoormorepeopleorthings,ortoidentifysomeoneorsomethingwiththehighest(orlowest)degreeofsomequality.Todothis,weinflect(changetheformof)theadjectivetocreatecomparativeadjectivesorsuperlativeadjectives.Forexample:•“Iamstrong.”(basicadjective)•“JohnisstrongerthanIam.”(comparativeadjective)•“Janetisthestrongestofusall.”(superlativeadjective)Thisprocessofchanginganadjective’sformisknownastheDegreesofComparison;gotothatsectioninthischaptertolearnmore.

AdjectivesandDeterminersAdjectivesanddeterminersbothprovideextrainformationaboutanoun(orpronoun).Butwhileadjectivesprovidedescriptive,modifyinginformationaboutanoun,determinersareusedtointroduceandspecifyanoun.Themostcommondeterminersarethearticlestheanda/an.Theseindicatewhetheranounisspecificorgeneral(i.e.,thebookvs.abook).Numberscanalsoactasdeterminers,asinthreebooks,10books,1000books,etc.However,thereareanumberofcategoriesofadjectivesthatarealsoconsideredtobetypesofdeterminers—theysharethefeaturesofboth.Theseare:•demonstrativeadjectives(this,that,these,those—alsocalleddemonstrativedeterminers);•possessiveadjectives(my,his,your,our—alsocalledpossessivedeterminers);•interrogativeadjectives(what,which,whose—alsocalledinterrogativedeterminers);•distributivedeterminers(each,every,either—alsocalleddistributiveadjectives;•quantifiers(many,much,several,little).Demonstrativesandinterrogativesaremorecommonlyclassedasadjectives,whilepossessivesanddistributivesaremorecommonlyclassedasdeterminers;thisishowtheyaregroupedinthisguide.Quantifiersaremuchhardertodistinguish,but,forthepurposesofthisguide,theyarecoveredinthechapteron

Determiners.


1.Whichofthefollowingpartsofspeechareadjectivesnotabletomodify?a)Nounsb)Pronounsc)Adverbsd)B&C2.Adjectivesthatappearafterlinkingverbsareknownas:a)Attributiveadjectivesb)Predicativeadjectivesc)Demonstrativeadjectivesd)Interrogativeadjectives3.Whichofthefollowingtypesofadjectivesareformedfromtwoormorewordsandahyphen?a)Compoundadjectivesb)Nominaladjectivesc)Properadjectivesd)Collectiveadjectives4.Whatisthenameforanadjectiveusedtodescribesomeoneorsomethingwiththehighestdegreeofacertainquality?a)Comparableadjectivesb)Comparativeadjectivesc)Superioradjectivesd)Superlativeadjectives5.Whichofthefollowingoftenhavepropertiessimilartoadjectives?a)Adverbsb)Particlesc)Determinersd)Conjunctions

AttributiveAdjectivesDefinitionAttributiveadjectivesareadjectivesthatdescribeacharacteristic(orattribute)ofthenounorpronounthattheymodify.Theyformpartofanounphrase,appearingimmediatelybefore(orsometimesafter)thenouninasentence.

Attributivevs.PredicativeAdjectivesAttributiveadjectivesareusuallyconsideredinoppositiontopredicativeadjectives,whichfollowthenountheymodifyandareconnectedtoitbyalinkingverb.Wecanquicklyillustratethedifferencehere:•“Theblackdogisbarking.”Inthissentence,blackisanattributiveadjective.Itispartofthenounphraseandisnotconnectedtothenoundogbyalinkingverb.Nowlet’slookatapredicativeadjective:•“Thedogwasblack.”Inthissentence,blackfollowsthenoundog,thenounthatitmodifies,andisconnectedtoitbythelinkingverbwas;itisapredicativeadjective.Whilemostadjectivescanoccureitherasattributiveadjectivesorpredicativeadjectives,therearecertainadjectivesthatcanonlyoccurpredicatively.Most,butnotall,oftheseadjectivesbeginwiththeletter“a”:

afloatafraidalikealoneasleepawakeawareupsetwell

Forexample:✔ “Thebabyisasleep.”(correct)

✖ “Theasleepbabyisinthecrib.”(incorrect)✔ “Thewomaniswellagain.”(correct)✖ “Thewellwomangotoutofbed.”(incorrect)Ifyouwanttolearnmoreaboutpredicativeadjectives,theyaredealtwithingreaterdetailinanothersectionofthischapter.

Restrictivevs.Non-RestrictiveAttributiveAdjectivesAttributiveadjectivescanbeeitherrestrictiveornon-restrictive.Restrictiveadjectiveshelpestablishtheidentityofthenounorpronounbeingmodified,whilenon-restrictiveadjectivessimplyhelpdescribeanounthatisalreadyclearlyidentified.Notethedifferencebetweenthesetwosentences:•“Shewasemotional,andwouldavoidasadfilmatallcosts.”•“Titanicwasasadfilmthatnoviewercouldfinishwithdryeyes.”Inthefirstsentence,sadisrestrictive:ittellsuswhatkindoffilmssheavoids.Inthesecondsentence,sadisnon-restrictive.WealreadyknowthatTitanicisthefilminquestion;theadjectivesadsimplyservestodescribeitfurther.

Prepositiveadjectives:BeforethenounInsimplesentences,attributiveadjectivesusuallyoccurbeforethenountheymodify,likeinourfirstexample,“Theblackdogisbarking.”Adjectivesinthispositionareknownasprepositiveorprenominaladjectives.Whilemostattributiveadjectivescanalsooccuraspredicativeadjectivesafterthenoun,thereareanumberofspecificadjectiveswhichcanonlyoccurbeforethenountheymodify.Someoftheseare:main,former,andmere.✔ “Themainideaisatthebeginningoftheparagraph.”(correct)✖ “Theideaatthebeginningoftheparagraphismain.”(incorrect)Anotheradjectivethatonlyoccursattributivelybeforethenounisthewordutter,whichprovidesheavyemphasistothenounitmodifies:✔ “Thedresswasinutterruin.”(correct)✖ “Theruinwasutter.”(incorrect)

PostpositiveAdjectives:AfterthenounIt’sfairlycommontofindattributiveadjectivesdefinedas“adjectivesthatareplacedbeforethenounorpronountheymodify.”However,it’sabitmorecomplicatedthanthat.Whileattributiveadjectivesaregenerallyfoundbeforethenountheymodify,especiallyinsimplesentences,therearealsomanycasesinwhichtheyareplacedimmediatelyafterthenoun.Whenthishappens,theyarecalledpostpositiveorpostnominaladjectives.Thisoftenoccursinthefollowingcases:

TermsderivedfromotherlanguagesPostpositiveadjectiveplacementisverycommoninotherlanguages,especiallythosederivedfromLatin.PostpositiveplacementinEnglishoccursespeciallywhenusingtermsthatwereborrowedfromFrench,aLatin-derivedlanguage.Englishborrowsmanyofficial,military,governmental,andadministrativetermsfromotherlanguages,andtheadjectiveshaveretainedtheirpostpositiveposition.Forexample:•Legalandfinancialterms:bodypolitic,court-martial,poundsterling,accountspayable,andheirapparent.•Importantpositionsofindividuals:secretary-general,poetlaureate,attorneygeneral,princessroyal,andprofessoremeritus.Inthesetypesofterms,it’sconventionaltopluralizethenoun,nottheadjective.Forexample:•“Onepoetlaureate.”•“Twopoetslaureate.”However,itisbecomingmoreandmorecommonforwriterstotreatthesetermsascompoundnouns,pluralizingtheadjectiveinsteadofthenoun:•“Twopoetlaureates.”Traditionalgrammarians,though,considerthepluralizationoftheadjectivetobeincorrect.

Afterindefinitepronouns

Attributiveadjectivesalmostalwaysappearpostpositivelywhentheymodifyindefinitepronouns,suchassomeone,anyone,nobody,anyone,etc.Forexample:•“IwishIcouldfindsomebodyperfectforthejob.”•“Wecangivethesejeanstoanybodytall.”•“Isanyonetalentedatmathhere?”

AftersuperlativeattributiveadjectivesSuperlativeadjectivesarethosethatthatcomparethreeormorenounstoindicatewhichexhibitsthehighestdegreeofsomething,forexample:thebest,theworst,thetallest,thebiggest,etc.Whenasuperlativeadjectiveisusedattributivelybeforeanoun,wecanuseotherattributiveadjectivesinapostpositivepositionforemphasis.•“Let’sfindthebesthotelpossible.”•“She’stheworstsingerpresent.”Inaddition,theattributiveadjectivecansometimescomebeforethenounwhenpairedwithasuperlative,asin:•“Weclimbedthehighestnearbymountain.”

Someadjectivesendingin“-able/-ible”Often,attributiveadjectivesendingin“-able/-ible”areplacedinthepostpositiveposition:•“It’stheonlytimeavailable.”•“It’stheonlyoptionimaginable.”Becarefulthough,becausesometimesplacinganadjectiveofthistypeintheprepositiveorpostpositivepositioncanactuallychangethemeaningofthesentence.Forexample:•“She’slookingforaresponsibleman.”Inthissentence,responsibleisintheprepositivepositiveandseemstobea

goodcharacteristic.Sheislikelylookingforamanwhocanbetrusted.Ifweplacethewordresponsibleinthepostpositiveposition,though,wehaveaverydifferentmeaning:•“She’slookingforthemanresponsible.”Inthissentence,thewordresponsibletakesonadifferentconnotation,perhapsanegativeone.She’slookingforthemanwhohasdonesomething;inmostcases,the“something”isnegative,suchasamistakeorevenacrime.Notmanyadjectiveschangemeaningsodrasticallybasedontheirpositioninthesentence,butitissomethingtobeawareof.

AfterexpressionsofmeasurementNounsareoftenusedincombinationwithnumbersandadjectivestogivemeasurementsofheight,depth,age,etc.Forexample:•“He’sonlyoneyearold.”•“She’sfivefeettall.”•“Theriverisfivemileslong.”•“Thelakeisonekilometerdeep.”Anotableexceptiontothispatterniswhenwediscussweight.Instead,weusetheverbweighandaunitofmeasurement,orelsejusttheunitofweightaftertheverbbe.Forexample:✔ “Sheweighs120pounds.”(correct)✔ “Sheis120pounds.”(correct)✖ “Sheis120poundsheavy.”(incorrect)

WhentheadjectivemodifiestheobjectoffactitiveverbsFactitiveverbsareusedtodescribeanactionthatresultsinanewconditionorstateofapersonorthing.Whenanadjectivemodifiesthedirectobjectofafactitiveverb,itisknownasanobjectcomplement,andweplaceitinthepostpositiveposition.Forexample:•“Hemakesherhappy.”•“Ifindhorrorfilmsterrifying.”

•“Wepaintedthewallyellow.”

ForpoeticeffectPostpositiveplacementofattributiveadjectivesisfrequentlyusedforpoeticeffect,asitgivesasomewhatarchaicandliterarytwisttootherwiseplainexpressions.Takeforexamplethisexcerptfromthepoem“Happiness,”byThomasFrederickYoung:“FairHappiness,I'vecourtedthee,Andusedeachcunningartandwile,Whichloversusewithmaidenscoy,Towinonetenderglanceorsmile.”Inthisexample,thepoetplacestheadjectivescoyafterthepluralnounmaidens,insteadofbeforeit,creatingastrongerpoeticeffect.Wecanseethesameeffectagaininthepoem“TheBouquet,”byEdwardSmythJones:“Ablossompink,Ablossomblue,MakeallthereisinloveSotrue.”Thesamephenomenoncanalsobeseenintitlesofbooksandfilms,whichoftenusepostpositiveplacementforitsdramaticeffect.ConsiderthetitlesofworkssuchasJupiterAscending,TheMatrixReloaded,orTheBrothersKaramazov,forexample.


1.Whichofthefollowingisanexampleofanattributiveadjective?a)Ablackdog.b)Thedogisblack.c)Thedogblack.d)Thedog.2.Whichofthefollowingisnotanattributiveadjective?a)Sarahisshort.b)Theblondgirlwenttotheparty.

c)MydearfriendJamesishere.d)Haveyoucalledyourpoorbrother?3.Attributiveadjectivesnever____.a)comeafterthenoun.b)precedethenoun.c)followalinkingverb.d)appearinthepostpositiveposition.4.Mostadjectivesthatareneverattributivebeginwiththeletter“____.”a)Ab)Ba)Cb)D5.Whichsentenceistraditionallyconsideredtobemorecorrect?a)Thesecretary-generalsofthethreecountriesaremeetingtoday.b)Thesecretaries-generalofthethreecountriesaremeetingtoday.

PredicativeAdjectivesDefinitionApredicativeadjective(orsimply“predicateadjective”)isusedinthepredicateofaclausetodescribeeitherthesubjectoftheclauseorthedirectobjectofaverb.

AsasubjectcomplementPredicativeadjectivesthatdescribethesubjectoftheclausewillfollowalinkingverb.Insuchcases,theyareknownassubjectcomplements.Forexample:•“Youlooknice.”•“Heisold.”Here,“nice”describesthesubject“you,”while“old”describesthesubject“he.”Notethatadjectivesappearingimmediatelybeforethenountheyaredescribing

areknownasattributiveadjectives.Forexample:•“Theoldmanseemsnice.”“Old”isanattributiveadjectivethatdescribesthesubject,“man.”“Nice”alsodescribes“man,”butitisapredicativeadjectivebecauseitfollowsthelinkingverb“seems.”

AsanobjectcomplementPredicativeadjectivescanalsodescribethedirectobjectofnon-linkingverbs.Inthiscase,suchadjectivesfunctionasobjectcomplements.Forexample:•“Theypaintedthedoorred.”•“Allthattrainingmademestronger.”Thepredicativeadjectivesherearedescribing(complementing)thedirectobjectsoftheverbs,ratherthanthesubjectsofthesentences.“Red”describesthenoun“door”(notthesubject,“they”),while“stronger”describesthepronoun“me”(notthesubject,“training”).

SenseverbsCertainverbsareusedtoindicateperceptions,opinions,orbodilysensations.Theyareknownasverbsofthesenses,or“senseverbs”forshort.Thoseverbsareasfollows:

tastesmellsoundseemfeellookappear

Senseverbsmerelyrelatethemeansbywhichthespeakerhasarrivedatsuchasensationaboutthesubject.Whenweusethemlikethis,theyarefunctioningaslinkingverbs(ratherthanactionverbs)andwepairthemwithpredicativeadjectives.Thisisnotbecausethepredicativeadjectivedescribestheverb,asanadverbwoulddo.Rather,thepredicativeadjectivedescribesthesubjectoftheclause—theyaresubjectcomplements,whichwelookedatabove.Forexample:

•“Ifeelterribletoday.”(Afeelinginsideofbeingveryunwell.)•“Yousoundtired.”(Aperceptionoftirednessinyourvoice.)•“Shedidn’tsoundItalian.”(Anopinionbasedonthewayhervoicesounds.)•“Youlookfabuloustoday.”(ThisismyopinionwhenIlookatyou.)•“Hedoesn’tlookveryhappy.”(Again,myopinionbasedonwhatmyeyestellme.Notethattheadverb“very”ismodifyingtheadjective“happy,”nottheverb“look.”)•“Thisdoesn’tfeelright.”(Anopinionorperceptionofsomethingnotbeingasitshould.)•“ThecarappearsOK,butI’llhavetodriveittobesure.”(FromwhatIcansee,thecarlookslikeit’singoodcondition.)•“Thatsmellsnice.”(Sensationofapleasantaroma.)•“Thismilktastesfunny*.”(Sensationofanoddorunpleasanttaste.)*Theadjective“funny”hastwomeanings.Itcandescribesomethingthatmakesyoulaugh,orsomethingthatisstrange,unpleasant,dubious,ornotasitshouldbe.Itcarriesthelattermeaningintheaboveexample.Ifanyoftheaboveverbswereusedasactionverbs,theycouldnolongerbefollowedbyanadjective—youwouldhavetopairthemwithanadverb.Forexample:•“Ifeltgentlyaroundthetableinthedark.”(Describestheactionoffeelingwithone’shand.)•“Helookedquicklytotheright.”(Describestheactionoflookinginacertaindirection.)•“Thecarappearedoutofnowhere.”(Describestheactionofcomingintosight,usingaprepositionalphraseasanadverb.)•“Yes,youheardright!”(Rightinthiscaseisanadverbmeaning“accuratelyorcorrectly.”)

Sourcesofconfusion–Goodvs.WellAcommonstumblingblockfornativesandlearnersofEnglishalikeisthecorrectusageofgoodversuswell.Inmostinstances,goodisanattributiveadjectivedirectlydescribinganoun,whilewellisanadverbdescribingaverb,adjective,orotheradverb.For

example:•“Heisagooddriver.”•“Shewriteswell.”Wecannotusegoodandwellinterchangeablyintheseinstances,andwecanseeimmediatelythatthefollowingwouldbeincorrect:✖ “Heisawelldriver.”✖ “Shewritesgood.”However,wellcanalsofunctionasapredicativeadjective,whereitusuallymeans“healthy”or“notill.”Weuseitinthissenseafterlinkingverbssuchasbe,get,orthesenseverbsabove:•“Jennylookswelllately.”•“Getwellsoon!”Intheseexamples,welldoesnotdescribetheverbs,butratherthesubjectsofthesentences(impliedinthesecondexample).Goodcanbeusedasapredicativeadjectiveaswell,meaning“ofahighorsatisfactoryquality.”Thiscanbeusedafterlinkingverbstotalkaboutanopinionofsomething,anemotionalstate,orgeneralwell-being(asopposedtophysicalhealth,specifically).Forexample:•“Themoviewasgood.”(Opinionofthequalityofthemovie.)•“I’mfeelinggoodaboutmychances!”(Emotionalstate.)•“Janetlooksgoodlately.”(OpinionofJanet’sappearance.)•A:“Howareyou,Bob?”B:“I’mgood,thanks!”(Generalwell-being.)Thelastexampleisperfectlycorrect,anditisveryfrequentlyusedasastockresponsetothequestion“Howareyou?”Youcouldalsosay“I’mwell,”andnooneislikelytotakeissuewithit.However,ifsomeoneaskshowyouareafter,forinstance,anillnessorinjury,itwouldbebettertorespondwith“I’mwell.”Ifsaying“I’mgood”stilldoesnotsoundquiterighttoyou,youcouldalsosay“Iamdoingwell,”inwhichcasewellisusedadverbiallyoncemore.Youcanlearnmoreaboutsuchadjective/adverbodditiesintheirregularadverbssectionofthechapteronAdverbs.


1.Whatisthefunctionofanadjectivewhenitdescribesanounthatispartofthepredicate?a)Subjectcomplementb)Objectcomplementc)Attributiveadjectived)Noneoftheabove2.Whatdoesapredicativeadjectivethatfollowsalinkingverbmodify?a)Theverbb)Theobjectoftheverbc)Thesubjectoftheclaused)Thepredicateoftheclause3.Whencan“well”functionasapredicativeadjective?(Choosetheanswerthatismostcorrect.)a)Whenitfollowsalinkingverbb)Whenitmodifiesalinkingverbc)Whenitmeans“ingoodhealth”d)Whenitfunctionsasanobjectcomplemente)A&Cf)B&D4.Whichofthefollowingsentencesdoesnothaveapredicateadjective?a)“Idon’tthinkIheardyouright.”b)“Iamfeelingwell.”c)“Myfatherisreallynice.”d)“Doesthisseemdifferenttoyou?”

ProperAdjectivesDefinitionProperadjectives,likealladjectives,modifynouns,buttheyaredifferentfromotheradjectivesbecausetheyareactuallyformedfrompropernouns.Anoun,weknow,isaperson,place,orthing.Wecandistinguishbetweentwotypesofnouns:commonnounsandpropernouns.Commonnounsaregeneral,

suchasman,street,andcity.James,CanningStreet,andParisareallpropernouns,becausetheytalkaboutspecificpeople,places,orthings.“James”isaspecificman,“CanningStreet”isaspecificstreet,and“Paris”isaspecificcity.PropernounsarealwayswrittenwithacapitalletterinEnglish.Properadjectivesareformedfromthesepropernouns,andtheyarealsocapitalized.Theyareoftenmadefromthenamesofcities,countries,orregionstodescribewheresomethingcomesfrom,buttheycanalsobeformedfromthenamesofreligions,brands,orevenindividuals.Someexampleswillmakethisclear:

ProperNoun

ProperAdjective ExampleSentence

Italy Italian IloveItalianfood.

China Chinese HowmuchdoesthisChineserobecost?

Christ Christian InEurope,youcanvisitmanyancientChristianchurches.

Shakespeare Shakespearean HewritesinanalmostShakespeareanstyle.

Canon Canon I’mreallyexcitedtousemynewCanoncamera.

WhyWeUseProperAdjectivesWeuseproperadjectivestodescribesomethingefficiently,directly,andexplicitly.Wecouldmanagetoavoidthem,butitwouldresultinclunky,awkwardsentences.Ifwewanttoexpressthesamemeaningastheexamplesentencesfromthetableabove,wecouldwrite:•“IlovefoodthatcomesfromItaly.”•“HowmuchdoesthisrobethatcomesfromChinacost?”•“InEurope,youcanvisitmanyancientchurchesofthereligionthatworshipsChrist.”•“HewritesalmostinthestyleofthewriterShakespeare.”•“I’mreallyexcitedtousemynewcamerafromtheCanonbrand.”

Thesesentencesarelengthy,awkward,andchoppytoread.UsingtheproperadjectivesItalian,Chinese,Christian,Shakespearean,andCanonmakesourmeaningcomeacrossmuchmoresmoothly.Properadjectivesareoftenusedinanacademicorartisticcontext,whenthespeaker(orwriter)isaddressinganaudienceofhisorherpeersandknowsthattheywillquicklyunderstandthereference.Forexample,thesentence“HewritesinanalmostShakespeareanstyle”wouldfrequentlybeusedamongscholarsofEnglishliterature.YouwouldwanttoavoidthetermShakespeareanifyouwereaddressingagroupofyoungstudentswhohadnotyetheardoftheauthor.Likewise,agroupofarchitectsorhistoriansmayrefertoa“Romanesquebuilding,”whilewewouldwanttoavoidthattermifwewereaddressingagroupthatlacksbackgroundknowledgeinhistoricalarchitecture.

HowtoFormProperAdjectivesAproperadjectiveisusuallyformedbyaddinganendingtothenounthatitisderivedfrom.Thereisnotaneasyruletomemorizeforwhichendingtouse.Ifyou’renotsure,youcantrysomeofthemostcommonendings—-ian,-an,-esque,-like,and-istic—andseewhichsoundsright.

ProperAdjectivesforCountries,Cities,andRegionsCountriesManyproperadjectivesareformedfromthenamesofcountriestodescribewhereaperson,place,orthingisfrom.Wehaveseensomeexamplesalready.Themostcommonendingsfornationalitiesare-ian/-ean/-an,-ic,ese,and-ish.ThereasonthatEnglishhassomanyendingsfordifferentnationalitiesisthatweborrowedthemfromotherlanguages.Weborrowedthe-ian,-ean,-anfromLatin,-icalsofromLatinbutviaGermaniclanguages,-esefromItalian,and-ifromArabic.ThenativeGermanicsuffixis-ish,whichEnglishhasonlykeptforonlyasmallnumberofnationalities.Herearesomeofthemostcommonproperadjectivesforcountries:

-ian/-ean/-an -ic -ese -i -ish -ish

Italian Greenlandic Chinese Iraqi Danish Chinese

Armenian Icelandic Japanese Israeli Finnish Japanese

Australian Nordic Lebanese Pakistani Irish Lebanese

Bulgarian Hispanic Portuguese Saudi Scottish Portuguese

Korean Sudanese Emirati Spanish Sudanese

Moroccan Vietnamese Yemeni Turkish Vietnamese

CitiesProperadjectivescanalsodescribewhatcityorstate/provincesomethingorsomeonecomesfrom.Often,theseareformedwithoutanadditionalending.Forexample:•“Let’shaveaNewYorkbagelforbreakfast.”•“ShehasarealLondonetiquette.”Otherproperadjectivesareformedbyaddinganendingtothenameofthecityorstate,butit’simpossibletolearnthemall.They’reveryirregular.Youmayfinditusefultolearntheendingsforthemostfamouscitiesoftheworld,ortheplacesaroundwhereyoulive.Someexamplesofwell-knownproperadjectivesforcitiesorstatesare:•“IwillneverbeabletokeepupwithParisianfashion.”•“ThereisnothingbetterthanAlaskansmokedsalmon.”

RegionsFinally,wealsohaveproperadjectivesforgeneralgeographicregions.Forexample:•“AnAfricanelephant.”•“AnAsianperson.”•“AEuropeanmuseum.”•“ASouthAmericanblanket.”•“AMiddleEasternfilm.”

AFewMoreNotesSometimes,awordthatbeganasaproperadjectivecanloseits“proper”significanceovertime.Inthesecases,thewordisnolongercapitalized.Takethefollowingsentence:•“Hewasmakingquixoticmistakes.”QuixoticwasaproperadjectivederivedfromthenameDonQuixote,afictionalcharacterwhowaspronetofoolish,grandiosebehavior.Throughtime,ithascometomean“foolish”initsownright,withoutnecessarilypointingtothecharacterofDonQuixote.Therefore,ithaslostitscapitalization.Anotherexampleofthisphenomenonisthewordgargantuan.Onceassociatedwiththenameofagiantina16th-centurybook,ithascometomean“huge”indailyuse.Sincelosingitslinkwiththefictionalmonster,itisnolongercapitalized.•“Thecouplepurchasedthehousenextdoorandbuiltagargantuanhouse.”Ontheotherhand,therearesomecommonnounsthatcanactaspropernounsinspecificcasesandneedtobecapitalized.Forexample,theadjectivenativewouldnormallybeconsideredacommonnoun,asinthesentence“IwanttopracticeSpanishwithanativespeaker.”Considerthewordnativeinthefollowingsentence,though:•TheindigenouspeopleofCanadaandtheUnitedStatesarecommonlyreferredtoasNativeAmericans.Inthissentence,Nativeactsasaproperadjectivebecauseitdescribesaspecificgroupofpeople,justlikeItalianorFrench.Whenaproperadjectiveneedsaprefix,makesuretoplaceahyphenbetweentheprefixandtheproperadjective.Don’tcapitalizetheprefix,though.Forexample:•“Hewasaccusedofstirringupanti-Chinesesentiment.”•“Ilovestudyingpre-Shakespeareantheater.”Theexceptiontothisruleisiftheprefixisformedfromapropernounitself,asinthe“Austro-Hungarianempire.”Inthisexample,bothHungariananditsprefixAustroarederivedfrompropernouns(HungaryandAustria),sotheyarebothcapitalized.Lastly,whileproperadjectivesaregenerallyplacedbeforethenountheymodify,

mostcanalsobeplacedafterthenoun,providedthatthereisalsoalinkingverbbeforethem.Forexample,allofthefollowingsentencesarecorrect:•“ThewinningteamwasSpanish.•“ThemanoverthereisItalian.”•“ThemonksinthismonasteryareBuddhist.”


1.Whichofthefollowingisaproperadjective?a)Blueb)Spanishc)Talld)Tired2.Whichofthefollowingisnotaproperadjective?a)Spanishb)Grecianc)Intelligentd)Muslim3.Inthesentence“Iwenttoaprivatecatholicschool,”whichwordorwordsshouldbecapitalized?a)catholicb)privatec)schoold)catholicandschool4.Inthesentence“Thenumberofafro-europeanshasrisensteadily,”whichwordorwordsshouldbecapitalized?a)numberb)afroc)europeansd)afroandeuropeans5.Properadjectivesareadjectivesformedfrom____.

a)propernounsb)commonnounsc)adjectivesd)verbs

CollectiveAdjectivesDefinitionCollectiveadjectivesareasubgroupofnominaladjectives,oradjectivesthatactasnouns.Theyareusedtorefertoagroupofpeoplebasedonacharacteristicthattheyshare.Forexample:•“Therichshouldhelpthepoor.”Thissentenceisanotherwayofsaying,“Richpeopleshouldhelppoorpeople.”Somecommoncollectiveadjectivesare:

theblindtheelderlythehardworkingthehomelesstheinnocenttheintelligentthepoortherichthesickthestrongtheweaktheyoung

Inaddition,alargeamountofcollectiveadjectivesrefertothenationalityofagroupofpeople.Forexample,insteadofsaying“Frenchpeoplecookwell,”wecansay,“TheFrenchcookwell.”Othernationalitiesforwhichwehavecollectiveadjectivesare:

theChinesetheEnglishtheIrish

theJapanesetheScottishtheSpanishtheVietnamese

Noticethatwhenweuseacollectiveadjectivefornationality,it’scapitalized.Finally,collectiveadjectivesfornationalityhavetobelearnedbyheart,aswedon’thavecollectiveadjectivesforallnationalities.Forexample,torefertoagroupofGermanpeople,wehavetosaytheGermansorsimplyGermans,whichisapluralpropernoun—acorrespondingcollectiveadjectivedoesn’texistforGermanpeople.Otherexamplesinclude(the)Canadians,(the)Russians,(the)Americans,and(the)Slovaks.

HowtousecollectiveadjectivesUsingcollectiveadjectivesissimple.Thereareonlyacoupleofthingsthatweneedtoremember:1.Wealwaysaddthearticlethebeforetheadjective(exceptfornationalitiesthatusepluralpropernouns).2.Wealwaystreatcollectiveadjectivesaspluralnouns.Thismeansthattheyhavetotakepluralformsofverbs.3.Wedonotpluralizecollectiveadjectivesbyaddingthesuffixes-sor-es.Theyarealreadyconsideredplural(exceptfornationalitiesthatusepluralpropernouns).Let’slookatsomeexamples:•“Therichareusuallypowerful.”•“TheFrencharethebestchefs.”•“Theelderlyneedpropercare.”Intheseexamples,therich,theFrench,andtheelderlyfunctionasthesubjectsofthesentences.Theyaretreatedasplurals,whichiswhythesentencesusethepluralformsoftheverbsbeandneed.Collectiveadjectivescanalsofunctionastheobjectofasentence,asin:•“Weareworkinghardtohelpthehomeless.”Inthisexample,thesubjectofthesentenceiswe,whiletheobjectisthecollectiveadjectivethehomeless.

CommonErrorsCollectiveadjectivesareoftenconfusedwithcollectivenouns,buttherearekeydifferences.Whiletheybothrefertoagroupofpeople,collectivenouns(suchasteam,stafforclass)areinherentlynounsinstructureandfunction;collectiveadjectives,ontheotherhand,areadjectivesthatmerelyfunctionasnouns.Additionally,collectivenounsareoftentreatedassingular(asin,“Thebestteamisgoingtowin”),whereascollectiveadjectives,aswehavementioned,arealwaystreatedasplural.


1.Whichofthefollowingisacollectiveadjective?a)therichb)thetenantsc)thegirlsd)theGerman2.Whichofthefollowingisnotacollectiveadjective?a)thepoorb)themeekc)theteamd)theFrench3.Collectiveadjectivesarealways____.a)pluralb)singularc)verbsd)subjects4.Inthefollowingsentence,whichwordorwordsshouldbecapitalized?“iwanttohelpthepoor.”a)Both“i”and“poor.”b)Only“i.”c)“I,”“help,”and“poor.”d)Only“poor.”

5.Collectiveadjectivesareadjectivesthatfunctionas____.a)nounsb)subjectsc)objectsd)verbs

DemonstrativeAdjectivesDefinitionLikealladjectives,demonstrativeadjectivesmodifynounsorpronouns.Weusedemonstrativeadjectivestospecifywhatwearereferringto,toindicatewhetherthepersonorthingissingularorplural,andtogivethelistenerinformationaboutthatpersonorobject’sproximitytothespeaker(identifyingwhetherit’snearbyorfaraway).Becausetheyareusedtodetermineaspecificnoun,demonstrativeadjectivesaresometimesknownasdemonstrativedeterminers.TherearefourcommondemonstrativeadjectivesinEnglish:this,that,these,andthose.

PlacementDemonstrativeadjectivesalwayscomebeforethenountheymodify.Often,theystartthesentence.Forexample:•“Thistoyismybrother’sfavorite.”•“Thesecupsareverypretty.”Theycanalsocomeatthemiddleorattheend,aslongastheyarefollowedbyanoun(iftheywerenotfollowedbyanoun,theywouldbecomedemonstrativepronouns):•“Mybrother’sfavoritetoyisthistrain.”•“IwishIhadmoreofthesechocolates!”•“Canyoupleasegobuymethosebooks?”Intheexamplesabove,thedemonstrativeadjectiveisplacedimmediatelybeforethenounitmodifies.However,ifthereareadditionaladjectivesthatalsomodifythesamenoun,theyshouldbeplacedbetweenthedemonstrativeadjectiveand

thenoun.Forexample:•“Mybrother’sfavoritetoyisthisbluetrain.”•“IwishIhadmoreofthesedeliciouschocolates!”•“Canyoupleasegobuymethoseschoolbooks?”

ChoosingtheCorrectDemonstrativeAdjectiveUsethistabletoeasilyreferencewhichdemonstrativeadjectivestouseindifferentcontexts:

Near Far

Singular this that

Plural these those

This/ThatAsyoucanseefromthetable,thisandthatareusedwhenthepersonorthingwearetalkingaboutissingular(thereisonlyone).Thisisusedforthingsthatarenearby.Theproximityissometimesstatedexplicitlyinthesentence.Forexample:•“ThistoyI’mholdingismybrother’sfavorite.”•“ThischairI’msittingonisbroken.”It’salsocommonforthedemonstrativeadjectivetobetheonlyinformationwehaveabouthownearorfarthepersonorobjectis.Forexample,imaginethattherearetwocups:Oneisonthetablenextto“Jen”;theotherisacrosstheroom,nextto“David.”Jensays:“Thiscupisverypretty.”Becausesheusedthedemonstrativeadjectivethis,it’sclearthatJenistalkingaboutthecupthatisonthetablenexttoher,andnotthecupthat’snexttoDavid.Thatisusedforasingularpersonorobjectthatisfartheraway.Again,theproximityissometimesstatedexplicitly,asin:

•“Thattoyonthetableoverthereismybrother’sfavorite.”•“Thatchairacrosstheroomisbroken.”Butagain,thedistancecanalsobeunstatedandimpliedbythedemonstrativeadjective.Let’sgobacktoourexampleaboutJenandDavid.Thistime,Jensays:“Thatcupisverypretty.”BecauseJenusedthedemonstrativeadjectivethat,it’sclearthatsheisnowtalkingaboutthecupthatisonthetablenexttoDavid,andnottheonethat’snexttoher.

These/ThoseTheseandthoseworkinthesamewayasthisandthat,butasyoucanseeinthetable,theyareusedtorefertopeopleandobjectsthatareplural(morethanone.)Theseisusedforpluralobjectsthatarenearby.Aswesawwiththis,theproximitycanbeexplicit,asin:•“ThesetoysI’mholdingaremybrother’sfavorites.”•“Thesechairswe’resittingonarebroken.”Or,theproximitycanbeimplied:•“Thesecupsareverypretty.”(Weknowthecupsarenearthespeaker.)Thoseisusedforpluralobjectsthatarefartheraway.Again,thedistancecanbestated.Forexample:•“Thosetoysonthetableovertherearemybrother’sfavorites.”•“Thosechairsacrosstheroomarebroken.”Or,thedistancecanbeimplied:•“Thosebluecupsareverypretty.”(Weknowthecupsarenotneartothespeaker.)

Yon/YonderYonandyonderarelesser-knowndemonstrativeadjectives.They’rebothconsideredarchaicanddon’texistinmostmoderndialectsofEnglish.However,youmayencountertheminoldertextsorsongs.Forexample,thisfamouslinefromRomeoandJulietusesthedemonstrativeadjectiveyonder:•“Whatlightonyonderwindowbreaks?”

YonandyonderarestillusedinafewdialectsofEnglish,suchthosespokenincertainCeltic-influencedareaslikeScotlandandtheSouthernUnitedStates.Generally,theycanbeusedinterchangeably,andarebothunderstoodtoindicatethatthenounisnotnearthespeaker,buttheproximityreallydependsonthedialectofthepeopleusingit.Herearesomeexamplesofhowyonandyondercouldbeusedinasentence:•“Wewillhavetocrossyonfieldtogethome.”•“Somethinghasfrightenedyonderhorses.”

DemonstrativeAdjectivesvs.DemonstrativePronounsDemonstrativeadjectivesareoftenconfusedwithdemonstrativepronouns,becausethis,that,these,andthosecanservebothfunctions.Ifyouthinkabouttheroleofanadjectiveandtheroleofapronoun,though,you’llseethatthey’renotsoconfusingafterall.Demonstrativeadjectivesdowhatalladjectivesdo:modifyanounorpronoun.Ontheotherhand,demonstrativepronounsdowhatallpronounsdo:standinplaceofanoun.Let’sclarifythedifferencethroughsomeexamples:•“Thistoyishisfavorite.”(demonstrativeadjective.)•“Thisishisfavoritetoy.”(demonstrativepronoun.)•“Givethatbigbooktome.”(demonstrativeadjective.)•“Givemethat.”(demonstrativepronoun)•“IwantthisTVforChristmas.”(demonstrativeadjective.)•“ThisiswhatIwantforChristmas.”(demonstrativepronoun.)Asyoucansee,eachofthedemonstrativeadjectivesmodifiesanoun(toy,book,TV),whilethedemonstrativepronounsstandinplaceofnouns.


1.Choosethecorrectdemonstrativeadjectivetocompletethesentence:“Stayawayfrom____blackdognextdoor.”a)thisb)that

c)thesed)those2.Choosethecorrectdemonstrativeadjectivetocompletethesentence:“____bookshereonmydeskareforyou.”a)Thisb)Thatc)Thesed)Those3.Choosethecorrectdemonstrativeadjectivetocompletethesentence:“Lookat____treesoverthere.Aren’ttheybeautiful?”a)thisb)thatc)thesed)those4.Whichofthefollowingsentencesdoesnotcontainademonstrativeadjective?a)“Pleasegivethattomequickly.”b)“Canyouhandmethosebooks?”c)“Doyouhavethismovieathome?”d)“Thatgirlisbadnews.”5.Whichofthefollowingsentencesdoescontainademonstrativeadjective?a)“That’smyboyfriendoverthere.”b)“Canyougivemeahandwiththishomework?”c)“Haveyouseenthisbefore?”b)“ThosearetheonesthatIwant.”

InterrogativeAdjectivesDefinitionLikealladjectives,interrogativeadjectives(alsoknownasinterrogativedeterminers)modifynounsandpronouns.Englishhasthreeinterrogativeadjectives:what,which,andwhose.Theyarecalled“interrogative”becausethey

areusuallyusedtoaskquestions.Forexample:•“Whatbookareyoureading?•“Whichshirtareyougoingtobuy?”•“Whosecomputeristhis?”Ineachoftheexamples,theinterrogativeadjectivemodifiesthenounitimmediatelyprecedes:book,shirt,andcomputer.

HowtoUseInterrogativeAdjectivesTheinterrogativeadjectiveswhatandwhichcanoftenbeusedinterchangeably,whilewhoseisverydifferent.Let’slookatwhentouseeach:

Whatvs.WhichAlthoughwhatandwhichareofteninterchangeable,thereisasubtledifferencebetweenthetwo.Generally,weusewhatwhentheamountofpossibleanswersisunknownorunlimited,andweusewhichwhenweeitherknowhowmanychoicesthereare,orweconsidertheoptionstobemorelimited.Thinkaboutthedifferencebetweenthesetwosentences:•“Whatpresentdoyouthinkyou’llgetforChristmas?”•“Whichpresentdoyouthinkyou’llgetforChristmas?”Inthefirstsentence,thespeakerdoesnothaveanyideahowmanypossiblepresentsthereare.Inthesecondsentence,itseemsthatthespeakerdoeshaveanideaofwhatthepresentsmaybe,andthatthechoicesarelimited.Let’slookatasimilarexample:•“Whatmoviedoyouwanttosee?”•“Whichmoviedoyouwanttosee?”Again,inthefirstsentence,itseemsliketheoptionsareunlimited,whileinthesecondsentence,thespeakermayhavebeendiscussingtwoorthreemovieswiththelistener,andtheyaretryingtomakeafinaldecision.Inmostinstances,wecanuseeitherwhatorwhichwithoutcausingconfusionforthereader.However,ifthereisclearlyalimitednumberofoptionstochoosefrom,whichisthepreferredinterrogativeadjectivetouse.

WhoseWhoseisanadjectivethatdenotespossession,orbelonging.Wecanuseittoaskwhotheownerofanobjectis.Forexample:•“Whosesocksareonthefloor?”•“Whosebookisthis?”•“Whoseturnisit?”Intheseexamples,thespeakeristryingtofindoutwhothesocks,book,andturnbelongto.

DirectquestionsWheninterrogativeadjectivesappearinnormaldirectquestions,theyareplacedatthebeginningofthesentenceandareimmediatelyfollowedbythenounthattheymodify.Alltheexamplesthatwehaveseenupuntilthispointweredirectquestions.However,interrogativeadjectivesdon’tonlyappearindirectquestions.

IndirectquestionsInterrogativeadjectivescanalsoappearwithinindirectquestions.Whenthishappens,theyappearinthemiddleofthesentence,buttheystillimmediatelyprecedethemodifiednoun.Someindirectquestionsareusedtoexpresspoliteness:•“Couldyoutellmewhosesocksareonthefloor?”•“Wouldyoumindtellingmewhichwayisnorth?”•“Doyouknowwhatdayitis?”Otherindirectquestionsareusedtoaskforclarifyinginformation,ortoconveysurprise:•“YouwantwhichcomputerforChristmas?”•“You’regoingoutwithwhosebrother?”•“Hewantstowatchwhatmovie?”Insuchcases,emphasisisputontheinterrogativeadjective—wecanhearthestressonthewordswhenwesaythesentencesaloud.

InreportedquestionsInterrogativeadjectivesalsoappearinthemiddleofreportedquestions.Reportedquestionsarealsoindirect;theytellusaboutquestions.Forexample:•“Shewantstoknowwhosesocksareonthefloor.”•“Heaskedwhichwaywasnorth.”•“Iaskedyouwhatdayitwas.”Thespeakerineachoftheexamplesisn’taskingadefinitequestion,butratherisreportingorclarifyingaquestionthathasalreadybeenasked.

OtherstatementsInterrogativeadjectivesaresometimesusedinotherstatementsthataren’tquestionsatall:theydon’taskquestions,eitherdirectlyorindirectly,butstillmodifythenounsinthesamekindofway.Forexample:•“Ican’trememberwhosesockstheyare.”•“Idon’tknowwhichwayisnorth.”•“Iknowwhatdayitis.”

CommonMistakesInterrogativeAdjectivesvs.InterrogativePronounsThemostcommonmistakeregardinginterrogativeadjectivesisconfusingthemwithinterrogativepronouns.Thisisbecauseallthreeinterrogativeadjectives,what,which,andwhose,canalsofunctionasinterrogativepronouns.Aneasywaytobesurewhetheryouaredealingwithaninterrogativeadjectiveoraninterrogativepronounistocheckwhetherthequestionwordisimmediatelyfollowedbythenounitmodifies,likeinalltheexamplesthatwehaveseen:•“Whatbookisyourfavorite?”

Inthisexample,whatisimmediatelyfollowedbythenounbook.Wecanbesurethat,inthiscase,whatisapossessiveadjective.

•“Whatareyoureading?”Inthissentence,whatisnotimmediatelyfollowedbyanounthatitmodifies,whichmeansthatinthiscase,itisaninterrogativepronoun.Justremember:Eventhoughallinterrogativeadjectivesarequestionwords,notallquestionswordsareinterrogativeadjectives.

Whosevs.Who’sFinally,bewareofthecommonerrorofconfusingwhoseandwho’s.Whoseisaninterrogativeadjectiveorpronoun,whilewho’sisthecontractionofwhois.


1.Whichofthefollowingisnotaninterrogativeadjective?a)whichb)whomc)whichd)whose2.Whatcomesimmediatelyafteraninterrogativeadjective?a)Theverbitmodifiesb)Anotheradjectivec)Thenounitmodifiesd)Anadverb3.Completethesentence:“____starscanweseefromEarth?”a)whoseb)whichc)whatd)eitherAorBe)eitherBorC4.Whichofthefollowingsentencesdoesnotcontainaninterrogativeadjective?a)“Tellmewhichcaryoulikebest.”b)“IforgotwhatIwasgoingtodothisevening.”c)“DoyouknowwhichdressI’mgoingtobuy?”

d)“Wouldyoumindtellingmewhosecarthisis?”5.Whichofthefollowingsentencesisincorrect?a)“Who’sbookisthis?”b)“Doyouknowwhosebookthisis?”c)“Whatbookdoyouwanttoreadtonight?”d)“Whichbookdoyouwanttoreadtonight?”

NominalAdjectivesDefinitionWeknowthatadjectivesarewordsthatmodify(ordescribe)nouns,suchasthewordredin“theredjacket,”orthewordbeautifulin“thatgirlisbeautiful.”Nominaladjectives,ontheotherhand,areadjectivesthatperformthefunctionofanouninasentence.Theyareprecededbythewordtheandcanbefoundasthesubjectortheobjectofasentenceorclause.Forexample:•“Theelderlyareagreatsourceofwisdom.”•“TheFrenchhaveamazingrestaurants.”•“Theoppositeofupisdown.”•“Thebestisyettocome.”Intheexamplesabove,thenominaladjectivesdonotmodifyanyothernoun—they’reactingasnounsthemselves.Specifically,theyareperformingthefunctionofthesubjectofthesentences,but,aswementioned,theycanalsofunctionasobjects.Forexample:•“Weshouldtreattheelderlywithrespect.”•“Thislawprotectstheinnocent.”•“Weallwantthebestforher.”

UsesofNominalAdjectivesNominaladjectivesperformseveraldifferentfunctions.Somenominaladjectivesareusedtorefertoagroupofpeoplewhoallshareacertaincharacteristic,whichcanbeaphysicalornon-physicalcharacteristic.Othernominaladjectivesrefertoacharacteristicofanindividualpersonorthing.We’lllookateachtype

ofnominaladjectiveseparately.

CollectiveAdjectivesCollectiveadjectivesarenominaladjectivesthatareusedtorefertogroupsofpeople.Sometimestheyrefertoasharedphysicalcharacteristic,suchastheblind,thedeaf,theshort,orthetall.Othertimes,theyrefertonon-physicalcharacteristics,likethehardworking,theintelligent,thepoor,ortherich.Ineachofthesecases,thenominaladjectivetakestheplaceofalengthierdescription,suchas“allthepeoplewhoarerich,”or“alltheintelligentpeople.”Collectiveadjectivescanalsorefertosomenationalities,suchastheChinese,theEnglish,ortheFrench.Ifyou’dliketolearnmoreaboutcollectiveadjectives,theyarecoveredingreaterdepthintheirownsectionofthechapterabouttheCategoriesofAdjectives.

ComparativeandsuperlativeformsAdjectivesintheircomparativeorsuperlativeformcanalsobenominaladjectives.Comparativeadjectivesarethosethatendin“-er”orareprecededbythewordmore,asinstronger,taller,cleverer,morebeautiful,etc.Theyareusedtocomparetwothings.Havealookattheseexamplesofnominaladjectivesincomparativeform:•“Hisbrotheristhetaller,butheisthecleverer.”•“Theygavetheprizetothemorebeautifulofthetwo.”•“Ofthetwocars,wechosethemoreexpensive.”Superlativeadjectivesarethosethatendin“-est”orareprecededbythewordmost,suchasstrongest,tallest,mostbeautiful,mostclever,etc.Theycomparethreeormorethings,andtheycanfunctionasnominaladjectivesinthesamewaythatcomparativescan.Forexample:•“Danisthestrongest.”•“Iwantthebestforyou.”•“Wheneverwehaveajobtodo,yougivemethemostdifficult.”

Otheradjectives

Mostofthetime,nominaladjectivesarecollective,comparative,andsuperlativeadjectives.However,justaboutanyadjectivecanbemadenominal.Theycanmakesentencesshorterandmoreconcisebyavoidingrepetitiveuseofanoun.Herearesomeinstancesinwhichnominaladjectivesmightbepreferable:•“Ilikedtheredcarbutweboughttheblue.”(nominaladjective)insteadof•“Iliketheredcarbutweboughtthebluecar.”(standardadjective)•SpeakerA:“Whichcolordidyoulikebest?”•SpeakerB:“Ithoughtthebluewastheprettiest.”(nominaladjective)insteadof•SpeakerB:“Ithoughtthebluecolorwastheprettiest.”(standardadjective)•“You’veheardthegoodnews,nowI’lltellyouthebad.”insteadof•“You’veheardthegoodnews,nowI’lltellyouthebadnews.”

OtheroptionsYoumayhavenoticedthatalotoftheseexamplescouldbewordeddifferently.Forexample,whenusingcollectiveadjectives,wecanjustaseasilysay“Frenchpeople”insteadof“theFrench,”or“poorpeople”insteadof“thepoor.”Withcomparativeandsuperlativeforms,wecanaddanountoprovidemoreemphasisorclarity.Forexample,wecouldsay“Hewasthestrongermanofthetwo”insteadof“hewasthestronger”or“Iwantthebestthingforyou”insteadof“Iwantthebestforyou.”Often,wecanalsoreplaceanounwiththepronounoneinsteadofusinganominaladjective.Forexample,“youtakethegreent-shirt,I’lltaketheblueone”insteadof“youtakethegreent-shirt,I’lltaketheblue.”Inmanycases,theseoptionsarelessformalthanusinganominaladjective.


1.Nominaladjectivestaketheplaceofa_______inasentence.a)verbb)personc)adjectived)noun

2.Whichofthefollowingcannotfunctionasanominaladjective?a)poorb)redc)shirtd)French3.Nominaladjectivesareprecededbytheword________.a)theb)onec)thosed)noun4.Inthesentence“Yourentthegreencar,I’llrentthered,”whichword(orwords)isthenominaladjective?a)Onlygreenb)Greenandredc)Onlyredd)car5.Whichofthefollowingsentencesdoesnotincludeanexampleofanominaladjective?a)“I’msureyou’vechosenthebest.”b)“IwishIhadboughtthered.”c)“Theelderlydeserverespect.”d)“Youreallyknowhowtofindthebestmusic.”

CompoundAdjectivesDefinitionAcompoundadjective(alsoknownasacompoundmodifieroraphrasaladjective)iscreatedbytwoormorewordsthatworkjointlytomodifythesamenoun;theyalwaysappearbeforethenountheymodify,andtheyareusuallyjoinedtogetherbyahyphen(orhyphens)toclarifythatthewordsareworkingasasinglemodifyingunit.

CreatingcompoundadjectivesCompoundadjectivesaremadeupofmultiplewords,and,invariouscombinations,theycanbecomposedofadjectives,nouns,quantifiers,participles,andadverbs.Sometimes,othertypesofwordsareusedtojointwo(ormore)others.Forexample,theconjunctionandisoftenusedbetweentwonounsortwoadjectivestocreateathree-wordcompoundadjective.Let’slookatsomeexamplesofthedifferentcombinationswecanmakebelow.

Adjective+AdjectiveWhenmultipleadjectivesareusedtomodifythesamenoun,theyusuallyappearwithcommasbetweenthemorsimplyinarowwithnopunctuation,dependingontheorderofadjectives.Iftwoormoreadjectivesarefunctioningtogetherasasingleunit,though,wemustusehyphens.Thismostcommonlyoccurswithcolorsorposition,asin:•“Shehadbright,blue-greeneyes.”•“Hisorange-yellowskinlookedveryunhealthy.”•“Lookinthetop-rightcornerofthescreen.”•“Thescissorsareinthebottom-leftdrawer.”Moreoften,adjectivesarepairedwithotherpartsofspeechtocreatecompoundnouns,asweshallsee.

Adjective+Noun

Itisverycommontofollowanadjectivewithanountocreateacompoundadjective:•“Theywentonawild-goosechase.”•“Icanonlyfindpart-timeworkatthemoment.”•“Thedogisashort-hairbreed.”•“Iknowthisisalast-minutesuggestion,buthearmeout.”Itisequallycommontousenounsbeforeadjectives,asin:•“I’dloveanice-coldsodarightaboutnow.”•“Doyouhaveanysugar-freecookies?”

QuantifiersWhenweuseaquantifier(akindofdeterminer)withanountocreateacompoundadjective,weoftenpairthequantifierwithanounofmeasurement(length,height,weight,age,ortime).Forexample:•“Itistheonly10-storeybuildinginthetown.”•“Weboughtathree-footsandwichtoshare.”•“Theeight-poundbagfelltothefloor.”•“Thisisaverynice12-yearwhiskey.”Whenindicatingage,weoftenaddtheadjectiveoldtotheend,asin:•“His11-year-oldnieceiscomingtovisit.”(Notethatwealsousethissamehyphenationwhenmakingacompoundnounfromanage,asin“My11-year-oldiscomingtovisit.”)Whenweindicatecost,wenormallyusequantifierswithsymbolsofcurrency,suchas$,£,€,etc.Whenthecurrencyisspelledout,however,wemustusehyphenstoformcompoundadjectives.Likewise,weusehyphensifthenumeralsarespelledoutaswell.Forexample:•“Heboughta$5,000computer.”•“Heboughta5,000-dollarcomputer.”•“Heboughtafive-thousand-dollarcomputer.”Wecanalsousequantifierswithothernouns,too:•“Therewasan11-carpileuponthehighway.”

•“Thetheaterhasa400-personcapacity.”

ParticiplesPastandpresentparticiplescanbepairedwithadjectives,nouns,andadverbstoformcompoundadjectives.Forexample:

Withnouns•“Manylegendsstillsurviveaboutman-eatingwhales,buttheyaresimplyuntrue.”•“It’sanotherrecord-breakingracefortheKenyanrunner.”•“Therearemanymouth-wateringitemsonthemenu.”•“Iwon’tspendanothernightinthisdust-riddenhouse.”•“Thecrocodile-infestedwatersareparticularlydangerous.”

Withadjectives•“Thetableismadefromrough-hewnwood.”•“Myold-fashionedauntwouldneverapprove.”•“Thereareseveraldelicious-soundingthingsonthemenu.”•“Hehasanexpensive-lookingcar.”

Withadverbs•“Thiscompanyrunslikeawell-oiledmachine.”•“Oureyeshadtoadjustinthedimly-litcorridor.”•“Thereareaonlyfewwell-runningcarstochoosefrom.”•“Weneedsomeforward-thinkingindividualsforthejob.”•“Myearly-risingbrotheralwaysbaulksatmewhenIsleepinlate.”

PrepositionsPrepositionsarealsousedtoformcompoundadjectives,asin:•“Youneedanup-to-datecomputertorunthissoftware.”•“I’velivedintoomanyrun-downapartments.”

OthercasesAndWhentheconjunctionandisusedbetweentwowords(usuallynouns)tojointhemasasinglemodifier,wemusthyphenateallthreewords.Forexample:•“Ifindhersalt-and-pepperhairveryattractive.”•“Theseoldstone-and-mortarbuildingshavestoodthetestoftime.”

PropernounsWesometimesuseamulti-wordpropernountoidentifyanounasbelongingtoaparticularpersonorbrand.Inthiscase,wedonothyphenatethewords.Forexample:•“CanyouplayanyEltonJohnsongs?”•“DidyouseetheArthurMillerplayonBroadway?”

PronounsOccasionallyitispossibletousepronouns(especiallypersonalpronouns)toformcompoundadjectives,thoughthisisnotverycommon.Forexample:•“Itturnedintoahe-said-she-saidsituation.”

AdverbsbeforeadjectivesAdverbsareoftenusedinconjunctionwithadjectivestojointlymodifyanoun,buttheyarenotreallyconsideredtobecompoundadjectivesandtheyusuallydonotrequireahyphen—thefactthattheyworktogetherwiththeadjectiveisimplied.Forexample:•“Itwasaverybravethingtodo.”•“Sheisanexceptionallytalentedgirl.”


1.Whichpunctuationmarkdoweusetocreatecompoundadjectives?a)comma

b)semicolonc)hyphend)period2.Whichofthefollowingcannotbeusedtoformcompoundadjectives?a)participlesb)verbsc)nounsd)prepositions3.Whichofthefollowingarenothyphenatedwhenfunctioningascompoundadjectives?a)propernounsb)adjectivesc)quantifiersd)pronouns4.Identifythecombinationusedtocreatethecompoundadjective(inbold)inthefollowingsentence:“Itwasmywell-educatedapprenticewhosavedtheday.”a)adjective+nounb)adverb+pastparticiplec)adjective+pastparticipled)noun+adjective

OrderofAdjectivesDefinitionAdjectivesarewordsthatmodifyanounorapronoun.Inotherwords,theydescribeaperson,place,orthinginasentence.Adjectivesusuallycomebeforethenoun.Forexample:•“Thesmalldogjumpedoverthewhitefence.”Smallisanadjectivethatdescribesthenoundog,andwhiteisanadjectivethatdescribesthenounfence.Adjectivesaddtotherichnessofourdescriptionsofpeopleandthings.They

allowthelistenerorthereadertopaintamentalpictureofthepersonorobjectthatisbeingdescribedtothem.Thinkaboutsomeadjectivesthatyouknow.Someofthemostcommonwordsareadjectiveslikegood,bad,young,old,big,andsmall.Eachoftheseadjectivesservesapurposebydescribingadifferentaspectofthenoun.Goodandbadgiveanopinionofthenoun,oldandyoungtellusaboutthenoun’sage,whilebigandsmalldescribethenoun’ssize.ThegoodnewsisthatadjectivesarerelativelysimpleinEnglish.Insomelanguages,theadjectivechangesitsformdependingonwhetherthenounitmodifiesissingular/plural,orfeminine/masculine.InEnglish,wedon’thavethosecomplications:theadjectivealwaysremainsthesame.Whenwespeakorwrite,wedon’twanttoboreourlistenerorreaderwithrepetitivesentences.Imagineadescriptionlikethis:•“Heisatallman.Heisahealthyman.Heisayoungman.”Youwouldbesoboredthatyouwouldn’twanttolistentoanotherword.Luckily,wehaveanotheroption.Wecanmakesuchadescriptionmoreconcisebyusingallthreeadjectivesinonesentence:•“Heisatallhealthyyoungman.”Usingmorethanoneadjectiveinasentencemakesourwritingandspeechricherandmoreconcise.However,thisisalsowherewehavetobecareful,becausecertainadjectivesappearinacertainorder.Forexample,inthedescriptionabove,whichwouldbemorecorrect:tallhealthyyoungman,oryounghealthytallman?Theansweristallhealthyyoungman,butwhy?InEnglish,theorderofadjectivescansometimesbeflexible,butmostofthetimeweuseaveryspecificorder;ifwedon’t,thesentencesoundsunnatural,asin“younghealthytallman.”Toavoidunnatural-soundingsentences,wegroupadjectivesbytype,andwetrytousetheminthisorder:1.Opinion2.Measurements3.Shape4.Condition5.Age6.Color7.Pattern

8.Origin9.Material10.PurposeObviouslyweneverhaveasentencethatuses10adjectivestodescribeonenoun.Thatwouldbefartoolongofasentence!Infact,itwouldevenberaretofindasentencethatusesmorethanthreeadjectivestomodifyonenoun.Wedoneedtoknowalittleabouteachtype,though,sothatwhenweneedtousetwoorthreeadjectivesinarow,we’llusethemintherightorder.First,let’slookateachtypeofadjectiveindetail.Afterthatwe’llseesomeexamplesofsentencesthatstringtwoormoreadjectivestogether.

TypesofAdjectivesOpinionAdjectivesofopinionalwayscomefirstbeforeanyotherfactualdescriptionsofthenoun.Therearetwotypesofopinionadjectives.Thefirstaregeneralopinionadjectivesandcanbeusedwithanykindofnoun,whetheritisaperson,place,orthing.Someofthemostcommongeneralopinionadjectivesare:

goodbadlovelystrangebeautifulnice

Thesecondtypearespecificopinionadjectives.Theseareadjectivesthatcanonlybeusedwithparticulartypesofnouns.Forexample:•Peopleandanimals:intelligent,friendly,unfriendly,hard-working•Buildingsandfurniture:comfortable,uncomfortable•Food:flavorful,tasty,deliciousIfyouwanttouseageneralopinionadjectiveandaspecificopinionadjectiveinthesamesentence,thegeneralopinionadjectiveshouldcomefirst.Forexample:

•“Isn’tMariaalovely,intelligentgirl?”Lovelyisageneralopinionadjectivebecauseitcanbeusedwithanynoun.Therefore,itcomesfirst.Intelligentisaspecificopinionadjectivebecauseitcanonlybeusedwithpeopleandanimals,soitcomessecond.

MeasurementsAdjectivesofmeasurementcantellusaboutthesize,height,length,andweightofapersonorathing.Someofthemostcommonadjectivesofmeasurementsare:

bigsmalltinyhugeenormousshorttalllongheavylight

Ifweweretousemorethanoneadjectiveofmeasurementinasentence,wewouldnormallyusetheadjectivethatmentionsthegeneralsizefirst,andtheothermeasurementsafter.Forexample:•Correct:“He’sabig,tallman.”Incorrect:“He’satall,bigman.”•Correct:“Iboughtahuge,heavytableforthekitchen.”Incorrect:“Iboughtaheavy,hugetableforthekitchen.”

ShapeAdjectivesofshapeusuallydescribeobjects.Themostcommonareround,square,rectangular,triangular,andoval.However,therearemanywordsthatdescribetheshapesofobjectsthatweseeallaroundusbutthatareusedlessfrequently.Forexample:

bent

concaveconvexflatpointystraighttwistedsymmetrical

ConditionAdjectivesofconditiontelluswhethersomethingisinagoodorbadstate.Thesearegenerallyadjectivesthatdescribeatemporarystateofthepersonorthinginthesentence.Somecommonadjectivesofphysicalconditionareclean,dirty,wet,anddry.Emotionslikehappy,sad,angry,scared,andexcitedarealsoadjectivesofcondition,asaregeneralstatessuchasrich,powerful,shy,orclever.”

AgeAdjectivesofagecandescribehowoldaperson,place,orthingis.Wehavetobecarefulwithadjectivesofage,becausesomeareusedtodescribeonlypeople,someareusedonlyforthings,andafewareusedforbothpeopleandthings.Forexample:•Todescribepeople:young,youthful,elderly•Todescribethings:new,antique•Todescribeboth:old,ancient

ColorAdjectivesofcolorincludethenamesofparticularcolorsthemselves,suchasyellow,red,andblue,buttheycanalsobeapproximatecolors,likereddishoryellowish,orevenpropertiesofcolors,suchastransparent,translucentoropaque.Ifyouusebothacolorandapropertyofacolorinonesentence,thepropertyshouldcomefirst,andthecolorafter,immediatelybeforethenoun.Forexample:•“Atranslucent,yellowcup.”

•“Anopaque,bluecurtain.”

PatternAdjectivesofpatterncandescribepatternsofmaterialsorevenofanimals.Someofthemostcommonpatternadjectivesarechecked,polka-dot,striped,plaid,andflowered.

OriginAdjectivesoforigindescribewheresomethingcomesfrom.Usually,theseareadjectivesthatrefertoaspecificcountryorregion.Whenweuseacountryadjective,likeAmerican,British,Indian,orKorean,notethatwecapitalizetheadjective.Adjectivesoforiginthatrefertoageneralregion,suchaseasternorsouthern,arenotcapitalized.

MaterialAdjectivesofmaterialtelluswhatsomethingismadeof.Forexample:•“Awoodentable.”•“Aplasticchair.”•“Asteelrailroadtrack.”

PurposeLastintheorderofadjectivesareadjectivesofpurpose.Theytelluswhatsomethingisfor.Forexample:•“Asleepingbag.”•“Ashoppingcart.”Now,let’sputallofthisinformationaboutthedifferenttypesofadjectivestogetherandseesomeexamplesofhowitworkswhenwemodifyanounwithmorethanoneadjective:•“Don’tforgettobringyournewstripedjacket.”Thissentencehastwoadjectivetypes:Newisanadjectiveofageandstripedisanadjectiveofpattern.•“Yesterdaymysistergavemeabluewoolsweater.

Thissentencealsohastwoadjectivetypes:Blueisanadjectiveofcolor,andwoolisanadjectiveofmaterial.•“IboughtanenormousrectangularTurkishrugonmyvacation.”Thissentenceincludesthreeadjectivetypes:Enormousisanadjectiveofmeasurement;rectangularisanadjectiveofshape;andTurkishisanadjectiveoforigin(specificallyofacountry,soit’salsocapitalized).Weuseandtolinktwoadjectivesofthesametypethatdescribeseparatepartsofoneobject.Forexample:•“Thechildwasplayingwithablueandredplasticrobot.Blueandredaretwoadjectivesofcolor,joinedbyand.Theyarefollowedbytheadjectiveofmaterial,plastic.Sometimesaseriesofadjectivesfollowsalinkingverb,liketobe.Inthiscase,thelastadjectiveisconnectedtothepreviousoneswiththewordand.Forexample:•“Thehouseisbig,white,andwooden.”

UsingcommaswithadjectivesLastbutnotleast,weneedtomentioncommas.Youhaveprobablynoticedthatinsomeofourexamplesentencestheadjectivesareseparatedbycommas,andinothersthey’renot.

CoordinateadjectivesIngeneral,wedousecommasbetweenadjectivesthatbelongtothesamecategory.Forexample:•“Iboughtaheavy,longtable.”Adjectivesofthesamecategoryarecalledcoordinateadjectives.Theyeachdescribethesamefeatureofthenounthatfollowsthem.Coordinateadjectivesareseparatedbyacomma.Onewaythatwecancheckifadjectivesarecoordinateisbytryingtoswitcharoundtheorderandseeifthesentencestillmakessense.Forexample:•“Iboughtalong,heavytable.”Thesentencestillsoundscorrect,soweknowthatwearelookingatcoordinateadjectivesandthatweneedtouseacomma.Anotherwaythatwecancheckisbyinsertingthewordandwherethecommawouldgo:

•“Iboughtaheavyandlongtable.”Again,thesentencestillsoundscorrect,soweknowwearedealingwithcoordinateadjectives.

CumulativeadjectivesWhentheadjectivesarefromdifferentcategories,theyarecalledcumulativeadjectives.Thisisbecausetheyaccumulateastheydescribethenoun;thatis,theybuildoneachothertocreateacompletedescription,andsowedon’tseparatethemwithcommas:•“Iboughtablackwoodentable.”Blackisdescribingwoodentable(notjusttablealone),andsothissentencewouldsoundstrangeifrearranged,likethis:•“Iboughtawoodenblacktable.”Wecanalsotryinsertingand,withthesameresult:•“Iboughtablackandwoodentable.”Thesentencedoesn’tsoundrighteitherrearrangedorusingtheandtest,soweknowthatwearedealingwithcumulativeadjectives,andweshouldnotseparatethemwithcommas.

ExceptionsFinally,weshouldrememberthatlikewithmostgrammarrules,theorderofadjectivesisnotfixed,andthereareexceptions.Wecandoourbesttokeepadjectivesintheirnaturalorder,butwemayencountervariations.


1.Whichofthefollowingisanadjectiveofmaterial?a)tallb)silkc)goodd)straight2.Whichofthefollowingisanadjectiveofmeasurement?a)long

b)beautifulc)intelligentd)round3.Completethesentence(usingcorrectadjectiveorder):“Iboughtanold____typewriter.”a)beautifulb)squarec)grayd)dirty4.Choosethecorrectadjectiveorder:a)abigfantasticoldhouseb)anoldbigfantastichousec)afantasticoldbighoused)afantasticbigoldhouse5.Choosethecorrectadjectiveorder:a)acleanpinkpolka-dotsweaterb)apinkcleanpolka-dotsweaterc)apolka-dotcleanpinksweaterd)apolka-dotpinkcleansweater

DegreesofComparisonDefinitionAdjectivesdescribeaqualityorcharacteristicofanounorpronoun.Thebasicformofanadjectiveissometimesknownasthepositivedegree.Butadjectivescanalsobeinflected(changedinform)tocompareaqualitybetweentwonouns—thisformisknownasthecomparativedegree.Similarly,wecanalsoinflectanadjectivetoidentifyanounwiththehighest(orlowest)degreeofanattributeamongagroup—thisisknownasthesuperlativedegree.

FormingtheComparativeand

SuperlativeDegreesWegenerallyformthecomparativedegreebyaddingthesuffix“-er”totheendoftheadjective,orbyusingthewordsmoreorlessbeforeit.Toformthesuperlativedegree,weeitheradd“-est”totheendoftheadjectiveorusethewordsmostorleastbeforeit.Insomecases,dependingonhowtheadjectiveisspelled,wehavetochangethespellingslightlytoaccommodatetheadditionofthesuffix;therearesomesimpleruleswecanfollowtoknowwhensuchachangeisnecessary.(Tolearnwhenandhowtousetheseinflecteddegreesofcomparison,gotothesectionsonComparativeAdjectivesandSuperlativeAdjectives.)

“Short”AdjectivesWithone-syllableadjectives,weadd“-er”or“-est”anddoublethefinalconsonantifprecededbyonevowel.Forexample:

Adjective(positivedegree) Comparativedegree Superlativedegree

big bigger biggest

thin thinner thinnest

sad sadder saddest

slim slimmer slimmestThefinalconsonantisnotdoubledifitisprecededbytwovowelsoranotherconsonant,asin:


weak weaker weakest

strong stronger strongest

large* larger* largest*

small smaller smallest

(*Iftheadjectiveendsinan“e,”thenyouonlyneedtoadd“-r”or“-st.”)Ifanadjectivehastwosyllablesandendsin“-y,”wereplace“y”with“i”andadd“-er”or“-est,”asin:


happy happier happiest

chewy chewier chewiest

“Long”Adjectives“Long”adjectivesareadjectivesthathavethreeormoresyllables,oradjectivesthathavetwosyllablesanddonotendin“-y.”Ratherthanchangingtheendingoflongadjectives,weusethewordsmoreorlessbeforetheadjectivetomakethemcomparative,ormost/leasttomakethemsuperlative.Forexample:


careful more/lesscareful most/leastcareful

caring more/lesscaring most/leastcaring

gifted more/lessgifted most/leastgifted

intelligent more/lessintelligent most/leastintelligent

beautiful more/lessbeautiful most/leastbeautiful

amazing more/lessamazing most/leastamazing

IrregularadjectivesAswithmostgrammaticalrulesinEnglish,therearesomeexceptionstothepatternsabove.Adjectivesthatdonotinflectaccordingtothenormalpatternsareknownasirregularadjectives.Forexample:

Irregularadjective(positive Comparative Superlative

degree) degree degree

fun more/lessfun most/leastfun

bad worse worst

well(healthy) better best

good better best

far* farther/further* farthest/furthest*(*Althoughfarther/furtherandfarthest/furthestareoftenusedinterchangeably,therearedifferencesbetweenthesetwoforms.InAmericanEnglish,farther/farthestispreferredwhencomparingphysicaldistances,andfurther/furthestispreferredwhencomparingfigurativedistances;inBritishEnglish,further/furthestispreferredforbothuses.)

AdjectiveswithmultipleformsofinflectionTherearealsosomeadjectivesthatcanbeinflectedusingeitherformwelookedatabove.Thefollowingaresomeofthemostcommon:


clever clevererormore/lessclever

cleverestormost/leastclever

likely likelierormore/lesslikely

likeliestormost/leastlikely

narrow narrowerormore/lessnarrow

narrowestormost/leastnarrow

quiet quieterormore/lessquiet

quietestormost/leastquiet

simplerormore/less simplestormost/least

simple simple simple


1.Whichofthefollowingsuffixesisusedtoshiftaone-syllableadjectivetothesuperlativedegree?a)-edb)-erc)-estd)-en2.Whichofthefollowingpairsofwordsisusedtoshiftatwo-syllable“-ly”adjectivetothecomparativedegree?a)more/lessb)most/leastc)much/manyd)most/less3.Whatisthecomparativeformoftheirregularadjectivewell?a)goodb)betterc)worsed)best4.Whatisthesuperlativeformoftheadjectivelikely?a)likelierb)likeliestc)more/lesslikelyd)most/leastlikelye)A&Cf)B&D

ComparativeAdjectives

DefinitionComparativeadjectivesareadjectivesthatcomparedifferencesbetweentheattributesoftwonouns.Theseareoftenmeasurements,suchasheight,weight,depth,distance,etc.,buttheydon’thavetobe.Wecanalsousecomparativeadjectivestocomparenon-physicalcharacteristics.Forexample:

Adjective Comparative

tall taller

fast faster

sweet sweeter

beautiful more/lessbeautiful

intelligent more/lessintelligent

FormingComparativeAdjectivesAswecanseeabove,weformcomparativeadjectiveseitherbyadding“-er”totheendoftheadjective,orbyaddingthewordmore(orless)beforetheadjective.Sohowdoweknowwhichtochoose?Althoughtherearesomeexceptions,youcanfollowsomesimplegeneralrulesforformingcomparativeadjectives:

ShortAdjectivesWhenwediscusscomparativeadjectives,weclassthemintotwotypes:shortandlong.“Short”adjectivesareadjectivesthathaveonlyonesyllable,orelsehavetwosyllablesandendin“-y.”Forthemajorityofshortadjectives,weformthecomparativeaccordingtothefollowingrules:

Syllables Rule Examples

Onesyllable Add“-er”totheendoftheadjective. TallbecomesTaller

Twosyllablesendingin“-y”

Replace“-y”with“-ier” happybecomeshappier

Asidefromthemajorrulesinthetable,therearetwootherthingswemustkeepinmindaboutshortadjectives.First,iftheadjectiveendsin“-e,”wejustadd“-r,”not“-er.”Thisistoavoiddoublingtheletter“e.”Forexample:•Largebecomeslarger,notlargeer.•Cutebecomescuter,notcuteer.•Safebecomessafer,notsafeer.Second,ifthelastthreelettersoftheadjectiveareinthepatternconsonant,vowel,consonant,wedoublethefinalconsonantbeforeadding“-er”totheword.Forexample:•Bigbecomesbigger,notbiger.•Sadbecomessadder,notsader.•Thinbecomesthinner,notthiner.

LongAdjectives“Long”adjectivesareadjectivesthathavethreeormoresyllables,oradjectivesthathavetwosyllablesanddonotendin“-y.”Fortheseadjectives,wecanfollowtheserules:

Syllables Rule Examples

Twosyllablesnotendingin“-y”

Insertthewordmore/lessbeforetheadjective.

Carefulbecomesmore/lesscareful.

Threeormoresyllables

Insertthewordmore/lessbeforetheadjective.

Intelligentbecomesmore/lessintelligent.

IrregularadjectivesAswithmostgrammatical“rules”inEnglish,therearesomeexceptionstothepatternsabove.Hereareafewoftheadjectivesthathaveirregularcomparativeforms:

Adjective Comparativeform

fun more/lessfun

bad worse

good better

well(notill) betterTherearealsosomeadjectivesthathavetwogenerallyacceptedcomparativeforms.Thesearesomeofthemostcommon:

Adjective ComparativeForm1 ComparativeForm2

clever cleverer more/lessclever

likely likelier more/lesslikely

narrow narrower morenarrow

quiet quieter more/lessquiet

simple simpler more/lesssimple

far* farther further*Whenreferringtodistance,fartherandfurthercanbeusedinterchangeably.However,inAmericanEnglish,fartherispreferredwhencomparingphysicaldistancesandfurtherwhencomparingfigurativedistances.Forexample:•“SanFranciscoisfartherfromNewYorkthanBoston.”(physicaldistance)BUT•“Iwasabletomakefurtherprogressatwork.”(figurativedistance)InBritishEnglish,furtherismorecommonbothforphysicalandfigurativedistances.

UsingComparativeAdjectivesNowthatwehavediscussedhowtoformcomparativeadjectives,wecanlookat

howtheyareusedinsentencesandwithinlargerconversations.Dependingonthesituation,youmayormaynotneedtoexplicitlymentionbothnounsbeingcompared.

ExplicitlymentioningbothnounsOften,thetwonounsthatarebeingcomparedbothappearinthesentence.Thisisthecaseifthereisanychanceofthelistenerorreaderbeingconfusedbywhatyou’retalkingabout.Whenweneedtomentionbothnouns,wefollowthisstructure:

Noun1+be+comparativeadjective+than+noun2Forexample:•“Anairplaneisbiggerthanacar.”•“Mt.EverestistallerthanMt.Fuji.”•“TomisfasterthanJohn.”Ineachofthesesentences,thenounthathasthecharacteristictoagreaterdegreecomesfirst.Wecanachievethesamemeaningbyusingoppositeadjectivesandswitchingtheorderthatthenounsappearin.Forexample:•“Acarissmallerthananairplane.”•“Mt.FujiisshorterthanMt.Everest.”•“JohnisslowerthanTom.”Ifwewanttoachievethesameeffectusing“long”adjectives,insteadofinsertingthewordmorebeforetheadjective,wecaninsertthewordless.Forexample:•“TomismorestudiousthanJohn.”OR•“JohnislessstudiousthanTom.”Keepinmindthatthetwonounsbeingcompareddon’tnecessarilyhavetobeindividualpeopleorobjects.Oneorbothofthenounsornounphrasesbeingcomparedcanalsorefertogroups.Forexample:•“Catsaremoreindependentthandogs."

•“Womenareshorterthanmen.”•“Jenissmarterthantherestofthestudentsinherclass.Wecanevencomparetwogerunds(verbsendingin“-ing”thatfunctionasnouns).Wecancomparecharacteristicsoftwogerundsinthesamewaythatwecancompareanyothertypeofnoun:•“Runningisfasterthanwalking.”•“Drawingiseasierthanpainting.”•“Sailingismorerelaxingthanwaterskiing.”Finally,wecanusetheregularpatternsformakingnegativeandinterrogativesentences.Fornegatives,wesimplyaddthewordnot,oritscontractedform,“-n’t,”aftertheverbbe:•“Walkingisnotfasterthanrunning.”•“Womenaren’ttallerthanmen.”•“Waterskiingisn’tmorerelaxingthansailing.”Toforminterrogatives(questions),wesimplyplacetheconjugatedformoftheverbbeatthebeginningofthesentence:•“Isrunningfasterthanwalking?”•“IsJensmarterthantherestofthestudentsinherclass?”•“Arecatsmoreindependentthandogs?”Ifwearenotsurewhichnounistaller,faster,etc.,wecanaskbyaddingaquestionwordlikewho,which,orwhattothebeginningofthesentence,andplacingthetwonounsasoptionsattheend:•“Whoistaller,MaryorJane?”•“Whichistastier,pizzaorpasta?”•“What’sfaster,acaroramotorcycle?”

OmittingoneorbothnounsSometimesinconversation,itisn’tnecessarytoexplicitlymentiononeorbothnounsthatwe’recomparing.Infact,itmightevensoundrepetitive.Takeforexamplethefollowingconversation:•SpeakerA:“Idon’tthinkyoushouldberunning.Swimmingiseasieronthekneesthanrunning.”

•SpeakerB:“Yes,butrunningisbetterformyheartthanswimming.”That’saveryrepetitiveconversationandprobablywouldn’toccurinnaturalspeech.Instead,thetwospeakerscanomitthepartsunderlined,whichavoidsrepetitionandcreatesamorenatural-soundingconversation:•SpeakerA:“Idon’tthinkyoushouldberunning.Swimmingiseasierontheknees.•SpeakerB:“Yes,butrunningisbetterformyheart.”Notethatwhenweomitanoun,wealsoomitthewordthan.

GradableandungradableadjectivesWecanonlyusegradableadjectivesascomparativeadjectives.Gradableadjectivesareadjectivesthatcanmoveupanddownonascaleofintensity.Forexample,tallisagradableadjectivebecausesomethingcanbealittletall,tall,orverytall.Wecanalsouseexpressionslikeabit,alittle,much,alot,andfarbeforethecomparativeadjectivetoindicatescale.Forexample:•“JaneismuchtallerthanEmily.”•“Giraffeshavefarlongernecksthanelephants.”•“Isyourdadalittlebiggerthanyou?”Ungradableadjectivesareadjectivesthatcan’tmoveupanddownonascaleofintensity.Forexample,youcannotsay“Iamverymarried.”Youareeithermarried,oryouaren’t.Thesamecanbesaidfortheadjectivedead:somethingiseitherdeadoritisn’t.Thesetypesofadjectivescannotbeusedinthecomparativeform.

ExpressingEqualityandInequalityusingas…asThereisanotherwaytoexpresssimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweentwonounsusingadjectivesthataren’tcomparative.Todescribetwothingsasequal,wecanusetheconstructionas+adjective+as.Forexample:•“Theappleisasbigastheorange.”(Thetwoarethesamesize.)•“Thetableisasheavyasthedesk.”(Thetwoarethesameweight.)

•“JaneisastalkativeasMary.”(Theybothliketotalkthesameamount.)Wecanusethesameconstructiontosaythattwothingsareunequal.Wejusthavetoaddthewordnot:•“Theappleisnotasbigastheorange.”(Theorangeisbigger.)•“Thetableisnotasheavyasthedesk.”(Thedeskisheavier.)•“JaneisnotastalkativeasMary.”(Maryismoretalkative.)


1.Comparativeadjectivesexpressdifferencesbetween__________nouns.a)Twob)Twoorthreec)Threed)Morethanthree2.Whichofthefollowingcomparativeadjectivesismisspelled?a)biggerb)tallerc)longerd)smaler3.Comparativeadjectivesarenever___________.a)gradableb)ungradable4.Whichofthesesentencesisincorrect?a)“Ithinkicecreamisbetterthancake.”b)“IwishIhadafastercar.”c)“Areyougoingtobuyanicerradiothan?”d)“I’malwayslookingforacheaperoption.”5.Whichsentencehasadifferentmeaningfromtheotherthree?a)JohnistallerthanTom.b)TomisshorterthanJohn.c)Tomisn’tastallasJohn.

d)Johnisn’tastallasTom.

SuperlativeAdjectivesDefinitionSuperlativeadjectivesareadjectivesthatdescribetheattributeofapersonorthingthatisthehighest(orlowest)indegreecomparedtothemembersofthenoun’sgroup.Superlativeadjectivesaresimilartocomparativeadjectives,excepttheyexpressthemostextremedegreeofcomparison,andtheyareonlyusedwhentalkingaboutgroupsofthreeormorepeopleorthings.

FormingSuperlativeAdjectivesWeformsuperlativeadjectiveseitherbyadding“-est”totheendoftheadjective,orbyaddingthewordmostbeforetheadjective.Althoughtherearesomeexceptions,wecanfollowsomesimplegeneralrulesforformingsuperlativeadjectives.

“Short”AdjectivesWithone-syllableadjectives,weadd“-est”anddoublethefinalconsonantifprecededbyonevowel.Forexample:

big–biggestthin–thinnestsad–saddestslim–slimmest

Thefinalconsonantisnotdoubledifitisprecededbytwovowelsoranotherconsonant,asin:

weak–weakeststrong–strongestlarge–largestsmall–smallest

(Iftheadjectiveendsinan“e,”thenyouonlyneedtoadd“-st,”asinthecaseoflarge–largest.)Ifanadjectivehastwosyllablesandendsin“-y,”wereplace“y”with“i”and

add“-est,”asin:happy–happiestchewy–chewieststicky–stickiestfurry–furriest

“Long”Adjectives“Long”adjectivesareadjectivesthathavethreeormoresyllables,oradjectivesthathavetwosyllablesanddonotendin“-y.”Ratherthanchangingtheendingoflongadjectivestomakethemsuperlative,weusethewordmostbeforetheadjectivetoindicatethehighestdegreeofsomething,orleasttoindicatethelowestdegree.Forexample:

careful–most/leastcarefulcaring–most/leastcaringgifted–most/leastgiftedintelligent–most/leastintelligentbeautiful–most/leastbeautifulamazing–most/leastamazing

ExceptionsAswithmostgrammatical“rules”inEnglish,therearesomeexceptionstothepatternsabove.Hereareafewoftheadjectivesthathaveirregularsuperlativeforms:

fun–most/leastfunbad–worstgood–bestfar–farthest/furthest*

*Whenreferringtodistance,farthestandfurthestcanbeusedinterchangeably.However,intheAmericanEnglish,farthestispreferredwhencomparingphysicaldistances,whilefurthestispreferredwhencomparingfigurativedistances.Forexample:•“SanFranciscoisfartherfromNewYorkthanBoston,butHawaiiisthefarthest.”(physicaldistance)

BUT•“OfalltheliesI’veheardtoday,thatoneisthefurthestfromthetruth.”(figurativedistance)InBritishEnglish,furthestismorecommonbothforphysicalandfigurativedistances.

AdjectiveswithmultiplesuperlativeformsTherearealsosomeadjectivesthatcaneithertakethe“-est”endingorbeprecededby“most”tobecomesuperlative.Thefollowingaresomeofthemostcommon:

Adjective SuperlativeForm1 SuperlativeForm2

clever cleverest most/leastclever

likely likeliest most/leastlikely

narrow narrowest most/leastnarrow

quiet quietest most/leastquiet

simple simplest most/leastsimple

UsingSuperlativeAdjectivesWeusuallyusesuperlativeadjectiveswhencomparingtheattributesofsomeoneorsomethingtoothers,eitherinacollectivegrouporamongseveralindividuals.Whenweuseasuperlativeadjectiveinasentence,wealmostalwaysprecedeitwiththewordthe.Forexample:•“Johnisthetalleststudentinhisclass.”•“Danielalwaysbuysthemostadvancedsmartphonesavailable.”•“Mrs.Phillipsisthenicestteacheramongthestaff.”•“Itisthehighestmountainintheworld.”•“Therearemanyexpensivebrandsofwatches,butthesearethemost

expensivekind.”•“ThisisthebestbookI’veeverread.”•“Amongherfoursisters,Georginahastheworsteyesight.”Wecanalsoidentifyasuperlativeattributeofapersonorthingcomparedtohim-/her-/itselfinotherpointsintime.Inthiscase,wegenerallydonotusethewordthe.Forexample:•“Iammostalertaftermymorningcoffee.”(comparedtoadifferenttimeofday)•“Thecarisfastestwhentheenginehaswarmedup.”(comparedtowhentheengineiscold)•“Flowersareprettiestinthespring.”(comparedtotheotherseasons)

OmittingthegroupofcomparisonWhenweusesuperlatives,itisverycommontoomitthegroupthatsomethingorsomeoneisbeingcomparedtobecausethatgroupisoftenimpliedbyaprevioussentence,andtorepeatthegroupwouldsoundveryrepetitive.Forexample:•“Mybrothersareallfastswimmers.Johnisthefastest,though.”Ininformalspeechorwriting,itisquitecommonforthewordthetobeleftoutwhenthegroupofcomparisonisomitted,asin:•“Weallwerecarryingbig,heavystickswithus.Minewasbiggest,though.”However,thisshouldbeavoided,especiallyinformalorprofessionalspeechorwriting.

SuperlativesforhyperboleWecanalsoomitagroupofcomparisonwhenasuperlativeadjectiveisbeingusedforhyperboliceffect.Forinstance:•“I’mgoingtobuymydaughterthemostbeautifulpuppyforherbirthday.”•“Ihadthebiggeststeakformylunchtoday.”

ExpressingthelowestdegreeAswe’veseen,“long”adjectivescaneithertakemostorleasttoindicatethehighestandlowestdegreesofcomparison.Forexample:

•“ThoughitwastheleastintelligentmoviethatI’veseenthisyear,itwasthemostexcitingoneI’dbeentoinalongtime.”“Short”adjectives,ontheotherhand,haveonlyonesuperlativeformthatexpressesthehighestdegreeofitscharacteristic.Fortwo-syllableadjectivesendingin“-y,”wecangenerallyjustusethewordleastwiththebaseformoftheadjective.Forexample:•“He’stheleasttidychildI’veevermet.”•“Thebaby’sleastgrumpywhenhe’shadenoughnaps.”Wecanalsotechnicallyusetheleastwithasingle-syllableadjectiveinitsnormalformtoexpressthelowestdegree,butthisisoftenawkwardtoreadorsay.Forexample:•“Johnisthetalleststudentinhisclass,butheistheleasttallonthebaseballteam.”Whenwewanttoexpressthelowestqualityofasingle-syllableadjective,itisbetterjusttousetheoppositesuperlativeadjective,asin:•“Johnisthetallestinhisclass,butheistheshortestonthebaseballteam.”


1.Superlativeadjectivesexpressdifferencesamongagroupof__________nouns.a)Twob)Twoorthreec)Threeormored)Fiveormore2.Whichofthefollowingsuffixesisusedtocreatethesuperlativeformforshortadjectives?a)-erb)-estc)-ierd)-ence3.Whichofthefollowingisanincorrectsuperlativeadjective?a)biggest

b)leastintelligentc)longestd)mostsmall4.Whendowegenerallynotusethearticlethewithasuperlativeadjective?a)Whenthepersonorthingisbeingcomparedtoitselfinothertimesb)Whenthepersonorthingisbeingcomparedwithagroupinothertimesc)Whenthesuperlativeadjectiveisbeingusedforhyperboliceffectd)Whenasingle-syllableadjectiveisbeingmadeintothesuperlativeform

AdverbsDefinitionAnadverbreferstoanyelementinasentenceusedtomodifyaverb,adjective,anotheradverb,orevenanentireclause.Adverbscanbesinglewords,asin:•“Youwritebeautifully.”•“Heslowlywalkedtowardsthebus.”•“Heownsthebrightredcar.”Theycanalsobephrases(calledadverbialphrases)orentireclauses(calledadverbialclauses).Forexample:•“Sheranveryquicklysoasnottobelate.”(Theadverbialphraseveryquicklymodifiestheverbran.)•“Thecatlivesintheshed.”(Theadverbialprepositionalphraseintheshedmodifiestheverblives.”•“Shelookedexcited,asifshecouldjumpupanddanceatanymoment.”(TheadverbialclauseasifshecouldjumpupanddanceatanymomentmodifiestheindependentclauseShelookedexcited.)Single-wordadverbs,adverbialphrases,andadverbialclausesaresometimesgroupedtogetherundertheumbrellatermadverbials,whichsimplymeansanywordorgroupofwordsusedasanadverbinasentence.However,becausethetermissobroadinmeaning,itisverycommontosimplycallanyadverbialelementan“adverb.”

CategoriesofAdverbsTherearemanydifferentcategoriesofadverbs,whichprovidespecifickindsofdescriptionsandwhichbehaveslightlydifferentlyinasentence.Thetablebelowprovidesaquickbreakdownofthedifferentcategoriesandhowtheyareusedtodescribesomethinginasentence.Gotothesectionsofeachindividualcategorytoseemoreexamplesandlearnmoreabouthowtheyareused.(Notethatmostoftheexamplesbelowaresingle-wordadverbs.However,adverbialphrases—andsometimesadverbialclauses—canalsobelongtoeachcategory.)

CategoryofAdverb Function Example

adverbsExamplesentence

AdverbsofTime

Describewhenorforhowlongsomethinghappensoristhecase.

now,tomorrow,yesterday,still,yet,later

“Weareeatingnow.”

AdverbsofFrequency

Describehowfrequentlysomethinghappensoristhecase.AsubsetofAdverbsofTime.

always,usually,sometimes,often,rarely,daily,weekly,monthly

“Irarelyeatbreakfastinbed.”

AdverbsofPlace

Describethedirection,distance,movement,orpositioninvolvedintheactionofaverb.

north,everywhere,here,there,forward,downward,up,uphill,behind

“Iabsolutelyhaterunninguphill.”

AdverbsofManner

Describehowsomethinghappensorhowsomeonedoessomething.Usuallyformedfromadjectives.

beautifully,wonderfully,slowly,deliberately,happily

“Hewalkedslowlytowardthebar.”

AdverbsofDegree

Describetheintensity,degree,orextentoftheverb,adjective,oradverbtheyaremodifying.

undoubtedly,truly,very,quite,pretty,somewhat,fairly

“I'mfairlycertainthisiscorrect.”

AdverbsofPurpose

Describewhysomethinghappensoristhecase.Single-wordadverbsareusuallyconjunctiveadverbs.

therefore,thus,consequently,hence

“We’veneverseensuchhighnumbers.Wemustthereforeconcludethattheresultsarenotnormal.”

FocusingAdverbs

Usedtodrawattentiontoaparticularpartofaclause.

also,exclusively,just,mostly,notably,primarily

“Theyplayedmostlytechnomusicattheparty.”

NegativeAdverbs

Usedtomodifythemeaningofaverb,adjective,otheradverb,orentireclauseinanegativeway.Usedinmanyoftheothercategoriesabove.

no,not,hardly,barely,never,seldom

“HedoesnotworkonMondays.”

ConjunctiveAdverbs

Usedtoconnectindependentclausesanddescribetherelationshipbetweenthem.

comparatively,therefore,also,however,moreover,similarly

“Jenisterribleatmath;however,shestilllikesit.”

EvaluativeAdverbs

Usedbythespeakertocommentorgiveanopiniononsomething.Evaluativeadverbsmodifytheentireclause.

apparently,astonishingly,clearly,frankly,obviously,presumably

“Clearly,we'regoingtohavetoworkharder.”

ViewpointAdverbs

Usedtoindicatewhosepointofviewweareexpressing,ortospecifywhataspectofsomethingwearetalkingabout.(Manyviewpointadverbsareadverbialphrases.)

personally,inmypointofview,accordingtoyou,scientifically,biologically

“Personally,Idon’tbelieveit’strue.”

RelativeAdverbs

Usedtointroducerelativeclauses,whentheinformationrelatestoaplace,time,orthereasonanactiontookplace.

where,when,why

“Idon’tknowwhyhegotangry.”

AdverbialNouns

Nounsornounphrasesthatfunctiongrammaticallyasadverbstomodifyverbsandcertainadjectives,usuallyspecifyingtime,distance,weight,age,ormonetaryvalue.

tomorrow,anhour,anounce,fivedollars,25years

“Icanbarelyseeafootinfrontofmeinthisfog.”

RegularandirregularadverbsRegularadverbsareformedbyadding“-ly”orsomevariationthereofontotheendofanadjective.Sometimestheadjective’sspellingneedstobealteredslightlytoaccommodatethis,buttherulesofdoingsoareconsistentandfairlystraightforward.Irregularadverbs,ontheotherhand,areadverbsthatarenotformedaccordingtostandardEnglishspellingconventions.Becausetheydonotfollowthe“rules,”thereisnotricktousingthem:yousimplyhavetomemorizethem.ContinueontothesectionRegularandIrregularAdverbsinthischaptertolearnmoreaboutbothkinds.

ComparativeandSuperlativeAdverbs

Comparativeandsuperlativeadverbsarealmostexclusivelyusedtomodifyverbs.Comparativeadverbsexpressahigher(orlower)degreeofhowaverb’sactionisperformed,usuallyincomparisontoanotherpersonorthing.Theyaregenerallyformedbyaddingthesuffix“-er.”Superlativeadverbs,ontheotherhand,areusedtoidentifythehighest(orlowest)degreeofhowanactionisperformed.Theyaregenerallyformedbyaddingthesuffix“-est.”Adverbsintheirbasicformsaresometimesknownasbeinginthepositivedegree.ThewayinwhichanadverbshiftsfromthebasicdegreetothecomparativeandsuperlativedegreesisknownastheDegreesofComparison.

AdverbialPhrasesAnadverbialphrase(alsoknownasanadverbphrase)isagroupofwordsthatfunctionsasanadverbinasentence.Thesecanbeadverbsmodifiedbyotheradverbs,adverbialprepositionalphrases,oradverbialinfinitivephrases.

AdverbsmodifiedbymitigatorsandintensifiersAdverbialphrasesarecommonlyformedwhenanadverb’sintensityisbeingmodifiedbyanotheradverb.Thesemodifyingadverbsareknownasmitigators,whichdecreasetheintensityofthemainadverb,andintensifiers,whichincreaseitsintensity.Forexample:•“Thekickerisrunningsomewhatslowlybacktothebench.Hemightbeinjured.”(mitigator)•“Sheperformedverywellonherexam.”(intensifier)

PrepositionalphrasesPrepositionalphrasesareoftenusedadverbiallyinasentence.Forexample:•“WewereplayingFrisbeeatthepark.”•“Aftertheywokeup,theypackeduptheirthingsandwentonahike.”

InfinitivephrasesWecanalsouseinfinitivephrasesasadverbialphrasesinasentencetodescribepurposeorreasonforanactionorstateofbeing.Forinstance:•“Patriciawenttothemountainstogoforahike.”•“I’msohappytobeyourfriend.”

AdverbialClausesAnadverbialclause,oradverbclause,isagroupofwordsthatcontainsasubjectandapredicateverbandisused,likearegularadverb,tomodifyadjectives,verbs,andadverbs.Adverbialclausesusesubordinatingconjunctionstoconnectthemtoindependentclauses;thewayanadverbialclausemodifiesanelementinasentencedependsonthekindofsubordinatingconjunctionused.Forexample:•“Iwillarrivewhendinnerisready.”(adverbialclauseoftime)•“Peterbringshissunglasseseverywherehegoes.”(adverbialclauseofplace)•“Iadmireyoubecauseyouareaninspirationtomanypeople.”(adverbialclauseofpurpose)•“They’llapproveyourrequestprovidedyoupaytheappropriateamountofmoney.”(adverbialclauseofcondition)•“Shelookedexcited,asifshecouldjumpupanddanceatanymoment.”(adverbialclauseofcomparisonormanner)•“Althoughshedoesn’thavemuchmoney,Wendyoftengoestraveling.”(adverbialclauseofcontrast)

OrderofAdverbsAdverbscanappearalmostanywhereinasentenceIfweusemorethanoneadverbtodescribeaverb,though,thereisageneralorderinwhichthedifferentcategoriesofadverbsshouldappear—thisisknownastheorderofadverbs(sometimescalledtheroyalorderofadverbs):1.AdverbsofManner2.AdverbsofPlace3.AdverbsofFrequency

4.AdverbsofTime5.AdverbsofPurposeHowever,we’llseeinthatsectionthatthereisstillalotofflexibilityastohowweorderadverbsinasentence.


1.Howareregularadverbsgenerallyformed?a)Byadding“-er”totheendofanadjectiveb)Byadding“-est”totheendofanadjectivec)Byadding“-ly”totheendofanadjectived)Byadding“-lier”totheendofanadjective2.Whichofthefollowingcannotbeusedtocreateanadverbialphrase?a)Intensifiersb)Prepositionalphrasesc)Gerundphrasesd)Infinitivephrases3.Identifythecategoryoftheadverb(inbold)inthefollowingsentence:“I’mprettyhappywiththewaythisturnedout.”a)Adverbofdegreeb)Adverbofmannerc)Focusingadverbd)Viewpointadverb4.Whichofthefollowingisusedtocreateadverbialclauses?a)Correlativeconjunctionsb)Subordinatingconjunctionsc)Relativeadverbsd)Coordinatingconjunctions5.Wherecanadverbsappearinasentence?a)Atthebeginningb)Inthemiddle

c)Attheendd)Anywhereinthesentence

AdverbsofTimeDefinitionAdverbsoftimetellusatwhattime(when)orforhowlong(duration)somethinghappensoristhecase.Thereisalsoaspecificcategoryoftimeadverbsthatdescribefrequency,orhowoftensomethinghappensoristhecase;however,theirusageisabitmorecomplex,sowewillexaminethoseinaseparatesection.

PositioningAdverbsoftimearemostoftenplacedattheendofasentence.Forexample:•“I’mgoingtothemoviestomorrow.”(Whenareyougoing?Tomorrow.)•“Sheleftyesterday.”(Whendidsheleave?Yesterday.)•“Weareeatingnow.”(Whenareweeating?Now.)However,wecansometimesplaceadverbsoftimeatthebeginningofthesentencetoputanextraemphasisonthetimeordurationbeingdescribed.Theyareusuallyoffsetbyacommaifappearingatthebeginningofthesentence,althoughthisisnotalwaysnecessary.Forexample:•“Nextyear,I’mgoingtorunforpresident.”(Emphasizesapointintime.)•“Now,Ihavetostartthewholeprojectagainfromscratch.”(Emphasizesnowinasequenceofevents.)•“For17yearswe’vebeendating,andnotoncehasheproposed!”(Emphasizesthedurationoftime.)

SpecialexceptionsThemajorityoftime-relatedadverbsappearattheendofasentence(orthebeginning,foremphasis),butthereareafewexceptionstothisrule.

LaterTheadverblater,inadditiontoitsnormalplacementattheendorbeginningofa

sentence,canalsobeplacedimmediatelyafterthemainverb.Thiscreatesaformaltonetothesentence,asmightbefoundinofficialreportsorinnewspaperarticles.Comparethesethreesentences:•“Shespoketoanadviserlater.”(Asimplesentencewithnoparticularemphasis.)•“Later,shespoketoanadviser.”(Extraemphasisonwhenshespoketotheadvisor.)•“Shelaterspoketoanadviser.”(Slightlyformaltone,asmightbeusedbysomeonereportingthesequenceofeventstosomeoneelse.)

YetAsanadverboftime,thewordyetisusedprimarilyinnegativesentencesorinquestions.Itcanappearattheendofthesentence,oritcanfollowthewordnotbeforethemainverbinanegativesentence.Itdoesnotappearatthebeginningofthesentence(exceptwhenitfunctionsasaconjunction,ratherthananadverb).Herearesomeexamples:•“Hehasn’tgonetothedoctoryet.”•“Wehavenotyetsoldourhouse.”•“Haveyoufinishedyourhomeworkyet?”However,yetcanalsobeusedafterauxiliaryverbsandbeforethemainverbinpositivesentencestotalkaboutafuturepossibility,asin:•“IhaveyettodecidewhetherI’mleaving.”•“Theymayyetfileforbankruptcy.”•“Thingscouldyetimproveintheregion.”•“Wemightyetbeabletostrikeadealwiththem.”

StillTheadverboftimestillisusedtodescribesomethingthatiscontinuouslyhappening.Stillcomesbeforethemainverbofthesentenceinquestions,ifusedbeforenotinnegativesentences,orifusedafterauxiliaryverbsinpositivesentencesaboutthefuture:•“Areyoustillworkingonthatproject?”•“He’sstillnotsureabouthowtoproceed.”

•“IamstillthinkingaboutmovingtoEurope.”Theadverbstillcanalsobeusedwiththemodalauxiliaryverbsmay,might,can,andcouldtodescribesomethingthatwasapossibilityinthepast,andwhichcouldpossiblyhappeninthefuture.Inthiscase,ithasthesamemeaningasyet,andthetwoareallbutinterchangeable(thoughyetsoundsalittlebitmoreformal).Herearethesamesentenceswelookedatwithyet,butthistimeusingstillinstead:•“Theymaystillfileforbankruptcy.”•“Thingscouldstillimproveintheregion.”•“Wemightstillbeabletostrikeadealwiththem.”

AdverbsofDuration–ForandSinceWhenwewanttotalkaboutforhowlongsomethinghappensoristhecase,wegenerallyusetheprepositionsforandsincealongwithadetermineroftime.Whenweusefor,wepairitwithawordorwordsthatspecifyalengthoftime;withsince,ontheotherhand,weusespecificpointsintime.Bothusuallyoccurattheendofthesentence,unlesstheyarebeingfollowedbyinfinitiveoraprepositionalphrases.And,aswe’veseenalready,theycanalsobeusedatthebeginningofthesentencetoaddemphasis.Hereareafewexamplesofeach:

for•“Ihavebeenrunningforthreehours.”•“Theyhavebeenwaitingfortwomonthstobeseenbyadoctor.”•“For10years,we’veseenthiscountry’seconomycontinuetodecline.”

since•“Ourcomputersystemshavebeenhavingissuessincelastweek.”•“WehavebeenlookingsinceSeptemberforaplacetolive.”•“Sincewewerekids,we’vealwaysdreamedofbeingastronauts.”(Thephrasewewerekidsinthissentencemightseemlikeitshouldbe“thetimewhenwewerekids,”butbecauseitisusedwithsince,theshorterversionisacceptable.)

InProperOrderRemember,adverbsoftimecanbeusedtodescribethreedifferentaspects:duration,frequency,andcertainpointsintime(when).Ifweareusingmultipleadverbsoftimeinthesamesentence,andifthereisnospecialemphasisgiventooneaspectoveranother,thenthatistheorderinwhichtheygenerallyappear.Evenifoneofthethreeaspectsisomitted,theothertwostillmaintaintheirpositioninrelationtoeachother.Herearesomeexamples:•“Iwentdoortodoorfortwohourseveryafternoonlastyear.”•“Hewillbetravelingfortwoyearsaftercollege.”•“Thetrainrunshourlyinthefall.”Ifoneaspectoftimeisbeinggivenparticularemphasisinthesentence,thenitgenerallycomeslaterintheorder.Let’slookatthefirstsentencearrangedinadifferentorder:•“Iwentdoortodooreveryafternoonlastyearfortwohours.”Aswecansee,fortwohoursisgivenstrongeremphasisthaneithereveryafternoonorlastyear.Noticeaswellthateachadverbofdurationismadeusingfor;wecan’tusesinceinthesamewaywithmultipleadverbs.Forinstance,wecanseehowthefollowingwouldnotmakeanysense:✖ “She’sknownhimsincehighschooleachdaythisyear.”(incorrect)Ifweareusingsincetoindicatedurationalongwithotheradverbsoftimeinthesamesentence,thenitmustcomeafteradverbsoffrequency(oratthebeginningofthesentence),anditcanonlybeusedwithcertainkindsofverbs.Forexample:•“We’vespokentoeachothereverydaysincehighschool.”•“Sincemyoperation,I’vebeengettingstrongereveryday.”•“He’sbeenfeelingdizzyfrequentlysincehiscaraccidentlastspring.”

SourcesofconfusionSoonvs.EarlyWhenwesay,“Iarrivedearly,”itmeansbeforetheexpectedorrequiredtime.It

canalsobeusedinthefuturetense,asin“Iwillarriveearly.”Weusesoon,ontheotherhand,forafuturetimeframe;itisn’tusedinthepast.Forinstance,ifwesay,“Iwillseeyousoon,”itmeansinashorttime(thenearfuture).Wecannotsay“Isawyousoon,”becauseitcannotbeusedinthepasttense.

Anylongervs.Anymorevs.NolongerAnylongerandanymore(oranymore,seebelow)aresynonyms,andtheycanbeusedinterchangeably.Whenweuseanylongeroranymore,weneedtousedon’t/doesn’tbecausetheadverbsexpressanegativerelationshipwithtime.Nomatterwhichadverbyouuse,itisimportantthattheyarepositionedattheendofthesentence.However,whenweusenolonger,itcomesbetweenthesubjectandtheverb.Incontrasttoanylongeroranymore,itisusedinpositivesentencesbecauseitmakesthesentencenegative.Itwouldbewrongtosay,forexample,“Hedoesn’tworktherenolonger”—thiscreatesadoublenegativeandmakesthesentencepositive,thereforecreatingtheoppositemeaningtowhatwasintended.Let’stakealookatsomeexamplesinordertoclarify.•“Idon’tworkforthatcompanyanylonger.”•“Idon’teatmeatanymore.”•“Inolongerworkforthatcompany.”•“Inolongereatmeat.”

Anymorevs.AnymoreInAmericanEnglish,peopleoftenusethesetwotermsinterchangeablyasadverbsoftime.OutsideofAmerica,though,usinganymoreismorerare,andsomeevenconsiderittobeincorrect.Therefore,itisbettertoavoidusingitoutsideofAmericanEnglish.Also,becauseanymoreisconsideredbysometobeaninformal,moderncoinage,itissafertoavoidusingitinformalwritingaswell.However,ifwearetalkingaboutanamountofsomething,wemustonlyuseanymore.Thisisbecausemoreisusedanadjectivedescribingtheamountofanoun,

withanymodifyingmore.Forinstance:✖ “Idon’twantanymorepasta.I’mfull.”(incorrect)✔ “Idon’twantanymorepasta.I’mfull.”(correct)

Nolongervs.nomoreThephrasenomorecannotbeusedinterchangeablywithnolonger.Whileitcantechnicallyfunctionasanadverb,itisveryrarelyusedthiswayandwouldusuallysoundquiteawkwardorcontrived.Itismuchmoreoftenusedasapronounphrasemeaning“nofurtheramount(ofsomething).”Herearesomeexamplesshowingcorrectandincorrectuses:

✔ “Henolongerworkshere.”(correct)✖ “Henomoreworkshere.”(incorrect)

✔ “Wewilltoleratenomore.”(correct)✖ “Wewilltoleratenolonger.”(incorrect)

•“Iloveyounomore.”(technicallycorrect,butveryawkward)•“Iloveyounolonger.”(morecorrect,butstillawkward)•“Inolongerloveyou”or“Idon’tloveyouanymore.”(mostcorrect)Thathavingbeensaid,acommonslangexpressionistousenomoreasanadverbinanegativesentence,asin,“Hedoesn’tworktherenomore.”Thisisgrammaticallyincorrect,butslangveryoftenignoresorupendscommongrammaticalrules.


1.Whatarethethreedifferentcategoriesofadverbsoftime?a)Manner,duration,andfrequencyb)Pointsintime,duration,andplacec)Pointsintime,duration,andfrequencyd)Duration,frequency,anddegree2.Wheredothemajorityofadverbsoftimeappearinasentence?a)Atthebeginningofthesentence

b)Aftertheverbtheymodifyc)Beforetheverbtheymodifyd)Attheendofthesentence3.Whichadverboftimecannotappearatthebeginningofasentence?a)yetb)stillc)ford)sinced)A&Be)B&Cf)C&D4.Identifytheadverboftimeusedinthefollowingsentence:“Iquicklyrealizedthatifwewantedthejobdonenextyear,wewouldhavetoworkhardandfast.”a)quicklyb)nextyearc)hardd)fast5.Whichofthefollowingadverbsoftimecanbeusedtocompletethefollowingsentence?“They_______plantodrivetoMexico.”a)nolongerb)anymorec)anylongerd)nomore

AdverbsofPlaceDefinitionAdverbsofplacetellusaboutanaspectoflocationassociatedwiththeactionofaverb,specifyingthedirection,distance,movement,orpositioninvolvedintheaction.Becauseadverbsofplacearespecifictoactionsofverbs,theycannotbeusedtomodifyadverbsoradjectives(withoneexception,asweshallsee).We’llfirstlookatwheresuchadverbsareusedinasentence,andthenwe’llexaminethedifferenttypesofadverbsofplace.

PositioninasentenceAdverbsofplacegenerallyappearimmediatelyafterthemainverbinasentenceifitisintransitive,orelseaftertheverb’sobjectifitistransitive.Forexample:•“Wewerewalkingnorth.”(intransitive—adverbfollowstheverb)•“Hekickedtheballintothefield.”(transitive—adverbfollowstheobject)•“Myfriendismovingfaraway.”(intransitive—adverbfollowstheverb)•“Thewindkeepsscatteringsandeverywhere.”(transitive—adverbfollowstheobject)Adverbialprepositionalphrasescanalsobeplacedatthebeginningofthesentence.Doingsoaddsalargeamountofemphasistothelocationtheydescribe.However,theresultingsentencesaremorelikelytobefoundinliterarywriting;theymightsoundoutofplaceorcontrivedinday-to-dayEnglish.Forexample:•“Inthishousewehavelivedourentirelives.”•“Outsidetheoffice,Icouldhearmyparentstalkingtotheprincipal.”•“AcrossthemeadowIspiedabeautifulwoman.”Adverbsendingin“-ward”or“-wards”(suchashomeward(s),eastward(s),onward(s),etc.)canappearatornearthebeginningofasentencetoputemphasisontheirdescriptionaswell.Again,thiscreatesamoreliterarystyletothewriting,andwouldn’tbesuitedtoeverydayspeechorwriting.Forexample:•“Onwardswemarched,hopingtoarrivebeforesunset.”

•“Everupwardsthemightyredwoodtreesgrow.”Theonlyadverbsofplacethatareverycommonlyusedatthebeginningofsentencesaretheadverbshereandthere.Aswiththeothers,thisaddsemphasistothelocationordirectionbeingdescribed,andwecanalsousetheminthiswaytocreateexclamations.Forinstance:•“HereisthebookIwastellingyouabout.”•“Thereistherestoftheteam!”Nowthatwe’veseenwhereinasentencetheadverbsofplacego,let’slookatthevarioustypesthatwecanuse.

TypesofadverbsofplaceAdverbsofdirectionManyadverbsofplaceindicateaspecificdirectionofmovement.Forexample:

up,down,across,north,south,east,west.Hereareafewexamplesentencesillustratingtheiruse:•“Thehouseissituatednorthofthecity.”•“Let’sdrivedownabitfarther.”•“Theywalkedacrossthefield.”

AdverbsofmovementanddirectionTherearealsoadverbsofplacethatendin“-ward”or“-wards”thatdescribemovementinparticulardirections,asinhomeward(s),backward(s),forward(s),oronward(s).Whilequitesimilartotheadverbsofdirectionwelookedalready,theyaddasenseofcontinualmovementalongwiththedirectiontheyspecify.Herearesomeexamplesusedinsentences:•“Weheadedeastwards.”•“Thepeopleallgazedupwardsatthemeteorshower.”•“Youshouldalwaysgoforwardinlife.”(Describesmetaphoricalratherthanphysicaldirectionandmovement.)Ineachinstance,thewordcanincludean“s”ornot;theyareinterchangeable,sousewhicheversoundsbetter.

TowardandtowardsToward(ortowards),whileverysimilartotheaboveadverbs,isactuallyapreposition—itcannotstandaloneasanadverb.Itmustbefollowedbyanountocreateaprepositionalphrase,whichcanthenfunctionadverbiallytodescribemovement,asin:•“Isawthemcomingtowardme.”•“Hewalkedtowardsthecar.”Alsonotethatwhiletoward,withoutan“s,”ismorecommoninAmericanEnglish,towards,withan“s,”ismorecommoninBritishEnglish.

AdverbsoflocationTheseadverbsallindicatethelocationofsomeoneorsomethinginrelationtosomeoneorsomethingelse.Theycaneachfunctioneitherasadverbs,inwhichcasetheystandalone,orasprepositions,inwhichcasetheyarefollowedbynounstoformadverbialprepositionalphrases.Hereareafewcommonadverbsrelatedtopositionthatcanalsofunctionasprepositions:

behind,inside,outside,nextto,between,overLet’slookatsomeexampleswherethesestandaloneasadverbs,andthenwe’lllookatthesamewordsfunctioningasprepositions.

Asadverbs•“Wewerewaitingoutside.”•“Ikickedtheballaround.”•“Theothersstartedlaggingbehind.”

Asprepositions•“Wewerewaitingoutsidehisoffice.”•“Ikickedtheballaroundthefield.”•"Theothersstartedlaggingbehindus.”

AdverbsofmovementandlocationJustasthe“-ward(s)”adverbsindicatedbothmovementanddirection,other

adverbsofplacecanbeusedtoindicatebothmovementandlocation.Examplesoftheseincludeindoors,inside,outdoors,outside,uphill,downhillandabroad.Herearesomesentenceswheretheseareusedtodescribebothmovementandlocation:•"Ourmothertoldustogoplayoutsideforawhile.”•“Iabsolutelyhaterunninguphill.”•“They’rethinkingofgoingabroadfortheirvacation.”Notethat,dependingontheverbtheyaremodifying,someofthesemayonlydescribelocation,asin“Iamlivingabroad”or“Ilikecampingoutdoors.”Theseverbsdonotindicatemovement-basedactions,andsotheaccompanyingadverbsonlyspecifylocation.

UnspecifiedlocationordirectionEverywhere,somewhere,anywhere,andnowhereareadverbsofplace.Theydescribelocationsordirectionsthatareindefiniteorunspecific.Forexample:•“Ilookedeverywhereformybook.”•“Iwouldliketogosomewheretropicalformybirthday.”•“You’regoingnowhere!”•“Isthereanywheretositdown?”Inlessformalspeechorwriting,“place”canbeusedinsteadof“where,”thuscreatingeveryplace,someplace,anyplace,andnoplace.Notethatonlythelastoftheseismadeintotwowords.

HereandthereHereandthereareadverbsofplacethatrelatespecificallytothespeaker.Hereindicatesalocationordirectionthatiswith,towards,orneartothespeaker,whilethereindicatesalocationordirectionthatisawayfrom,notnearto,ornotwiththespeaker.Forexample:•“Iputmybookthere.”•“Yes,youcansitdownhere.”•“Let’sgothereforourtrip.”

•“Turnhere,please.”And,aswementionedearlierinthissection,bothhereandtherecanbeusedatthebeginningofsentencestoemphasizethelocationtheyaredescribingortocreateexclamations:•“There’stherestaurantwewerelookingfor.”•“HereIam!”Itmayseemlikethereinthefirstexampleisfunctioningasthesubjectoftheverbis,butitisactuallyfunctioningasanadverb.Inthisconstruction,thesubject(therestaurant)isinvertedwiththeverbis.

AstheobjectofaprepositionHereandtherearealsooftencombinedwithprepositionstocreatemorespecificreferencestolocation.Notethat,becausetheyaretheobjectsofprepositions,theyarefunctioningasnounsinthiscaseratherthanadverbs.Forinstance:•“Pleaseputthetableoverthere.”•“Whyarethekeysuphere?”•“Don’tputyourmuddybootsonthere!”•“It’sratherhotinhere.”

WiththeadjectiveboundWe’vealreadymentionedthatadverbsofplacearenotusedtodescribeadjectives,butthereisoneuniqueadjectivethatcantakeadverbsofplace:theadjectivebound(meaning“heading,orintendingtohead,inagivendirection”).Notethatonlyadverbsoradverbialphrasesspecifyingdirectioncanbeusedwiththis,asin:•homewardbound•boundsouth•boundforhome


1.Whataregenerallynotmodifiedbyadverbsofplace?a)verbsb)adverbs

c)adjectivesd)B&Ce)A&C2.Ifanadverbofplaceismodifyinganintransitiveverb,whereisitusuallylocatedinasentence?a)Immediatelybeforetheverbitmodifiesb)Immediatelyaftertheverbitmodifiesc)Immediatelyaftertheobjectoftheverbd)B&C3.Whichofthefollowingadverbsofplaceisusedtodescribebothmovementanddirection?a)hereb)outsidec)onwardsd)everywhere4.Identifytheadverbofplaceinthefollowingsentence:“Hastily,hefellsilentandwithdrewintohisstudy.”a)hastilyb)silentc)intod)intohisstudy5.Whichofthefollowingisanadverbofplace?a)abroadb)resoundinglyc)veryd)generally6.Whichofthefollowingisnotanadverbofplace?a)eastb)outc)towardd)upward

AdverbsofMannerDefinitionAdverbsofmannerareusedtotellushowsomethinghappensorisdone.Theycanmodifyverbs,adjectives,orclausesofasentence.

CreatingadverbsofmannerAdverbsofmannerareveryoftenformedfromadjectivesbysimplyadding“-ly.”Forexample:

•“Sheisabeautifulsinger.”(Beautifulisanadjective.Itdescribesthenoun“singer.”)•“Shesingsbeautifully.”(Beautifullyisanadverbofmanner.Itdescribestheverb“sing.”Howdoesshesing?Shesingsbeautifully.)

•“Heisaslowwalker.”(Slowisanadjectivedescribingthenounwalker.)•“Hewalksslowly.”(Slowlyisanadverbofmanner.Howdoeshewalk?Slowly.)

ChangesinspellingSometimesthespellingofawordwillhavetochangeslightlysoastobetteraccommodatetheextra“-ly.”Iftheadjectiveendsin“-ic,”forinstance,itwillusuallybecome“-ically”:•“Theyareenthusiasticstudents.”•“Theyworkenthusiastically.”Iftheadjectiveendsina“-y,”itusuallybecomes“-ily”:•“Thechildrenarehappywhentheyareplaying.”•“Thechildrenareplayinghappily.”Andifitendsin“-le,”the“e”ontheendisdroppedtomake“-ly”:•“Heisaterriblegolfer.”•“Heplaysgolfterribly.”Ifanadjectivealreadyendsin“-ly,”wecangiveitanadverbialfunctionbysimplyusingitintheadverbialprepositionalphrase“ina______manner”:

•“Theyplayedinalivelymanner.”•“Pleasearriveinatimelymanner.”

IrregularadverbsThereareanumberofexceptionstothesespellingrules,though,whichareknownasirregularadverbs.Herearesomeirregularadverbsofmanner:•Theadjectivesstraight,fast,andhardallremainthesame(withno“-ly”ending)whentheyfunctionasadverbs.•Theadjectivewrongcanbecomewrongly,orsimplyremainwrong—bothareacceptable.However,wrongasanadverbmustcomeaftertheverbifmodifies(asin“Iguessedwrong”or“hefilledouttheformwrong”),butwronglycanbeusedbothbeforeoraftertheworditmodifies(asin“wronglyaccused”or“judgedwrongly”).•Finally,wellistheirregularadverboftheadjectivegood—butwellcanbeusedasanadjective,too!(Therearemoreirregularadverbsthantheonesabove.GotothechapteronRegularandIrregularAdverbstolearnmore.)

AdverbialPhrasesAswesawabove,phrasescanalsofunctionasadverbsinasentence.Thesearecalledadverbialphrases,orsometimessimplyadverbials.Besidestheoneswelookedatabove,otherprepositionalphrasescanalsofunctionasadverbsofmanner.Forexample:•“Theyleftinahurry.”•“Helivedwithoutacare.”Wecanalsousesimileswiththewordliketodescribemannerinmetaphoricalterms.Forinstance:•“Isleptlikeababylastnight.”•“Heranoutlikeashot.”

PositioningThepositionweuseforadverbsofmannerdependsonwhethertheyaremodifyingaverb,aclause,oranadjective.

ModifyingverbsAdverbsofmannermostcommonlycomedirectlyafterintransitiveverbsthattheymodify.Iftheverbistransitive,thentheadverbmustnotimmediatelyfollowtheverb;itcaneithercomebeforetheverborafterthedirectobject.Forexample:•“Hespeakswell.”(intransitive)•“Shewalkedslowly.”(intransitive)✖ “Janetwrotebeautifullytheletter.”(transitive—incorrect)✔ “Janetwrotetheletterbeautifully.”(transitive—correct)

RearrangingtheorderYoumayhavenoticedthatinthesecondexamplewecanputtheadverbfirst:“Shequicklywalked”isperfectlycorrect,anditaddsabitmoreemphasistoquickly.Theadverbcanalsocomebeforeatransitiveverb,asin“Janetslowlysangasong.”However,forsimplesentencesthatdon’trequireextraemphasis,itisbettertohavetheadverbcomeaftertheverb.(And,insomeinstances,theadverbcan’tcomefirst.Forexample,“hewellspeaks”isclearlyincorrect.)

ModifyingclausesAdverbsofmannercanalsocomeatthebeginningofthesentence,usuallysetapartbyacomma,whichservestomodifytheentireclauseandaddalotofemphasistotheadverb.Considerthesetwoexamples:•“Quietly,heheldthecandlealoft.”•“Hequietlyheldthecandlealoft.”Althoughtheyarebothquitecloseinmeaning,wecanseehowthefirstsentenceplacesmuchmoreemphasisontheadverbquietly.Inthesecondexample,theadverbisonlymodifyingtheverbheld,soitsimpactonthesentenceislessintense.

AdjectivesAdverbsofmannercanalsobeusedtodescribeadjectives,givingthemanextradepthordimensionofcharacter.Incontrasttoverbs,adverbsofmanneralways

comebeforetheadjectivetheymodify;thisordercannotchange.Forexample:✔ “Thebookwasbeautifullyprofound.”(correct)✔ “Theprisonerremainedstoicallysilent.”(correct)✖ “Darling,youarebravewonderfully.”(incorrect)


1.Whatisthemostcommonwaytoformanadverbofmanner?a)Useanadjectiveinthephrase“ina______manner”b)Add“-ly”totheendoftheadjectivec)Use“like”or“as”toformasimiled)Youhavetoknowthembyheart2.Howisanadverbformedfromanadjectiveendingin“-ic”?a)Byadding“-ly”b)Bydroppingthe“-ic”andadding“-y”c)Byusingtheadjectiveinthephrase“ina_______manner”d)Bychangingtheendingto“-ically”3.Wheredoesanadverbofmannercomeinasentenceifitismodifyingaclause?a)Atthebeginningofthesentenceb)Attheendoftheclausec)Immediatelyafterthenound)A&Be)B&Cf)A&Cg)Noneoftheabove4.Whichofthefollowingisanadverbofmanner?a)stronglyb)hourlyc)usuallyd)very5.Identifytheadverbofmannerinthefollowingsentence:

“Ineverknewhowabsolutelylovelyitistohavesuchwonderfullyloyalfriendslikethem.”a)neverb)absolutelyc)wonderfullyd)lovelye)likethem

AdverbsofDegreeDefinitionAdverbsofdegreeareusedtoindicatetheintensity,degree,orextentoftheverb,adjective,oradverbtheyaremodifying.Theyalwaysappearbeforetheadjective,verb,orotheradverbtheydescribe(exceptfortheadverbenough,whichwe’lllookatfurtheron.)

DegreesofstrengthAdverbsofdegreecanbemild,medium,strong,orabsoluteinhowtheydescribetheintensity,degree,orextentofthewordtheymodify.Adverbsthataremild,medium,orstrongareknownasgradingadverbs;thosethatdescribeanabsolutestateordegreeareknownasnon-gradingadverbs.Sometimesagradingadverbofdegreecanchangeinstrengthdependingontheverb,adverb,oradjectiveitdescribes.Non-gradingadverbs,ontheotherhand,alwaysdescribeabsolutestatesordegrees.Herearesomeexamplesofadverbsofdegree:•“Heundoubtedlystolethemoney.”(Absolute;non-grading)•“Heisdefinitelycomingtotheparty.”(Absolute;non-grading)•“It’sabsolutelyfreezingoutside.”(Absolute;non-grading)•“Sheisverysorryforherbadbehavior.”(Strong;grading)•“Ireallylovereadinggoodbooks.”(Strong;grading)•“Areyouquitecertain?”(Absolute;quiteisagradingadverb,butitcandescribeabsolutestateswhenpairedwithnon-gradableadjectives,whichwewilllookatbelow.)•“She’squitemad.”(Strong)

•“IquitelikeIndianfood.”(Medium)•“Mycamerawasprettyexpensive.”(Medium)•“It’sabitcoldoutside.”(Mediumormild,dependingonthespeaker’semphasis.)•“Itwilltakeabitlongertocomplete.”(Mild)•“Weweresomewhatsurprised.”(Mild)

Adverbsofdegreewithgradablevs.non-gradableadjectivesGradableadjectivesarethosethatcanhavemeasurablelevelsofdegreeorintensity.Non-gradableadjectives,ontheotherhand,describeanextremeorabsolutestate.Herearesomeexamplesofgradableversusnon-gradableadjectives:

Gradable Non-gradable

small tiny

cold freezing

hot boiling

difficult impossible

sad devastatedBecausenon-gradableadjectivedescribeanabsolutestate,theycangenerallyonlybemodifiedbynon-gradingadverbsofdegree.Theseservetoemphasizetheextremenatureoftheadjective.Likewise,gradableadjectivesaregenerallyonlypairedwithgradingadverbsofdegree.Forexample,thefollowingwouldbeincorrect:

✖ Non-gradingadverbwithgradableadjective

✖ Gradingadverbwithnon-gradableadjective

absolutelysmall abittiny

utterlycold dreadfullyfreezing

fullyhot unusuallyboiling

virtuallydifficult extremelyimpossible

completelysad slightlydevastatedHowever,wecanseehowtheybecomecorrectifwereversetheadverbsofdegree:

✔ Gradingadverbwithgradableadjective

✔ Non-gradingadverbwithnon-gradableadjective

abitsmall absolutelytiny

dreadfullycold utterlyfreezing

unusuallyhot fullyboiling

extremelydifficult virtuallyimpossible

slightlysad completelydevastated

Thereareexceptionstothisrule,however:theadverbsreally,fairly,pretty,andquitecanallbeusedwithbothgradableandnon-gradableadjectives:

reallysmall reallytiny

prettycold prettyfreezing

fairlydifficult fairlyimpossible

quitesad quitedevastatedNotethatininformalspeechorwriting,manygrammarrulesareoftenignored,misused,ormisunderstood,soyoumaycomeacrossnon-gradingadverbsusedwithgradableadjectives(e.g.,“utterlysurprised,”“absolutelyinterested”)orgradingadverbsusedwithnon-gradableadjectives(e.g.,“extremelycertain,”“verytiny”).However,otherthantheexceptionslistedabove,thisusageshouldbeavoided,especiallyinformalorprofessionalwriting.

EnoughasanadverbofdegreeThewordenoughcanbeusedasanotheradverbofdegree,meaning“sufficientlyortoasatisfactoryamountordegree,”“very,fully,orquite,”or“tolerably.”Unlikeotheradverbsofdegree,though,enoughcanonlymodifyadverbsandadjectives,anditalwayscomesaftertheworditisdescribinginasentence.Forexample:•“Hedidn’tfinishtheexamquicklyenough.”•“I’llbehappyenoughtobebackhome.”•“Theplaywasinterestingenough,butIwouldn’tgoseeitagain.”

EnoughasanadjectiveIfenoughappearsbeforeanounthatitmodifies,thenitisfunctioningasadeterminer(atypeofadjective)meaning“adequateorsufficienttomeetaneedordesire,”asin“Ihavehadenoughfood,thanks!”

EnoughasapronounItmayalsoseemlikeenoughcanbeusedasanadverbtodescribeverbs,asin“I’vehadenough,”or“you’vestudiedenough,”butbecareful:insuchinstances,enoughisactuallyfunctioningasanindefinitepronoun,meaning“anadequateorsufficientamount(ofsomething).”Enoughcannotmodifyverbs.


1.Whatistheadverbofdegreeusedinthesentencebelow?“Iwillhappilydoasyouask,butitwilltakeabitoftime,soIwilltrytoworkveryquickly.”a)happilyb)abitc)veryd)quickly2.Wheredoesanadverbofdegreeusuallyappearinasentence?a)Beforetheworditmodifiesb)Aftertheworditmodifies

c)Afteralinkingverbd)Beforeanoun3.Whichofthefollowingisanon-gradingadverbofdegree?a)veryb)ratherc)extremelyd)utterly4.Whichofthefollowingadverbscanbeusedwithbothgradableandnon-gradableadjectives?a)virtuallyb)reallyc)extremelyd)enough5.Selecttheappropriateadverbofdegreetofillintheblank:“IknowIdidn’tacetheexam,butIthinkIdidwell______.”a)reallyb)enoughc)somewhatd)abit

MitigatorsDefinitionMitigators,asubsetofadverbsofdegree,areadverbsoradverbials(groupsofwordsthatfunctionasadverbs)thatmodifyadjectivesandadverbstoreducetheirintensity,makingthemseemlessextremeorpowerful.Thefollowingareallexamplesofmitigators:•rather•pretty•slightly•fairly•abit•alittlebit

•justabit•justalittlebit•alittleHerearesomeexamplesofmitigatorsbeingusedinsentences:•“Themoviewasratherdull.”•“Hethoughtthattheparadewasjustabittoolong.”•“Therunnerperformedfairlywell,butnotwellenoughtowintherace.”•“Theskywasslightlyredandorangeatthetimeofthesunset.”•“Theywereallalittleannoyedthatthefairhadbeencancelledduetorain.”•“Thecakewasprettygood,butnotexcellent.”•“Icanjumpprettyhighformyheight.”

DifferencefromintensifiersMitigatorsaretheoppositeofintensifiers,whichareusedtoincreasetheintensityofthewordstheymodify.Knowingwhatthemainintensifiersare,aswellashowtheyareused,makesiteasiertotellthedifferencebetweenthesetwodifferenttypesofadverbs.Herearesomeofthemostcommonlyusedintensifiers:•very•remarkably•extremely•amazingly•incredibly•completely•exceptionally•super•reallyHerearesomeexamplesofintensifiersinsentences:•“Theweatherwasexceptionallywarm.”•“ThesceneryonthetrainridefromNewYorktoChicagowasincrediblybeautiful.”•“Hermindwascompletelyfocusedongettinghercoffeeinthemorning.”•“Theoceanwasverycoolwhenhejumpedin.”

•“Yourappointmentwasreallylong.”•“Allofthestudentsdidremarkablywellontheexam.”Now,let’slookatsomesentencesthathavebothmitigatorsandintensifiers.Noticehoweachoneisusedtomodifyitsrespectiveadjectiveoradverbinadifferentway:•“Thelinewasfairlyshortfortheextremelyscaryrollercoaster.”•“Youwereprettylatefortheshow,butthesingerwasincrediblylate!”•“Sometreesintheforestwereexceptionallytall,butsomewerejustabittallerthanme.”Noticethatinallofthesesentences,themitigatorsreducetheintensityoftheadjectivesthattheymodify,whiletheintensifiersincreasetheintensity.

ImportanceinsentencesAdjectivesandadverbshelptodescribethequalityofsomethingoritsactions.However,adjectivesandadverbsontheirownoftencannotproducetheexactlevelofdescriptionwewantwhenspeakingorwriting.Forexample,considerthefollowingsentence:•“Therapidslookeddangerous.”Thisimpliesthattherivermightnotbesafeforrecreationalactivities.However,themeaningofthesentencecanchangesignificantlyifamitigatorisadded.Forexample:•“Therapidslookedslightlydangerous.”Byaddingthemitigatorslightlybeforetheadjectivedangerous,thewholemeaningofthesentenceischanged.Nowtherapidsseemmuchlesshazardous;theycouldpotentiallybesafeifthepersonisverycareful.Hereisanotherexample:•“Thevacationwasboring.”vs.•”Thevacationwasabitboring.”Themitigatorabitimpliesthatthevacationwasn'tcompletelyboring.Italsoimpliesanelementofsurpriseordisappointment,asifthespeakerexpectedthevacationnottobeboring.Hereisonelastexample:

•“Henryfeltexcitedtomeethislonglostrelativeforthefirsttime.”vs.•“Henryfeltalittleexcitedtomeethislonglostrelativeforthefirsttime.”Inthesecondsentence,themitigatoralittlereducestheintensityoftheadjectiveexcited.Thischangenotonlyresultsinthemanbeinglessexcited,itnowalsocarriesapossibleimplicationthathewasnotlookingforwardtomeetinghisrelativebefore,orthathewasnotexpectingtobeexcited.Smallchangessuchaswe’veseencanhavebothminuteandprofoundimpactsonwhatwewriteandthewaywespeak.


1.Whichofthefollowingwordsisamitigator?a)ratherb)coldc)quicklyd)extremely2.Identifythemitigatorinthefollowingsentence.“Kevinquicklydecidedthathewashavingaprettygooddayafterall.”a)goodb)decidedc)quicklyd)pretty3.Whichofthefollowingwordsorgroupofwordsisnotamitigator?a)slightlyb)justalittlebitb)amazinglyd)fairly4.Mitigatorsdowhichofthefollowingthings?a)increasetheintensityofanadjectiveoradverbb)reducetheintensityofanadjectiveoradverbc)replaceotherwordsinthesentence

d)eliminatetheneedforpunctuation5.Mitigatorsactaswhichpartofspeechinasentence?a)adjectiveb)nounc)adverbd)subject

IntensifiersDefinitionIntensifiers,asubsetofadverbsofdegree,areadverbsoradverbials(groupsofwordsthatfunctionasadverbs)thatmodifyadjectivesandotheradverbstoincreasetheirstrength,power,orintensity.Thefollowingwordsareallexamplesofintensifiers:•very•remarkably•extremely•amazingly•incredibly•completely•exceptionally•super•reallyHerearesomeexamplesofintensifiersbeingusedinsentences:•“Thesoupwasveryhot,soheputitdown.”•“Theparkinthemiddleofthecitywasamazinglybeautiful.”•“Youwerecompletelysurethatyouhaddonetheassignmentcorrectly.”•“Sunlightinspringfeelsincrediblyupliftingafteralong,coldwinter.”•“Everyonewasreallyexcitedtogotothebeachandgoswimmingintheocean.”•“Theywereallremarkablymovedbythemovietheysawinthetheatre.”•“Thistablewascraftedreallybeautifully.”

DifferencefrommitigatorsIntensifiersaretheoppositeofmitigators,whichareusedtodecreasetheintensityofthewordstheymodify.Knowingwhatthemainintensifiersare,aswellashowtheyareused,makesiteasiertotellthedifferencebetweenthesetwodifferenttypesofadverbs.Herearesomeofthemostcommonlyusedmitigators:•rather•pretty•slightly•fairly•abit•alittlebit•justabit•justalittlebit•alittleHerearesomeexamplesofmitigatorsbeingusedinsentences:•“Theeagleflewoverthefairlylargecanyonbeforeitswoopedtothegroundforalanding.”•“Aftereatingdinner,everyoneintheroomwasalittlebitfull.”•“WhenSarahsteppedoutside,shenoticedthattheweatherseemedjustabitchilly.”•“Alltheplayersonthesoccerteamwereslightlynervousbeforesteppingoutontothefieldforthebiggame.”•“Thewomansangprettywell,butitwasclearshewasnotaprofessional.”Let’sexaminesomesentencesthatcontainbothintensifiersandmitigators.Noticehoweachoneisusedtomodifyitsrespectiveadjectiveoradverbinadifferentway:•“Thedogwasrathertired,sohetookaverylongnapinhisfavoritespot.”•“Thespringblossomslookedincrediblygorgeousinthefairlystrongsunlight.”•“Timothywasclaimingthateverythinghewassayingwascompletelytrue,butitstillseemedjustalittlebitsuspicious.”•“Thebookwasreallyentertaining;however,shethoughttheendingwasabit

anti-climactic.”Ineachofthesesentences,theintensifierstrengthenstheintensityoftheadjectivethatitmodifieswhilethemitigatorweakensitsadjective.

ImportanceinsentencesIntensifiersnotonlyelevateadjectivesandadverbstohigherlevelsofintensity.Inmanycircumstances,thewayadjectivesandadverbsaredescribedcandrasticallyimpacttheirmeaninginasentence.Forexample,considerthefollowingsentence:•“The5kracearoundthecitywastough.”Inthissentence,theadjectivetoughinformsyouthattheracewaschallenging,butwedon’tknowanymorethanthat.However,addinganintensifiercanchangethewholedescriptionoftherace:•“The5kracearoundthecitywasincrediblytough.”Bysimplyaddingtheintensifierincredibly,theracecomesacrossasbeingmuchmorechallenging,perhapsmorechallengingthanthespeakerexpectedorwasabletohandle.Hereisanotherexample:•“Whentheshipwasleavingtheharbor,thewaveswerechoppy.”vs.•“Whentheshipwasleavingtheharbor,thewaveswereextremelychoppy.”Thereisalargedifferencebetweenchoppyandextremelychoppywaves.Suchadifferencecouldmeanthatastormiscomingin,andtheshipmayevenhavetoturnbackduetodanger.Onceagain,theintensifiermodifiesitsadjectiveandaltersthesentence'smeaningintheprocess.Hereisonefinalexampletoillustratethisconcept:•“Theoldbridgewassafetowalkon.”vs.•“Theoldbridgewasverysafetowalkon.”Inthesecondsentence,theintensifierveryimpliesthatthebridgeisstillinexcellentcondition,andthereisnodangerwhatsoeverassociatedwithwalkingonthebridge.Thefirstsentence,however,onlyimpliesthatthebridgeispassable.Smallchangessuchaswe’veseencanhavebothminuteandprofoundimpactsonwhatwewriteandthewaywespeak.


1.Whichofthefollowingisanintensifier?a)slowlyb)justalittlebitb)completelyd)slightly2.Identifytheintensifierinthefollowingsentence.“AlmosteveryoneinthegroupwasincrediblyexcitedtogosightseeinginNewYorkCity.”a)almostb)goc)excitedd)incredibly3.Whichofthefollowingwordsisnotanintensifier?a)fairlyb)amazinglyc)superd)really4.Whichpartofspeechdointensifiersfunctionasinasentence?a)adjectiveb)nounc)adverbd)subject5.Whichpart(s)ofspeechdointensifiersmodify?a)nounsb)adjectivesc)verbsd)adverbse)A&Cf)B&D

g)Alloftheabove

AdverbsofFrequencyDefinitionAdverbsoffrequency(sometimescalledfrequencyadverbs)tellushowoftensomethinghappensoristhecase;theycandescribeverbsandadjectives,buttheydonotmodifyotheradverbs.

RangeoffrequencyFrequencyadverbscanrangeinfrequencyfrom100%ofthetime(always)to0%ofthetime(never).Thefollowingtablegivessomeexamplesofdifferentadverbsexpressingthefullrangeoffrequency:

Frequency DefiniteAdverbs IndefiniteAdverbs

100% everysecond always

▲ hourly usually

▲ daily normally

▲ weekly often

▲ monthly sometimes

▲ quarterly occasionally/infrequently/seldom

▲ yearly rarely/hardlyever

0% never neverNoticehowthefrequencyadverbsabovearesplitintotwocategories:definiteandindefinite.Let’stakealookateach.

AdverbsofdefinitefrequencyAdverbsofdefinitefrequencydescribeaspecificorexactrangeoftimeforwhensomethingoccursoristhecase.Somecommonexamplesare:

yearly/annuallybiannually(Thiscanmeaneithertwiceayearortwotimesinayear,dependingoncontext.)quarterly(Meaningfourtimesinayear,attheendofeveryquarter.)monthlyweeklydailyhourlyeveryminute(Minutelymeansthesamething,butismuchlesscommonlyused.)everysecond(Wedonotsaysecondly,becausethismeans“inthesecondplace.”)

Adverbsofdefinitefrequencymodifyverbsandgenerallyappearatthebeginningorendofthesentence.(The“-ly”adverbscomeonlyattheend,though.)Ifappearingatthebeginningofasentence,theyareusuallyoffsetbyacomma.Forexample:•“Iruneightmilesdaily.”•“Everyyear,ourofficeholdsabigraffleforcharity.”•“Hemakesapointofgoingtohislocalbaronceaweek.”✖ “Hourly,youneedtoupdatemeonyourprogress.”(incorrect)Notethatmostofthe“-ly”adverbsabovecanalsofunctionasadjectives,asin“yearlymeetings,”“monthlyreport,”“hourlyupdates,”etc.

AdverbsofindefinitefrequencyThefrequencyadverbsthatareusedmostoften,however,areadverbsofindefinitefrequency.Asthenamesuggests,theseareadverbsthatgiveasenseoffrequencybutdonotspecifyexactlyhowoftensomethinghappensoristhecase.Unlikedefinitefrequencyadverbs,thesecanmodifybothverbsandadjectives,buttheirusageforeachdiffers.

ModifyingverbsPositioning

Iftheyaremodifyingverbs,theadverbsoffrequencyusuallycomebeforethemainverbinasentence:✖ “WegousuallytothemoviesonSundays.”(incorrect)✔ “WeusuallygotothemoviesonSundays.”(correct)Herearesomemoreexamples:•“Bethanyalwaysrunslateforworkinthemorning.”•“InevergetwhatIwant!”•“Weseldomseeheranymore.”•“HetravelstoEuropefrequently.”Noticehowfrequentlyappearsattheendofthesentenceinthelastexample.Certainfrequencyadverbs—usually,sometimes,normally,occasionally,often,andfrequently—canappearatthebeginningorendofamainclauseaswellasbeforetheverbtheymodify.Iftheyappearatthebeginning,theyareusually(butnotalways)followedbyacomma.Forexample:•“Usually,IwouldgotothemoviesonSundays,butnotthistime.”•“Hecomesuptovisitsometimes.”•“OccasionallyI’llreadaromancenovelasaguiltypleasure.”Theadverbsalways,seldom,rarely,hardlyever,andnevercanalsoappearattheendofasentenceorclause;however,theydonotgoatthebeginningunlesstheyarecreatingaspecialemphasis,inwhichcasethesentencestructurechanges.Forexample:•“NeverhaveIfeltsoinsulted!”•“Rarelydoessheleavethehouseunattended.”•“Seldomisitthatwepartongoodterms.”

DifferenttensesFrequencyadverbsareoftenusedtomodifyverbsthatareinthepresentsimpletense,whichisusedwhenwespeakabouthabits,generalfacts,andtimetables.However,wecanalsousethemwithotherverbtenses.Forexample:•“SheoftentraveledwhenshelivedinSpain.”(Pastsimpletense)•“Ihaverarelyseenthesunrise.”(Presentperfecttense)

Noticethatinthesecondexample,theadverbrarelyappearsaftertheauxiliaryverbhaveandbeforethemainverbseen.Thisisalwaysthecasewhenweuseauxiliaryverbs:•“Shewilloccasionallygoforwalksalone.”•“Youcanseldomseeveryfarbecauseofthefog.”•“Iwillneverbeanactor!”Noticethatinthefinalexample,neverismodifyingthelinkingverbbeandappearsbeforeit.Thisisalwaysthecaseifbeisusedwithanauxiliaryverb;mostofthetime,however,adverbsoffrequencyappearaftertheverbbe.Forexample:•“Thatisoftenthecase.”•“Thisclassisalwaysabore!”•“Shewasneververyfriendly.”Inthethirdexample,theadverboffrequencyismodifyinganadjective,ratherthantheverb.

ModifyingadjectivesAdverbsoffrequencycanalsomodifyadjectives,inwhichcasetheycomeaftertheverbbe.Thisisbecausebeisalinkingverb(notamainverb),andtheadverbsmodifythepredicativeadjective(s)associatedwithit.Forexample,comparehowtheadverboffrequencyalwaysisusedwiththemainverbhaveandthelinkingverbbeinthefollowingexamples:•“Ialwayshavelunchatoneo’clock.”•“Iamalwayslateforwork.”Inthefirstsentence,alwaysismodifyingtheverbhave,whereasinthesecondsentence,itismodifyingtheadjectivelate.Herearesomeotherexamples:•“Thedogisrarelyquiet.”•“Thetrainsareoccasionallylate,buttheyaregenerallyontime.”•“Sheisoftenalone,butIdon’tthinksheminds.”

PuttingextraemphasisonbeTheonlytimeadverbsoffrequencycomebeforetheverbbe(whenitisnotused

withanauxiliaryverb)iswhenbeisgivenextraemphasisinasentence.Forexample:•“Ineverwasfondofhiswriting.”Whenwereadthis,wecanhearthestressbeingputonthewordwas.Thoughitcomesbeforewas,theadverbneverisactuallymodifyingtheadjectivefond.Notethatthisconstructioncanalsobeusedwhentheadverbmodifiesberatherthananadjective,asin:•“Youoccasionallyareanit-picker.”Ifwetaketheemphasisoffbe,however,theadverbwouldcomeafteritasusual.


1.Wheredodefiniteadverbsoffrequencyappearinasentence?a)Beforetheverbtheymodifyb)Aftertheverbtheymodifyc)Atthebeginningofamainclaused)Attheendofamainclausee)A&Bf)C&D2.Whatcanadverbsofindefinitefrequencydothatadverbsofdefinitefrequencycannot?a)modifyverbsb)modifyadjectivesc)modifyadverbsd)modifyprepositionalphrases3.Whichofthefollowingisanadverboffrequency?a)onceinawhileb)somewhatc)anymored)very4.Whendoesanadverboffrequencyappearbeforetheverbbe?a)Whenitismodifyingapredicativeadjective

b)Whenbeisamainverbc)Whenbeisbeingemphasizedd)A&B5.Identifytheadverboffrequencyinthefollowingsentence:“IquicklyleftsoIcouldcatchthenexttrain,whichluckilylefthourly.”a)quicklyb)nextc)luckilyd)hourly6.Whichofthefollowingadverbscannotfillintheblankspaceofthefollowingsentence?“________,Igotovisitmysisterontheweekend.”a)frequentlyb)sometimesc)alwaysd)usually

AdverbsofPurposeDefinitionAdverbsofpurpose(sometimescalledadverbsofreason)telluswhysomethinghappensoristhecase.Theycanmodifyverbs,adjectives,oradverbs.

TypesofAdverbsofPurposeAdverbsofpurposearegenerallymadeupofconjunctiveadverbs,prepositionalphrases,infinitivephrases,oradverbialclauses.

ConjunctiveadverbsofpurposeWeoftenuseconjunctiveadverbstoindicatearelationshipofreasonorpurposebetweentwoindependentclauses.Somecommonconjunctiveadverbsofpurposearethus,therefore,consequently,hence,andasaresult.Whenwejointwoindependentclauseswithaconjunctiveadverb,theyaretraditionallyseparatedwithasemicolon.

Itisalsoacceptabletouseaperiodandkeepthemastwodiscretesentences.Theconjunctiveadverbstillusuallyappearsatthebeginningofthesecondsentence,butitcanalsoappearbeforeoraftertheworditismodifying.Forexample:•“Jenhadn’tenjoyedtheplay;asaresult,shedidn’trecommendit.”•“We’veneverseensuchhighnumbers.Wemustthereforeconcludethattheresultsarenotnormal.”•“I’vehadsomebadexperienceswithbusinesspartnersinthepast.Consequently,Iamalittlenervousaboutenteringintothisdeal.”•“Themarketherehasbeenshrinkingeveryyear.Wehavethusdecidedtocloseourbranchinthiscountry.”•“Therehasbeensometalkofthecompanygoingbankruptinthenearfuture;sheisconsequentlylookingforanewjob.”•“Ibrokemyleglastmonth;hence,Iwasunabletoworkforseveralweeks.”

Non-conjunctiveadverbsofpurposeItisalsopossibletousemanyoftheadverbsaboveinanon-conjunctivemanner,especiallywhenmodifyinganadjectivethatderivespurposeorreasonfromapreviouspartofthesentence.Forexample:•“Theclothingishandcraftedandhenceexpensive.”•“I’vegrownfondofourtimetogetherandamthussadtoseeitend.”•“Themarketsprovedtobevolatileandthereforeunreliable.”

AdverbialphrasesofpurposeAvarietyofphrasesareoftenusedtoindicatepurposeorreason.Themostcommonoftheseareprepositionalphrasesandinfinitivephrases.

PrepositionalphrasesItisverycommontouseprepositionalphrasesadverbially,andinsomecasestheycanbeusedtoindicatepurpose.Theseprepositionalphrasesusuallyoccurattheendoftheclause,appearingaftertheverboradjectivetheyaredescribing,buttheycanalsoappearatthebeginningofaclauseorsentence,inwhichcasetheyaresetapartbyacomma.

Themostcommonprepositionalphraseofpurposeusesthecompoundprepositionbecauseof,asin:•“Iamfeelingtiredbecauseofthiscold.”•“Becauseofmyoperation,Ihadtocancelmyflight.”Someothercommonprepositionsthatcancreateprepositionalphrasesofpurposearefor,given,owingto,anddueto*.Forexample:•“Everyyear,wehonorthesoldierswhosacrificedtheirlivesfortheircountry.”•“Giventhehugeamountofpublicinterest,theyareextendingtheprogramforanotherthreemonths.”•“Ourgamewasdelayedduetorain.”*•“Hehadtoleaveearlyowingtoanemergencyatthehospital.”(*Note:Sometraditionalgrammariansinsistthatdueshouldneverbeusedasapreposition,andthatitshouldinsteadonlybeusedasanadjective.However,thereisnologicalreasonthatitcan’tfunctionaspartofthecompoundprepositiondueto,anditisveryoftenusedthiswayinbothformalandinformalspeechandwriting.)

InfinitivephrasesAninfinitiveisthemostbasicformofaverb.Itis“unmarked”(whichmeansthatitisnotconjugatedfortenseorperson),anditisprecededbytheparticleto.Anypredicativeinformationthatfollowsaninfinitiveverbcreateswhat’sknownasaninfinitivephrase.Infinitivesandinfinitivephrasescanserveasnouns,adjectives,oradverbs.Infinitivesalwaysindicatepurposewhentheyfunctionasadverbs,andforthatreasontheyaresometimesknownasinfinitivesofpurpose.Forexample:•“Istartedrunningtoimprovemyhealth.”•“Iwenttothestoretobuysomemilk.”Wecanalsousethephrasesinorderandsoastoaddformalemphasistoaninfinitiveofpurpose,asin:•“Wemustleavenowinordertocatchourtrain.”•“He’sbeenworkingquietlysoasnottodisturbhisroommates.”

LoneinfinitivesofpurposeWecanalsouseinfinitivesinthiswayasisolatedresponsestoquestionsaskingwhysomethingisdoneoristhecase.Forexample:•SpeakerA:“WhyareyougoingtoNewYork?”•SpeakerB:“ToseetheEmpireStateBuilding.”•SpeakerA:“WhydidyouturnontheTV?”•SpeakerB:“Towatchthenews.”Theseresponsesareknownasellipticalsentences,meaningthatpartofthesentencehasbeenomittedbecauseitisimplied.Inthelastexample,theimpliedsectionis“IturnedontheTVbecauseIwanted….”Asthiselementisimplicitlyunderstood,weoftenleaveitoutentirelyandsimplyusetheinfinitiveonitsown.

AdverbialclausesofpurposeWecanalsousethesubordinatingconjunctionsas,because,since*,so(that),inorderthat,forfearthat,hence,or(lesscommonly)lest**tocreateadverbialclausesthatindicatereasonorpurpose.Forexample:•“IamexhaustedbecauseIwasworkingallnight.”•“Asit’sraining,weprobablyshouldn’tplayintheparktoday.”•“I’mgoingtoJohnny’shouselatersinceallmyhomeworkisfinished.”*•“Heleftthehouseso(that)hecouldbealone.”•“Itakemykidshikinginthemountainseachsummerinorderthattheylearntoappreciatenature'sbeauty.”•“Forfearthathissonmaygethurt,Danneverletshimplayanycontactsports.”•“Ishouldexplainmyselftohim,lesthethinksIambeingungrateful.”**(*Becarefulwiththesubordinatingconjunctionsince,becauseitisalsousedwithadverbialclausesoftime,aswesawabove.)(**Thesubordinatingconjunctionlestisnotcommonlyusedtoday,asitsoundsold-fashionedandoverlyformalinmodernEnglish.)


1.Whichofthefollowingcannotbeusedtoformadverbsofpurpose?a)Conjunctiveadverbsb)Coordinatingconjunctionsc)Subordinatingconjunctionsd)Infinitives2.Whichofthefollowingsentencesdoesnotuseanadverbofpurpose?a)“IamstudyingJamesJoycebecauseofmyloveofIrishliterature.”b)“Theflightleavesat10AM;therefore,wemustbeattheairportby6o’clockinthemorning.”c)“We’vedecidedtomovetoasmallvillainItaly.”d)“IhavetotraveltoNewYorktomeetwiththeinvestors.”3.Whichofthefollowingprepositionscanbeusedtoformaprepositionalphraseofpurpose?a)untob)intoc)ontod)owingto4.Wherecanadverbialclausesofpurposeappearinasentence?a)Atthebeginningb)Inthemiddlec)Attheendd)A&Be)A&Cf)B&C

FocusingAdverbsDefinitionFocusingadverbsareusedtodrawattentiontoaparticularpartofaclause.Theyfrequentlypointtoverbphrases,buttheycanalsodrawattentiontonounphrases,prepositionalphrases,adjectivephrases,andadverbialphrases.Whenwespeak,weoftenemphasizeaparticularpartofasentenceusingstressedintonation.Thisissometimesrepresentedinwritingbyusingitalics.Bothspeechandwritingcanbesimplifiedandambiguityreducedbyusingfocusingadverbsinstead.Let’sseethisdonebothways:•Throughintonation:“IknowTomiscomingtotheparty.”•Usingafocusingadverb:“IknowthatatleastTomiscomingtotheparty.”BoththeemphasisthroughintonationandtheuseofthefocusingadverbatleastdrawattentiontoTominthesentence.Thissignalstothelistenerorreaderthatthisinformationisimportant.Focusingadverbsalsooftenimplysomesortofcontrast.Intheexamplesabove,drawingattentiontoTomimpliesthatthereareotherpeoplewhomaynotbecomingtotheparty.

TypesofFocusingAdverbsWeselectafocusingadverbaccordingtohowweintendtoemphasizethewordorphrase.Therearedifferentfocusingadverbsthatareusedtodrawattentiontoinformationthatisbeingadded,informationthatisbeinglimitedorpartiallylimited,informationthatisnegative,informationthatpresentsachoice,orinformationthatisconsideredsurprising.Let’slookatsomeofthemostcommonfocusingadverbsforeachfunction:

AddinginformationWhenwewanttoemphasizeinformationthatisbeingaddedtopreviousinformation,wecanusethefollowingfocusingadverbs:

alsoaswelltoo

Forexample:•“TomiscomingtothepartyandisalsobringingJames.”Thefocusingadverbalsoaddsemphasistotheentireverbphrase:isbringingJames.Thisletsthelistenerknowthatthisinformationisespeciallyimportanttothespeaker.Let’slookatanotherexample:•“Tomiscomingtotheparty,andJamesiscomingtoo.”Again,usingthefocusingadverbtooaddstheinformationaboutJamescominginadditiontoTomandstressesitsimportance.

LimitinginformationWhenwewanttoemphasizeinformationthatpresentslimits,weusethefollowingfocusingadverbs:•alone•but•exactly•exclusively•just•merely•notonly•only•precisely•purely•simply•solelyObservehowthesefocusingadverbsemphasizelimits:Example:“JustTomiscomingtotheparty.”Implication:Tomiscomingtothepartybutisnotbringingafriend,ornobodyelseiscomingtotheparty.Example:“I’mgoingtostudyforexactlyhalfanhour,thenI’llgototheparty.”Implication:Iwillstudyfornomorethanhalfanhour.Example:“I’monlybringingJamestotheparty.”Implication:Iamnotbringinganybodyelse.Example:“Thepartystartsatprecisely10o’clock.”Implication:Thepartywon’tstartearlierorlaterthan10o’clock.

PartiallylimitinginformationSometimes,wewanttoemphasizeinformationthatisn’tcompletelylimited,butratherpartiallylimited.Forthatpurpose,wecanusethefollowingfocusingadverbs:•chiefly•especially•mainly•mostly•notably•particularly•inparticular•predominantly•primarily•atleast•forthemostpart•byandlargeLet’sseehowpartiallylimitingfocusingadverbscanwork:Example:“Iwanteverybodytocometotheparty,especiallyJames.”Implication:Iwanteverybodytocometotheparty,butIwantJamestocomethemost.Example:“Theyplayedmostlytechnomusicattheparty.”Implication:Theyplayedseveraltypesofmusic,butmostofitwastechno.Example:“Afewpeopleweremissingattheparty,notablyTom.”Implication:Severalpeoplewhoweresupposedtobeatthepartydidnotgo.Tomdidn’tgo,andthatwassignificant.Example:“Thepeoplecomingtothepartyaregoingtobepredominantlystudents.”Implications:Thereareavarietyofpeoplecomingtotheparty,butthemajoritywillbestudents.

OtherpurposesNegativesWhenwewanttodrawattentiontoanegativestatement,wecanuseneither/nor.

Example:“NeitherTomnorJamesturnedupattheparty.”or:“Tomdidn’tturnuptotheparty,andneitherdidJames.”Implication:ItissignificantthatneitherTomnorJameswenttotheparty.

ChoicesWhenwewanttodrawattentiontoachoiceoftwothings,wecanuseeither/or.Example:“YoucaneitherbringTomorJamestotheparty.”Implication:Youhavetochooseonefriendtobring.Youcannotbringboth.

SurpriseFinally,whenwewanttoshowthataparticularpieceofinformationissurprising,wecanuseeven.Example:“EvenTomwasattheparty!”Implication:Absolutelyeverybodywasattheparty,includingTom,whichwasunexpected.

PlacementFocusingadverbscantaketheinitial,middle,orfinalpositioninasentencedependingonwhatyouwantthemtodrawattentionto.

AccordingtowhatyouwanttoemphasizeChangingtheplacementoftheadverbchangeswhichpartoftheclauseisemphasized,andtherebycangreatlychangetheimplicationsofthesentence.Let’sseehowthisworksusingthebasesentence“Jencanplaypianoforherfriendsattheparty.”Noticehowthemeaningchangesaswemovearoundthefocusingadverbonly:1.“OnlyJencanplaypianoforherfriendsattheparty.”Implication:Nobodyelsecanplaypianoforherfriends.2.“Jencanonlyplaypianoforherfriendsattheparty.”Implication:Jencan’tdoanythingelseattheparty,orJencannotplayanyotherinstrumentsforherfriends.3.“Jencanplayonlypianoforherfriendsattheparty.”

Implication:Jencannotplayanyotherinstrumentsforherfriends.4.“Jencanplaypianoforonlyherfriendsattheparty.”Implication:Jencanplaypianoforherfriends,butnotforanybodyelse.5.“Jencanplaypianoforherfriendsonlyattheparty.”Implication:Jencannotplaypianoforherfriendsinothercircumstances.

PlacementoffocusingadverbsaroundverbsWhenthefocusingadverbmodifiesaverborverbphrase,itisplacedbeforethemainverb.Forexample:•“Wedidn’tgototheparty.Wejuststayedathome.”•“Weonlywentforonehour.”•“Weevendanced.”However,focusingadverbsshouldbeplacedaftertheverbbe:•“ItisjustTom.”•“ItwasmostlyJenwhodancedattheparty.”•“IamespeciallysorrythatImissedit.”Whenafocusingadverbmodifiesaverbphrasethatincludesanauxiliaryverbandamainverb,itisplacedbetweenthem.Forexample:•“Jencanonlyplaypianoforherfriendsattheparty.”•“Tomdidn’tevengototheparty!”•“TheyhadparticularlywantedaDJinsteadofaband.”

TooandaswellInexceptiontotherulesabove,thefocusingadverbstooandaswellnormallytakethefinalpositioninaclause.Forexample:•“Tomisgoingtotheparty,andJamesisgoingtoo.”•“Iwanttogotothepartyaswell.”

ExtraNotesIt’sworthmentioningthatthewordsalsoandjusthavevaryingfunctionsand

meaningsfromtheexamplesgivenabove.Let’stakeacloserlook:

AlsoAlsodoesnotalwaysfunctionasafocusingadverb.Itcanalsobeusedasaconjunctiveadverb.Forexample:“Tomiscomingtotheparty.Also,Jamesiscoming.”

JustThewordjustalsohasdifferentfunctionsandmeanings.Wehavealreadyseenthatwhenusedasafocusingadverb,justcanlimitthephraseitpointsto,inthesamewayasonlyormerely.However,itcanalsomeanrecently,asin“Ijustgothome”;really,asin“Ijustloveithere”;barely,asin“Wejustmadeitontime”;andexactly,asin“It’sjustteno’clockrightnow.”


1.Tooisafocusingadverbthatstresses________.a)additionb)limitationc)partiallimitationd)surprise2.Predominantlyisafocusingadverbthatstresses________.a)additionb)limitationc)partiallimitationd)surprise3.Merelyisafocusingadverbthatstresses________.a)additionb)limitationc)partiallimitationd)surprise

4.Completethefollowingsentencewiththecorrectfocusingadverb:“Thispartyis________forstudents.I’msorry,butnobodyelsecancome.”a)evenb)mostlyc)especiallyd)exclusively5.Completethefollowingsentencewiththecorrectfocusingadverb:“Therecanbe________100invitedguests,nomoreandnoless.”a)exactlyb)particularlyc)alsod)notonly

NegativeAdverbsDefinitionNegativeadverbsandnegativeadverbials(groupsofwordsthatfunctionasanadverb)areusedtomodifythemeaningofaverb,adjective,otheradverb,orentireclauseinanegativeway.Likealladverbs,theyusuallyanswerquestionsaboutmanner,place,time,ordegree.

NoandNotThereisdebatewhethernoandnotshouldbeclassedasadverbs,buttheyarebyfarthemostcommonlyusedwordsforcreatingnegativestatements,sowe’llbrieflylookathowtheywork.

UsingnoWeusenoasanegativeanswertoquestionsoranexpressionofdisagreement.It’softenclassedasadetermineroranexclamation,butothergrammariansarguethatit’sanadverb,especiallywhenitisusedtonegatecomparativeadjectivesorcomparativeadverbs.Forexample:•“Heisnobetterthanhisrival.”•“Sherunsnomorequicklythanhersister.”

UsingnotwithauxiliaryandmodalverbsTonegateaverbphrase,weinsertnotafterthefirstauxiliaryormodalverb.Forexample:•“Ihaveseenhimherebefore.”(positive)•“Ihavenotseenhimherebefore.”(negative)•“Iwouldhavedonethesame.”(positive)•“Iwouldnothavedonethesame.”(negative)

UsingnotwithonlyamainverbIftheverbphrasecontainsonlyamainverb,wenegateitbyaddingdo/does/did+not.Forexample:•“IgoswimmingonMondays.”(positive)•“IdonotgoswimmingonMondays.”(negative)•“Heworkseveryday.”(positive)•“Hedoesnotworkeveryday.”(negative)•“Wewenttothesupermarketyesterday.”(positive)•“Wedidnotgotothesupermarketyesterday.”(negative)

UsingnotwiththeverbbeWhenaformoftheverbbeistheonlyverbinthestatement,weplacenotafterit.Forexample:•“Theyaretall.”(positive)•“Theyarenottall.”(negative)•“Itisaninterestingproject.”(positive)•“Itisnotaninterestingproject.”(negative)

OthernegativeadverbsNowthatwehaveseenhownoandnotareused,let’slookatothernegativeadverbs.Theprinciplecharacteristictheyallhaveincommonisthatwedon’tmodifythemwithnotbecausetheyalreadyexpressnegativemeaningontheirown.

Negativeadverbsmeaning“almostnot”Somenegativeadverbsmean“almostnot.”Theyare:

hardlybarelyscarcely

Thesenegativeadverbsareplacedinthesamepositionasnot.Theygenerallygoafterthefirstauxiliaryormodalverb,beforeamainverbwhenitistheonlyverb,andafterformsoftheverbbe.Forexample:•“Ihardlygooutanymore.”(Ialmostdon’tgooutanymore.)•“Icanbarelyseethemountainthroughtheclouds.”(Ialmostcan’tseeit.)•“It’sscarcelysurprisingthatyou’requittingyourjob.”(Itisnotverysurprisingatall.)

Negativeadverbsmeaning“notoften”or“notever”Whenwewanttostresshowinfrequentlysomethingoccurs,wecanusethesenegativeadverbs:

nolongerrarelyseldombarelyeverhardlyevernever

Again,theseadjectivesareusuallyplacedinthesamepositionasnot.Forexample:•“Inolongercookathome.”(Icookedathomebefore,butnowIdon’t.)•“Hehasseldom/rarely/hardlyeverplayedfootball.”(veryinfrequently)•“Weareneverlate.”(notever)

Notethatseldom,rarely,barelyever,andhardlyeverareinterchangeable.Theyallmean“veryinfrequently.”

NegativeadverbsthatemphasizequicksuccessionofeventsWhenwewanttoexpressthattwoeventshappenedinquicksuccession(oneeventalmostdidnotfinishbeforethenexteventhappened)wecanuseanyofthesenegativeadverbs:

hardlybarelyscarcelynosooner

Someofthesearethesamenegativeadverbsthatmean“almostnot,”butwhenweusethemforeventsinquicksuccession,wemustusethemincombinationwitheitherwhen(forhardly,scarcelyandbarely),orthan(fornosooner).Thefirsteventisusuallyexpressedinthepastperfecttense,withthenegativeadverbfollowingtheauxiliaryverbhad.Thetwoclausesarejoinedwithwhenorthan(dependingonwhichnegativeadverbisused),andthesecondeventfollowsinthepastsimpletense.Forexample:•“Wehadhardlyfinishedcleaningwhentheguestsarrived.”•“Ihadbarelywalkedinthedoorwhenshecalled.”•“Shehadscarcelybeenhomefiveminuteswhentheyarrivedtotakehertothemovie.”•“Wehadnosoonerputdinneronthetablethanthedoorbellrang.”

AdverbialphrasesfortotalnegationThereareafewadverbialphrasesthatareusedtocompletelynegateaclause.Forexample:

undernocircumstancesinnowayonnocondition

Likenot,theseadverbialscanbeplacedinmidposition:•“Weinnowaylikethisplan.”(Wedon’tlikethisplan.)•“Wehaveundernocircumstancesallowedthemtocomeinside.”(Theyhavedefinitelynotbeenallowedinside.)•“Sheisonnoconditiontobedisturbed.”(Don’tdisturbher.)However,theyaremorecommonlyplacedininitialpositionusinginversion,whichwewillexaminelaterinthisarticle.

UsingonlyforconditionalnegativityOnlycanbeusedwhenwewanttoplaceconditionsonwhethersomethingisgoingtooccurornot.Itmostcloselymeans“exclusively,”andcanbeusedinseveralcombinations.Forexample:

only…afteronly…ifonly…whenonly…until

Usually,weplaceonlybeforetheactionthatmayormaynotoccur,andif/after/when/untilbeforethecondition.Forexample:•“Iwillonlygotothemovieifyougotoo.”Meaning:Iamnotgoingtothemovieifyoudon’tgo.•“I’llonlyhelpyouwhenyouaskforit.”Meaning:Iwillnothelpyouwhenyoudon’taskforhelp.•“Theyareonlylivinghereuntiltheyfindanewhouse.”Meaning:Theywillleaveherewhentheyfindanewhouse.

UsinginversionWehaveshownhownegativeadverbsareoftenplacedinmidposition.However,it’salsoverycommonfornegativeadverbstoappearatthebeginningofasentence.Thisisoftendoneinmoreformalorliterarystyles,aswellaswhenwewanttoplacespecialemphasisonthenegativeadverb.Whenweplacethenegativeadverbatthebeginningofthesentence,wemustuseinversion.Thisiswhenwerearrangethenormalsubject/verborderofthesentence.Wealreadyusetheprincipleofinversionallthetimewhenweformquestions.Forexample:

•“Hehasseenthismovie.”(noinversion)•“Hasheseenthismovie?”(inversion)Toformthequestion,thesubject(he)andtheauxiliaryverb(has)switchplaces.Theprocessisthesamewhenweusenegativeadverbs.

Inversionwithauxiliary/modalverbsIfanegativeadverbisbeingusedatthebeginningasentencethathasamodalorauxiliaryverb,wesimplyswitchtheorderofthefirstauxiliary/modalverbandthesubject.Forexample:•“Ihaveneverseensuchabeautifulcreature.”(noinversion)•“NeverhaveIseensuchabeautifulcreature.”(inversion)•“Wehadscarcelyarrivedhomewhentheycalled.”(noinversion)•“Scarcelyhadwearrivedhomewhentheycalled.”(inversion)•“Hecanundernocircumstancesplaythatgame.”(noinversion)•“Undernocircumstancescanheplaythatgame.”(inversion)

InversionwithonlyamainverbIfanegativeadverbisplacedatthebeginningofasentencethatcontainsonlyamainverb,wemustinserttheauxiliaryverbsdo/doesordidandusethebareinfinitiveformoftheverb,justlikewhenweformquestions.Forexample:•“Weinnowaylikethisplan.”(noinversion)•“Innowaydowelikethisplan.”(inversion)•“Shescarcelyleavesthecityanymore.”(noinversion)•“Scarcelydoessheleavethecityanymore.”(inversion)•“Hebarelystoppedintime.”(noinversion)•“Barelydidhestopintime.”(inversion)

Inversionwiththeverb“be”Whenanegativeadverbbeginsasentencethatonlycontainstheverbbe,weswitchtheorderofthesubjectandbe(again,thesameaswhenweformquestions):•“Weareseldomlate.”(noinversion)•“Seldomarewelate.”(inversion)

•“Heishardlyworking.”(noinversion)•“Hardlyisheworking.”(inversion)•“Sheisonnoconditiontobedisturbed.”(noinversion)•Onnoconditionisshetobedisturbed.”(inversion)

Inversionof“only”forconditionalnegativityWhenweformnegativeconditionalexpressionswithonly,wehavetodoabitmorerearranging.Theentireconditionalclausejoinsonlyinthebeginningofthesentence,andthesubject-verbwordorderchangesinthemainclause.Forexample:•“Iwillonlygotothemovieifyougotoo.”(noinversion)•“OnlyifyougotoowillIgotothemovie.”(inversion)•“I’llonlyhelpyouwhenyouaskforhelp.”(noinversion)•“OnlywhenyouaskforhelpwillIhelpyou.”(inversion)•“Theyareonlylivinghereuntiltheyfindanewhouse.”(noinversion)•“Onlyuntiltheyfindanewhousearetheylivinghere.”(inversion)

CommonErrorsNegativeadverbsleavelotsofroomforlittlemistakes.Themostcommonerrorsareusingdoublenegatives,notusinginversionwhenstartingasentencewithanegativeadverb,andmisunderstandingormisusingthenegativeadverbhardly.

DoubleNegativesInEnglish,wegenerallycannotusedoublenegatives,whichoccurwhentwonegativeelementsareusedinthesamepartofasentence.Wemustrememberthatwhenweuseanegativeadverb,wecannotfurthernegatethesentencewithno,notoranothernegativeadverbbecausethetwonegativescanceleachotherout,makingthesentenceaffirmativeinmeaning.Forexample:✖ “Youshouldn’tundernocircumstancescheatonatest.”(incorrect)•Literalmeaning:Therearecertaincircumstancesunderwhichyoushouldcheat.✔ “Youshouldundernocircumstancescheatonatest.”(correct)

Meaning:Youshouldnevercheat.✖ “Iscarcelyhadnotenoughtimetogetready.”(incorrect)•Literalmeaning:Iactuallyhadplentyoftimetogetready.✔ “Iscarcelyhadenoughtimetogetready.”(correct)Meaning:Ialmostdidnothaveenoughtime.

Usingdoublenegativeforemphasis

Whileweshouldgenerallyavoidusingdoublenegativesinourspeechandwriting,therearecertaincircumstancesinwhichtheycanbeusedforanemphatic,rhetoricaleffect.Forexample:

•“Well,Ididn’tnottellhimthetruth;Ijustdidn’ttellhimthewholetruth.”•Literalmeaning:Ididn’tlie,Ijustleftoutsomeinformation.•“Youcan’tjustnotgotoschool!”•Literalmeaning:Youmustgotoschool.

However,theseareveryinformalconstructions,sotheyshouldonlybeusedsparingly,andtheyshouldnotbeusedinformalorprofessionalwritingatall.

NotusinginversionAnothercommonerroriswhenweplaceanegativeadverbatthebeginningofthesentencebutforgettouseinversion.Forexample:✖ “Undernocircumstancesyoucanwatchthatmovie.”(incorrect)✔ “Undernocircumstancescanyouwatchthatmovie.”(correct)Meaning:Youcannotwatchthatmovie.Explanation:Youmustinverttheorderofthesubject(you)andthemodalverb(can).✖ “NeverhedidvisittheEiffelTower.”(incorrect)✔ “NeverdidhevisittheEiffelTower.”(correct)Meaning:HenevervisitedtheEiffelTower.Explanation:Youmustinverttheorderofthesubject(he)andthemodalverb(did).

Hardly

Finally,acommonerrorismisusingormisunderstandingthemeaningofthenegativeadverbhardly.Althoughmanyadverbsareformedbyadding“-ly”totheendofanadjective,thisisnotthecasewithhardly.Theadverbformoftheadjectivehardisalsohard.Hardly,however,nevermeans“inahardway,”butrathermeans“almostnot.”Forexample:✖ “He’sworkinghardly.”(incorrect)✔ “He’sworkinghard.”(correct—He’sworkingalotorwithmucheffort.)✔ “He’shardlyworking.”(correct—He’salmostnotworkingatall.)(SeethechaptersectiononRegularandIrregularAdverbstolearnmoreaboutadverbformsthatareexceptionstotheconventionalrulesofEnglish.)


1.Whichnegativeadverbdoesnotmeanthesameastheotherthree?a)barelyeverb)scarcelyc)rarelyd)never2.Whichsentenceshowscorrectuseofthenegativeadverbbarely?a)“Barelyshegoesoutanymore.”b)“Shebarelygoesoutanymore.”c)“Shegoesbarelyoutanymore.”d)“Shegoesbarelyanymoreout.”3.Whichofthefollowingsentencesisincorrect?a)“Ihadnosoonerfinishedcookingwhentheycamein.”b)“Ihadbarelyfinishedcookingwhentheycamein.”c)“Ihadscarcelyfinishedcookingwhentheycamein.”d)“Ihadhardlyfinishedcookingwhentheycamein.”4.Whichofthefollowingsentencesusesinversioncorrectly?a)“Rarelyhavewetastedsuchdeliciousfood.”b)“Rarelywehavetastedsuchdeliciousfood.”c)“Wehavetastedsuchdeliciousfoodrarely.”d)“Havewetastedrarelysuchdeliciousfood.”

5.Whichofthefollowingsentencesisincorrect?a)“UndernocircumstancescanyougooutonSaturday.”b)“NeverhaveIbeensoupset.”c)“Scarcelyhashenotseenherinthelastfewyears.”d)“He’sworkinghard.”

ConjunctiveAdverbsDefinitionConjunctiveadverbs(alsocalledlinkingadverbsorconnectingadverbs)areaspecifictypeofconjunction.Conjunctionsareusedtojointogetherwords,phrases,orclauses.Conjunctiveadverbsarespecificallyusedtoconnecttwoindependentclauses.Anindependentclause(alsocalledamainclause)containsasubjectandapredicate,anditexpressesafullthought.Inotherwords,itcanstandonitsownandmakessenseasacompletesimplesentence.Forexample:•“Jenhadn’tenjoyedtheplay.Shedidn’trecommendittoherfriend.”Thisexampleshowstwoindependentclauses.ThefirstcontainsthesubjectJenandthepredicatehadn’tenjoyedtheplay,whilethesecondincludesthesubjectsheandthepredicatedidn’trecommendittoherfriend.Eachclauseexpressesacompleteideaandmakessenseonitsown.However,theywouldsoundmorenaturaliftheywereconnected.Thisiswhereconjunctiveadverbscomein.Forexample:•“Jenhadn’tenjoyedtheplay;therefore,shedidn’trecommendittoherfriend.”Thetwoindependentclausesarenowconnectedinamorenaturalway,usingtheconjunctiveadverbtherefore.

PunctuatingtheclausesWhenwejointwoindependentclauseswithaconjunctiveadverb,theyaretraditionallyseparatedwithasemicolon(asinourexampleabove).Itisalsoacceptabletouseaperiodandkeepthemastwodiscretesentences.Eitherway,theconjunctiveadverbtypicallybeginsthesecondclause,followedbyacomma.(Wewillexaminealternativeplacementoftheadverblaterinthis

section.)However,wecannotseparatethetwoclausesusingacomma.Forexample:✔ “Jenhadn’tenjoyedtheplay;therefore,shedidn’trecommendit.”(correct)✔ “Jenhadn’tenjoyedtheplay.Therefore,shedidn’trecommendit.”(correct)✖ “Jenhadn’tenjoyedtheplay,therefore,shedidn’trecommendit.”(incorrect)Ifwechoosetoseparatethetwoclauseswithaperiod,wemustremembertocapitalizetheconjunctiveadverb,sinceitisthefirstwordinanewsentence.Forthesakeofconsistency,wewillusesemicolonsinalloftheexamplesbelow.

ChoosingaconjunctiveadverbTherearemanyconjunctiveadverbs.Tochoosetherightone,wemustconsidertherelationshipbetweenthefirstandsecondclause.Let’slookattheexampleagain:•“Jenhadn’tenjoyedtheplay;therefore,shedidn’trecommendittoherfriend.”Thesecondclauseisaresultofthefirstclause.Jenhadn’tenjoyedtheplay,andthatisthereasonthatshedidn’trecommendittoherfriend.So,whenweconnectthetwoclauses,wechooseaconjunctiveadverb(therefore)thatmakesthiscause-and-effectrelationshipclear.Thinkabouthowtherelationshipbetweenthesetwoclausesisdifferentfromthepreviousexample:•“Jenhadn’tenjoyedtheplay.Sherecommendedittoherfriend.”Westillhavetwoindependentclauses,butnowtherelationshipbetweenthemisdifferent.Jenhadn’tenjoyedtheplay,butrecommendedittoherfriendanyway.Wecannolongerusetheconjunctiveadverbtherefore,becausewearenolongerdealingwithcauseandeffect.Instead,weneedtochooseaconjunctiveadverblikenevertheless,whichisusedtoexpressunexpectedresults:•“Jenhadn’tenjoyedtheplay;nevertheless,sherecommendedittoherfriend.”Thesearesomethemostcommonconjunctiveadverbsandtheirfunctions:

Result Comparison Contrast Addinginfo

Addingstrongerinfo

UnexpectedResults

accordingly comparatively contrarily also further nevertheless

asaresult equally conversely besides furthermore nonetheless

consequently likewise however inaddition moreover surprisingly

hence similarly incomparison

still

therefore incontrast

thus instead

ontheotherhand

rather

ResultWhenthesecondclauseisaresultofsomethingthathappenedinthefirstclause,wehaveafewoptions.Oneistherefore,whichwelookedatalready.Wecanalsouseaccordingly,asaresult,consequently,hence,andthusinterchangeablywiththerefore;themeaningofthesentenceremainsthesame.Forexample:•“Jenhadn’tenjoyedtheplay;hence,shedidn’trecommendit.”•“Jenhadn’tenjoyedtheplay;asaresult,shedidn’trecommendit.”•“Jenhadn’tenjoyedtheplay;consequently,shedidn’trecommendit.”

ComparisonWhenwestatethattwothingsarealike,wecanusetheconjunctiveadverbscomparativelyandsimilarly.Forexample:•“JengrewupinNewYorkCity;similarly,herboyfriendgrewupininner-cityChicago.”•“Samalwayswantedtobeafamousmoviestar;comparatively,hisbrotherwantedtobeafamousrockstar.”Whenwestatethattwothingsarenotjustsimilar,butequal,wecandrawa

comparisonusingconjunctiveadverbslikeequallyandlikewise.•“JengrewupinNewYork;likewise,herboyfriendwasraisedinthecity.”•“Samalwayswantedtobeamoviestar;equally,hisbrotherdreamedofstarringinfilms.”

ContrastTherearetwotypesofcontrastthatwecanillustrateusingconjunctiveadverbs.Thefirst,knownascompletecontrast,iswhenthetwoopposingthingsaretotalopposites.Forthistypeofcontrast,wecanuseanyofthecontrastingconjunctiveadverbsinthetable.Forexample:•“Tomhasablackbackpack;incontrast,hisbrotherhasawhiteone.”•“Iabsolutelylovesinging;ontheotherhand,mysisterhatesit.”•“Jenisterribleatmath;however,herfriendisamazingatit,soshehelpsher.”Theothertypeofcontrastisweakcontrast.Thisiswhenthetwoclausesareopposingbutarenotcompleteopposites.Forthistypeofcontrast,wearelimitedtousingonlytheweakerofthecontrastingconjunctiveadverbs,andnotthestrongoneslikeontheotherhandandincontrast.Forexample:✔ “Jenisterribleatmath;however,shestilllikesit.”(correct)✖ “Jenisterribleatmath;ontheotherhand,shestilllikesit.”(incorrect)✔ “Iwouldhavelikedtostayinbedallday;instead,Igotupandwenttothepark.”(correct)✖ “Iwouldhavelikedtostayinbedallday;incontrast,Igotupandwenttothepark.”(incorrect)

AddinginformationSometimeswewanttoaddinformationofequalvaluetotheinformationinthefirstclause.Inthiscase,wecanusealsoorinaddition.Forexample:•“Whenyoumakethedinner,rememberthathedoesn’tlikechicken;inaddition,hecan’teatshellfish.”•“Herfavoriteanimalsaredogs;also,shelikescats.”Whenwewanttoaddinformationthatfurtherexplainssomething,weusebesides.Forexample:•“Iheardthismovieisterrible;besides,Ihatehorrorfilms.”

•“Jenpassedhertestbecauseshe’sgoodatEnglish;besides,shestudieshard.”

AddingstrongerinformationWhentheinformationthatwewanttoaddhasmorevalue(isstronger)thantheinformationinthefirstclause,wecanusetheconjunctiveadverbsfurther,furthermore,ormoreover.Forexample:•“Hewasfiredbecausehewasoftenlate;furthermore,thequalityofhisworkwaspoor.”•“Beingadoctorisanexhaustingjob;moreover,youdon’tearngoodmoneyuntilyou’vebeenpracticingformanyyears.”

UnexpectedresultWhenthesecondclauseisanunexpectedresultofthefirstclause,wecanusetheconjunctiveadverbsnevertheless,nonetheless,surprisinglyorstill.Forexample:•“Iamterribleatmath;nonetheless,Ipassedmyexam!”•“Thatcarcostfartoomuchmoney;nevertheless,Tomboughtit.”•“ShehasneverbeentoFrance;surprisingly,shespeaksFrenchfluently.”

EmphasisWhenwewanttoplacespecialemphasisonthesecondclause,wecanusetheconjunctiveadverbsindeedorinfact.Forexample:•“Ididn’tstudyasmuchasIshouldhave;indeed,Ihardlyopenedabook!”•“Hedoesn’tlikeswimmingverymuch;infact,hehatesallsports!”

ConditionTheconjunctiveadverbotherwiseisusedtoplaceconditionsonwhethersomethingwilloccurornot.Itmostcloselymeans“ifnot.”Forexample:•“Youhavetocomewithme;otherwise,I’mnotgoing.”•“Maybeshedidn’tstudyveryhard;otherwise,shewouldhavepassedthetest.”

WheretouseconjunctiveadverbsConjunctiveadverbsmustappearinthesecondofthetwoclausesthatareconnected.Forthesakeofconsistency,wehaveshownallofthematthebeginningofthesecondclauseintheexamples,buttheycanactuallybemovedaroundwithinit.Dependingonwhereweplacetheconjunctiveadverbinthesentence,therearecertainrulesregardingcommasthatwemustbeawareof.

AtthebeginningofthesecondclauseConjunctiveadverbsareoftenplacedatthebeginningofthesecondclause,whichishowwehaveshowntheminallofourexamplesuptonow.Notethatwhentheyareplacedinthisposition,theyareusuallyfollowedbyacomma.Thecommaissometimesoptionalwiththeconjunctiveadverbthus,butthisisastylisticpreference.Forexample:•“Jenhadn’tenjoyedtheplay;thus,shedidn’trecommendit.”•“Jenhadn’tenjoyedtheplay;thusshedidn’trecommendit.”

InthemiddleofthesecondclauseWecanalsoplacetheconjunctiveadverbinthemiddleofthesecondclause.Itshouldcomeafterthesubjectorintroductoryphrase.Whentheintroductoryphraseisshort(i.e.,onetotwosyllables),itmaynotbenecessarytoplaceacommaaftertheconjunctiveadverb.Forexample:•“Jenhadn’tenjoyedtheplay;shethereforedidn’trecommendit.”Iftheintroductoryphraseisanylonger,itisgenerallynecessarytoenclosetheconjunctiveadverbbetweentwocommas.Forexample:•“Jenhadn’tenjoyedtheplay;shedecided,therefore,nottorecommendit.”•“Jenhadn’tenjoyedtheplay;shedidnot,asaresult,recommendit.”

AttheendofthesecondclauseFinally,aconjunctiveadverbcanalsoappearattheendofthesecondclause.Whenplacingtheconjunctiveadverbinthisposition,itisusuallyprecededbyacomma;however,thisdependsontheflowofthesentenceanditcanbeomittedifitseemsunnatural.Forexample:

•“Jenhadn’tenjoyedtheplay;shedidnotrecommendit,consequently.”•“Tomhadneverbeengoodatbasketball;hehadalwayslovedit,nonetheless.”•“Iwantedtostayinbed;Iwenttotheparkinstead.


1.Conjunctiveadverbsareusedtoconnecttwo________.a)phrasesb)wordsc)dependentclausesd)independentclauses2.Wemustseparatethetwoclauseswith________.a)acommab)aperiodc)asemi-colond)EitherAorBe)EitherBorC3.Whichsentenceiscorrect?a)“Ilovecake;however,I’mnotafanofpie.”b)“Ilovecake.however,I’mnotafanofpie.”c)“Ilovecake,However,I’mnotafanofpie.”d)“Ilovecake,however,I’mnotafanofpie.”4.Completethefollowingsentencewiththecorrectconjunctiveadverb:“IreallywishIwerebetteratsoccer;________,I’mquitegoodatbasketball.”a)inadditionb)howeverc)infactd)furthermore5.Completethefollowingsentencewiththecorrectconjunctiveadverb:“Hedidn’tgetthejobbecausehewaslatetotheinterview.________,hehadabsolutelynoexperience.”

a)Ontheotherhandb)Furthermorec)Howeverd)Thus

EvaluativeAdverbsDefinitionMostadverbsdescribehoworwhenanactionoccurs.Evaluativeadverbs,whicharealsoreferredtoascommentingadverbs,aredifferent.Insteadofgivingusinformationabouttheactionitself,evaluativeadverbsareusedbythespeakertocommentorgiveanopiniononsomething.Evaluativeadverbsmodifytheentireclause.

TypesofEvaluativeAdverbsThereareseveraltypesofevaluativeadverbs,whichcanbeclassifiedaccordingtotheirfunction.Somegiveinformationabouthowcertainweconsidersomethingtobe,othersexpressourattitude(negativeorpositive)aboutsomething,whileothersareusedtopassjudgmentonsomeone’sactions.Someofthemostcommonevaluativeadverbsforeachfunctionarelistedinthetablebelow:

DegreeofCertainty Attitude Judgment

apparently astonishingly bravely

clearly frankly carelessly

definitely fortunately fairly

doubtfully honestly foolishly

doubtlessly hopefully generously

obviously interestingly kindly

presumably luckily rightly

probably sadly spitefully

undoubtedly seriously stupidly

surprisingly unfairly

unbelievably wisely

wrongly

ToindicateadegreeofcertaintyWecanusetheevaluativeadverbslistedinthefirstcolumnofthetabletostatehowcertainweareaboutsomething.Forexample:•“Clearly,we'regoingtohavetoworkharder.”(Iamsurethatwearegoingtohavetoworkharder.)•“Apparently,we’regoingtohavetoworkharder.”(Thereissomeindicationthatwemayhavetoworkharder.)

ToindicateattitudeWecanusetheevaluativeadverbsinthesecondcolumnofthetabletomakeourattitudeaboutsomethingclear.Forexample:•“Astonishingly,shedidwellonthetest.”(Ifeelsurprisedthatshedidwellonthetest.)•“Sadly,hecouldn’tcometotheparty.”(Itisunfortunatethathecouldn’tcometotheparty.)•“Honestly,Icouldn’teatanotherbite.”(ThetruthisthatIcouldn’teatanotherbite.)

ToindicatejudgmentWecanusetheevaluativeadverbsinthethirdcolumntomakejudgmentsaboutsomeone’sactions,includingourown.Forexample:•“Istupidlyforgotmyphoneathome.”(Iforgotmyphoneathome,andIthinkthatwasstupidofme.)•“Youcarelesslydroppedmyfavoritecup.”(Youdroppedmycup,andIthinkit’sbecauseyouwerenotbeingcareful.)

•“ShebravelytraveledacrossAsiaalone.”(ShetraveledacrossAsiaalone,and,inmyopinion,thatwasbrave.)

SentencePlacementTheevaluativeadverbisusuallyplacedatthebeginningofthesentence,followedbyacomma.Forexample:•“Clearly,hedidn’tmeantoignoreyou.”•“Apparently,shehasrealtalent.”•“Interestingly,heisverygoodatchess.”However,theycanalsoappearattheendofthesentence,precededbyacomma,asin:•“Hedidn’tmeantoignoreyou,clearly.”•“Shehasrealtalent,apparently.”•“Heisreallygoodatchess,interestingly.”Someevaluativeadverbscanalsoappearinthemidposition,inwhichcaseweusuallydonotsetthemapartwithcommas.Inparticular,probablyanddefinitelyaremostlikelytooccurinthisposition,appearingafterthesubjectoraftertheverbbe.Forexample:•“Heprobablydidn’tmeantoignoreyou.”•“Shedefinitelyworkshard.”•“Heisprobablyreallygoodatchess.”•“Theyaredefinitelythebestoffriends.”Whenweuseanevaluativeadverbtomakeajudgmentofanaction,weusuallyputtheadverbafterthesubject.Forexample:•“Shebravelytoldthetruth.”•“Hegenerouslyofferedtheladyaridehome.”•“Youcarelesslydroppedmyfavoritecup.”However,ifwewanttoplaceastrongemphasisonthejudgment,wecanalsoplaceitatthebeginningofthesentence,setapartbyacomma.Forexample:•“Bravely,shetoldthetruth.”•“Generously,heofferedtheladyaridehome.”•“Carelessly,youdroppedmyfavoritecup.

Placingthistypeofevaluativeadverbattheendofthesentenceislesscommon,butstillacceptable.Forexample:•“Shetoldthetruth,bravely.”•“Heofferedtheladyaridehome,generously.”•“Youdroppedmyfavoritecup,carelessly.”


1.Evaluativeadverbsareusedtogivethe________.a)reader’sopinionb)writer’sopinionc)speaker’sopiniond)BothA&Ce)BothB&C2.Whichevaluativeadverbdoesnotindicatedegreeofcertainty?a)clearlyb)generouslyc)apparentlyd)obviously3.Whichadverbdoesnotindicateajudgmentofsomeone’sactions?a)stupidlyb)generouslyc)wiselyd)certainly4.Whichadverbdoesnotindicateattitude?a)luckilyb)definitelyc)sadlyd)surprisingly5.Whichofthefollowingsentencesisincorrect?a)“Surprisingly,hedidn’tcomewithus.”

b)“Hesurprisinglydidn’tcomewithus.”c)“Hedidn’tcomesurprisinglywithus.”d)“Hedidn’tcomewithus,surprisingly.”

ViewpointAdverbsDefinitionViewpointadverbsareoftenconfusedwithevaluativeadverbs.Althoughtheyaresimilarinform,andthespecificadverbsusedcanoverlap,thetwoactuallyservedifferentfunctions.Whileevaluativeadverbsareusedtogiveanopinion,viewpointadverbsareusedtoindicatewhosepointofviewweareexpressing,ortospecifywhataspectofsomethingwearetalkingabout.Theymodifyanentiresentenceorindependentclause.

IndicatingpointofviewManycommonviewpointadverbsareactuallyadverbials,orgroupsofwordsthatfunctiontogetherasanadverb.Herearesomecommonviewpointadverbsandadverbialsforindicatingwhosepointofviewweareexpressing:

accordingtome/you/him/her/themasfarasI/you/he/she/theyam/is/areconcernedinmy/your/his/her/theiropinioninmy/your/his/her/theirviewtomy/your/his/her/theirknowledgefrommy/your/his/her/theirperspectivefrommy/your/his/her/theirpointofviewpersonally

Wecanusetheseviewpointadverbsandadverbialstoexpresswhosupportsthestatement.Forexample:•“Inmyopinion,youshouldn’tgotothatparty.”(Ibelieveyoushouldn’tgotothatparty.)•“Accordingtomysister,Ihaveafantasticsenseofhumor.”(MysisterthinksIhaveafantasticsenseofhumor.)•“Tomyteacher’sknowledge,myhomeworkhasbeeneatenbyadog.”(Myteacherbelievesthatmyhomeworkhasbeeneatenbyadog.)

•“Personally,Idon’tbelieveit’strue.”(Myownpersonalopinionisthatitisn’ttrue.)

SpecifyinganaspectofsomethingWealsousespecificviewpointadverbstodelimit,orspecify,whatpartoraspectofsomethingwearetalkingabout.Theseadverbsareoftencalleddomainadverbs,andarealmostlimitless.Someexamplesare:

biologicallyenvironmentallyideologicallyindustriallyfinanciallyformallyinwardlylinguisticallymathematicallymedicallymorallyofficiallyoutwardlyphysicallypoliticallyscientificallytechnicallytheoreticallyvisually

Forexample:•“Biologically,insectsaresomeofthemostamazingcreaturesontheplanet.”(Fromabiologicalpointofview,insectsareamazing.)•“Industrially,19th-centuryLondonwasthemostadvancedcityintheworld.”(19th-centuryLondonwasthemostadvancedcityintermsofindustry.)•“Officially,we’renotallowedtosithere.”(Accordingtoofficialrules,wearenotallowedtosithere.)

Forvariety,wecanalsoadapttheaboveadverbsintoadverbialphraseswithnochangeinmeaning.Wecanusethefollowingpatterns:

adverb+“speaking”“intermsof”+noun“in”+adjective+“terms”“froma”+adjective+“pointofview”“asfaras”+noun+“isconcerned”

Forexample:•“Biologicallyspeaking,insectsaresomeofthemostamazingcreaturesontheplanet.”•“Intermsofbiology,insectsaresomeofthemostamazingcreaturesontheplanet.”•“Inbiologicalterms,insectsaresomeofthemostamazingcreaturesontheplanet.”•“Fromabiologicalpointofview,insectsaresomeofthemostamazingcreaturesontheplanet.”•“Asfarasbiologyisconcerned,insectsaresomeofthemostamazingcreaturesontheplanet.”

SentencePlacementAswe’veseenintheexamplesabove,viewpointadverbsusuallyappearatthebeginningoftheclause,followedbyacomma.However,theycanalsoappearattheendoftheclause.Forexample:•“Youshouldn’tgotothatparty,inmyopinion.”•“Idon’tbelieveit'strue,personally.”•“19th-centuryLondonwasthemostadvancedcityintheworld,industrially.”•“Insectsaresomeofthemostamazingcreaturesontheplanet,biologicallyspeaking.”Notethatwhethertheyappearatthebeginningortheend,theyaresetapartfromtherestoftheclausebyacomma.Viewpointadverbscanappearinotherpositionsinthesentence,butthisislesscommon.Ifweplaceaviewpointadverbinmidposition,weshouldbesuretodoublecheckthereadabilityofthesentence,andalwayssetitapartfromtherest

oftheclausebetweentwocommas.Forexample:•“Youshouldn’t,inmyopinion,gotothatparty.”•“Insectsare,intermsofbiology,someofthemostamazingcreaturesontheplanet.”•“Wearenot,inofficialterms,allowedtosithere.”•“19th-centuryLondonwas,industrially,themostadvancedcityintheworld.”


1.Viewpointadverbsareoftenusedtoindicate__________________.a)whobelievessomethingb)whyyoubelievesomethingc)whatyoubelieved)howmuchyoubelievesomething2.Viewpointadverbsmustbeseparatedfromtherestoftheclausebya________.a)acolonb)asemi-colonc)aperiodd)acomma3.Whichofthefollowingsentencesispunctuatedcorrectly?a)“PersonallyIdon’tlikecake.”b)“Personally;Idon’tlikecake.”c)“Personally,Idon’tlikecake.”d)“PersonallyIdon’t,likecake.”4.Completethefollowingsentence:“Inscientific________,humansaremammals.”a)scienceb)speakingc)accordingd)terms

5.Completethefollowingsentence:“________myknowledge,heisathome.”a)Inb)Toc)Byd)For

RelativeAdverbsDefinitionRelativeadverbs,likerelativepronouns,introducerelativeclauses(alsocalledadjectiveclauses)thatmodifyanounoranounphrase.However,whilerelativepronouns(suchasthat,which,orwho)areusedtorelateinformationtoapersonorathing,relativeadverbs(where,whenandwhy)areusedwhentheinformationrelatestoaplace,time,orthereasonanactiontookplace.

FunctionsofrelativeadverbsPlaceWeusetherelativeadverbwheretointroduceinformationthatrelatestoaplace.Theplacecanbeanylocation:ahouse,city,country,geographicalregion,orevenaplanet.Forexample:•“ThehousewhereIwasbornisaveryspecialplace.”•“Paris,whereIwanttolive,isthemostbeautifulcityintheworld.”•“I’llalwaysremembertheriverwherewelearnedtoswim.

TimeWeusetherelativeadverbwhentointroduceinformationthatrelatestoatime.Thattimecanbeanactualtimeofday,aday,aweek,ayear,orevenanera.Forexample:•“The80swereatimewhenbighairwasconsideredfashionable.”

•“IlovecasualFridays,whenwegettowearjeanstowork.”•“YesterdaywasthedaywhenImetmyhusbandforlunch.”

ReasonWeusetherelativeadverbwhytointroduceinformationthatrelatestothereasonsomethinghappened.Inthiscase,thenounbeingmodifiedis“thereason,”butitisoftenomittedtoreducerepetitiveness.Forexample:•“Idon’tknowthereasonwhyhegotangry.”OR•“Idon’tknowwhyhegotangry.”•“Doyouknowthereasonwhytheskyisblue?”OR•“Doyouknowwhytheskyisblue?”

Restrictiveandnon-restrictiverelativeclausesLikerelativepronouns,relativeadverbscanintroducearestrictiverelativeclause(alsocalledadefiningclause),oranon-restrictiverelativeclause(alsoknownasanon-definingclause).Restrictiverelativeclausesidentifythenoun,givingusessentialinformationaboutit,whilenon-restrictiveclausessimplygiveusadditionalinformationthatisnotessentialtothesentence.Let’slookatthedifference:

RestrictiverelativeclausesAsmentioned,restrictiverelativeclausesidentifythenoun,givingusinformationaboutitthatweneedtoknowinordertounderstandthespeaker’smeaning.Thistypeofclausedoesnotneedanycommas.Forexample:•“ThehousewhereIwasbornisaveryspecialplace.”•“I’llalwaysremembertheriverwherewelearnedtoswim.”•“YesterdaywasthedaywhenImetmyhusbandforlunch.”•“The80swereatimewhenbighairwasconsideredfashionable.”•“Idon’tknow(thereason)whyhegotangry.”•“Doyouknow(thereason)whytheskyisblue?”

Therestrictiverelativeclauseineachofthesentencesaboveisunderlined.Now,observewhathappenstothemeaningofthesentencesifweremovetherelativeclause:•“Thehouseisaveryspecialplace.”(Whathouse?)•“I’llalwaysremembertheriver.”(Whatriver?)•“Yesterdaywastheday.”(Whatday?)•“The80swereatime.”(Whatkindoftime?)•“Idon’tknowthereason.”(Thereasonfor/aboutwhat?)•“Doyouknowthereason?”(Whatreason?)Whenyouremovearestrictiverelativeclause,thenounsarenolongeridentifiableandthesentencescontainmuchlessinformation,asyoucanseefromtheexamplesabove.Instead,thelistenerorreaderisleftwithquestions.

Non-restrictiverelativeclausesNon-restrictiverelativeclausesgiveusadditionalinformationaboutanounthathasalreadybeenidentified,butthisinformationisnotessentialforthesentencetomakesense.Onlytwooftherelativeadverbs,whereandwhen,canbeusedtointroducenon-restrictiverelativeclauses;whycannot.Notethatnon-restrictiverelativeclausesmustbesetapartfromtherestofthesentencebycommas.Forexample:•“Paris,whereIwanttolive,isthemostbeautifulcityintheworld.”•“Thebluehouseonthecorner,wherethosekidsareplaying,isthehouseIwanttobuy.”•“IlovecasualFridays,whenwegettowearjeanstowork.”•“May,whenflowersbloom,ismyfavoritemonthoftheyear.”Intheexamplesabove,theunderlinedrelativeclausesmerelygiveextrainformationaboutthenouns;theydonotdefinethem.Thesentenceswouldstillmakesenseeveniftherelativeclauseswereremoved,whichishowweknowthatwearedealingwithnon-restrictiverelativeclauses.Forexample:•“Parisisthemostbeautifulcityintheworld.”•“ThebluehouseonthecorneristhehouseIwanttobuy.”•“IlovecasualFridays.”•“Mayismyfavoritemonthoftheyear.”

FormalityRelativeadverbsareusedindailyspeechandwritingtotaketheplaceofthestructurepreposition+which.Thisstructureisconsideredveryformalandisusuallyonlyusedinacademicwritingorparticularlyformalspeech.Forexample:•“ThisisthehouseinwhichIwasborn.”•“April10thisthedayonwhichImetmyhusband.”•“Doyouknowthereasonforwhichtheskyisblue?”Thesesentencesallsoundtooformalfordailyuse.Instead,weusuallyuserelativeadverbsinstead:•“ThisisthehousewhereIwasborn.”•“April10thisthedaywhenImetmyhusband.”•“Doyouknowthereasonwhytheskyisblue?”


1.Relativeadverbsareusedtointroduce________.a)nounsb)adjectivesc)peopled)adjectiveclauses2.Whichofthefollowingisnotarelativeadverb?a)whereb)whoc)whend)why3.Arestrictiverelativeclauseincludes________.a)essentialinformationb)extrainformationc)non-essentialinformationd)anon-restrictiverelativeclause

4.Completethefollowingsentence:“Monday,________Iusuallyhavethemostwork,isnowmydayoff.”a)thatb)wherec)whend)why5.Completethefollowingsentence:“That’s________Ihaven’tcalledyouforsolong.”a)thatb)wherec)whend)why6.Whichsentenceispunctuatedcorrectly?”a)“Mybrother’shouse,whereIusedtospendalotoftime,wasjustsold.”b)“Mybrother’shousewhereIusedtospendalotoftimewasjustsold.”c)“Mybrother’shousewhereIused,tospendalotoftime,wasjustsold.”d)“MybrotherhousewhereIusedtospend,alotoftimewasjustsold.”

AdverbialNounsDefinitionAdverbialnounsarenounsornounphrasesthatfunctiongrammaticallyasadverbstomodifyverbsandcertainadjectives.

ModifyingverbsAdverbialnounsaresometimesreferredtoasadverbialobjectives.Thisisbecausetheyholdapositionnormallyoccupiedbyaverb’sdirectobject,yettheyactasanadverbtomodifytheverbwithanaspectoftime,distance,weight,age,ormonetaryvalue.

Time•“Iamleavingtomorrow.”

•“Wewalkedanhouroutoftown.”•“I’llseeyounextyear.”

Distance•“Irunfivemileseveryday.”•“Icanbarelyseeafootinfrontofmeinthisfog.”

Weight•“Theyaredisplayingablockofcheesethatweighsaton!”•“I’mtryingtoloseafewpoundsbeforethewedding.”

Age•“Sheis35yearsold.”(Inthiscase,theadverbialnounphrasemodifiestheadjectiveold.)•“Thiswineisaged25years.”

Monetaryvalue•“Thiscaronlycosts$2,000.”•“Thatspeedingticketsetmeback300bucks.”

ComplementingcertainadjectivesCertainadjectives,suchasworthanddue,areabletotakenounsornounphrasesascomplementswhentheyareinapredicativeposition.Forexample:•“Thiscoatisonlyworthadollar.”•“IthinkMaryisdueanapology.”Somesourcesalsoconsiderthewordliketobeanadjectivethatcantakeanoun/nounphrasecomplement,asin:•“Heisverymuchlikeyourbrother.”Othersourcesonlyconsideritasaprepositioninthiscapacity,whichwouldmakelikeyourbrotheraprepositionalphrase.Likewise,worthandduearesometimesconsideredtobemorelikeprepositionsthanadjectiveswhentheyfunctionthisway.However,thereisnotaclear

agreementontheterminologythatismostappropriate,becauseitissounusualfornounstobethecomplementsofadjectives.Finally,notethatadverbialnounsarenotthesameasattributivenouns(alsocallednounadjuncts),whichareusedwithanothernountoformcompoundnouns.


1.Whichofthefollowingarenotmodifiedorcomplementedbyadverbialnouns?a)verbsb)adjectivesc)adverbsd)Noneoftheabove2.Whichofthefollowingisnotoneofthewaysverbsaremodifiedbyadverbialnouns?a)Todescribetimeb)Todescribedistancec)Todescribeweightd)Todescribemanner3.Identifytheadverbialnouninthefollowingsentence:“Ican’twaittostartschoolthisSeptemberinCanada.”a)schoolb)thisSeptemberc)inCanadad)Noneoftheabove4.Identifytheadverbialnouninthefollowingsentence:“She’sgoingtobe20nextJuly.”a)goingtob)20c)nextd)nextJuly

RegularandIrregularAdverbsDefinitionAdverbsgenerallycorrespondtoanadjective,sothatwhenwewanttoapplytheadjective’smeaningtoaverb(ortoanadjectiveoranotheradverb),wehaveastraightforwardwaytodoso.Regularadverbsareformedbyadding“-ly”orsomevariationthereofontotheendoftheadjective.Sometimestheadjective’sspellingneedstobealteredslightlytoaccommodatethis,buttherulesofdoingsoarefairlystraightforward.Irregularadverbs,ontheotherhand,areadverbsthatarenotformedfromstandardEnglishspellingconventions.Becausetheydonotfollowthe“rules,”thereisnotricktousingthem:yousimplyhavetomemorizethem.Hereisatableofthemostcommonirregularadverbsandtheiradjectivalcounterparts:

Adjective IrregularAdverb SourcesofConfusion

fast fast

hard hard Hardly(ever)isanadverboffrequency,meaning“almostnever.”

straight straight

lively livelyLivelystillexistsasanadverbinphraseslike“steplively.”However,itismoreoftenusedintheadverbialprepositionalphrase“inalivelymanner.”

late late Latelyisadifferentadverbthatmeans“recently.”

daily daily

early early

friendly noadverb Canbeusedintheadverbialprepositionalphrase“inafriendlymanner.”

timely noadverb Canbeusedintheadverbialprepositionalphrase“inafriendlymanner.”

good well Wellistheadverbformofgood;itcanalsofunctionasapredicativeadjective.

First,let’sexaminethenormalrulesformakingregularadverbs,andthenwe’llexaminemorecloselytheirregularadverbsabovethatdonotfollowtheserules.

RegularadverbsRegularadverbsareformedbytakinganadjectiveandaddingsomeformofthesuffix“-ly.”Sometimesthespellingoftheadjectivechangestoaccommodatethissuffix;sometimesthesuffixitselfmustchange.AswithmostspellingrulesinEnglish,though,thereareexceptionseventothesepatterns.We’lllookattheserulesindividually,andhighlightanyexceptionstoeach.

Adjective+“-ly”Themoststraightforwardruleistosimplyadd“-ly”totheendofanadjective,withoutchangingthespellingatall.Thisoccurswhenanadjectiveendsinaconsonant(exceptfor“-ic”)oraconsonant+“-e”(exceptfor“-le”).Forexample:•“Sheisabeautifulsinger.”•“Shesingsbeautifully.”•“Heisaslowwalker.”•“Hewalksslowly.”•“Thisisthelastitemweneedtodiscuss.”•“Lastly,let’sdiscusstheimpactontheenvironment.”

Adjectivesendingin“-ic”Sometimesthespellingofawordwillhavetochangeslightlysoastobetteraccommodatetheextra“-ly.”Iftheadjectiveendsin“-ic,”forinstance,itwillbecome“-ically”:•“Theyareenthusiasticstudents.”•“Theyworkenthusiastically.”•“Therearesomedrasticdifferencesbetweenthese.”

•“Thesearedrasticallydifferent.”Theoneexceptiontothisruleistheadjectivepublic,whichbecomestheadverbpublicly.

Adjectivesendingin“-y”Iftheadjectiveendsina“-y,”itisreplacedwith“-ily”:•“Thechildrenarehappywhentheyareplaying.”•“Thechildrenareplayinghappily.”•“Whyareyousonoisywhenyoueat?”•“Quiteatingsonoisily!”

Adjectivesendingin“-le”and“-ue”Foradjectivesendingin“-le”or“-ue,”the“e”ontheendisdroppedandisreplacedwith“-ly”:•“Heisaterriblegolfer.”•“Heplaysgolfterribly.”•“Youwillgetwhatisduesolongasyouaretruetoyourword."•“Itisdulynotedthatthedefendantistrulyremorseful.”

IrregularAdverbsThemajorityofadverbsendin“-ly,”butaswewillsee,therearesomeirregularonesthatneedtobememorized.

Spellingdoesn’tchangeFastisoneoftheirregularadverbs—theadjectiveandtheadverbarethesame.Forexample:•“AFerrariisafastcar.•“Hedrivesfast.”Hardisanotherirregularadverb.Ifwesay,“Iworkhardly,”itcouldimpedeunderstanding.Thelistenermaythinkyoumean,“Ihardlywork,”whichhastheoppositemeaning(hardly(ever)isafrequencyadverbandmeans“veryrarely”).Thecorrectuseofhardasanadverbwouldsimplybe“Iworkhard.”Otherexceptionstothespellingrulesincludestraight,lively,late,andearly,

whichallhavethesamespellingwhethertheyareusedasadjectivesorasadverbs.Forexample:•“Drawastraightline.”•“Wedrovestraight.”•“Itwasalivelygame.”•“Steplively,*everyone!”•“IthinkIneedtohaveanearlynight.”•“I’mgoingtobedearlytonight.”

Latevs.LatelyAcommonsourceofconfusionistheproperuseofthewords“late”and“lately.”Late,asalreadymentioned,isbothanadjectiveandanadverb.Lately,ontheotherhand,isonlyanadverboftimemeaning“recently.”Forexample:•“Whyareyoualwayslate?”(adjective)•“Wearrivedlate.”(adverb)•“I’vebeenfeelingunwelllately.”(adverboftime)•Incorrect:“Ihopetheguestsdon’tarrivelately.”

OnlyadjectivesTimelyandfriendlyareonlyadjectives.Tousetheseasadverbs,wesimplyusetheminanadverbialprepositionalphrase,suchas“ina______way/manner”:•“Pleasearriveinatimelymanner.”•“Hespoketomeinafriendlyway.”*Thoughlivelystillexistsasanadverbinphraseslike“steplively,”itismoreoftenusedinanadverbialprepositionalphrase,suchas:•“Theboysallplayedinalivelymanner.”

AdverbsoffrequencyAdverbsoffrequencythatdealwithspecificmeasuresoftimeandendin“-ly”canfunctionbothasadjectivesandadverbs.Examplesoftheseincludeyearly,weekly,daily,andhourly.Forinstance:•“It’sgoodtohaveadailyroutine.”(adjective)•“Imakesuretoexercisedaily.”(adverb)

•“Iwantweeklyupdates,Jenkins!”(adjective)•“Iupdatethebossweekly.”(adverb)

Wrongvs.WronglyTheadjectivewrongcanbecometheadverbwrongly,butwecanusewrongasanirregularadverbaswell—bothareacceptable.However,wrongasanadverbmustcomeaftertheverbifmodifies,asin:•“Iguessedwrong.”•“Hefilledouttheformwrong.”Wrongly,ontheotherhand,canbeusedeitherbeforeoraftertheworditmodifies:•“Hewaswronglyaccused.”•“Theyjudgedwrongly.”

Goodvs.WellGoodisanadjectiveusedtodescribeanoun;wellistheadverbderivedfromgoodanddescribeshowyoudosomething.Forexample:✖ “IspeakEnglishgood.”(incorrect)✔ “IspeakEnglishwell.”(correct)✖ “IdidgoodontheEnglishexam.”(incorrect)✔ “IdidwellontheEnglishexam.”(correct)“IspeakEnglishgood”isincorrect,asweneedtouseanadverbwhendescribingaverb.Inthesecondexample,“Ididgood”isincorrectbecauseweneedanadverbtodescribehowthespeakerdidontheexam.Thephrase“dogood”isespeciallytricky,becauseitcanalsomean“todothatwhichisgoodorvirtuous.”(Goodinthissenseisanounactingastheobjectoftheverb.)

AdjectivesafterlinkingverbsItisimportanttorememberthatlinkingverbs(suchasbe,become,get,andthesenseverbsfeel,taste,look,sound,smell,andseem)arefollowedbypredicativeadjectives,notadverbs.Forexample:•“Youseemhappy.”•“ShesoundsEnglish.”(Anopinionbasedonhervoice.)

•“Webecametired.”•“Youlookgood.”•“Youlookwell.”Noticethatthelasttwoexamplesarebothcorrect.Notonlyiswellanadverb,butitalsofunctionsasanadjective.Itsoppositeadjectiveisill,whiletheoppositeofgoodisbad.Whenwesay,“Youlookgood,”wearereferringtotheperson’sphysicalappearance.If,ontheotherhand,wesay,“Youlookwell,”wearereferringtothehealthorwell-beingoftheperson.Tolearnmoreaboutadjectivesthatfollowlinkingverbs,aswellasthe“good/well”distinction,seethechapteronPredicativeAdjectives.


1.Whatisthemostcommonwaytomakeanadverbfromanadjective?a)Usetheadjectiveintheprepositionalphrase“ina______manner”b)Usetheadjectivebeforeaverbc)Add“-ly”totheendoftheadjectived)Add“-ically”totheendoftheadjective2.Whatistheirregularadverboftheadjectivelate?a)lateb)latelyc)inalatemannerd)latterly3.Howdoestheusageofwrongasanadverbdifferfromwrongly?a)Wrongmustcomebeforetheverbitmodifies,whilewronglymustcomeafterb)Wrongmustcomeaftertheverbitmodifies,whilewronglymustcomebeforec)Wrongmustcomebeforetheverbitmodifies,whilewronglycancomebeforeorafterd)Wrongmustcomeaftertheverbitmodifies,whilewronglycancomebeforeorafter4.Howareadjectivesendingin“-le”or“-ue”changedtobecomeadverbs?a)Byadding“-ly”totheendb)Byreplacingthe“e”attheendwith“-ly”

c)Byreplacingthe“e”attheendwith“-ily”d)Byreplacingthe“e”attheendwith“-ically”5.Whichofthefollowingisanirregularadverb?a)lastlyb)publiclyc)earlyd)lately6.Whichofthefollowingisnotanirregularadverb?a)livelyb)friendlyc)earlyd)hourly

DegreesofComparisonDefinitionJustlikeadjectives,adverbshavecomparativeandsuperlativedegrees;adverbsintheirbasicformsaresometimesknownasbeinginthepositivedegree.Comparativeadverbsexpressahigher(orlower)degreeofhowanactionisperformed,usuallyincomparisontoanotherpersonorthing.Superlativeadverbs,ontheotherhand,areusedtoidentifythehighest(orlowest)degreeofhowanactionisperformed.

FormingthecomparativeandsuperlativedegreesAdverbsarecommonlycategorizedinthreeways:one-syllableadverbs,“-ly”adverbs,andirregularadverbs.Wecreatethecomparativeandsuperlativeformsofeachcategoryindifferentways.

One-syllableadverbs

One-syllableadverbsareformedintocomparativesbyaddingthesuffix“-er”totheendoftheword.Thesuperlativeformiscreatedbyaddingthesuffix“-est”totheend.

Adverb(positivedegree) Comparativedegree Superlativedegree

fast faster fastest

hard harder hardest

high higher highest

late later* latest*

long longer longest

low lower lowest

wide wider* widest*(*Spellingnote:Whentheadverbalreadyendsintheletter“e,”simplyadd“-r”or“-st”totheend.)

Adverbsendingin“-ly”Manyadverbsareformedbyadding“-ly”totheendofanadjective.Ifanadverbhasbeencreatedaccordingtothispattern,wesimplyusethewordsmoreandlesstocreatethecomparativedegree,andweusethewordmostorleasttomakethesuperlativedegree.Forexample:

Adjective Adverb(positivedegree)

Comparativedegree

Superlativedegree

careful carefully more/lesscarefully most/leastcarefully

efficient efficiently more/lessefficiently

most/leastefficiently

happy happily more/lesshappily most/leasthappily

horrible horribly more/lesshorribly

most/leasthorribly

recent recently more/lessrecently most/leastrecently

sad sadly more/lesssadly most/leastsadly

strange strangely more/lessstrangely most/leaststrangely

IrregularadverbsOfcourse,theruleswe’vejustlookedathavesomeexceptions,whichareknownasirregularverbs.Belowarethedegreesofcomparisonforsomeofthemostcommonirregularadverbs:

Irregularadverb(positivedegree)

Comparativedegree

Superlativedegree

badly worse worst

early earlier earliest

far farther/further farthest/furthest*

little less least

well better best(*Althoughfarther/farthestandfurther/furthestareoftenusedinterchangeably,therearedifferencesbetweenthem.InAmericanEnglish,farther/farthestispreferredwhencomparingphysicaldistances,andfurther/furthestispreferredwhencomparingfigurativedistances;inBritishEnglish,further/furthestispreferredforbothuses.)Tolearnmoreaboutirregularadverbs,seethechaptersectioncoveringRegularandIrregularAdverbs.

AdverbswithtwoformsThereareafewadverbsthathavetwogenerallyacceptedforms.Inthesecases,

theyalsohavetwocommonlyusedcomparativeandsuperlativedegrees.Someofthemostprevalentoftheseexceptionsare:

Adverb(positivedegree) Comparativedegree Superlativedegree

cheaporcheaply cheaperormore/lesscheaply

cheapestormost/leastcheaply

loudorloudly louderormore/lessloudly

loudestormost/leastloudly

quickorquickly quickerormore/lessquickly

quickestormost/leastquickly

sloworslowly slowerormore/lessslowly

slowestormost/leastslowly


1.Whichofthefollowingsuffixesisusedtoshiftaone-syllableadverbtothesuperlativedegree?a)-edb)-erc)-estd)-en2.Whichofthefollowingpairsofwordsisusedtoshiftan“-ly”adverbtothecomparativedegree?a)more/lessb)most/leastc)much/manyd)most/less3.Whatisthecomparativeformoftheirregularadverbwell?a)goodb)better

c)worsed)best4.Whatisthesuperlativeformoftheadverbslowly?a)slowerb)slowestc)more/lessslowlyd)most/leastslowlye)A&Cf)B&D

ComparativeAdverbsDefinitionComparativeadverbs,likecomparativeadjectives,areusedtodescribedifferencesandsimilaritiesbetweentwothings.Whilecomparativeadjectivesdescribesimilaritiesanddifferencesbetweentwonouns(people,places,orobjects),comparativeadverbsmakecomparisonsbetweentwoverbs—thatis,theydescribehow,when,howoften,ortowhatdegreeanactionisdone.Forexample:•“JohnisfasterthanTim.”(comparativeadjective)•“JohnrunsfasterthanTim.”(comparativeadverb)•“JohnismorecarefulthanTiminhiswork.”(comparativeadjective)•“JohnworksmorecarefullythanTim.”(comparativeadverb)Comparativeadverbsandcomparativeadjectivessometimeshavethesameform(asinfasterabove);othertimes,theyhavedifferentforms(asincareful/carefully).However,evenwhentheformsarethesame,wecantellthedifferencebetweenthetwobylookingatwhattheymodify.WhilethecomparativeadjectivesdescribedifferencesbetweenthephysicalorpersonalcharacteristicsofJohnandTim,thecomparativeadverbsdescribedifferencesinhowtheycarryoutactions(run,work).

FormingComparativeAdverbsWeformcomparativeadverbsbyaddingtheending“-er”tothebaseadverb,orbyaddingthewordmore(orless)beforethebaseadverb.Therearesimplerules

thattelluswhichmethodiscorrect.

Onesyllable+“-er”Ingeneral,whentheadverbhasonlyonesyllable,weadd“-er”totheendofit.Thetablebelowshowssomeofthemostcommonone-syllableadverbsandtheircomparativeforms:

Adverb(baseform) ComparativeAdverb

fast faster

hard harder

high higher

late later

long longer

low lower

wide wider*(*Spellingnote:Whentheadverbalreadyendsintheletter“e,”justadd“-r,”not“-er.”)

More+“-ly”adverbManyadverbsareformedbyadding“-ly”totheendofanadjective.Ifanadverbhasbeencreatedaccordingtothispattern,weinsertthewordmoreorlesstoformthecomparative.Forexample:

Adjective Adverb ComparativeAdverb

careful carefully more/lesscarefully

efficient efficiently more/lessefficiently

happy happily more/lesshappily

horrible horribly more/lesshorribly

recent recently more/lessrecently

sad sadly more/lesssadly

strange strangely more/lessstrangely

IrregularcomparativeadverbsOfcourse,therearesomeexceptionstotheruleswe’vejustlookedat.Thesearesomeofthemostcommonirregularcomparativeadverbs:

Adverb ComparativeAdverb

badly worse

early earlier

far farther/further*

little less

well better(*Althoughfartherandfurtherareoftenusedinterchangeably,therearedifferencesbetweenthesetwoforms.InAmericanEnglish,fartherispreferredwhencomparingphysicaldistancesandfurtherwhencomparingfigurativedistances;inBritishEnglish,furtherispreferredforboth.)Tolearnmoreaboutirregularadverbs,seethechaptersectioncoveringRegularandIrregularAdverbs.

ComparativeadverbswithtwoformsThereareafewadverbsthathavetwogenerallyacceptedforms.Inthesecases,theyalsohavetwocommonlyusedcomparativeforms.Someofthemostprevalentoftheseexceptionsare:

Adverb ComparativeAdverb

cheap/cheaply cheaper/morecheaply

loud/loudly louder/moreloudly

quick/quickly quicker/morequickly

slow/slowly slower/moreslowlyAlthoughtraditionalgrammariansoftenconsidertheseadverbformswithout“-ly”tobeincorrect,theyarecommonlyusedinmodernEnglish.However,theyarestillconsideredlessformalthantheir“-ly”equivalents.

UsingComparativeAdverbsNowthatwehaveseenhowtoformcomparativeadverbs,let’slookathowtheyareusedwithinthecontextofaffirmative,negative,andinterrogativestatements.

AffirmativestatementsWecandescribechangeordifferencesbetweentwothingswithinonesentence,usingthewordthan.Forexample:•“Anairplanemovesfasterthanacar.”•“Ieatmoreneatlythanmysister.”•“IworkmorecarefullythanIusedto.”Notethatwhilethefirsttwoexamplesdescribedifferencesbetweenhowtwothingsorpeoplecarryoutanaction,thethirdexampledescribesachangeinhowonepersonhascarriedoutanaction.Also,ineachoftheexamples,thepersonorthingthatdoestheactiontoagreaterdegreecomesfirstinthesentence.Wecanalsousetheoppositeadverbstoachievethesamemeaninginadifferentorder:•“Acarmovesslower/moreslowlythananairplane.”•“Mysistereatsmoresloppilythanme.”•“IusedtoworklesscarefullythanIdonow.”

NegativeStatementsIt’seasytoformnegativestatementswithcomparativeadverbs.Wejustfollowtheregularpatternsfornegatives:ifthestatementcontainsanauxiliaryormodalverb,orifitusesaformofthelinkingverbbe,weinsertthewordnot(eitherinitsfulloritscontractedform).Forexample:

•“Mybrothercanrunfasterthanme.”(affirmative)•“Mybrothercan’trunfasterthanme.”(negative)•“SamislearningtoreadmorequicklythanJen.”(affirmative)•“SamisnotlearningtoreadmorequicklythanJen.”(negative)Ifastatementcontainsonlyamainverb,weaddtheauxiliaryverbdo/does/didandnot.Forexample:•“TomsingsmorebeautifullythanSam.”(affirmative)•“TomdoesnotsingmorebeautifullythanSam.”(negative)•“Catshidebetterthandogs.”(affirmative)•“Catsdon’thidebetterthandogs.”(negative)

InterrogativesWeforminterrogativeswithcomparativeadverbsusingnormalquestionformation.Forexample:•“Didyoualwaysrunfasterthanyourbrother?”•“Hassheeverperformedbetterthanyouonatest?”•“Canmonkeysjumphigherthancats?”Wecanalsoaskquestionsbyplacingaquestionwordatthebeginningofthesentence,andaddingthetwopeopleorthingsattheend.Forexample:•“Whorunsfaster,youoryourbrother?”•“Whoperformsbetterontests,youorJen?”•“Whichanimalcanjumphigher,acatoramonkey?”Notethatinthistypeofquestion,wedonotincludethewordthan.Wetendtousethanwithaquestionwordifthesecondpersonorthingisunknown,asin:•“Whorunsfasterthanyou?”•“WhoperformsbetteronteststhanJen?”•“Whatanimalcanjumphigherthanamonkey?”

OmittingoneofthenounsOften,wedon’tneedtoexplicitlymentionbothofthepeopleorthingsthatwe’recomparingbecauseit’salreadyobviousfromthecontext.Ifthespeakeralreadyknowswhoorwhatwe’retalkingabout,wecanomitoneofthenouns.

Ifwedothis,wealsoomitthewordthan.Forexample:•SpeakerA:“Whoswimsfaster,youoryourbrother?”•SpeakerB:“Mybrotherdoes,butIcanrunfaster.”SpeakerBdoesn’tneedtosay“thanmybrother”attheend,becauseit’salreadyclearfromthecontext.

GradabilityWecanonlymakecomparisonsusinggradableadverbs,meaningadverbsthatareabletomoveupanddownonascaleofintensity.Themajorityofadverbsaregradable.Forexample,quicklyisgradablebecauseapersoncanrunquickly,veryquickly,orextremelyquickly.Aswithcomparativeadjectives,wecanstatedifferencesinscalebyusingwordsandphraseslikeabit,alittle(bit),much,alot,andfarbeforethecomparativeadverb.Forexample:•“Tomcanrunmuchfasterthanhisbrother.”•“Monkeysjumpalothigherthancats.”•“Samdrivesalittle(bit)morecarefullythanTom.”Notalladverbsaregradableinnature.Forexample,absolutely,completely,totallyandutterlyareallungradableadverbs.Theseareusedtomodifyungradableadjectives,andtheycannotmoveupanddownonascale.Theydonothaveacomparativeform,andthereforecannotbeusedtodrawcomparisons.

Expressingequalityandinequalityusingas…asAnotherwayofexpressingsimilarities,differences,orchangeswithcomparativeadverbsisbyusingthestructure“as…as.”Todescribetwothingsasequal,weusetheconstructionas+adverb+as.Forexample:•“IstillrunasslowlyasIusedto.”•“Tomalwaysdrivesascarefullyasyou’dwanthimto.”•“Samfinishedasquicklyashisbrother.”Wecanusethesameconstructiontosaythattwoactionsareunequalbyaddinganauxiliaryverbandthewordnot.

•Idon’trunasslowlyasIusedto.”•“Tomdoesn’talwaysdriveascarefullyasyou’dwanthimto.”•“Samdidn’tfinishasquicklyashisbrother.”Finally,wecaninquireastowhethertwoactionsareequalbyaddingtheauxiliaryverbsdo/doesordidtothebeginningofthesentenceandformingaquestion:•“Doyoustillrunasslowlyasyouusedto?”•“DoesTomdriveascarefullyasyou’dwanthimto?”•“DidSamfinishasquicklyashisbrother?”


1.Whichofthefollowingfactsaboutcomparativeadverbsiscorrect?a)Theyalwaystakeadifferentformthanacomparativeadjective.b)Theyalwaystakethesameformasacomparativeadjective.c)Theysometimestakethesameformasacomparativeadjective.d)Theynevertakethesameformasacomparativeadjective.2.Whichoftheseadverbshasanirregularcomparativeform?a)fastb)badlyc)carefullyd)sadly3.Whichoftheseisanincorrectcomparativeadverb?a)morebeautifullyb)morequicklyc)morecarefullyd)morehigher4.Whichofthefollowingsentencesiscorrect?a)“Herunsfastashisbrother.”b)“Herunsasfastashisbrother.”c)“Herunsfasterashisbrother.”d)“Hefasterrunsashisbrother.”

5.Whichofthefollowingsentencesiscorrect?a)“Shestudieshardlierthanhersister.”b)“Shestudiesharderthanhersister.”c)“Shestudiesharderashersister.”d)“Shestudieshardashersister.”

SuperlativeAdverbsDefinitionSuperlativeadverbs,likesuperlativeadjectives,areusedtodescribedifferencesamongthreeormorepeopleorthings.Butwhilesuperlativeadjectivesdescribethehighest(orlowest)degreeofanattributeamongamultiplenouns(people,places,orobjects),superlativeadverbsdescribetheactionofapersonorthingcomparedtothatofseveralothers—thatis,theydescribehow,when,howoften,ortowhatdegreeanactionisdone.Forexample:•“Johnisthefastestrunnerofthegroup.”(superlativeadjective)•“Johnrunsthefastestofthegroup.”(superlativeadverb)•“Outofallthestudentsintheclass,Sallyisthemostcarefulwithherwork.”(superlativeadjective)•“Outofallthestudentsintheclass,Sallyworksmostcarefully.”(superlativeadverb)Superlativeadverbsandsuperlativeadjectivessometimeshavethesameform(asinfastestabove);othertimes,theyhavedifferentforms(asincareful/carefullyabove).However,evenwhentheformsarethesame,wecantellthedifferencebetweenthetwobylookingatwhattheymodify.WhilethesuperlativeadjectivesdescribethecharacteristicsofJohnandSally,thesuperlativeadverbsdescribehowtheycarryoutactions(run,work).

FormingSuperlativeAdverbsWeformsuperlativeadverbsbyaddingtheending“-est”tothebaseadverb,orbyaddingthewordmostbeforethebaseadverb.Therearesimplerulesthattelluswhichisthecorrectmethod.

Onesyllable+“-est”Ingeneral,whentheadverbhasonlyonesyllable,weadd“-est”totheendofit.Thetablebelowshowssomeofthemostcommonone-syllableadverbsandtheirsuperlativeforms:

Adverb(baseform) SuperlativeAdverb

fast fastest

hard hardest

high highest

late latest

long longest

low lowest

wide widest*(*Spellingnote:Whentheadverbalreadyendsintheletter“e,”justadd“-st,”not“-est.”)

“-ly”adverbsManyadverbsareformedbyadding“-ly”totheendofanadjective.Ifanadverbhasbeencreatedaccordingtothispattern,weaddthewordmostorleasttomakethesuperlativeform(s).Forexample:

Adjective Adverb SuperlativeAdverb

careful carefully most/leastcarefully

efficient efficiently most/leastefficiently

happy happily most/leasthappily

horrible horribly most/leasthorribly

recent recently most/leastrecently

sad sadly most/leastsadly

strange strangely most/leaststrangely

IrregularsuperlativeadverbsOfcourse,therearesomeexceptionstotheruleswe’vejustlookedat.Thesearesomeofthemostcommonirregularsuperlativeadverbs:

IrregularAdverb IrregularSuperlativeAdverb

badly worst

early earliest

far farthest/furthest*

little least

well best(*Althoughfarthestandfurthestareoftenusedinterchangeably,therearedifferencesbetweenthesetwoforms.InAmericanEnglish,farthestispreferredwhencomparingphysicaldistances,andfurthestispreferredwhencomparingfigurativedistances;inBritishEnglish,furthestispreferredforboth.)Tolearnmoreaboutirregularadverbs,seethechaptersectioncoveringRegularandIrregularAdverbs.

SuperlativeadverbswithtwoformsThereareafewadverbsthathavetwogenerallyacceptedforms.Inthesecases,theyalsohavetwocommonlyusedsuperlativeforms.Someofthemostprevalentoftheseexceptionsare:

Adverb SuperlativeAdverb

cheaporcheaply cheapestormost/leastcheaply

loudorloudly loudestormost/leastloudly

quickorquickly quickestormost/leastquickly

sloworslowly slowestormost/leastslowlyAlthoughtraditionalgrammariansoftenconsidertheseadverbformswithout“-ly”tobeincorrect,theyarecommonlyusedinmodernEnglish.However,theyarestillconsideredlessformalthantheir“-ly”equivalents.

UsingSuperlativeAdverbsWeusuallyusesuperlativeadjectiveswhendescribinganactionofsomeoneorsomethingamongagroupofseveralothers,eitherinacollectivegrouporamongseveralindividuals.Superlativeadverbscomeaftertheverbinasentence,andtheyarealmostalwaysprecededbythewordthe.Forexample:•“Carsandmotorcyclescangofast,butanairplanemovesthefastest.”•“Ieatthemostneatlyamongmysiblings.”•“Sheworkstheleastcarefullyinherclass.”

OmittingthegroupofcomparisonWhenweusesuperlatives,itisverycommontoomitthegroupthatsomethingorsomeoneisbeingcomparedtobecausethatgroupisimpliedbyaprevioussentence.Forexample:•“Mybrothersareallfastswimmers.Johnswimsthefastest,though.”Wecanalsoidentifyasuperlativeattributeofasubject’sactioncomparedtoitselfinothercontextsorpointsintime.Inthiscase,wedonothaveanothergrouptoidentify,andwegenerallydonotusethewordthe.Forexample:•“Iworkbestbymyself.”(comparedtowhenotherpeopleareinvolved)•“Theenginerunsmostsmoothlyafterithaswarmedupforawhile.”(comparedtowhentheengineiscold)•“Flowersbloommostbeautifullyinthespring.”(comparedtotheotherseasons)

Expressingthelowestdegree

Aswe’veseen,“-ly”adverbscaneithertakemostorleasttoindicatethehighestandlowestdegreesofcomparison.Forexample:•“Thoughheperformedtheleastcompellinglyamongtheotheractorsonstage,hewasthemostauthenticallydressed.”Irregular(non-“ly”)adverbs,ontheotherhand,haveonlyonesuperlativeformthatexpressesthehighestdegreeofitscharacteristic.Whenwewanttoexpressthelowestqualityofanirregularadverb,wecouldtechnicallyjustusethewordleastbeforeitsbasicform,asin:•“Johnrunsthefastestinhisclass,butheswimstheleastfast.”However,thisconstructionisratherawkward,anditisbestjusttouseanothersuperlativeadverbwiththeoppositemeaning,asin:•“Johnrunsthefastestinhisclass,butheswimstheslowest.”

MostasanintensifierWeoftenfindtheadverbmostbeingusedasanintensifierofotheradverbs,especiallyinformalspeechorwriting.Ratherthanindicatingasuperlativeadverb(i.e.,incomparisontoothersinagroup),itsimplyaddsintensitytotheword,havingapproximatelythesamemeaningastheadverbvery.Forexample:•“Yousangmostbeautifully,Jack.”•“Theplaywasmosttastefullyperformed.”Wecanseeintheaboveexamplesthatmostisnotidentifyingthesubsequentadverbsasbeingofthehighestdegreeamongotherpeopleorthings—itsimplyintensifiestheirmeaning.


1.Superlativeadverbsdescribethehighestorlowestdegreeofhowanactionisperformedamongagroupof__________peopleorthings.a)Twob)Twoorthreec)Threeormored)Fiveormore2.Whichofthefollowingfactsaboutsuperlativeadverbsiscorrect?

a)Theyalwaystakeadifferentformthanasuperlativeadjective.b)Theyalwaystakethesameformasasuperlativeadjective.c)Theysometimestakethesameformasasuperlativeadjective.d)Theynevertakethesameformasasuperlativeadjective.3.Whichoftheseadverbshasanirregularsuperlativeform?a)fastb)badlyc)carefullyd)sadly4.Whichoftheseisanincorrectsuperlativeadverb?a)mostbeautifullyb)mostquicklyc)leastcarefullyd)leasthigher5.Whichofthefollowingsentencesiscorrect?a)“Herunsfastofallhisbrothers.”b)“Herunsthefastestofallhisbrothers.”c)“Herunsfasterofallhisbrothers.”d)“Hefastestrunsofallhisbrothers.”

OrderofAdverbsDefinitionBecauseadverbsareusedtomodifyverbs,adjectives,otheradverbs,phrases,clauses,orevenentiresentences,theyareabletofunctionnearlyanywhereinthesentence,dependingontheirtypeandwhatitistheyaremodifying.Ifweusemorethanoneadverbtodescribeaverb,though,thereisageneralorderinwhichthedifferentcategoriesofadverbsshouldappear—thisisknownastheorderofadverbs(sometimescalledtheroyalorderofadverbs):1.Manner2.Place3.Frequency

4.Time5.PurposeOfcourse,itisuncommontousefiveadverbsinarowtomodifythesameword,butifasentenceusestwoorthree,thenitisbesttofollowthisordertoavoidsoundingunnatural.First,let’sbrieflysummarizethedifferentcategoriesofadverbs,andthenwe’lllookathowwecanusethemtogetherinsentences.(*Note:Forthesakeofconciseness,bothsingle-wordadverbsandadverbialphraseswillbereferredtotogetheras“adverbs”throughoutthissection.)

CategoriesofAdverbsAdverbsofMannerAdverbsofmannertellushowsomethinghappens,howsomeonedoessomething,orgivecharactertoadescription.Theyareusuallyformedbyadding“-ly”toanadjective,asin:•“Shesingsbeautifully.”•“Hewalksslowly.”•“Thechildrenareplayinghappily.”Ifanadjectivealreadyendsin“-ly,”wecangiveitanadverbialfunctionbysimplyusingitintheprepositionalphrase“ina______manner”:•“Theyplayedinalivelymanner.”•“Pleasearriveinatimelymanner.”

AdverbsofPlaceAdverbsofplacetellusaboutanaspectoflocationassociatedwiththeactionofaverb,specifyingthedirection,distance,movement,orpositioninvolvedintheaction.Forexample:•“Hekickedtheballintothefield.”•“Let’sdrivedownabitfarther.”•“Everyonegazedupwardsatthemeteorshower.”

•“I’velookedeverywhereformybook.”

AdverbsofFrequencyAdverbsoffrequency(sometimescalledfrequencyadverbs)tellushowoftensomethinghappensoristhecase.Theyaresometimesusedtodescribedefinitefrequency,asin:•“Iruneightmilesdaily.”•“Everyyear,ourofficeholdsabigraffleforcharity.”Moreoften,though,theseadverbsareusedtodescribeindefinitefrequency.Forexample:•“WeusuallygotothemoviesonSundays.”•“Bethanyalwaysrunslateforworkinthemorning.”

AdverbsofTimeAdverbsoftimetelluswhenorforhowlongsomethinghappensoristhecase.Theyaresimilartobutdistinctfromadverbsoffrequency.Forexample:•“I’mgoingtothemoviestomorrow.”•“Nextyear,I’mgoingtorunforpresident.”•“We’vebeendatingfor10years,andnotoncehasheproposed!”•“Areyoustillworkingonthatproject?”

AdverbsofPurposeAdverbsofpurpose(sometimescalledadverbsofreason)telluswhysomethinghappensoristhecase.Theyaregenerallymadeupofconjunctiveadverbs,prepositionalorinfinitivephrases,oradverbialclauses.Forexample:•“Jenhadn’tenjoyedtheplay;asaresult,shedidn’trecommendit.”•“Theclothingishandcraftedandhenceexpensive.”•“Giventhehugeamountofpublicinterest,theyareextendingtheprogramforanotherthreemonths.”•“Iwenttothestoretobuysomemilk.”

•“IamexhaustedbecauseIwasworkingallnight.”

UsingmultipleadverbsRemember,theorderofadverbsismanner,place,frequency,time,andpurpose.Aswealreadynoted,itisunusualtofindseveraladverbsconsecutivelymodifyingthesameword.However,ifweweretomakeasentencewithallfivecategoriesofadverbstogether,itmightlooklikethis:•“Ihavetorunquickly(manner)downthestreet(place)eachmorning(frequency)afterbreakfast(time)inordertocatchmybustoschool(purpose).”Eventhoughthestringofadverbsisunusuallylong,thesentencestillsoundssmoothandlogicalbecausetheorderiscorrect.Nowlet’stryrearrangingtheorderoftheadverbs:•“Ihavetoruneachmorning(frequency)quickly(manner)afterbreakfast(time)inordertocatchmybustoschool(purpose)downthestreet(place).”Bychangingtheorderoftheadverbs,we’veactuallychangedthemeaningofthesentence,oratleastmadeoriginalmeaningnearlyincomprehensible.Thisisespeciallyapparentwiththeadverbofpurposeinordertocatchmybustoschool:byplacingitbeforetheadverbofplace,itnowsoundsasthoughit’stheschoolthat’sdownthestreet.Thereisnotsuchadrasticshiftinmeaningfortheadverbsoffrequency,manner,andtime,buttheystillsoundawkwardandunnaturalintheneworder.

WhenwecanchangetheorderThereisagreatdealofflexibilityregardingwhereinasentenceanadverbcanappear,regardlessofitscontentandtherulesoforderthatwelookedatabove.Whiletheorderofadverbsisusefultokeepinmind,itisaguide,ratherthanalaw.

IntroductoryadverbsAsyoumayhavenoticedwhenwelookedatthedifferentcategoriesofadverbs,adverbscanappearindifferentplacesinasentence.Whenanadverbisusedatthebeginningasentence,itresultsinagreatdealofemphasis.Dependingonthesentence,wecandothiswithnearlyanycategoryofadverbregardlessoftheorderofadverbs—althoughwemustalwaysbecarefulthat

doingsodoesnotmakethesentenceawkwardoralteritsmeaning.Forexample,let’slookattheexamplesentenceagain,thistimeslightlyshiftingwhereinthesentencetheadverbsappear:•“Inordertocatchmybustoschool(purpose),Ihavetorunquickly(manner)downthestreet(place)eachmorning(frequency)afterbreakfast(time).”Placingtheadverbofpurposeatthebeginningofthesentencedoesn’talterthemeaninginanyway—instead,itgivestheadverbextraemphasisandhighlightsthepurposeoftheentiresentence.Inthisparticularsentence,wecanmovetheadverboffrequencytothebeginningofthesentenceaswell:•“Eachmorning(frequency),Ihavetorunquickly(manner)downthestreet(place)afterbreakfast(time)inordertocatchmybustoschool(purpose).”Wecanalsodothiswiththeadverboftime,butinthisinstanceithastobemovedwiththeadverboffrequency;otherwise,thesentencesoundsawkward.Forexample,comparethesetwosentenceconstructions:✔ “Eachmorning(frequency)afterbreakfast(time),Ihavetorunquickly(manner)downthestreet(place)inordertocatchmybustoschool(purpose).”(correct)✖ “Afterbreakfast(time),Ihavetorunquickly(manner)downthestreet(place)eachmorning(frequency)inordertocatchmybustoschool(purpose).”(incorrect)Wecanseethattheadverboftimesoundsawkwardwhenitisplacedbyitselfatthebeginningofthisparticularsentence.Adverbsofmannerandplacecanalsosometimesgoatthebeginningofthesentence,butwehavetobecarefulwithhowthesentencesoundsasawhole.Forexample,neitherwouldworkwellatthebeginningoftheexampleabovebecausetheemphasisplacedonthemwouldsoundunnaturalasaresult.However,inadifferentsentence,thisemphasismightbesuitable.Forexample:•“Onmyfather’sranch(place),Ioften(frequency)helpedgathertheanimalsattheendoftheday(time).”•“Impatiently(manner),Iwaitedbythebank(place)formyfathertoarrive(purpose).”

Shortvs.longadverbsGenerallyspeaking,wealsotendtoputadverbsthatareshorterandmoreconcisebeforethosethatarelonger,regardlessofwhichcategorytheybelongto(thoughwemustmakesurethattheinformation’smeaningdoesn’tchangeasaresult).Forexample:•“Ilivedwithmyparents(place)tosavemoney(purpose)whileIworkingonmyPh.D.(time).”•“Hedanceseverynight(frequency)inthemostextraordinaryway(manner).”

MultipleadverbsofthesamecategoryWhenweusemultipleadverbsofthesamecategorytomodifythesameverb,weorderthembasedonhowspecifictheinformationisthattheyprovide.Forexample:•“Onmyfather’sranch(place),Ioften(frequency)helpedgathertheanimalsattheendoftheday(specifictime)whenIwasyounger(non-specifictime).”•“Ilivedathome(morespecificplace)withmyparents(lessspecificplace)tosavemoney(purpose)whileIworkingonmyPh.D.(time).”


1.Whichofthefollowingisanadverbofmanner?a)inmymother’syardb)inabeautifulwayc)inafewhoursd)giventhewayhetalks2.Whichofthefollowingisanadverbofpurpose?a)tobemorehealthyb)forawhilec)infuriatinglyd)seldom

3.Completethissentenceusingcorrectadverborder:“Hesangbeautifully_______everynight.”a)toimpresshisparentsb)foraweekc)attheoperad)lastyear4.Choosethesentencethatusesthemostcorrectorderofadverbs:a)“Imustdrivetothestoreafterwe’refinishedwithdinnertopickupafewthingsforbreakfast.”b)“Imustafterwe’refinishedwithdinnerdrivetothestoretopickupafewthingsforbreakfast.c)“Afterwe’refinishedwithdinner,Imustdrivetothestoretopickupafewthingsforbreakfast.”d)“Topickupafewthingsforbreakfast,Imustdrivetothestoreafterwe’refinishedwithdinner.”e)A&Cf)B&D5.Choosethesentencethatusesthemostcorrectorderofadverbs:a)“Idon’twanttogotoworkagaintomorrow.”b)“AgainIdon’twanttogotoworktomorrow.”c)“Idon’twanttogotoworktomorrowagain.”d)“Tomorrow,Idon’twanttogotoworkagain.”

PrepositionsDefinitionPrepositionsareusedtoexpresstherelationshipofanounorpronoun(oranothergrammaticalelementfunctioningasanoun)totherestofthesentence.Thenounorpronounthatisconnectedbytheprepositionisknownastheobjectofthepreposition.Somecommonprepositionsarein,on,for,to,of,with,andabout,thoughtherearemanyothers.

PrepositionalPhrasesPrepositionsandtheirobjectstogetherformprepositionalphrases,whichcanfunctionaseitheradjectivesor(morecommonly)adverbs.Forexample:•“Thereisafilmatnoonwecouldsee.”(adjectival,modifyingthenounfilm)•“Hehitthenailwithahammer.”(adverbial,modifyingtheverbhit)Aprepositionalphrasealwayscontainsatleastaprepositionanditsobject(anounorpronoun),butitcanalsocontainmodifiersthataddadditionalmeaningtotheobject.Thesecanevenbeotherprepositionalphrasesfunctioningasadjectives.Forexample:•“Hearrivedtoschoolinaredcar.”•“Wekeepthelawnmowerintheshedoutback.”

AdjectivecomplementsOccasionally,adverbialprepositionsareusedtomodifypredicativeadjectivestocompleteorelaborateupontheirmeaning.Whentheyareusedinthisway,theyfunctionasadjectivecomplements.Forexample:•“Meganwasafraidofthunderstorms.”•“Philipisupsetaboutwhatwassaid.”•“Weareverypleasedwiththenumberofdonationswereceived.”

ChoosingtheappropriateprepositionCommonPrepositionalErrorsPrepositionscanbeverydifficulttonavigatebecausemanyofthemareusedtoexpressmultiplekindsofrelationships,andit’seasytouseoneinthewrongcontext.Forexample:✖ “Ihadbreakfastwithcerealandmilk.”(incorrect)✔ “Ihadcerealandmilkforbreakfast.”(correct)Thefirstsentenceisacommonerror.Itimpliesthatyou,thecereal,andthemilkallhadbreakfasttogether.Youcanhavebreakfastwithyourfriendsoryourfamily,butnotwithcerealandmilk.However,wecanusewithtoshowa

connectionbetweencerealandmilk,asin:✔ “Ihadcerealwithmilkforbreakfast.”Anothersimilarerroris:✖ “Igotoworkwithmycar.”✔ “Igotoworkbycar.”Inthefirstsentence,itimpliesthatyouandyourcargotoworktogether.Youcangotoworkwithaperson,butwhenspeakingaboutameansoftransportation,weoftenusetheprepositionby.Iftheobjectismodifiedbyapossessivedeterminer,wecanalsousetheprepositionin,asin:✔ “Igotoworkinmycar.”Whenchoosingtheappropriateprepositioninasentence,wemustconsidertheirvariouscategoriesaswellaswhattheprepositionalphraseisgoingtomodify.

CategoriesofprepositionsPrepositionscanbebroadlydividedintoeightcategories:time,place,directionormovement,agency,instrumentordevice,reasonorpurpose,connection,andorigin.Thefollowingtablehighlightsthemostcommoncategoriesofprepositionsandhowtheyareusedtoformadjectivaloradverbialprepositionalphrasesinasentence:

Category Preposition Examplesentences

Time at,in,on,for,during,since,by,until,before,after,to,past

•“Thereisafilmatnoonwecouldsee.”(adjectival)•“We’remeetinghiminanhour.”(adverbial)

Placeat,in,on,by/near/closeto,nextto/beside,between,behind,infrontof,above/over,below/under

•“Thecatontheroofwashissingatus.”(adjectival)•“Trylookingbehindtheshed.”(adverbial)

DirectionorMovement

to,from,over,under,along,around,across,through,into,outof,toward(s),awayfrom,onto,off,up,down

•“Thehousedowntheroadisbeingsold.”(adjectival)•“Theydroveacrossthe

country.”(adverbial)

Agency by,with

•“Thebookbythefamousauthorisabighit.”(adjectival)•“Herheartisfilledwithemotion.”(adverbial)

InstrumentorDevice by,with,on

•“Thejourneybyboatislongandarduous.”(adjectival)•“Hehitthenailwithahammer.”(adverbial)

ReasonorPurpose

for,through,becauseof,onaccountof,from

•“Ihaveaseparatecomputerforwork.”(adjectival)•“Theyleftearlybecauseofthestorm.”(adverbial)

Connection of,to,with

•“Awell-writtencoverlettertoemployershelpsyourchancesofbeinghired.”(adjectival)•“IthinkshedecidedtogowithVictor.”(adverbial)

Origin from,of

•“TomisofGermandescent.”(adjectival)•“WestartedourtripfromItaly.”(adverbial)

Noticethatmanyprepositionsfallundertwoormorecategories.Todeterminewhattypeofprepositionisbeingusedinasentence,youmustlookcloselyatthecontextandwhattheprepositionalphraseismodifying.Rememberthatprepositionalphrasescanbeusedwithverbs,withnouns,andwithadjectives.Continueontotherestofthesectionsinthischaptertolearnmoreabouthowandwhenprepositionsare(andarenot)used.

Prepositionsvs.InfinitivesThewordtoisaverycommonpreposition,usedtoexpresstime,direction,andconnection.Toisalsoused,however,asaparticletointroducetheinfinitiveformofverbs—e.g.,torun,toplay,tothink,tobe,etc.Forexample:•“Ioftenridemybicycletowork.”(prepositionofdirection)•“Ioftenridemybicycletostayhealthy.”(infinitive)Becausetheysharethesameintroductoryword,it’seasytomistakeonefortheother.Justrememberthatinfinitivesalwaysusethewordtowiththebaseorbareformofaverb,whiletheprepositiontoisalwaysfollowedbyanoun,pronoun,oragrammaticalelementfunctioningasanoun.


1.Whichofthefollowingistheprimaryfunctionofapreposition?a)Todescribethecharacteristicsofanounorpronounb)Todescribetherelationshipofanounorpronountoanotherpartofthesentencec)Tointroduceadependentclaused)Toconnectclausestogetherinasentence2.Aprepositionalphrasemustcontainatleastwhichofthefollowing?a)Aprepositionandanounb)Aprepositionandapronounc)Aprepositionandanadjectived)BothAandBe)EitherAorB3.Whichofthefollowingisthetermforaprepositionalphrasethatcompletesthemeaningofanadjective?a)Adjectivecomplementb)Adjectivemodifierc)Adverbialcomplementd)Adverbialmodifier

4.Whichofthefollowingisnotoneofthemaincategoriesofprepositions?a)Timeb)Conditionc)Directiond)Purpose

PrepositionalPhrasesDefinitionAprepositionalphraseismadeupofatleastaprepositionanditsobject,whichcanbeanoun,pronoun,oranounphrase.Oftentimes,theobjectwillhaveamodifierormodifiers(suchasadjectives,nounadjuncts,etc.)thatappearbetweenitandthepreposition.Thesespecifyordescribetheobject,but,unlikeprepositions,theydonotservetoconnecttheobjectgrammaticallytotherestofthesentence.

Examples•ontheground—Ondescribesthelocationinrelationtotheground.•ofthebedroom—Ofspecifiesthatwhateverisbeingdiscussedisparticulartothebedroom.•downthedarkalley—Downdescribesthedirectionofmovementinrelationtoalley,whiletheadjectivedarkisamodifierspecifyingthatthealleyisnotwelllit.•intoanemptyparkinglot—Todescribesthedirectionofmovementinrelationtothecompoundnounparkinglot.Theadjectiveemptyisamodifierspecifyingthattheparkinglotdoesn’thavepeopleorcarsinit.•becauseofthenastyweather—Becauseofisacompoundprepositiondescribingthereasonwhysomethinghappened—inthiscase,thenastyweather.Prepositionalphrasescanbehaveintwowaysinasentence:asanadjectivemodifyinganoun,orasanadverbmodifyingaverb,adjective,oradverb.

AdjectivalPrepositionalPhrasesWhenaprepositionalphrasemodifiesanoun,pronoun,gerund,ornounphrase

(allofwhichfunctiongrammaticallyasnouns),itisconsideredtofunctionasanadjectivewithinthesentence.Wecalltheseadjectivalprepositionalphrases,orsometimesjustadjectiveprepositionalphrases.Adjectivalprepositionalphrasesalwaysfollowthenountheyaremodifying.And,likeanadjective,thiskindofprepositionalphraseanswersoneormoreofthefollowingquestionsaboutthenoun:•Whichone?•Whatkind?•Howmanyorhowmuch?

Examples•“Thecatontheshedisblack.”Ontheshedisaprepositionalphrase—onisaprepositiondescribingthepositionofitsobject,theshed.Theprepositionalphraseisadjectivalbecauseitmodifiesthenouncat(whichitfollowsdirectlyinthesentence)byansweringthequestion“Whichcat?”•“Iwouldliketobuysomeflowersinaglassvase.”Theprepositionalphrasehereisinaglassvase—inisaprepositiondescribingtheobjectavase.Glassisamodifierofvase,appearingbetweentheprepositionandthenounthatitmodifies.Theprepositionalphraseinthissentenceisadjectivalbecauseitimmediatelyfollowsthenounthatitdescribes(flowers),andittellsuswhatkindofflowersthespeakerwouldliketobuy.•“Peoplefrommanydifferentcountrieshavevisitedhere.”Frommanydifferentcountriesisaprepositionalphrasemodifyingthenounpeople.Itimmediatelyfollowsthatnoun,anditanswersthequestionwhatkindofpeople(peoplefromdifferentcountries).Butitalsoindirectlyanswersthequestionhowmany,becauseittellsthereaderthatalargenumberofpeoplehavevisited.

AdverbialPrepositionalPhrasesWhenaprepositionalphrasemodifiesaverb,adjective,oradverb,itisconsideredtohavethefunctionofanadverbwithinthesentence.Wecalltheseadverbialprepositionalphrases,orsometimesjustadverbprepositionalphrases,adverbphrases,orevenjustadverbs.

Ifanadverbialphraseisdescribinganadjectiveoranadverb,itwillfollowthatwordinthesentence.However,adverbialprepositionalphrasesdon’talwaysimmediatelyfollowtheverbtheyaremodifying.Likenormaladverbs,adverbialprepositionalphrasesanswerthequestions:•When?•Where?•How(inwhatway)?•Why(forwhatpurpose)?•Towhatextent?

ExamplesVerbs•“Shewillleaveafterashortrun.”Heretheprepositionalphraseafterashortrunfollowstheworditmodifies,theverbleave.Itdescribesapointintime(albeitanonspecificone),answeringthequestionofwhentheactionwillhappen.•“Iranamiledowntheroad.”Eventhoughtheprepositionalphrasedowntheroadfollowsthenounmile,itactuallydescribestheverbrun.Hereitisansweringthequestionwhere:“Wheredidyourun(amile)?”“Downtheroad.”Anadverbialprepositioncanalsobeplacedatdifferentplacesinthesentencewhenmodifyingaverb,suchasatthebeginning.Forexample:•“Becauseofmyoperation,Ihadtocancelmyflight.”Theprepositionalphrasebecauseofmyoperation,whichopensthesentence,isdescribingtheverbcancel—inthisinstance,itisdescribingwhythespeakerhadtocancel.

AdjectivesandadverbsAdverbialprepositionalphrasesthatmodifyadjectivesandadverbscanbehardertoidentifybecausetheadjectivesandadverbsareusuallypairedwithverbs.Rememberthattheseprepositionalphrasesalwaysfollowtheadjectiveoradverbandwillcontaininformationspecifictotheadjectiveandadverb.

•“Iwasdelightedwiththeresults.”Inthissentence,theprepositionalphrasewiththeresultsisdescribingthepredicativeadjectivedelighted,anditanswersthequestion“Whyareyoudelighted?”Eventhoughdelightedispairedwiththelinkingverbwas,theprepositionalphraseveryclearlydescribestheadjectiveratherthantheverb.•“Icangettheremorequicklyonmynewbike.”Here,onmynewbikedescribestheadverbmorequickly,answeringthequestion“How?”or“Inwhatmanner?”Itcouldalsoseemthattheprepositionalphraseisdescribingtheverbget,buttheinformationintheprepositionalphraseisspecifictogettingtherequickly.

MultiplePrepositionalPhrasesSentencescan(andoftendo)havemorethanoneprepositionalphrase.Whatkindofprepositionalphraseeachoneisdependsonwhatitismodifying,whichisgenerallyindicatedbywhereitisplacedinthesentenceandwhatkindofinformationitisproviding.Forinstance,verbsoftentakemultipleadverbialprepositionalphrasesasmodifiers,whileanadjectivalprepositionalphrasecanmodifytheobjectsofotherprepositionalphrases.Itcanseemalittlebitcomplicated,butifyoubreakthesentencedownintoparts,youcanstillapplytherulesthatwereoutlinedabove.

Examples•“DuringtheChristmasbreak,Ivisitedmyoldschoolbehindourhouse.”Therearetwoprepositionalphrasesinthissentence.Thefirst,duringtheChristmasbreak,isanadverbialprepositionalphrase.Weknowthisbecauseitcomesattheverybeginningofthesentence,anditdescribestheverbvisited(answeringthequestion“When?”).Thesecondprepositionalphraseisbehindourhouse.Itisanadjectivalprepositionalphrase,modifyingthenounschoolandansweringthequestion“Whichone?”•“Weendedourgamewiththeneighborsatoncewhenweheardourparentscalling.”Here,twoprepositionalphrasesoccuroneaftertheother.Thefirstone,withtheneighbors,describesthenoungame,soitisadjectival.

Thesecondprepositionalphrase,atonce,describestheverbended,eventhoughitcomesquiteabitlaterinthesentence.Becauseitdescribesaverb,itisanadverbialprepositionalphrase.•“WhileIwashomeforthesummeraftermyfirstsemesterofcollege,Idecidedtoworkinastoretoearnsomeextracash.”Thissentencefeaturesfourprepositionalphrases,threeofwhichoccurinsuccession.Thefirstisforthesummer.Itisfunctioningasanadverbtodescribetheverbphrasewashome,specifyingwhenthespeakerwasathome.(Inthiscaseitisdescribingadurationoftime.)Eventhoughthesecondprepositionalphrase,aftermyfirstsemester,seemstodescribethefirstone,itisactuallyalsodescribingtheverbphrasetofurtherclarifywhenthespeakerwashome.Inthisinstance,youcanreversetheprepositionalphrases—“WhileIwashomeaftermyfirstsemesterforthesummer”—andstillhavetheclausemakecompletesense(evenifit’snotasclearlywritten).However,thethirdprepositionalphrase,ofcollege,isanadjectivalprepositionalphrase—itisdescribingthenounphrasemyfirstsemester,whichistheobjectofthesecondprepositionalphrase.Here,itservestoanswerthequestionwhich(orevenwhatkind)aboutthesemesterbeingdiscussed.Assuch,itis“tied”tothatpreposition:itwouldnotmakesensetoplaceitelsewhereinthesentence.Forinstance,“WhileIwashomeforthesummerofcollegeaftermyfirstsemester”doesnotmakesense.Thefinalprepositionalphrase,inastore,ismucheasiertounderstand.Itisanadverbialprepositionalphrasemodifyingtheverbwork,andspecifieswherethespeakerisgoingtowork.


1.Whatdoesaprepositionalphrasehavetoinclude?(Selecttheanswerthatismostcorrect.)a)Apreposition,averb,andanobjectb)Aprepositionandamodifierc)Apreposition,anobject,andamodifierd)Aprepositionandanobject

2.Whatdoesanadverbialprepositionalphrasemodify?a)Anounb)Averb,anadjective,oranadverbc)Anoun,averb,anadjective,oranadverbd)Anotherprepositionalphrase3.Whichofthefollowingprepositionalphrases(inbold)isanadjectivalprepositionalphrase?a)“Ialwayseattoastinthemorning.”b)“Whilewewereonourvacation,wevisitedthehomeofmyyouth.”c)“Afterthegame,Ihadtorunquicklyacrossthefield.”d)“I’vebeenreallyhungrybecauseofmynewdiet.”4.Identifytheprepositionalphraseinthefollowingsentence:“Ihadtogohomeearlyduetoabigstorm.”a)duetoabigstormb)hadtogoc)gohomeearlyd)earlydue5.Howmanyprepositionalphrases(bothadjectivalandadverbial)areinthefollowingsentence?“Afterthegame,wehadtogotothelibrarytogetabookformymother,whowaswaitingforusintheparkinglot.”a)Threeb)Twoc)Fourd)Five

CategoriesofPrepositionsDefiningCategoriesMostprepositionshavemultipleusagesandmeanings.Generallyspeaking,prepositionscanbedividedintoeightcategories:time,place,directionormovement,agency,instrumentordevice,reasonorpurpose,connection,andorigin.Thefollowingtablehighlightsthemostcommonprepositionsandtheircategories*:

Category Preposition

Time at,in,on,for,during,since,by,until,before,after,to,past

Place at,in,on,by/near/closeto,nextto/beside,between,behind,infrontof,above/over,below/under

DirectionorMovement

to,from,over,under,along,around,across,through,into,outof,toward(s),awayfrom,onto,off,up,down

Agency by,with

InstrumentorDevice by,with,on

ReasonorPurpose for,through,becauseof,onaccountof,from

Connection of,to,with

Origin from,of*Manyprepositionswillfallundertwoormorecategories.Todeterminewhattypeofprepositionisbeingusedinasentence,youmustlookcloselyatthecontextandwhatisbeingdescribed.

PrepositionsoftimeAprepositionoftimedescribeswhenorforhowlongsomethingoccurredor

willoccur.Thethreemostcommonprepositionsoftimeareat,in,andon.Eachprepositionoftimereferstoadifferentincrementoforpointintime,asshownbelow:

PrepositionofTime WhatitDescribes ExampleSentences

at specificandshorttimesofday“Let’smeetatnoon.”“Chrisarrivedatoneo’clock.”

in months,years,andspecifictimesofday

“BethstartsschoolinAugust.”“In2008,theU.S.heldapresidentialelection.”“Iwouldratherworkontheprojectintheafternoon.”

on daysanddates

“OnTuesday,Dadwenttothegrocerystore.”“Valentine’sDayisonFebruary14.”

for durationsoftime “Helivedabroadformanyyears.”

during simultaneousevents “We’renotsupposedtostudyduringclass.”

since acontinuouseventoriginatingfromaspecificpointinthepast

“She’sbeenwaitingtohearbackfromtheofficesinceyesterday.”

byaspecificpointinthefuturebeforewhichaneventmustbecompleted

“Youmustwakeupbysixo’clocktomorrowmorning.”

untilacontinuouseventthatwillterminateataspecificpointinthefuture

“Danielcan’tsneakoutofthehouseuntilhisparentsgotobed.”

before somethingpriortoaspecifictimeorevent

“Themoonrosebeforesunset.”

after somethingfollowingaspecifictimeorevent

“Katrinamadeapromisetohelpoutafterworktoday.”

to timeinrelationtothenexthouroftheday

“Mywatchsaysit’s10minutestothreerightnow.”

past timeinrelationtotheprevioushouroftheday

“Ideally,thepartywouldstartnolaterthanaquarterpasteight.”

PrepositionsofplaceAprepositionofplacedescribeswheresomethingislocatedinreferencetosomethingelse,orwheresomethingoccurredorwilloccur.Likeprepositionsoftime,themostcommonprepositionsofplacearealsoat,in,andon.Theusagesoftheseandotherprepositionsofplaceareexplainedbelow:

PrepositionofPlace WhatitDescribes ExampleSentences

at specificpointsorlocations

“Benisplanningonstayingthenightatahotel.”

in enclosedspaces “Thericeisinthecabinet.”

on surfacesortopsofthings “Leavethetowelonthecounter.”

by,near,closeto lackofdistance “Thelibraryisby/near/closetothe

trainstation.”

nextto,beside adjacency

“Manypeopleconsideritrudetositnextto/besideastrangerinamovietheater.”

betweensomethinginthemiddleoftwopeople

“Tomakeasandwich,simplyputsomethingbetweentwoslicesof

orthings bread.”

behind somethingatthebackofsomething

“Istoodbehindmysisterwhilewewaitedinline.”

infrontof somethingsituatedbeforesomething

“Let’sputthedresserinfrontofthewindow.”

above,over*

somethinghigherthansomething

“Thearchabove/overthehallwayremindedNatalieofacastleshe’dvisited.”

below,under**

somethinglowerthansomething

“Allchildrenfearthemonstersbelow/undertheirbeds.”

*Overandabovebothdescribesomethinghigherthansomethingelse,butovercanalsodescribesomethingdirectlyincontactwithandcoveringsomethingbeneathit.Forexample:“Idrapedmyjacketoverthecouch”iscorrect,whereas“Idrapedmyjacketabovethecouch”isincorrect.**Underandbelowcanbothdescribesomethinglowerthansomethingelse,butundercanalsodescribesomethingthatisdirectlyincontactwithsomethingontopofit.Forexample:“Thepuppyhidundertheblanket”iscorrect,whereas“Thepuppyhidbelowtheblanket”isincorrect.

PrepositionsofdirectionormovementAprepositionofdirectionormovementdescribeshow,where,orinwhatwaysomethingmoves.Thefollowingtablehighlightsthemostcommonprepositionsofdirectionandmovement,aswellastheirdifferentusages:

PrepositionofDirectionorMovement

WhatitDescribes ExampleSentences

tomovementwithaspecificaim,direction,ordestination

“MybrotherwenttoEuropewithhisfriends.”

from movementwithaspecificpointoforigin

“ShetoldstoriesaboutthetimeshewalkedtoSpainfromFrance.”

over movementhigherthanandacrosssomethingelse

“Thebirdflewoverthetrees.”

above movementtoapointhigherthansomethingelse

“Heshothisarrowabovethetarget.”

under/beneath movementlowerthansomething

“Thatlargewormwentunder/beneaththedirt.”

along movementonastraightlineoredge

“Thechildhoodfriendsrodetheirbicyclesalongtheroad.”

around movementinacirculardirection

“Thecoupleheldhandsandskatedaroundtherink.”

across movementfromoneendtotheother

“Iwalkedacrosstheflimsybridge.”

throughmovementfromonesideofanenclosedspaceandoutoftheother

“Theburglarenteredthehousethroughthebasementwindow.”

into movementendinginsidesomething

“Ifyoujumpintothewaterlikethis,youcanmakeabigsplash.”

outof movementendingoutsidesomething

“Getoutofthatcavebeforethebearcomesback!”

toward(s)* movementclosertosomething

“Laughing,shethrewupherhandsandrantoward(s)thepark.”

awayfrom movementfartherfromsomething

“Getawayfromthefirebeforeyougetburned.”

movementendingontopof “Becarefulclimbingonto

onto something thatledge.”

off movementdownorawayfromsomething

“Parentsarealwaysyellingattheirkidstogetoffthefurniture.”

up movementheadingup“Whenyouuseafireplace,smokegoesupthechimney.”

down movementheadingdown “Hejumpeddownandhurthisknee.”

*Towardandtowardsareinterchangeable.InformalAmericanEnglish,“toward”ispreferred.

PrepositionsofagencyAprepositionofagencydescribesapersonorathingthathascausedoriscausingsomethingtooccur.Sentencescontainingprepositionsofagencyareusuallywritteninthepassivevoiceandemploytheprepositionsby(forpeople)andwith(forthings).Forexample:•“Thehousewasbuiltbythethreesiblings.”(passive)•“Thethreesiblingsbuiltthehouse.”(active)•“Herheartisfilledwithemotion.”(passive)•“Emotionfilledherheart.”(active)

PrepositionsofinstrumentordeviceAprepositionofinstrumentordeviceisusedwhendescribingcertaintechnologies,machines,ordevices.Theseprepositionsareby,with,andon.Typically,byreferstomethodsoftransportation,whereaswithandondescribetheuseofmachinesandotherdevices.Forexample:•“AuntPatriciareturnedhomebyferry.”•“Sheopenedthelockeddoorwithanoldkey.”•“MayIfinishmyhomeworkonyourcomputer?”

PrepositionsofreasonorpurposeAprepositionofreasonorpurposedescribeswhysomethinghasoccurredorwilloccur.Commonprepositionsofreasonorpurposeincludefor,through,becauseof,onaccountof,andfrom.Forexample:•“EverythingIdidwasforyou.”•“Throughherbravery,wewereabletoescapeunharmed.”•“Becauseofthedelay,Iwaslatetotheparade.”•“Theemployeesrefusedtoworkonaccountoftheirlowpay.”•“Heknowsfromexperiencehowtodealwiththem.”

PrepositionsofconnectionAprepositionofconnectiondescribespossession,relationships,oraccompaniment.Ofisusedforpossession,toforrelationshipsbetweenpeopleorthings,andwithforaccompaniment.Forexample:•“TheStatueofLibertyislocatedinNewYorkHarbor.”•“Awell-writtenessayisimpressivetoteachers.”•“LisawantedtogototheconcertwithVictor.”

OriginWhenwedescribeapersonorthing’sorigin(suchasnationality,hometown/state,ethnicity,theplacewheresomethingwasbuiltordesigned,etc.),wetypicallyusetheprepositionfrom(and,toalesserdegree,of).Forexample:•“ImetthemostdelightfulcouplefromItaly.”•“I’mfromNewYorkoriginally,butI’velivedinDallasformanyyears.”•“ThenewprofessorisofTurkishdescent.”•“Thenewcomputerfromthetechgiantshouldberevolutionary.”


1.Whichofthefollowingisnotoneoftheprepositionsoftime?

a)inb)atc)ond)with2.Whichofthefollowingsentencescontainsaprepositionofplace?a)“Shestruggledtoplaythesongonherguitar.”b)“Thekittenfellasleepbesideme.”c)“Nathandidn’tthinktheplanwouldworkonaccountofitshastydevelopment.d)“Thesoundofvoicescouldbeheardcomingthroughthevents.”3.Whichofthefollowingsentencescontainsaprepositionofagency?a)“Emmacouldn’tbelievethesonghadbeenwrittenforher.”b)“ThoserosesweresentbyGrandma.”c)“Themeetingwilltakeplaceat10o’clock.”d)“Shedecidedtomoveawayfromherhomecity.”4.Whichofthefollowingsentencescontainsaprepositionofreasonorpurpose?a)“Itrekkedacrossthecountryalone.”b)“Thebookisonthedesk.”c)“Let’stalkaboutthisagainaftertheshow.”d)“Hekeptgoingbecauseofhisdesiretosucceed.”

CommonPrepositionalErrorsDuetothelargenumberofprepositionsinEnglish,aswellasthefactthatmanyprepositionsservemultiplepurposes,itcanbequitedifficulttodeterminewhichprepositiontouseinaparticularsituation.Thisisespeciallytrickyfortheprepositionsweuseafterverbs.Inthissection,we’lllookatsomecommonerrorsthatarisewhentryingtodeterminetheappropriateprepositiontousewithaparticularkindofverb,aswellasidentifyingpatternstohelpusmakethecorrectchoice.

Verbsofmotion—tovs.in

Verbsthatdescribethemovementfromoneplacetoanothergenerallytaketheprepositionto.However,whenaverbdescribesamovementfromoneplaceintoanother,weusetheprepositionsinorinto.Thiscanleadtoconfusionbetweenthetwoprepositionswhenusingamotionverbthatcandescribeeitherscenario.Forexample:✖ “IwentinLondonlastyear.”(incorrect)✔ “IwenttoLondonlastyear.”(correct)Whenweuseamotionverbthisway,weusetheprepositionofmovementto.Theonlyexceptiontotheruleistheverbphrasegohome,wherehomeisanadverbialnounthatmodifiestheverb.OtherwiseweneedtousetotoexpressgoingfromAtoB.Herearesomemoreexamplesofmotionverbsthattaketheprepositionto:•“Walktoschool.”•“Runtothestore.”•“Movetotheleft.”•“Turntotheright.”•“Swimtotheshore.”•“Drivetothecountry.”•“Cycletowork.”Ofcoursewecanuseotherprepositionsofmovementwhenwedescribedifferentrelationshipsbetweentheverbandtheobjectofthepreposition.Forexample:•“Walkacrosstheroad.”•“Runalongtheriver.”•“Cycleroundthepark.”•“Driveoverthebridge.”•“Swimupanddownthepool.”•“Wentintheschool.”

Staticverbs—atvs.to✖ “Iarrivedtotheairportlate.”(incorrect)✔ “Iarrivedattheairportlate.”(correct)

Remember,weusetowithmotionverbswhenwedescribethemovementfromonelocationtoanother.Arrive,however,isconsidereda“static”verb,meaningitindicatesnomovementfrompointAtopointB.Inthiscase,weneedtousetheprepositionat,whichisusedtoindicatebeinginalocation.Otherexamplesofstaticverbarebeandstay;wealsouseatratherthantowiththeseverbs,asin:✖ “Iwastothetheaterlastnight.”(incorrect)✔ “Iwasatthetheaterlastnight.”(correct)✖ “Istayedtomybrother’shouselastnight.”(incorrect)✔ “Istayedatmybrother’shouselastnight.”(correct)

Possessionandaccess—tovs.ofTheprepositionstoandofcanbothbeusedtosignifythatsomethingbelongstoorisapropertyofanotherthing.However,weusetotoindicatethatsomethinggrantsaccessorleadsintoanotherthing,whichisarelationshipthatofdoesnotdescribe.Forexample:✖ “Thisisthekeyofmyroom.”(incorrect)✔ “Thisisthekeytomyroom.”(correct)Therearealsocertaininstancesinwhichwecoulduseeitherprepositionandstillhaveacorrectsentence,butthemeaningwouldbesubtlydifferent:✔ “Thisisthemaindoorofthehouse.”(correct—meaningtheprimarydoorbelongingtothehouse)✔ “Thisisthemaindoortothehouse.”(alsocorrect—meaningtheprimarydoortogainaccesstothehouse)

Differentmedia—invs.onAnotherpairofsimilarprepositionsisinandon,whichcanbothbeusedtodescribethemediumbywhichsomethingisseen.Weuseinwhenwearetalkingaboutsomethingappearinginprintedmedia,whileonisusedtotalkaboutsomethingappearingontelevisedordigitalmedia.Let’slookattwosetsofexamplestobetterseethisdifference:✖ “Isawitonthenewspaper.”(incorrect)✔ “Ireaditinthenewspaper.”(correct)✖ “IsawitinTV.”(incorrect)✔ “IsawitonTV.”(correct)

Containmentandnativity—invs.of✖ “TheNileisthelongestriveroftheworld.”(incorrect)✔ “TheNileisthelongestriverintheworld.”(correct)Rememberthatofrelatestobelonging,whileinreferstobeinginsideorwithinsomeplace.Wespeakaboutcountriesandthingsbeingintheworld,notoftheworld.Ontheotherhand,whenwedescribesomeplacetowhichapersonorthingisnative,weuseofandnotin.Forexample:✖ “HeisacitizeninGreece.”(incorrect)✔ “HeisacitizenofGreece.”(correct)✖ “ThegraywolfinNorthAmericaisabeautifulcreature.”(incorrect)✔ “ThegraywolfofNorthAmericaisabeautifulcreature.”(correct)

Performance—invs.atWhenwedescribehowwellsomeonedoessomething,weoftenusetheverbphraseisgoodfollowedbytheprepositionat.However,ifweusetheverbphrasedoeswell,weusuallyusetheprepositionin,whichcanleadtoaconfusionbetweenthetwo.Forexample:✖ “MybrotherisgoodinEnglish.”(incorrect)✔ “MybrotherisgoodatEnglish.”(correct)✖ “Mysisterdoeswellatschool.”(incorrect)✔ “Mysisterdoeswellinschool.”(correct)Whenwearetalkingaboutaparticularsubject,weuseisgoodat,butifwe’retalkingaboutaparticularsetting,weusedoeswellin.

Over,on,andattheweekendWhenwetalkaboutourplansforanupcomingweekend,thereareanumberofprepositionalconstructionswecanuse.InAmericanEnglish,themostcommonprepositionstouseareoverandon.InBritishEnglish,themostcommonprepositionisat,thoughoverisalsoused.NotethattheprepositionduringisnotusedineitherAmericanorBritishEnglish.•“Iwilldomyhomeworkontheweekend.”(AmericanEnglish)•“Iwilldomyhomeworkovertheweekend.”(AmericanandBritishEnglish)•“Iwilldomyhomeworkattheweekend.”(BritishEnglish)

TransitiveandintransitiveverbsWemustbecarefulwithprepositionswhenitcomestotransitiveandintransitiveverbs.Remember,transitiveverbscantakedirect(andsometimesindirect)objects,whileintransitiveverbscannot.

PrepositionswithintransitiveverbsIfwewanttoexpressadirectrelationshipbetweenanintransitiveverbandsomethingthatseemstobereceivingitsaction,weoftenuseapreposition.Forexample:✖ “Ilistenedtheradiolastnight.”(incorrect)✔ “Ilistenedtotheradiolastnight.”(correct)✖ “I’llwaityou.”(incorrect)✔ “I’llwaitforyou.”(correct)Ifweleaveouttheprepositionstoandfor,wemaketheradioandyoutheobjectsoftheintransitiveverbslistenandwait,whichisincorrect.

PrepositionswithtransitiveverbsLikewise,wemustbecarefulnottouseaprepositionwiththeobjectsoftransitiveverbs:✖ “I’llanswertothephone.”(incorrect)✔ “I’llanswerthephone.”(correct)✖ “Sheisgoingtomarrywithalawyer.”(incorrect)✔ “Sheisgoingtomarryalawyer.”(correct)✖ “Iaskedtohimto*buysomebread.”(incorrect)✔ “Iaskedhimto*buysomebread.”(correct)(*Notethattobuyinthelasttwoexamplesisaninfinitive,notaprepositionalphrase;itisfunctioningasanadverbofpurposetomodifytheverbask.)Theverbaskcanalsobeanintransitiveverbinsomeinstances,inwhichcasewecanusetheprepositionfor:✔ “IaskedJeff.”(transitive)✔ “IaskedforJeff.”(intransitive)Becareful,though,becausethischangestheverb’smeaning.Whenweuseaskwithjustaperson’sname,asinthefirstexample,itmeanstoasktheperson

something,suchasaquestion.Whenweaskforsomeone,itmeanswearerequestingtoseeorspeaktothatperson.

PrepositionsandindirectobjectsSometransitiveverbsareabletotakebothdirectobjectsandindirectobjects(peopleorthingsthatreceivethedirectobjectoftheverb).Ifaverbiscapableoftakinganindirectobject,thatpersonorthingappearsimmediatelyaftertheverbandbeforethedirectobject.Wecanalsoplaceitafterthedirectobjectwiththeprepositionto,inwhichcaseitisnolongeratrueindirectobjectbutanadverbialprepositionalphrase.Forexample:✔ “Johnsentmealetter.”(correct—indirectobject)✔ “Johnsentalettertome.”(correct—adverbialprepositionalphrase)However,notalltransitiveverbscantakeindirectobjects.Ifaverbisunabletohaveatrueindirectobject,wehavetoputthepersonorthingreceivingthedirectobjectinaprepositionalphrasewithto.Forinstance:✖ “I’llexplainyoutheproblem.”(incorrect)✔ “I’llexplaintheproblemtoyou.”(correct)

VerbsthattakebothtoandatManyverbsareabletotakemultipleprepositionsafterthem.However,thisoftenresultsinachangeinthesentence’smeaning.Themostcommonofthesepairsistoandat—alargenumberofverbsareabletotakeboth.We’lllookatanumberofsuchconstructionsbelow.

Shouttovs.shoutatWhenyoushouttosomeone,youraiseyourvoicetoensurethatheorshecanhearyou.If,ontheotherhand,youshoutatsomeone,youraiseyourvoicebecauseyouareangrywithhimorher.Forexample:•“IshoutedtoMary,butshewastoofarawaytohearme.”•“Hejustkeptshoutingatme,eventhoughIhadapologized.”

Throwtovs.throwatIfyouthrowsomethingtosomeone,suchasaball,youintendforthatpersontocatchit.Forexample:

•“Shethrewtheballtothedog.Hecaughtitandranawaywithit.”Ifyouthrowsomethingatsomeone,youwanttohitthemwithit.Thiscouldbebecauseyouareangrywiththem,asin:•“Shewassoangrywithherhusbandthatshethrewherweddingringathim.”

Pointtovs.pointatYoucanpointtooratapersonaswellasanobject.Ifwepointtosomeoneorsomething,weareindicatingalocationordirection.Forexample:•“Shepointedtothesky.”Ifwepointatsomeoneorsomething,wedrawattentiontothatspecificpersonorthing,asin:•“‘You’retheonewhostolemybag!’sheshouted,pointingatthethief.”Sometimesthedifferencebetweenthetwoisverysubtle,andwecanuseeitherprepositionwithlittletonochangeinmeaning.•“Hepointedat/tohiswatchandsaid,‘Imustgo.It’sverylate.’”

LearningthecorrectprepositionsInthisguide,weprovidesomegeneralguidelinesfordeterminingwhichprepositiontouseinagivensituation.However,theuseofprepositionsisparticularlyvariedandflexibleinEnglish,sothebestwaytolearncorrectprepositionaluseistopaycloseattentiontothewaypeoplespeakandwrite.

PrepositionswithNounsDefinitionCertainprepositionscanbeusedinconjunctionwithnounstoconnect,emphasize,orprovideclarificationforideasexpressedinsentences.Inthiscombination,theprepositionalwayscomesdirectlyafterthenoun.Herearesomeofthemostcommonprepositionsusedwithnouns:

toforof

inonatfromwithaboutbetween

RulesThereisnoclear-cutrulethatdetermineswhichprepositionsconnecttowhichnouns;however,wecanlookathowsynonymousnounsandassociatedverbspairwithprepositionstoobservepatternsormakeaneducatedguess.

SynonymousnounsSynonymousnounstypicallyemployidenticalprepositions.Forexample,whenthenounrespectisreplacedwithitssynonyms(suchasadmirationoresteem),theprepositionforremainsthesame:•“Icouldneverloserespectforyou.”(original)•“Icouldneverloseadmirationforyou.”•“Icouldneverloseesteemforyou.”Intheabovecase,theprepositiondoesnotchange,regardlessofwhatsynonymisbeingused.Thisisnotalwaysthecase,however,sodonottakethisasaconcreterule.Theexamplesbelowdemonstratecasesinwhichtheprepositionchangeswithsynonymsoftheoriginalnoun:•“Myaddictiontocoffeeisunhealthy.”(original)•“Myobsessionwithcoffeeisunhealthy.”•“Mydependenceoncoffeeisunhealthy.”

VerbswithprepositionsFormanywords,theprepositionsusedwithnounsarethesameprepositionsusedwiththosenouns’associatedverbforms.Forexample:

•“Hediscussedhisreactiontotheresults.”(noun)•“Hediscussedhowhereactedtotheresults.”(verb)•“Ihaveknowledgeofthatparticularissue.”(noun)•“Iknowofthatparticularissue.”(verb)Becarefulnottorelyonthispattern,though,becauseinsomecaseschanginganounintoitsverbformaltersthepreposition:•“Ihavedeepsympathyforhim.”•“Ideeplysympathizewithhim.”•“Shehasanobsessionwiththatcomicbook.”•“Sheobsessesoverthatcomicbook.”

ExamplesofcommonpairingsAlthoughtherearesometrickswecanuse,thereisnospecificwayofdeterminingwhichprepositionspairwithparticularnouns—wejusthavetoknowthembyheart.Theonlywaytodothisisbyseeingthemusedineverydaywritingandspeech.Belowwewilllookatexamplesofthemostcommonprepositionsthatpairwithnouns.

Noun+toOneofthemostcommonprepositionsusedwithnounsisto.Thefollowingtablecontainsexamplesofcombinationsyoumightsee:

Noun+to ExampleSentence

accessto “Icouldn’tenterthebuildingwithoutaccesstothedoor’spassword.”

addictionto “Alisonhasanaddictiontofootball.”

answerto “Heranswertotheteacher’squestionwasincorrect.”

approachto

“ProfessorSmith’sapproachtotheexperimentwasincrediblyinnovative.”

damageto “ThedamagetothecarisworsethanIthoughtit’dbe.”

dedicationto “Nedhasintensededicationtohisschoolwork.”

devotionto “Everyoneadmiredthedoctor’sdevotiontoherpatients.”

reactionto “Thechildhadanadorablereactiontothekitten.”

responseto “ShegavenoresponsetothequestionI’daskedher.”

solutionto “Noonecouldcomeupwithasolutiontothemathproblem.”

threatto “Climatechangeisapotentialthreattocertainspecies.”

Noun+forAnothercommonprepositionusedwithnounsisfor.Examplescanbeseeninthetablebelow:

Noun+for ExampleSentence

admirationfor “Pennyhassomuchadmirationforhermother.”

curefor “Healthofficialsrecentlyannouncedthatacureforthefataldiseasehadbeenfound.”

desirefor “Mydesireforsuccessismoreimportantthanmydesireforromance.”

hopefor “Youthsoftenhavehighhopesforhumanity.”

needfor “Theneedforsocialinteractionisabasichumantrait.”

passionfor

“Simplyhavingapassionforwritingdoesn’tnecessarilymeanyouwillbecomeabest-sellingauthor.”

reasonfor “Thereisalwaysareasonforchange.”

respectfor “Certainculturespromoterespectforelders.”

roomfor “There’sroomforonemorepersonatthistable.”

sympathyfor “Youshouldalwayshavesympathyforstrangers.”

talentfor “Greghasatalentforstand-upcomedy.”

Noun+ofTheprepositionofcanbeusedwithmanynouns.Herearesomecommoncombinations:

Noun+of ExampleSentence

advantageof “Mostpeopleseemtounderestimatetheadvantageofmajoringinphilosophy.”

disadvantageof

“Thedisadvantageofbecominganentrepreneuristheamountofdebtyoucanaccumulate.”

fearof “Myniecehasafearofthedark.”

habitof “Iusedtohaveahabitofbitingmyfingernails.”

intentionof “Doyouhaveanyintentionofgoingouttoday?”

knowledgeof “Timothy’sknowledgeofbeekeepingisimpressive.”

lackof “Thepolicecannotarresthimduetoalackofevidence.”

memoryof “Ihavenomemoryofmyfirstyearinschool.”

processof “Theprocessofeliminationisapopulartechniquewhentakingmultiple-choicetests.”

smellof “Ilovethesmelloffreshlybakedcookies.”

soundof “Canyouhearthesoundofbirdschirping?”

tasteof “Thetasteofcookedoctopusisanacquiredone.”

Noun+inSeveralnounstaketheprepositionin,examplesofwhichcanbeseeninthefollowingtable:

Noun+in ExampleSentence

beliefin “Itisnotuncommontohaveabeliefinahigherpower.”

changein “Scientistsdetectedlittlechangeintheatmosphere.”

decreasein “Adecreaseintaxeswoulddramaticallyaffecttheeconomy.”

delayin “Thereappearstohavebeenadelayinprocessingyourpayment.”

experiencein “Shehaslittleexperienceinbackpacking.”

increasein “I’mhopingforanincreaseinenvironmentallyfriendlyproducts.”

interestin “Evenasachild,thegirlhadaninterestinarchaeology.”

pleasurein “Hetookpleasureinplayingthepiano.”

reductionin “Meredithwasforcedtotakeareductioninherpay.”

risein “Afterhewonthejackpot,hishometownwitnessedasharpriseinsalesoflotterytickets.”

Noun+onTheprepositiononislesscommonlypairedwithnouns,butthereareinstances

whereitisused.Herearesomeexamplesofonbeingusedwithnouns:

Noun+on ExampleSentence

adviceon “Ireadmagazinesforadviceonrelationships.”

attackon “Someviewthenewlawasanattackonourrights.”

banon “Theearly20thcenturysawashort-livedbanonalcohol.”

emphasison

“SheisstudyingEastAsiancultureswithanemphasisonJapanesesociety.”

focuson “Hisfocusonsuccesshashinderedhissociallife.”

reporton “Thereportonfastfoodmadepeoplemoreawareofthenumberofcaloriestheyconsume.”

Noun+atTheprepositionatisonlypairedwithafewnouns.Forexample:•“Thoughnewtoskiing,hemadeanattemptatthehighestslope.”•“Ihavenochanceatwinningthisgame.”Often,weusetheprepositioninconjunctionwithwhich,asin:•“Thisistheageatwhichyouareeligibleformilitaryservice.”•“There’salwaysapointatwhichtryingtoreasonwithhimbecomesfutile.”

Noun+fromFromisonlyoccasionallyusedwithnouns.Theprepositionusuallyreferstotwothingsatoppositionwitheachother,orspecifiesanoriginorstartingpointwhenusedinconjunctionwithto:•“Thetownsoughtprotectionfrombandits.”•“Histransitionfrompaupertoprincewassomethingoutofafairytale.”

Noun+withGenerally,nounscombinedwiththeprepositionwithpointtorelationshipsandconnectionsbetweentwoormorethings.Forexample:•“What’sthematterwithyou?”•“Inoticedasmallproblemwiththestoryyousubmitted.”•“Hercloserelationshipwithhersisterisenviable.”•“Ifyou’rehavingtroublewiththeassignments,consultyourteacher.”

Noun+aboutWhenpairedwithanoun,aboutmeansconcerningorinregardsto.Forexample:•“Hisanxietyaboutpublicspeakingissobadthathesweatswhenhe’sonstage.”•“Doyouhaveanyinformationaboutthechangesintheschedule?”•“Shewantstohearthestoryaboutherfavoritesuperheroagain.”

Noun+betweenAnounthattakestheprepositionbetweenformsacomparisonbetweentwothings.Herearesomecommoncombinations:•“Forherthesis,Stacysubmittedacomparisonbetweenclassicalmusicandcontemporaryrock.”•“Theconnectionbetweengoodandevilisfascinating.”•“Isthereadifferencebetweengreenonionsandscallions?”

NounswithmultipleprepositionsSomenounsarecapableofcombiningwithmorethanonepreposition.Insomeofthesecases,themeaningdoesnotchangenomatterwhichprepositionischosen:•“Myopinionofheristhesameasyours.”•“Myopinionaboutheristhesameasyours.”•“Abbyisanexpertinchangingtires.”

•“Abbyisanexpertatchangingtires.”•“Iappreciatehisnewfoundloveforanimals.”•“Iappreciatehisnewfoundloveofanimals.”Inothercases,however,themeaningchangesentirelywhenadifferentprepositionissubstituted:•“NoonecandenythepositiveimpactofFrance.”(Francehasapositiveinfluence.)•“NoonecandenythepositiveimpactonFrance.”(SomethingpositivelyaffectsFrance.)•“Hertransitionfromvegetariantoveganwasn’tdifficult.”(Shestartedasavegetarianandendedasavegan.)•“Hertransitiontovegetarianfromveganwasn’tdifficult.”(Shestartedasaveganandendedasavegetarian.)


1.Whichofthefollowingprepositionsismostcommonlypairedwithnouns?a)alongb)upc)ofd)without2.Whichofthefollowingsentencescontainsanoun+prepositioncombination?a)“Iwalkedinandorderedadrink.”b)“It’sOKtotakeprideinyourhomecountry.”c)“Mynephewisinterestedinjoiningaclub.”d)“Didyoulookinthecupboard?”3.Whichofthefollowingsentencesdoesnotcontainaprepositionwithanoun?a)“DidyoulaughatLarry’sjokes?”b)“Myknowledgeofcomicbooksislimited.”c)“Thewoman’stalentforsingingisunmistakable.”d)“Everyonedeservesachanceatlove.”4.Whichofthefollowingsentencesisincorrect?

a)“Ginafounditdifficulttosatisfyherdesireforadventure.”b)“Ginafounditdifficulttosatisfyherthirstforadventure.”c)“Ginafounditdifficulttosatisfyherinterestforadventure.”d)“Ginafounditdifficulttosatisfyherlongingforadventure.”

PrepositionswithVerbsDefinitionCertainverbsrequireprepositionsinordertoconnecttotheirsentences’objects.Thesecombinations,alsoknownasprepositionalverbs,allowtheprepositionstoactasnecessarylinksbetweenverbsandnounsorgerunds.Theprepositionsusedinthesecombinationsaresometimescalleddependentprepositions.Herearesomeoftheprepositionsmostcommonlyusedwithverbs:•for•to•about•with•of•in•at•on•from

UsagePrepositionalverbsalwaystakeadirectobject(eitheranounorgerund)aftertheprepositionandcannotbeseparatedbyit.Forexample:✖ “Helistensclassicalmusiceverynight.”(Incorrect—theverblistensrequiresaprepositiontoconnecttoitsobject,classicalmusic.)✖ “Helistensclassicalmusictoeverynight.”(Incorrect—listensanditsprepositiontocannotbeseparatedbytheobject,classicalmusic.)✔ “Helistenstoclassicalmusiceverynight.”(Correct—theprepositionalverbisnotseparated,andtheobjectcomesdirectlyafterthepreposition.)

Prepositionalverbsvs.phrasalverbs

Sometimes,aphrasalverbmaybemistakenforaprepositionalverb.Althoughbothcombinationsemployverbsandprepositions,youcandifferentiatethetwogrammarstructuresbylookingattheliteralmeaningoftheverbandthewordorder.

LiteralmeaningoftheverbPrepositionalverbsusetheliteralmeaningsofverbs,whereasphrasalverbstendtobeidiomatic.Forexample,themeaningoftheverbaskdoesn’tchangewhencombinedwiththeprepositionfor;however,itchangesdramaticallywhencombinedwiththeprepositionout:•“Kellyaskedforaraise.”(Theliteralmeaningoftoaskistoinquire.Kellyinquiredaboutaraise,makingitaprepositionalverb.)•“KellyaskedoutChad.”(Askoutmeanstoinvitesomeoneonadate,makingitanidiomaticphrasalverb.)

WordorderTheorderofaverb’sprepositionanditsobjectcanalsohelpdeterminewhetheraverbisprepositionalorphrasal.Aspreviouslystated,theobjectofprepositionalverbsalwayscomesimmediatelyafterthepreposition,whichinturncomesimmediatelyaftertheverb.Notethatanexceptiontothisruleiswhenanadverbisusedtomodifytheprepositionalverb,inwhichcaseitcanappearbetweentheverbandthepreposition.However,theobjectmuststillfollowthepreposition.Forexample:✔ “Kellyaskedforaraise.”(correct)✔ “Kellyaskedpolitelyforaraise.”(correct)✖ “Kellyaskedaraisefor.”(incorrect)Forphrasalverbs,however,prepositionsandobjectscanoftenberearrangedwithoutissue:✔ “KellyaskedoutChad.”(correct)✔ “KellyaskedChadout.”(alsocorrect)

ExamplesofcommonpairingsBecausetherearenoestablishedrulesormethodstodeterminewhichprepositionsaccompanywhichverbs,wehavetosettleonmemorizingsomeofthemostcommonverb+prepositioncombinations.

Thefollowingsectionscontainnumerousexamplesofcommonlyusedprepositionalverbs.

Verb+forTheprepositionforcanbeusedwithanumberofverbs,oftentoemphasizepurposeorreason.Forexample:

Verb+for ExampleSentences

apologizefor “Brittanyneverapologizesforherbehavior.”

askfor “Thestudentaskedforapencil.”

begfor “Themanbeggedforasecondchance.”

carefor “Idon’tcareforsalads.”

fightfor “Manygenerationsofpeoplehavefoughtforfreedom."

hopefor “Thefamilyishopingforamiracle.”

longfor “Themanlongedforthedaysofhisyouth.”

payfor “Who’sgoingtopayforthesetickets?”

providefor “Parentsareexpectedtoprovidefortheirchildren.”

searchfor “Didyousearchforthemissingpieceyet?”

waitfor “I’mwaitingforthebus.”

wishfor “Somepeoplewishfornothingbutfame.”

workfor “Sheworksforthegovernment.”

Verb+toToiscommonlyusedwithverbsandusuallyreferstodirection(literalormetaphorical)orconnectionsbetweenpeopleorthings.Forexample:

Verb+to ExampleSentences

adjustto “You’lladjusttoyournewschoolinnotime.”

admitto “Headmittedtoreadingherdiary.”

belongto “Thewalletbelongstothatwomanoverthere.”

travelto “IamtravelingtoEnglandtomorrow.”

listento “Graceislisteningtomusicinherroom.”

goto “Anthony,pleasegotothebackoftheclassroom.”

relateto “Ican’trelatetothischaracteratall.”

respondto “Joshrespondedtohisfriend’semail.”

talkto “Hetalkedtothemanagerformorethananhour.”

turnto “Turntopage46foradiagramoftheprocedure.”

Verb+aboutManyverbstaketheprepositionaboutwhenreferringtothings,events,orgerunds.Forexample:

Verb+about ExampleSentences

askabout “Iaskedaboutthecompany’sjobopening.”

careabout “Shedoesn’tseemtocareaboutgoingtocollege.”

complainabout “Theboycomplainedabouthisearlycurfew.”

forgetabout “Iforgotabouttheweddingreception.”

hearabout “Didyouhearabouttherenovationproject?”

jokeabout “Kimoftenjokesaboutherhigh-pitchedvoice.”

knowabout “Whatdoyouknowaboutphysics?”

laughabout “Thefriendslaughedabouttheirterribleluck.”

learnabout “Michelleislearningaboutfilmproduction.”

talkabout “Whatareyoutalkingabout?”

thinkabout “We’llneedtothinkabouthiringsomemorestaff.”

worryabout “Somanyadultsworryaboutgettingolder.”

writeabout “Deanwroteabouthisdayinhisjournal.”

Verb+withVerbsusingtheprepositionwithusuallypointtoconnectionsandrelationshipsbetweenpeopleorthings.Forexample:

Verb+with ExampleSentences

agreewith “Idon’tagreewithhisopinions.”

arguewith “Thetwoarguedwitheachotherforseveralminutes.”

beginwith,startwith

“Let’sbeginwithashortquiz.”“Ishouldn’thavestartedwithasalad.”

collidewith “Itispossible,albeitunlikely,foranasteroidtocollidewithEarth.”

comparewith “Howdoestherestaurant’ssoupcomparewithVera’s?”

competewith “WhenIrunraces,Ionlycompetewiththeclock.”

copewith “It’snoteasytocopewithfailure.”

disagreewith “Shedisagreeswithmysuggestion.”

interferewith “Becarefulnottointerferewiththeconferenceupstairs.”

meetwith “Whenwillyoumeetwithher?”

Verb+ofTheprepositionofcanbeusedwithavarietyofverbs.Forexample:

Verb+of ExampleSentences

approveof “Ellendoesn’tapproveofhersister’sfriends.”

consistof “Pizzaconsistsofbread,cheese,andtomatosauce.”

dreamof “IdreamofvisitingEurope.”

hearof “HaveyouheardofthisnewTVshow?”

takecareof “Whowilltakecareofyourgoldfishwhileyou’reaway?”

thinkof “Ifyouonlythinkoffailure,you’llnevertakeanyrisks.”

Verb+inTheprepositioninaccompaniesseveralverbsandtendstopointtoinvolvementorconnectionsbetweenpeopleorthings.Forexample:

Verb+in ExampleSentences

believein “ThemajorityofchildrenbelieveinSantaClaus.”

engagein “Mauricelikestoengageinpoliticaldebates.”

investin “Nowisthetimetoinvestinasmanycompaniesaspossible.”

livein “HaleylivesinSeattle.”

participatein “Whatsportsdidyouparticipateinasakid?”

resultin “Thehotel’sfailuretoexterminatethebedbugsresultedinfewercustomers.”

specializein

“Englishmajorscanchoosetospecializeincreativewritingorliterature.”

succeedin “Stevensucceededinearningascholarship.”

Verb+atAtiscommonlyusedwithverbstoindicateplaces,skills,andreactions.Forexample:

Verb+at ExampleSentences

arriveat “Wearrivedatthehotelinthemorning.”

balkat “Melissabalkedatthenews.”

excelat “Myfive-year-oldniecealreadyexcelsatmathandscience.”

laughat “Theboycouldn’tstoplaughingatIsabella’sjoke.”

lookat “Lookatthewhiteboard,please.”

nodat “Shenoddedathercoworkers.”

shoutat “HecouldhearsomeoneshoutingattheTV.”

smileat “MysonsmilesatmeeverytimeIwalkthroughthedoor.”

stareat “It’suncomfortablewhenpeoplestareatyou.”

Verb+onTheprepositiononisusedwithanumberofdifferentverbs.Forexample:

Verb+on ExampleSentences

agreeon “Thecommitteefinallyagreedonasolution.”

beton “Iwouldn’tbetonthathappening.”

commenton “Thelawyerbrieflycommentedonthelawsuit.”

concentrateon,focuson

“He’stryingtoconcentrateonhiswork.”“I'mtootiredtofocusonthisassignment.”

decideon “Heeventuallydecidedonacareerpath.”

dependon,relyon

“Youcan’tdependonhimforever.”“ToomanystudentsrelyontheInternettoconductresearch.”

elaborateon “Thisparagraphelaboratesonthepreviousone’sclaims.”

experimenton

“Thecompanyofferedassurancesthatitdoesnotexperimentonanimals.”

insiston “Sheinsistedonjoiningus.”

operateon “Aspiringsurgeonslearnhowtooperateonpeople.”

planon “Doyouplanonattendingtheconcerttomorrow?”

Verb+fromTheprepositionfromiscommonlyusedwithverbstoidentifyapointoforiginoraconnectionordisconnectionbetweenpeopleorthings.Forexample:

Verb+from ExampleSentences

benefitfrom

“Aspiringmusiciansbenefitfromgettingpublicexposurefortheirmusic.”

comefrom “SayacomesfromJapan.”

differfrom “Howdoesmilkchocolatedifferfromwhitechocolate?”

escapefrom

“Theprisonersescapedfromtheircaptors.”

recoverfrom

“Thegirlrecoveredfromherillness.”

refrainfrom “Couldyoupleaserefrainfromshouting?”

resignfrom

“TheCEOresignedfromherpositionafter25yearswiththecompany.”

retirefrom “Heretiredfromhisjoblastyear.”

sufferfrom “Manypeoplesufferfromsocialanxiety.”

Verb+otherprepositionsOtherprepositionscanbeusedtocreateprepositionalverbs.Someoftheseprepositionsareagainst,into,andlike.Forexample:•“Wedecidedagainstvisitingmyaunt.”•“Thecarnearlycrashedintoatree.”•“Ifeellikegoingonanadventure.”

VerbswithmultipleprepositionsCertainverbscantakemultipleprepositionswithoutchangingtheoverallmeaningofthesentence.Forexample,theverbtalkcanusetheprepositionstoandwithinterchangeably:•“Ineedtotalktotheprincipal.”•“Ineedtotalkwiththeprincipal.”Ontheotherhand,someverbs’meaningsdochangewhenadifferentprepositionisintroduced.Forexample,theverbdreamcanmeantoaspirewhenitisusedwiththeprepositionof;however,whenitisusedwiththeprepositionsabout,itmeanstoseeimagesduringsleep.Forexample:•“Shedreamsofbecomingapilot.”(aspiration)•“Sheoftendreamsaboutflying.”(imageduringsleep)


1.Whichofthefollowingprepositionsiscommonlypairedwithverbs?a)atb)onc)aboutd)frome)alloftheabove2.Whichofthefollowingsentencescontainsaprepositionalverb?a)“Iwouldbehonoredtogiveaspeech.”b)“Heforgotaboutdaylightsavingtime.”c)“Shehadanallergicreactiontopeanutbutter.”d)“Mitchhasanobsessionwithcomicbooks.”3.Whichofthefollowingsentencesdoesnotcontainaprepositionalverb?a)“I’mresponsibleforcleaningtheoffice.”b)“Let’sdrinktoyourgoodfortune.”c)“Shebeggedforhisforgiveness.”d)“Helookedatthesky.”4.Whichofthefollowingsentencesusesanincorrectpreposition?a)“Heinsistedondoingeverythinghimself.”b)“Haggisconsistsofmeat,onions,oatmeal,andspices.”c)“Consultadoctorifyousufferwithbronchitis.”d)“Idon’treallycareforchocolate.”

PrepositionswithAdjectivesDefinitionPrepositionscansometimesappearafteradjectivestocompleteorelaborateontheideasoremotionstheadjectivedescribes.Prepositionsusedinthiswayareknownasadjectivecomplements.Theprepositionalwayscomesdirectlyaftertheadjectiveandistypicallyfollowedbyanounorgerundtoformaprepositionalphrase.

Themostcommonprepositionsusedalongsideadjectivesincludethefollowing:oftoaboutforwithatbyinfrom

RulesTherearenodefiniteruleswhenitcomestocombiningadjectiveswithprepositions,butafewpatternsexist.Onetrickistolookathowsynonymousadjectivesandantonymousadjectivespairwithprepositions;anotheristomemorizetheprepositionsusedwithadjectives’associatednounforms.

SynonymousadjectivesSynonymousadjectivesgenerallytakethesameprepositions.Forexample,whentheadjectiveafraidisreplacedwithitssynonymsscaredandterrified,theprepositionofstaysthesame:•“Meganwasafraidofthethunderstorm.”(original)•“Meganwasscaredofthethunderstorm.”•“Meganwasterrifiedofthethunderstorm.”Becareful,though,assomesimilar-soundingadjectivesmayrequiredifferentprepositions:•“Philipisupsetaboutwhatwassaid.”(original)•“Philipisdispleasedwithwhatwassaid.”•“Philipishurtbywhatwassaid.”

AntonymousadjectivesLikesynonymousadjectives,themajorityofantonymousadjectivesusethe

sameprepositions:•“Itwassmartofhimtogoonvacation.”•“Itwasstupidofhimtogoonvacation.”•“She’sgoodatskateboarding.”•“She’sbadatskateboarding.”

NounformswithprepositionsWecanalsoexaminetheprepositionsusedwithassociatednouns,asthesameprepositionsareoftenusedwiththeadjectiveformsaswell.Forexample:•“Iaminterestedinastronomy.”(adjective)•“Ihaveaninterestinastronomy.”(associatednoun)•“Heisaddictedtoplayingtennis.”(adjective)•“Hehasanaddictiontoplayingtennis.”(associatednoun)•“Julieisobsessedwiththatmovie.”(adjective)•“Juliehasanobsessionwiththatmovie.”(associatednoun)Onoccasion,anadjectiveanditsassociatednounformmaynotsharethesamepreposition,asintheexamplebelow:•“Heisfondofanimals.”(adjective)•“Hehasafondnessforanimals.”(associatednoun)

ExamplesofcommonpairingsBecausetherearenodistinctrulesfordetermininghowadjectivescombinewithprepositions,thebestwaytolearncorrectadjective+prepositioncombinationsisbymemorizingsomeofthemostcommonpairings.BelowarevariousexamplesofcombinationsyoumaycomeacrossineverydayEnglish.

Adjective+ofAnadjectivepairedwiththeprepositionofcanidentifycausesofmentalandphysicalstates(e.g.,fear,exhaustion,anxiety,etc.)orofferdescriptionsforactionsandpeople.Forexample:

Adjective+of ExampleSentences

afraidof,frightenedof,scaredof,terrifiedof

“Samisafraidofdogs.”“Manykidsarefrightenedofclowns.”“Areyouscaredofairplanes?”“Thepoorbabywasterrifiedofhercrib.”

kindof,niceof,sweetof,thoughtfulof

“Howkindofyoutocomeearly.”“Thatwasniceofyoursistertotreatustodessert.”“It’sverysweetofJohntosendagift.”“Itisthoughtfulofpassengerstothanktheirdrivers.”

oddof,strangeof

“Howoddofthatmantowearsunglassesinside.”“It’sstrangeofyoutochangeyourmindlikethat.”

proudof “Momtoldmesheisproudofmyaccomplishments.”

rudeof “Ithoughtitrudeofhertointerruptme.”

smartof “That’sverysmartofyou.”

sickof,tiredof

“Iamsosickofdoinglaundryeveryweek.”“OliviaconfessedthatsheistiredofdatingMike.”

sillyof “ItwassillyofmetoassumeIwasright.”

stupidof “Howstupidofthatboytodropoutofhighschool.”

Adjective+toWhenpairedwithanadjective,theprepositiontocandescribebehaviors,states,orconnectionsbetweenthingsandpeople.Forexample:

Adjective+to ExampleSentences

accustomedto “Hequicklybecameaccustomedtocitylife.”

addictedto “IthinkI'maddictedtoactionmovies.”

committedto,dedicatedto,devotedto

“Sheiscommittedtotheartofdance.”“Howdedicatedtoyourstudiesareyou?”“Lucyisdevotedtoherfamily.”

friendlyto,goodto,kindto,niceto

“Henryisfriendlytoeveryone.”“Wasshegoodtoyou?”“Youshouldalwaysbekindtoothers.”“Mrs.Robertswasnicetothecashier.”

marriedto “CassieismarriedtoNick.”

meanto,rudeto,unfriendlyto“Don’tbemeantoyourclassmates.”“Thecouplewasrudetothewaitress.”“Alotofcatsareunfriendlytohumans.”

opposedto “Iamopposedtothesechanges.”

similarto “Hisideaissimilartomine.”

Adjective+aboutTheprepositionabouttypicallyaccompaniesemotiveadjectivesinregardstospecificsituationsorevents.Forexample:

Adjective+about ExampleSentences

angryabout,furiousabout,madabout

“Myneighborisangryabouttheloudmusicweplayedlastnight.”“Thatwomanisfuriousabouthavingtowaitinline.”“You’realwaysmadaboutsomething.”

anxiousabout,nervousabout,stressedabout,worriedabout

“Joeisanxiousaboutstudyingabroadnextsemester.”“Sheseemednervousaboutthetest.”“Rachelisstressedaboutfindingajob.”“Dadisworriedaboutfilingtaxes.”

excitedabout “Iamexcitedaboutanewbookthat’scomingoutsoon.”

happyabout “Aren’tyouhappyaboutthewaythingsturnedout?”

sadabout,depressedabout“Shemightbesadabouthergrades.”“Bobbywasdepressedabouthisparents’divorce.”

sorryabout “I’msorryaboutyesterday.”

upsetabout “He’sprobablyupsetaboutlosingthesoccermatch.”

Adjective+forForcanbeusedwithadjectivestodemonstratepurposeorreason.Forexample:•“Texasisfamousforrodeos.”•“Australiaisknownforitslargekangaroopopulation.”•“CoachBrownisresponsibleforthefootballteam.”Ofmayalsobeusedtoemphasizesomeone’sfeelingstowardaspecificevent,thing,orperson.Thiscombinationfollowsthebasicformfeel/be+adjective+for+someone/something.Forexample:•“Mariannefeelsbadforhercoworker.”•“Kyleishappyforhisbrother.”•“Thecompanyfelthopefulforthefuture.”

Adjective+with

Whenusedwithanadjective,theprepositionwithcanindicatethecauseofanemotionalstateoraconnectionbetweenthingsorpeople.Forexample:

Adjective+with ExampleSentences

angrywith,furiouswith “Nicoleisangrywithhermother.”“Iheardhe’sfuriouswithyou!”

annoyedwith,fedupwith

“I’mannoyedwiththistraffic.”“She’sfedupwithhavingtocleantoiletsallday.”

boredwith “It’shardnottobeboredwithlonglectures.”

contentwith,finewith,OKwith

“TaylorwascontentwithmovingtoChicago.”“I’mfinewithhavingtorewritetheintroduction.”“Areyousureyou’reOKwiththis?”

disappointedwith,displeasedwith

“Mollyseemsdisappointedwithherperformance.”“Theboy’sparentsaredispleasedwithhisbehavior.”

pleasedwith “Weareverypleasedwiththenumberofdonationswereceived.”

Withmayalsobeemployedinpassivesentencestodescribethestatesofpeopleorthings:•“Parisisespeciallycrowdedwithtouristsinthesummertime.”•“Thecakeisfilledwithfreshblueberries.”•“Thepiñataisstuffedwithhundredsofpiecesofcandy.”

Adjective+at/byMostadjectivesthattaketheprepositionatcanalsotaketheprepositionby.Whencombinedwithadjectives,theseprepositionsillustratecausesforspecificreactionsoremotionalresponses.Bycanbeusedinplaceofatonlybecausethesesentencesrequirepassivevoice.Forexample:•“Themanwasamazedat/bythenumberofpeopleofferingtohelphim.”

•“Shewasastonishedat/bythemovie’spoorratings.”•“I’mshockedat/byhisbehavior.”•“Flightattendantsweresurprisedat/bytheplane’sabruptlanding.”Atcanalsodescribeskillsandabilitieswhenpairedwithpositiveandnegativeadjectives,suchasgood/badandwonderful/terrible.Inthiscase,bycannotbeusedinplaceofat,asthesentencesarenotpassive.Forexample:✔ “Jamesisgoodatplayingtheguitar.”(correct)✖ “Jamesisgoodbyplayingtheguitar.”(incorrect)✔ “I’mterribleatgolf.”(correct)✖ “I’mterriblebygolf.”(incorrect)

Adjective+inSomeadjectivescanbepairedwiththeprepositionintoshowconnectionsorrelationshipsbetweenpeopleandthings.Forexample:•“Bernardisinterestedinjoiningtheschoolband.”•“Issheinvolvedinpolitics?”

Adjective+fromAdjectivestakingtheprepositionfromcanemphasizeapointofoppositionortheresultofanaction.Forexample:•“Turquoiseisdifferentfromblue.”(pointofopposition)•“Wewereprotectedfromthestorm.”(pointofopposition)•“Ibecametiredfromstudyingallnight.”(resultofanaction)

AdjectiveswithmultipleprepositionsManyadjectivescanbepairedwithmultipleprepositions.Whilesomeprepositionsmaychangethemeaningofasentence,otherscanbehaveinterchangeably(suchasatandby).Herearesomesentencepairsthatusedifferentprepositionsbuthaveidenticalmeanings:•“She’sverysorryaboutthemistake.”•“She’sverysorryforthemistake.”•“Markisdisappointedwiththedecision.”•“Markisdisappointedinthedecision.”

Insomecases,however,theprepositionsarenotinterchangeableandcanonlybeusedtodescribespecificnounsorgerunds.Forexample,whenpairedwithadjectives,withandforgenerallyrefertopeople,whereasaboutusuallyreferstothings,events,orgerunds:•“I’msohappyforthem.”(people)•“I’msohappyaboutthewedding.”(thing/event)•“DadisangrywithElizabeth.”(person)•“DadisangryaboutElizabeth’ssneakingout.”(gerund)


1.Whichofthefollowingprepositionsismostcommonlypairedwithadjectives?a)outsideb)aroundc)overd)about2.Whichofthefollowingsentencescontainsaprepositionpairedwithanadjective?a)“Ifeelresponsibleforwhathappened.”b)“Shewenttotheparktowalkherdog.”c)“Somethingflewoverthepond.”d)“Annaispreparingdinnerforherfamily.”3.Whichofthefollowingsentencesdoesnotcontainaprepositionpairedwithanadjective?a)“Kenhasanobsessionwithskydiving.”b)“Itwouldbefuntogoonaroadtripthisweekend.”c)“She’supsetabouthercomputerbreaking.”d)“Ishesatisfiedwiththenewemployee?”4.Whichofthefollowingsentencesiscorrect?a)“Dr.Donnellyisexcitedforconducttheexperiment.”b)“Dr.Donnellyisexcitedwithconducttheexperiment.”c)“Dr.Donnellyisexcitedaboutconducttheexperiment.”

d)“Dr.Donnellyisexcitedtoconducttheexperiment.”

PrepositionsinIdiomsDefinitionManyprepositionscanbeusedwithcertainwordsorphrasestoformidioms(expressionsthathaveauniquemeaningthatcannotbeinferredfromtheirconstituentparts).Theseprepositionalidiomstypicallybeginorendwithapreposition.Prepositionalidiomscanfunctionadverbially,adjectivally,orverballyandmaycomeatthebeginning,middle,orendofasentence.Forexample:•“Turndownthevolume,please.”(verbalidiomatthebeginningofasentence)•“Sheplaystennisonaveragethreetimesamonth.”(adverbialidiominthemiddleofasentence)•“Alltheelevatorsareoutoforder.”(adjectivalidiomattheendofasentence)

TypesofidiomsPrepositionalidiomscombineprepositionswithverbs,nouns,orphrasestocreateidiomaticexpressions.Theseexpressionscanbedividedintotwocategories:idiomsthatstartwithprepositionsandidiomsthatendwithprepositions.

IdiomsthatstartwithprepositionsIdiomsthatstartwithprepositionsareusuallyprepositionalphrasesandfunctionadverbiallyoradjectivally.Aswithnon-idiomaticprepositionalphrases,idiomaticprepositionalphrasesconsistoftwoormorewordsandalwaysincludeanounorphraseafterthepreposition.Forexample:•“Chuckvisitshisgrandparentsfromtimetotime.”(adverbialprepositionalphrase)•“Thecityisindanger.”(adjectivalprepositionalphrase)Someidiomsbehavesimilarlytoidiomaticprepositionalphrasesbutareinsteadfollowedbyanadverboradjective.(Becausetheydonotcontainanoun,theyarenotcompleteprepositionalphrases.)Forexample:•“Answermeatonce.”(preposition+adverb)

•“Sheexplainedtheprojectdetailsinbrief.”(preposition+adjective)

Adverbialvs.adjectivalprepositionalphrasesCertainidiomaticprepositionalphrasescanbehavebothadverbiallyandadjectivally.Forexample,lookathowtheprepositionalidiomindepthisusedbelow:•“Heresearchesrainforestsindepth.”(Indepthisanadverbialprepositionalphrasethatmodifiestheverbresearches.)•“Heconductsin-depthresearchofrainforests.”(In-depth*isanadjectivalprepositionalphrasethatmodifiesthenounresearch.)(*Weusuallyinsertahyphenwhenanadjectiveconsistsoftwoormorewordsandcomesdirectlybeforethenounitmodifies.)

AddingmodifiersVariousadverbsandadjectivesmaybeusedasmodifiersandplacedinsideidiomaticprepositionalphrasesforemphasisorclarification.Forexample:•“Smallelectronicsareindemand.”•“Smallelectronicsareinhighdemand.”•“Theuserdownloadedavirusbyaccident.”•“Theuserdownloadedavirusbycompleteaccident.”

IdiomsthatendwithprepositionsAnidiomthatcontainsaverbandendswithaprepositioncanbeclassifiedasaphrasalverb.Likenormalverbs,phrasalverbsdescribeanactioninthesentence;theyarewrittenasverb+prepositionorverb+particle+preposition.Forexample:•“Iturneddownthejoboffer.”(verb+preposition)•“Heisbeginningtogetalongwithhisstepfather.”(verb+particle+preposition)SeethesectionaboutPhrasalVerbsinthechapteronVerbstolearnmoreabouthowtheseareformedandused.


1.Inwhatpartofasentencecanyouinsertaprepositionalidiom?a)atthebeginningb)inthemiddlec)attheendd)alloftheabove2.Whichofthefollowingcharacteristicsdescribesthefunctionofanidiomaticprepositionalphrase?a)adverbialb)verbalc)adjectivald)aandce)bandc3.Whichofthefollowingcharacteristicsdescribesthefunctionofaphrasalverb?a)adverbialb)verbalc)adjectivald)aandce)bandc4.Whatdoesaprepositionalidiomrequiretobeconsideredanidiomaticprepositionalphrase?a)averbb)anounc)aprepositiond)anadverb5.Howdoestheprepositionalidiomfunctioninthefollowingsentence?“ShetalkedindetailabouthertriptoNewZealand.”a)adverbb)adjective

c)verbd)noneoftheabove

IdiomsthatStartwithPrepositionsDefinitionMostidiomsthatstartwithprepositionsareprepositionalphrasesandconsistofaprepositionfollowedbyanounornounphrase.(Someidiomsmaytakeanadjectiveoradverbinstead,butthesearenotconsideredprepositionalphrasesbecausetheydonothaveanounornounphrase.)Thistypeofprepositionalidiomcanbeusedadverbiallyoradjectivallyandmaycomeatthebeginning,middle,orendofasentence.

ExamplesofcommonprepositionalidiomsHerearesomeofthemostcommonprepositionsfoundatthebeginningofprepositionalidioms:•in•on•outof•at•for•by•fromAsthereisnowaytodecipheraprepositionalidiom’smeaningsimplybylookingatit,itisbesttomemorizeasmanycombinationsaspossible.Thefollowingsectionscontainexamplesofsomeofthemostcommonprepositionalidiomsthatstartwiththeaboveprepositions.Thisisnotanexhaustivelist,however.Thereareotherprepositionsthatcanbeusedatthestartofidioms,andmanymorecombinationsthantheoneslistedbelow.Tolearnmoreidioms,phrases,andphrasalverbs,checkoutTheFreeDictionary’sCollectionofIdiomsandPhrasesatidioms.thefreedictionary.com.

Idiomsthatstartwithin

Thetablebelowshowsvariousexamplesofprepositionalidiomsthatstartwiththeprepositionin:

IdiomthatStartswithIn

Meaning ExampleSentence

inadvance aheadoftime;before “Suepaidforhergiftinadvance.”

inbrief concisely;inafewwords “ThistextbookexplainsWorldWarIIinbrief.”

inbulk inlargeamounts “Wealwaysbuytoiletpaperinbulk.”

incommon

sharingatraitwithsomeoneorsomethingelse

“Dogsandwolveshaveseveraltraitsincommon.”

indanger

pronetodangerorthreatenedbyadangeroussituation;abouttobeharmed

“Thoselittlekidsareindanger.”

indebt owingmoney “Manystudentsareindebtduetotheexpenseofhighereducation.”

indemand

desired;wanted;soughtafter(usuallyskillsorproducts)

“Computerskillsarereallyindemandthesedays.”

indepth thoroughly;comprehensively

“Studentsmustdiscusstheirproposalsindepthwiththeiradvisers.”

indetail thoroughly;comprehensively

“Writersdescribeeverythingindetail.”

intheend finally;atlast “Intheend,whatmattersmostis

honesty.”

infact really;actually “ThemanwhoisdressedinaT-shirtandjeansisinfacttheCEO.”

ingeneral usually;mostofthetime “Ingeneral,ownersshouldfeed

theirpetsatleasttwiceaday.”

inaminute verysoon “Angelawillarriveinaminute.”

inparticular especially

“Ilovehistoryingeneral,butIwouldliketolearnmoreaboutEuropeanhistoryinparticular.”

inreality really;actually “Oftentimes,themosttalkativepeopleareinrealityquiteshy.”

IdiomsthatstartwithonThetablebelowshowsvariousexamplesofprepositionalidiomsthatstartwiththeprepositionon:

IdiomthatStartswith

OnMeaning ExampleSentence

onaverage usually;typically;normally

“Bruceworksoutonaveragefourtimesaweek.”

onboard locatedonaship,train,orairplane

“Theshipwilldepartonceeveryoneisonboard.”

ondemandimmediatelyavailablewhenaskedfororrequested

“Mostpeopleprefertowatchmoviesondemand.”

ondisplay beingshown,showcased,orexhibited

“Afamouspaintingisnowondisplayatthemuseum.”

onfire inflames;burning “Abuildingwasonfireyesterday.”

onhand available,accessible “Doyouhaveanotepadonhand?”

ontheotherhand

incontrast(toapreviouslystatedpointofview)

“It’sfuntoseemovies,butontheotherhandticketscanbequiteexpensive.”

onpurpose intentionally;deliberately “Lizleftwithoutusonpurpose.”

onsale beingsold,especiallyatareducedprice

“Thehatyouwantedisonsaleatthemall.”

onschedule functioningasplannedorscheduled

“Thebusesseemtobeonscheduletoday.”

ontimeattheplannedorexpectedtime(e.g.,ofarrival)

“Alfredneverarrivesontime.”

IdiomsthatstartwithoutofThetablebelowshowsvariousexamplesofprepositionalidiomsthatstartwiththeprepositionoutof:

IdiomthatStartswithOut

of


outoftheblue withoutpriorindication;unexpectedly

“Heshowedupatourhouseoutoftheblue.”

outofbreath tired;exhausted;panting

“Shebecameoutofbreathaftertrudgingupthestairs.”

outofcharacter contrarytoone’spersonality

“Teresahasbeenactingoutofcharacterlately.”

outofharm’sway

safe “I’mjustgladthebabyisoutofharm’sway.”

outoforder

notfunctioningorworkingproperly;temporarilybrokenorunusable(usuallyreferringtomachinery)

“Thisprinterisoutoforder.”

outoftheordinary unusual;notnormal “Hismethodsareout

oftheordinary.”

outofprint nolongerpublishedorprinted(usuallyreferringtobooks)

“Unfortunately,thatbookisoutofprint.”

outofthequestion impossibleorunlikely;unreasonable “Yourrequestisout

ofthequestion.”

outofseason

notripeorreadilyavailable(usuallyfruitsorvegetables)

“Grapesareoutofseasonthistimeofyear.”

outofstyle notfashionableorhip “Permshavebeenoutofstylefordecades.”

outoftime havingnomore(remaining)time “Wearealmostoutoftime.”

outoftown temporarilyawayatalocationinadifferentvicinity

“Brianwillbeoutoftownthisweekend.”

outofwork unemployed

“Mostofmyfriendsareunfortunatelyoutofwork.”

IdiomsthatstartwithatThetablebelowshowsvariousexamplesofprepositionalidiomsthatstartwiththeprepositionat:

Idiomthat

StartswithAt


atalltimes always “Wearyourseatbeltatalltimes.”

atfault responsibleforsomethingbad;culpable “Sheistheonlyoneatfault.”

atfirst inthebeginning;initially “Atfirst,sheattemptedtospeaktoeveryoneindividually."

athand nearinspaceortime “Alwayskeepyourpasswordscloseathand.”

atlast finally “Hemadeittotheairportatlast.”

atonce immediately “Gotoyourroomatonce!”

atrest motionless“Anobjectatreststaysatrestunlessactedonbyanoutsideforce.”

atriskpronetodangerorthreatenedbyadangeroussituation

“Familiesresidingnearthevolcanoareespeciallyatrisk.”

IdiomsthatstartwithforThetablebelowshowsvariousexamplesofprepositionalidiomsthatstartwiththeprepositionfor:

IdiomthatStartswithFor


forcertain

surely;definitely;positively

“IsDesmondcomingtothepartytomorrowforcertain?”

“Englishisn’ttheonlyinternationallanguage;

forexample

asanexample;forinstance

forexample,Frenchisthenationallanguageofmanydifferentcountries.”

forfun asahobby;forenjoyment “Whatdoyouusuallydoforfun?”

forgoodpermanentlyorforanextendedperiodoftime

“I’vedecidedtoleavethiscityforgood.”

foraliving asanoccupation “Hermancleanshousesforaliving.”

fornow temporarily;forthetimebeing “Pleasegotothewaitingroomfornow.”

forsalebeingsold;availabletobepurchased

“Isthisdiamondringforsale?”

IdiomsthatstartwithbyThetablebelowshowsvariousexamplesofprepositionalidiomsthatstartwiththeprepositionby:

IdiomthatStartswith

ByMeaning ExampleSentence

byaccident unintentionally;notdeliberately

“Thekidsbrokethevasebyaccident.”

byallmeans definitely;certainly“Prospectivestudentsarebyallmeansencouragedtovisitthecampus.”

byhand withouttheuseofmachinery

“Hemakesintricatesculpturesbyhand.”

unintentionally;not

bymistake deliberately;asamistake

“Iwenttothewronglocationbymistake.”

bythewayincidentally(usedtointroduceadifferenttopic)

“Bytheway,haveyouwrittenyouressayyet?”

IdiomsthatstartwithfromThetablebelowshowsvariousexamplesofprepositionalidiomsthatstartwiththeprepositionfrom:

IdiomthatStartswith

FromMeaning ExampleSentence

fromafar fromadistance;comingfromfaraway

“Icouldhearmusicfromafar.”

fromheadtotoe alloverthebody “Shewascoveredinmud

fromheadtotoe.”

fromscratchfromthebeginningandusingonlythebasicelementsoringredients

“Bobmaderaspberrycupcakesfromscratch.”

fromtimetotime occasionally;infrequently

“Theyreturntotheirhomecountryfromtimetotime.”


1.Whichofthefollowingprepositionsisnotcommonlyfoundatthebeginningofprepositionalidioms?a)fromb)outof

c)towardd)on2.Whichofthefollowingsentencescontainsanidiomthatstartswithapreposition?a)“He’sgoingtoendhisaddictionforgood.”b)“Wadewenttoabaseballgameyesterday.”c)“Imadethiscardformyfriend.”d)“Ourcarbrokedownonthehighway.”3.Whichofthefollowingsentencesdoesnotcontainanidiomthatstartswithapreposition?a)“Shesteppeddownfromherpositionatthefirm.”b)“Mycousinshavesomanythingsincommon.”c)“Ingeneral,summersbecomehottestaroundmid-July.”d)“Thecircustroupetraveledfromafar.”4.Whichofthefollowingsentencesusesaprepositionalidiomincorrectly?a)“Manybookswrittenover100yearsagoareoutofprinttoday.”b)“Doyouthinkthedressisonsale?”c)“Wemustleaveatonce.”d)“Perhapsshediditonmistake.”

IdiomsthatEndwithPrepositionsDefinitionIdiomsthatendwithprepositionsaretypicallyphrasalverbsandconsistofaverbfollowedbyeitherapreposition,aparticle,oraparticlewithapreposition.Thistypeofprepositionalidiomisusedlikeanormalverb(describingtheactionofasubject)andmaycomeatthebeginning,middle,orendofasentence.

ExamplesofcommonprepositionalidiomsHerearesomeofthemostcommonprepositionsfoundattheendofprepositionalidioms:•up•down•on•off•withTodeterminethemeaningsofidiomaticphrasalverbs,wemustmemorizeasmanycombinationsaspossible.Thefollowingsectionscontainexamplesofprepositionalidiomsthatendwiththemostcommonprepositions.Thisisnotanexhaustivelist,however:thereareotherprepositionsthatcanbeusedtoformphrasalverbs,andmanymorecombinationsthantheoneslistedbelow.Additionally,manyphrasalverbshaveseveralcompletelyunrelatedmeanings,whichwecanonlylearnbyencounteringtheminwritingandspeech.SeethesectiononPhrasalVerbstolearnmoreabouthowtheyareformed,andseethesectionCommonPhrasalVerbstofindmoreexamples.Tolearnmoreidioms,phrases,andphrasalverbsandtheirmeanings,checkoutTheFreeDictionary’sCollectionofIdiomsandPhrasesatidioms.thefreedictionary.com.

IdiomsthatendwithupThetablebelowshowsvariousexamplesofprepositionalidiomsthatendwiththeprepositionup:

IdiomthatEndswithUp


actup tomisbehave “Thetoddlershavebeenactinguplately.”

blowup toexplode;todetonateormakeexplode

“Demolitionworkersblewupanoldbuildingtomakeroomforanewmall.”

bringup tomention(inconversation)

“It’sagoodideatobringupyourcareergoalsduringajobinterview.”

comeup tohappen(usuallyunexpectedly)

“Somethingcameupyesterday,soIwasunabletoattendtheevent.”

giveup tostop(doingsomething);toquit “Leahistryingtogiveup

smoking.”

hangup toendaphonecall

“Alwayshangupifatelemarketertriestosellyousomething.”

makeup

“makeup”hastwounrelatedmeanings:tocreate(something)throughone’simagination,ortocometotermsorsettleanargument(withsomeone)

“Imadeupafairytaletotellmychildrenatbedtime.”“Thesiblingsfinallymadeupaftertwodaysoffighting.”

mix“mixup”hastwosimilarmeanings:to

“IalwaysmixupthetwinswhenIseethem—oneofthesedaysI’lllearntotellthemapart.”

up confuse,ortoorassemblesomethingoutoforder

“Someonemusthavemixedupthephotoalbums,becausethesepicturesarealloutoforder.”

showup tocome,arrive,orappear

“Thegroomwaitedallday,butthebridenevershowedup.”

shutup tostoptalking;tobequiet “Ifyoudon’tshutup,

I’mleaving!”

throwup tovomit “Thegirlbecamesickand

threwupseveraltimes.”

turnup to(re)appear;tobefound “I’msureyourdiarywill

turnupsomewhere.”

IdiomsthatendwithdownThetablebelowshowsvariousexamplesofprepositionalidiomsthatendwiththeprepositiondown:

IdiomthatEndswithDown


breakdown

“breakdown”hastwounrelatedmeanings:tostopfunctioningduetoamechanicalfailure,ortostartcryingorbecomeoverwhelminglyemotional(aboutsomething)

“Mycarbrokedownonthewayhere,soIhadtowalktherestoftheway.”“Theboybrokedownwhenherealizedhe’dfailedtheexam.”

diedown

tolesseninintensityorbecomeweaker “Thewindhasdieddownabit.”

letdown todisappoint “IfeellikeI’velet

downmyparents.”

pipedown tobelessloud

“PipedownorI’msendingyoutoyourroom!”

playdown

tomakesomethingseemlessimportantthanittrulyis

“Successfulpeopleoftenplaydowntheirachievementstoavoidsoundingarrogant.”

stepdown toresignorretirefromaposition

“Aprominentpoliticalfigurerecentlysteppeddowninresponsetoascandal.”

turndown toreject

“Shehasturneddownmanymarriageproposals.”

winddown torelax

“Let’swinddownwithsomepopcornandamovie.”

IdiomsthatendwithonThetablebelowshowsvariousexamplesofprepositionalidiomsthatendwiththeprepositionon:

IdiomthatEndswithOn


catchupon

togetinformedaboutsomething;togetuptodate

“Helenplanstocatchuponherreadingtonight.”

withsomething

counton torelyordependon “IcanalwayscountonyoutolendmeahandwhenIneeditmost.”

dragontocontinueforalongtimeandbecomeboringortedious

“Theman’sspeechdraggedonforwelloveranhour.”

goon tocontinue“Itmightseemliketheendoftheworld,butlifestillgoesonaftersetbackslikethis.”

growon toeventuallybecomelikedby

“Thisnewflavoroficecreamhasreallygrownonme.”

hangon towait;tobepatient “Couldyouhangonamoment?”

moveon tostopfocusingonthepastandcontinuewithone’slife

“Geraldstruggledtomoveonafterlosingthetennismatch.”

pickon totease;tomakefunoforbully

“Youshouldn’tpickonyourlittlebrother.”

tellontoreportsomeoneelse’swrongdoingtoapersonofauthority

“Shewenttotheteachertotellonherfriend.”

tryontoputonagarmentorpieceofclothingtoseehowitfits

“I’dliketotryonthisshirt,please.”

IdiomsthatendwithoffThetablebelowshowsvariousexamplesofprepositionalidiomsthatendwiththeprepositionoff:

IdiomthatEnds Meaning ExampleSentence

withOff

backoff towithdraworretreat

“Somesalespeopledon’tknowwhentobackoff.”

brushoff

toignoresomething;topretendsomethingimportantisnotimportant

“Youcan’tjustbrushoffwhathappenedbetweenyoutwo.”

calloff tocancel

“Employeeswereforcedtocalloffthestrike.”

dropoff totaketoanddepositatsomelocation

“Dustinusuallydropsoffhisshirtsatthedrycleanerbeforework.”

kickoff tobegin

“Theysaythefestivalshouldkickoffaroundnoon.”

layoff toterminateemployees“Oilcompanieshavehadtolayoffmanyworkers.”

nodoff todoze;tofallasleep

“Ialwaysnodoffduringlongceremonies.”

pulloff tosuccessfullycompleteadifficulttask

“Pennypulledoffthechallengingdanceroutine.”

showoff

“showoff”hastwodistinctmeanings:todisplaysomethingoneisproudof,ortoactasifoneissuperiortoothers

“Parentslovetoshowofftheirchildren’sartwork.”“Thatgirlisalways

showingoff.”

takeoff

“takeoff”hastworelatedbutdistinctmeanings:tobecomesuccessfulorpopular(usuallyforbusinesses),ortodepartorgointotheair(e.g.,anairplane)

“Myonlinebusinessreallytookoffafteritwasmentionedonthenews.”“Theplanetookoffanhourlate.”

wearoff toloseeffectiveness;tostophavinganeffect

“Ithinkthepainmedicineisstartingtowearoff.”

IdiomsthatendwithwithThetablebelowshowsvariousexamplesofprepositionalidiomsthatendwiththeprepositionwith:

IdiomthatEndswith

WithMeaning ExampleSentence

comedownwith tobecomesick;tofallill “Dimitricamedownwitha

terriblecold.”

comeupwith

tothinkof,suggest,ordevelop(anidea)

“Scientistsaretryingtocomeupwithasolutiontoclimatechange.”

doawaywith tostoporabolish;togetridof “Somepeoplewanttodoaway

withtaxes.”

getalongwith

tohaveagoodorfriendlyrelationshipwithsomeone

“Theydon’tseemtogetalongwitheachother.”

getawaywith

toavoidpunishmentforawrongdoing

“Thecriminalsdidn’tgetawaywiththerobbery.”

gothroughtoundertakeorcomplete(usuallyanundesirableor “Willyourfamilygothrough

with difficultaction) withthemovetoTexas?”

keepupwith

tostayuptodate;tostayinformedabout

“Ican’tkeepupwithcelebritygossip.”

putupwith totolerate “Sheshouldn’tputupwithherbrother’spranksanymore.”

IdiomsthatendwithotherprepositionsNumerousotherprepositionscanbeusedwithverbsandadverbstocreateidiomaticphrasalverbs.Thetablebelowshowsvariousexamplesofidiomsthatendwithsomeoftheselesscommonlyusedprepositions:

Idiom Meaning ExampleSentence

comeacross

tofindsomethingunexpectedly;tomeetorseesomeoneunexpectedly

“Hecameacrossabizarreinscriptiononthebaseofthestatue.”“YoumightcomeacrosssomeofmyrelativesifyoumovetoLondon.”

cometo toregainconsciousness “Minutespassedbeforehe

cameto.”

getat tomeanortoexpress “Whatishetryingtogetat?”

getby tobarelymanagetodealwithaproblemorextremesituation

“Thehikermanagedtogetbyonasinglebottleofwater.”

getover

torecoverfromorsuccessfullydealwithsomething(usuallyanillnessordifficultsituation)

“She’sfinallygettingoverhercold.”“Hecan’tgetoverhisself-esteemissues.”

go “Dadisgoingthroughamid-

through toexperience(somethingdifficult) lifecrisis.”

hangout

tosocializeorgettogether(withsomeone)

“Doyouwanttohangoutthisweekend?”

rootfor tocheerforsomeone;tosupportortakesideswithsomeone

“You’dbetterrootformeifImakeittothesemi-finals.”

sinkin tobecomeclearlyandgraduallyunderstood

“Heletthecollege’srejectionsinkinbeforedecidingtoreapplythefollowingyear.”

stickaround towait,stay,orremain(inaplace) “Isshestickingaroundforthe

nextact?”

tagalong toaccompany

“MylittlesisterlikestotagalongwhenIgooutwithmyfriends.”


1.Whichofthefollowingprepositionsisnotcommonlyfoundattheendofprepositionalidioms?a)offb)upc)withd)amid2.Whichofthefollowingsentencescontainsanidiomthatendswithapreposition?a)“Orangesareoutofseasonrightnow.”b)“Thecatjumpedoffthetreebranch.”c)“I’dliketotraveltoChinaoneday.”d)“Helikestowinddownwithaglassofwine.”3.Whichofthefollowingsentencesdoesnotcontainanidiomthatendswitha

preposition?a)“Weshouldprobablydoawaywiththeseoldplates.”b)“Cometomybirthdaypartytomorrow.”c)“Neverturndownachanceatlove.”d)“Actionmoviesarestartingtogrowonme.”4.Whichofthefollowingsentencesusesanidiomaticphrasalverbincorrectly?a)“Icamearoundaninterestingbookrecently.”b)“Didthetwoofyoumakeupyet?”c)“Hehasnochoicebuttocalloffthetrip.”d)“Theneighbor’sdogsareactingupagain.”

ConjunctionsDefinitionConjunctionsareusedtoexpressrelationshipsbetweenthingsinasentence,linkdifferentclausestogether,andtocombinesentences.Withoutconjunctions,wewouldbeforcedtousebrief,simplesentencesthatdonotexpressthefullrangeofmeaningwewishtocommunicate.Onlyusingsimplesentenceswouldsoundunnaturallyabruptanddisjointed.Byusingdifferentkindsofconjunctions,however,weareabletomakemorecomplex,sophisticatedsentencesthatshowaconnectionbetweenactionsandideas.Therearefourmaintypesofconjunctions:coordinatingconjunctions,subordinatingconjunctions,correlativeconjunctions,andconjunctiveadverbs.We’llbrieflyexamineeachkindbelow.

CoordinatingConjunctionsThemostcommonconjunctionsarethecoordinatingconjunctions:and,but,or,yet,for,soandnor.Weusecoordinatingconjunctionsbetween:

Individualwords•“Iliketorunandswim.”•“Doyouwantpepperonioranchoviesonyourpizza?”

Phrases•“Thepresidenthasbeenpraisedforbothhiswillingnesstonegotiateandhisstrengthindefendinghisprinciples.”•“Iamabigfanofplayingsportsbutnotwatchingthem.”

Independentclauses•“Itwasraining,soItookanumbrella.”•“Wewentforahike,butIdidn’tbringtherightshoes.”

SubordinatingConjunctionsSubordinatingconjunctionsconnectasubordinateclausetoanindependentclause.Forexample:•“Althoughitwasraining,Ididn’ttakeanumbrella.”•“Eventhoughshedidn’tlikepepperoni,shestillatethepizza.”•“Iwenttoworkinspiteofbeingsick.”•“IintendtogotoSouthAmericanextmonth,providedthatIcangetthetimeoffwork.”

CorrelativeConjunctionsCorrelativeconjunctionsarepairsofconjunctionsthatworktogethertoindicatetherelationshipbetweentwoelementsinasentence.Forexample:•“Sportsareagreatwaytobringpeopletogether,whetheryouliketoplayorjustwatch.”•“Ilikeneitherpepperoninoranchoviesonmypizza.”

ConjunctiveAdverbsConjunctiveadverbsjointwoindependentclauses.Thesecaneitherbetwoseparatesentences,ortheycanbejoinedintoasinglecomplexsentencewithasemicolon.Forexample:•“TheEnglishlanguageschooloffersdiscountedEnglishlanguagecourses.There’salsoalibrarywhereyoucanstudyandborrowbooks.”•“Jenhadn’tenjoyedtheplay;nevertheless,sherecommendedittoherfriend.”


1.Whatcancoordinatingconjunctionslinktogether?a)wordsb)phrasesc)independentclausesd)alloftheabove2.Howareindependentclausesjoinedwithconjunctiveadverbs?a)Asseparatesentencesb)Astwoindependentclausesjoinedbyacommac)Astwoindependentclausesjoinedbyasemicolond)A&Be)A&Cf)B&C3.Howareindependentclausesjoinedwithcoordinatingconjunctions?a)Asseparatesentencesb)Astwoindependentclausesjoinedbyacommac)Astwoindependentclausesjoinedbyasemicolond)A&Be)A&Cf)B&C4.Whatkindofconjunctionisusedinthefollowingsentence?“Youcaneithertaketheexamagainorreceiveascoreof0.”a)Coordinatingconjunctionb)Subordinatingconjunctionc)Correlativeconjunctiond)Conjunctiveadverb

CoordinatingConjunctionsDefinitionCoordinatingconjunctionsareusedtojointwoormorewords,phrases,or

independentclauses.Thetwoelementsbeingjoinedmustbegrammaticallyequalorsimilarinbothimportanceandstructure.TherearesevencoordinatingconjunctionsinEnglish,whichcanberememberedusingtheacronymFANBOYS:ForAndNorButOrYetSoSomecoordinatingconjunctionsaremoreflexiblethanothers.Forexample:and,but,or,andyetcanjoinwords,phrases,orindependentclauses;for,nor,andsoaremorelimited,aswe’llsee.Let’slookateachcoordinatingconjunctionseparately:

ForForisusedtogiveareasonforsomething.Itcannormallyonlyjointwoindependentclauses,introducingthesecondclauseasthereasonforthefirstone.Wecanuseforwheneverwemeanbecause,butit’sconsideredquiteformal,literary,andevenantiquated.Forexample:•“Ibelieveyou,foryouhaveneverliedtomebefore.”•“Hedidn’tcometotheparty,forhefeltsick.”•“Iwishyouhadbeenthere,forwehadawonderfultime.”

AndAndisusedtoaddoneelementtoanother.Itcanjoinwords,phrases,andentireindependentclauses.Forexample:•“JamesandJackarecomingtotheparty.”•“Heran,swam,andplayedwiththeotherchildren.”•“Herbeautifullonghairanddarkbrowneyescaughttheirattention.”•“Thefamilymovedintothenewhouse,andtheneighborswelcomedthemwarmly.”

NorNorisoneofthemostlimitedcoordinatingconjunctions.It’susedtopresentanadditionalnegativeideawhenanegativeideahasalreadybeenstated.Forexample:•“Hedoesn’tlikefootball,nordoesheenjoyhockey.”•“I’veneverseenthatmovie,nordoIwanttoseeit.”•Shehasn’tbeentoParis,norhasshetravelledtoRome.”Notethatwhennorisusedtojointwoindependentclauses,asintheexamplesabove,negativeinversionmustbeusedinthesecondclause.Thereisdisagreementoverwhethernorshouldbeusedtojointwoelementsthatarenotindependentclauses.Therefore,theexamplesbelowwouldbeconsideredcorrectaccordingtosomestyleguidesandincorrectaccordingtoothers:•“Ihaven’tseennorheardfromMikeindays.”•“Hecan’tplayfootballnorbasketball.”•“Shesaidshewasn’tgoingtosingnordanceattheparty.”Forthosewhoconsidertheabovesentencestobeincorrect,orwouldbethepreferredcoordinatingconjunction,asin:•“Ihaven’tseenorheardfromMikeindays.”•“Hecan’tplayfootballorbasketball.”•“Shesaidshewasn’tgoingtosingordanceattheparty.”

ButButisusedtopresentacontrastwithpreviousinformation.Itcanbeusedtojoinanindependentclausetoaphraseoranotherindependentclause.Forexample:•“IwanttogoshoppingbutIcan’t.”•“Hewasupsetbutdidn’tcry.”•“Iwouldlovetotravelmore,butIjustdon’thavethetime.”

OrOrisusedtopresentalternativechoicesoroptions.Forexample:•“Wouldyoulikethechicken,thepork,orthebeef?”

•“Whichsportdoyouthinkismoreexciting,footballorhockey?”•“Wecangotothemoviestonight,orwecanjusthangoutathome.”

YetYet,likebut,isusedtopresentcontrast.However,thereisasubtleimplicationwhenweuseyetthattheinformationissurprisinginlightofwhatwealreadyknow.Forexample:•“Themoviewasdepressingyetupliftingatthesametime.”•“It’spouredrainallday,yettheyhaven’tcanceledthefootballgame.”•“I’vereadthousandsofbookssincehighschool,yetTheCatcherintheRyeisstillmyfavorite.”

SoSoisgenerallyonlyusedtojointwoindependentclauses,wherethesecondclauseisaresultofthefirst.Forexample:•“Hewasexhausted,sohewenttobedearly.”•“Shewasthemostqualifiedcandidate,sowegaveherthejob.”•“He’sbeenworkingharderlately,sohisgradesareimproving.”

PunctuationBetweenindependentclausesWhenacoordinatingconjunctionjoinstwoindependentclauses,acommanormallyprecedesit,asin:•“Theymovedintothenewhouse,andtheneighborswelcomedthemwarmly.”•“I’veneverseenthatmovie,nordoIwanttoseeit.”•“Wecangotothemovietheater,orwecanjusthangoutathome.”Althoughit’sneverincorrecttouseacommabetweentwoindependentclauses,thecommaisoptionalifthetwoclausesareveryshortandconcise,andthereisnopossibilityofconfusionforthereader.Forexample:•“Heplayssports,andhe’sfit.”or

•“Heplayssportsandhe’sfit.”

BetweenwordsorphrasesWhencoordinatingconjunctionsareusedtojoinwordsorphrasesthatarenotindependentclauses,wedon’tuseacomma.Forexample:•“JamesandJackarecomingtotheparty.”•“Wouldyoulikethechickenorthebeef?”•“Themoviewasdepressingyetupliftingatthesametime.”

BeforethelastiteminalistAcoordinatingconjunction,usuallyand,isoftenusedbeforethelastiteminalist.WhenweuseacommabeforethiscoordinatingconjunctionitiscalledaserialcommaorOxfordcomma.Therearestrongopposingopinionsoverwhetherthiscommashouldeverbeused.Neithersideisrightorwrong;it’ssimplyastylisticpreference.Therefore,allofthefollowingsentencescouldbeconsideredcorrect:•“Ilikeapples,bananas,pears,andfigs.•“Ilikeapples,bananas,pearsandfigs.•“She’ssmart,beautiful,andwitty.”•She’ssmart,beautifulandwitty.”•“Wehavealwayswantedtobuyaboat,selleverything,andsetsail.”•“Wehavealwayswantedtobuyaboat,selleverythingandsetsail.”ItshouldbenotedthatcertainvarietiesofEnglishusetheserialcommamorethanothers.Forexample,mostAmericanEnglishstyleguidesrecommenditsuse.Ontheotherhand,themajorityofBritishEnglishstyleguidesrecommendagainstit,withthemostimportantexceptionbeingtheOxfordStyleManual(fromwhichthe“Oxfordcomma”receiveditsname).

BeginningasentencewithacoordinatingconjunctionManyofushavebeentaughtatsomepointthatweshouldneverbeginasentencewithacoordinatingconjunction.However,mostgrammariansandnearlyallstyleguidesstatethatthisisnotagrammaticalrule,butapersonal

preference.Writersoftenbeginasentencewithacoordinatingconjunctiontoemphasizeanafterthought,lengthenapause,orsignifyashiftinthinking.Commasarenotusedaftercoordinatingconjunctionswhentheystartsentences.Forexample:•“She’ssmartandbeautiful.Andshe’switty,too.”•“We’veneverwonanythingbefore.SoIdoubtwe’llwinthistime.”•“IthinkweshouldgetIndianfood.ButmaybeIwantItalianinstead.”Whenwedostartasentencewithacoordinatingconjunction,wemusttakeextracarethatthesentenceisnotafragment,butcontainsasubject,verb,andcompletethought.


1.Coordinatingconjunctionsareusedtojoin________.a)wordsb)phrasesc)independentclausesd)A&Be)alloftheabove2.Whichofthefollowingwordsisnotacoordinatingconjunction?a)forb)andc)therefored)but3.Completethefollowingsentencewiththecorrectcoordinatingconjunction:“Ihadstudiedalot,________Ididreallywellonthetest.”a)sob)forc)butd)yet4.Whichofthefollowingsentencesiswrittencorrectly?a)“Hehashiked,climbed,andkayakedalloverthecountry.”

b)“Hehashiked,climbedandkayakedalloverthecountry.”c)“Hehashiked,climbed,and,kayakedalloverthecountry.”d)A&Be)Alloftheabove5.Whichofthefollowingsentencesiswrittencorrectly?a)“Ihaveneverseenabat,norhaveIseenanowl.”b)“IhaveneverseenabatnorIhaveseenanowl.”c)“IhaveneverseenabatorIhaveseenanowl.”d)“IhaveneverseenabatnorhaveIseenanowl.”

CorrelativeConjunctionsDefinitionCorrelativeconjunctions,orpairedconjunctions,aresetsofconjunctionsthatarealwaysusedtogether.Likecoordinatingconjunctions,theyjoinwords,phrases,orindependentclausesofsimilarorequalimportanceandstructure.Unlikecoordinatingconjunctions,theycanonlyjointwoelementstogether,nomore.Someofthemostcommoncorrelativeconjunctionsare:

both…andeither…orjustas…soneither…nornot…butnotonly…butalsowhether…or

Functionsofcorrelativeconjunctionsboth…andWeuseboth…andwhenwewanttoputemphasisontwoelementsthataretrueinasentence.Wecouldalsousethecoordinatingconjunctionand,butitdoesn’tachievethesameemphaticeffect.Compare:•“Thishouseislargeandcozy.”

•“Thishouseisbothlargeandcozy.”•“Shecleanedherroomandwashedthedishes.”•“Shebothcleanedherroomandwashedthedishes.”•“Mymotherandfatherarebookworms.”•“Bothmymotherandmyfatherarebookworms.”Intheaboveexamples,thesentencesusingboth…andaremoreemphatic.Note,however,thattheboth…andconstructiondoesn’tjoinindependentclauses,onlywordsorphrases.

either…orWeuseeither…ortopresenttwooptions.Again,itemphasizesthefactthatthechoiceislimitedtoonlythetwogivenoptions.Forexample:•“Iwanttopaintthehouseeitherwhiteorgreen.”•“Let’seithergoswimmingorgoshopping.”•“Eitheryourfatherwillpickyouup,oryou’llgetaridehomewithafriend.”

neither…norWeuseneither…nortonegatetwooptions.Forexample:•“IhaveneitherthetimenorthepatienceforsillyTVprograms.”(Idon’thavetime,andIdon’thavepatience.)•“NeitherJamesnorMikeenjoysplayingbasketball.”(JamesandMikebothdonotenjoyplayingbasketball.)•“Neitherdoesheunderstand,nordoeshecare.”(Hedoesn’tunderstand,andhedoesn’tcare.)Notethatwhenneitherandnorbegintwoindependentclauses,wemustusenegativeinversion(thereversalofthesubjectandauxiliaryverb)foreach,asinthethirdexample.

not…butWeusenot…buttoexpressacontradiction,negatingthefirstoptionwhileemphasizingthesecond.Forexample:•“He’snothappybutthrilled!”•“Shedidnotlikebutlovedhernewearrings.”

•“Notjustonefriendturneduptohelp,buttheentireteamarrived.”

notonly…butalsoWeusenotonly…butalsotoemphasizeanadditionalelementinthesentence,especiallywhenitsoccurrenceseemscontradictoryorsurprisinginlightofwhatwealreadyknow.Forexample:•“Thishouseisnotonlylargebutalsocozy.”(Thespeakerbelievesthatlargehousesarenotusuallycozy.)•“Shenotonlycleanedherroom,butshealsowashedthedishes.”(Thespeakerissurprisedthatshedidbothchores.)•“Notonlyissheanaward-winningsinger,butshealsorunstrack.”(Thespeakerisimpressedthatsheisabletodothesetwounrelatedactivities.)Notethatwhennotonlyisusedtointroduceanindependentclause,asinthethirdexample,wemustusenegativeinversion(likewithneither…nor).Whenbutbeginsthesecondindependentclause,thesubjectcomesbetweenitandalso.

justas…soWeusejustas…sotoindicatethatthetwoelementsbeingjoinedaresimilar.Usually,justasbeginsanindependentclause,andsoisfollowedbyasecondindependentclause.Traditionally,theclauseaftersoshouldbeinverted,asin:•“JustasIlovefilms,sodoesmybrotherlovesports.”•“JustasAmericanslovebaseball,sodoEuropeanslovesoccer.”•“JustasFrenchisspokeninFrance,soisEnglishspokeninEngland.”However,it’salsocommon(especiallyininformalwritingandspeech)forthisstructuretooccurwithoutinversion,asin:•“JustasIlovefilms,somybrotherlovessports.”•“JustasAmericanslovebaseball,soEuropeanslovesoccer.”•“JustasFrenchisspokeninFrance,soEnglishisspokeninEngland.”

whether…orWeusewhether…ortoexpressdoubtbetweentwopossibleoptions.Whetherhasthesamemeaningasifinthisregard.Forexample:•“Idon’tknowwhetherthewhitepaintorthegreenpaintisbetter.”

•“He’snotsurewhetherhe’llbeabletoattendthegameornot.”Wealsousewhether…ortoindicatethatsomethingwillhappennomatterwhichchoiceismade.Forexample:•“Whetherwestayhomeandeatapizza,orwegooutandwatchafilm,I’msurewe’llhaveagoodtime.”•“I’mgoingtohelpyouwhetheryoulikeitornot.”

UsingcorrelativeconjunctionsParallelStructureWhenweusecorrelativeconjunctions,it’simportanttouseparallelstructure,especiallyinformalwriting.Parallelstructurerequiresbothelementsthatarejoinedbythecorrelativeconjunctiontobeequal.Forexample:•“Thishouseisbothlargeandcozy.”(Twoadjectivesarejoined.)•“Let’seithergoswimmingorgoshopping.”(Twoverbphrasesarejoined.)•“Eitheryourfatherwillpickyouup,oryou’llgetaridehomewithafriend.”(Twoindependentclausesarejoined.)Usingcorrelativeconjunctionstojoinnon-parallelstructuresisconsideredincorrect.Forexample:✖ “Itwasbothalongmovieandboring.”(Incorrect—anounphraseisjoinedwithanadjectivephrase.)✖ “I’mnotsurewhetherthewhitepaintorpaintingitgreenwouldbebetter.”(Incorrect—anounphraseisjoinedwithaverbphrase.)✖ “Eitheryourfatherwillpickyouuporafriend.”(Incorrect—anindependentclauseisjoinedwithanounphrase.)Althoughthesentencesabovemaybeheardineverydayspeech,theyareconsideredincorrect.

PunctuationWhenweuseacorrelativeconjunctiontojointwoindependentclauses,weseparatethetwoclauseswithacomma,asin:•“Eitheryourfatherwillpickyouup,oryou’llgetaridehomewithafriend.”•“Notonlyissheanaward-winningsinger,butshealsorunstrack.”

•“Shenotonlycleanedherroom,butshealsowashedthedishes.”Wegenerallydonotusecommaswhenthetwoelementsbeingjoinedarenotindependentclauses.Forexample:•“Thishouseisbothlargeandcozy.”•“Iwanttopaintthehouseeitherwhiteorgreen.”•“NeitherJamesnorMikeenjoysplayingbasketball.”

Subject-verbagreementWhenwejointwosubjectswithacorrelativeconjunction,subject-verbagreementcanbetricky.Luckily,therearesomewidelyacceptedrulestohelpus.

TwosingularsubjectsIngeneral,whenwejointwosingularsubjectsusingacorrelativeconjunction,theverbthatfollowsshouldbesingular.Forexample:•“Neithertheplumbernortheelectricianishereyet.”•“NotonlyMikebutalsoDanieliscomingwithus.”Oneexceptiontothisruleiswhenusingboth…and.Inthiscase,weuseapluralsubject:•“BothMikeandDanielarecomingwithus.”

TwopluralsubjectsWhenwejointwopluralsubjects,theverbthatfollowsshouldalsobeplural.Forexample:•“Neithertheplumbersnortheelectriciansarehereyet.”•“NotonlyMike’sfriendsbutalsoDaniel’sfriendsarecomingwithus.”

OnesingularandonepluralsubjectSometimes,wejoinasingularsubjecttoapluralsubject.Inthiscase,themajorityofstyleguidesstatethattheverbshouldagreewiththenounthatisclosesttoit.Forexample:•“Everydayboththecatandthedogswakemeup.”(Wakeispluralbecausethe

dogsisplural.)•“Neithermycousinsnormymomlikesswimming.”(Likesissingular,becausemomissingular.)However,therearealsothosewhobelievethatifeitherofthesubjectsisplural,thentheverbshouldalsobeplural.Accordingtothispreference,thesecondsentenceabovewouldrequirethepluralformoftheverbbecausethefirstsubject,mycousins,isplural:•“Neithermycousinsnormymomlikeswimming.”Ifthisisconfusingoryou’renotsurewhichstyleyoushoulduse,youcanavoidtheproblementirelybyswitchingtheorderofthesubjectssothatthepluralsubjectcomesclosesttotheverb.Inthisway,wesatisfybothstyles:•“Neithermymomnormycousinslikeswimming.”

PronounagreementJustaswehavetotakeextracarewithsubject-verbagreement,wealsohavetobecarefulwithpronounagreementwhenusingcorrelativeconjunctions.

TwosingularsubjectsWhenwejointwosingularsubjects,weshoulduseasingularpronoun.Forexample:•“NeitherMikenorDanielfoundhisshoes.”•“NotonlyJenbutalsoSaralostherbook.”Again,both…andpresentsanexception.Wenormallyuseapluralpronounwiththiscorrelativeconjunction:•“BothMikeandDanielfoundtheirshoes.”

TwopluralsubjectsWhenwejointwopluralsubjects,weshoulduseapluralpronountoreferbacktothem.Forexample:•“NeitherMike’sfriendsnorDaniel’sfriendsbroughttheirshoes.”•“Idon’tknowwhetherthegirlsortheboyshavehadtheirbreakfast.”

Onesingularsubjectandoneplural

subjectWhenwejoinasingularsubjectandapluralsubject,werunintothesameproblemthatwehadwithsubject-verbagreement.Again,themostwidelyacceptedpracticeisthatthepronounshouldagreewithwhichevernounisclosesttoit.Forexample:•“NeitherMikenorhisfriendsstatedtheiropinion.”(Theiragreeswithhisfriends.)•“NeitherMike’sfriendsnorMikestatedhisopinion.”(HisagreeswithMike.)Aswithsubject-verbagreement,theothersideoftheargumentisthatifeitherofthesubjectsisplural,thepronounshouldbeplural.Inthiscase,thesecondexampleabovewouldberewrittenas:•“NeitherMike’sfriendsnorMikestatedtheiropinion.”Again,wecanavoidtheissueentirelybyrewritingthesentencesothatthepluralsubjectisclosesttothepronoun:•“NeitherMikenorhisfriendsstatedtheiropinion.”


1.Correlativeconjunctionsareconjunctionsthatjoin________together.a)oneelementb)twoelementsc)threeelementsd)threeormoreelements2.Whichofthefollowingwordpairsisnotacorrelativeconjunction?a)either…orb)neither…norc)notonly…butalsod)and…but3.Completethefollowingsentencewiththecorrectcorrelativeconjunction:“________myfriendstudiedalot________he’sagenius,becausehegotanA+onthetest.”a)Either…or

b)Neither…norc)Notonly...butalsod)Not…but4.Completethefollowingsentencewiththecorrectcorrelativeconjunction:“He’s________agreatrockclimber________anexpertskier.”a)justas…sob)whether…orc)notonly…butalsod)alloftheabove5.Whichofthefollowingsentencesmusthaveacomma?a)“NotonlyMikebutalsoDanieliscomingwithus.”b)“Ithinkthatweshouldnotonlygoskiingbutalsogokayaking.”c)“Thehouseisnotonlylargebutalsocozy.”d)“NotonlydoIneedyoutocomehomeearlybutIalsoneedyoutopickupdinner.”

SubordinatingConjunctionsDefinitionSubordinatingconjunctionsareusedtocreatecomplexsentencescontainingoneindependentclause,ormainclause,andonedependent,orsubordinate,clause.Thesubordinatingconjunctiondoestwothings:itintroducesandsubordinatesthedependentclause(tellingthereaderthatit’slessimportantthantheindependentclause),anditexplainswhatrelationshipithastotheindependentclause.Considerthefollowingexample:•“Iwenttothesupermarket.Wewereoutofmilk.”Bothofthesesentencescanstandontheirown.However,thereisnoclearrelationshipbetweenthem.Instead,wecanjointhemtogetherwithasubordinatingconjunction,whichwouldsoundmorenatural:•“Iwenttothesupermarketsincewewereoutofmilk.”Thesubordinatingconjunctionsincetransformsthesecondclausefromanindependentclauseintoadependentclause—itsubordinatesit.“Sincewewereoutofmilk”cannolongerstandalone,butisdependentontheindependent

clausethatit’snowconnectedto.Thewordsincealsoclarifiesthattherelationshipbetweenthetwoclausesisoneofcauseandeffect,andittellsthereaderthattheindependentclause,“Iwenttothesupermarket,”ismoreimportant.

StructureandpunctuationWhenweusesubordinatingconjunctionstojointwoclauses,itdoesn’tmatterwhichclausecomesfirst:thesubordinatingconjunctionmayappeareitheratthebeginningorinthemiddleofthenewsentence.Therefore,thefollowingtwosentencesarebothcorrect:•“Iwenttothesupermarketsincewewereoutofmilk.”•“Sincewewereoutofmilk,Iwenttothesupermarket.”Notethatifwhenweplacethesubordinateconjunctioninthemiddleofthesentence,asinthefirstexample,wenormallydon’tneedacomma.Ontheotherhand,whenweplacethesubordinatingconjunctionatthebeginningofthesentence,asinthesecondexample,wenormallydoneedtouseacomma.Forthesakeofconsistency,theindependentclausewillappearfirstintheexampleswelookatbelow,butrememberthatthisorderisreversible.

FunctionsofsubordinatingconjunctionsAsmentioned,oneofthejobsofasubordinatingconjunctionistoestablishtherelationshipbetweenthetwoclauses—whichconjunctionweusedependsonthenatureofthatrelationship.Belowaresomeofthemostcommonsubordinatingconjunctionsandtheirfunctions:

Cause Comparison/Concession Condition Place Reason Time

as (just)as evenif where inorderthat after

because although if wherever sothat before

since eventhough aslongas assoonas

though incase once

whereas providedthat until

while providing when

whenever

while

ExamplesofsubordinatingconjunctionsCauseWeuseas,because,andsinceinterchangeablytostatethecauseofsomething.Forexample:•“Theprojectwassuccessfulasyouallworkedveryhard.”•“Theprojectwassuccessfulbecauseyouallworkedveryhard.”•“Theprojectwassuccessfulsinceyouallworkedveryhard.”Eachofthethreeexamplesexpressesthesamecausalrelationship,althoughasisabitmoreformalintonethanbecauseorsince.

ComparisonandconcessionSimilaritiesWecanuseastostatethattwoideasaresimilar.Wecanalsousejustastoaddextraemphasistothisstatement.Forexample:•“It’spouringrain,asIthoughtitwould.”•“Shewaslateagain,justasweexpected.”•“Hedidn’tturnup,asyoutoldmehewouldn’t.”Notethattheexamplesaboveflowbetterwithacomma,eventhoughthe

subordinatingconjunctionisnotintheinitialposition.

ExpressingcontrastsandconcessionsWhileandwhereasbothexpresscontrast.Forexample:•“Mybrotherworkedreallyhard,whileIdidn’tmakemuchofaneffort.”•“Ican’tstandwatchingtennis,whereasIlovewatchingbasketball.”Whileandwhereascanbeusedinterchangeably,butwhereasisoftenconsideredmoreformal.Notealsothat,likewith(just)asabove,weuseacommabetweentheclauseseventhoughthesesubordinatingconjunctionsarenotintheinitialposition.Weusealthough,though,andeventhoughtosaythatsomethingoccurredinspiteofsomethingelse.Thoughandalthoughareinterchangeable,whileeventhoughaddsextraemphasis.Forexample:•“Iwenttothatrestaurantthough/althoughIwastolditwasn’tverygood.”•“IwenttothatrestauranteventhoughIwastolditwasn’tverygood.”

ConditionWeusethesubordinatingconjunctionsevenif,if,aslongas,incase,providedthat,andprovidingwhenreferringtoahypotheticalsituation.Ifisthemostcommonconjunctionforhypotheticalsentences.Weuseitwhenoneactionisrequiredforanothertooccur.Forexample:•“Iwillbuyyouapizzaifyouhelpmemovemyfurniture.”•“YoushouldbuyanewTVifyougetabiggerapartment.”Aslongas,provided,providedthat,andprovidingallmeanthesameasif,buttheyemphasizetherequirementoftheconditionalaction.Wecanusetheminterchangeably:•“Iwillbuyyouapizzaaslongas/providedyouhelpmemovemyfurniture.”(Iwillonlybuyyouapizzaifyouhelpme.)•“YoushouldbuyanewTVproviding/providedthatyougetabiggerapartment.”(YoushouldonlybuyanewTVifyougetabiggerapartment.)Weuseevenifwhenanoutcomewilloccurdespiteahypotheticalaction.Forexample:•“Iwillbuyyouapizzaevenifyoudon’thelpmemovemyfurniture.”(Iwill

buythepizzaanyway.)•“He’sgoingtopasshistestevenifhedoesn’tstudy.”(Hewillpassdespitenotstudying.)Weuseincasetosuggestaprecautionagainstahypotheticalpossibility.Forexample:•“I’mbringinganumbrellaincaseitstartsraining.”(I’mworrieditmightrain,soI’mbringinganumbrella.)•“Sheputherphoneonsilentincaseitrangduringthemovie.”(Shewasconcernedherphonewouldringinthemiddleofthemovie,soshesilencedit.)

PlaceWhenthedependentclauseisrelatedtoaplace,weusewhereandwherever,buttheyarenotinterchangeable.Formostsituations,weusewhere,asin:•“Heliveswhereit’salwayssunny.”(Helivesinaplacethatissunny.)•“Canwegowhereit’salittlequieter?”(Canwegotoaplacethatisquieter?)Weusewherevertoemphasizethatwemeananyoreveryplace,ratherthanaspecificlocation.Forexample:•“Iwanttogowhereverit’squieter.”(Iwanttogotoanyplacequieter;Idon’tmindwhere.)•“Hebikeswhereverhegoes.”(Hebikestoeveryplacethathegoes.)

ReasonWeuseinorderthat,sothat,andsotogiveareason.Theyareinterchangeableinmeaning,butdifferinformality.Comparethefollowingsentences:•“Ourbossaskedustotakedetailednotesinorderthatnothingwouldbeforgotten.”(formal)•“Ourbossaskedustotakedetailednotessothatnothingwouldbeforgotten.”(neutral)•“Ourbossaskedustotakedetailednotessonothingwouldbeforgotten.”(lessformal)

Time

PreviouslyTostatethattheactionoftheindependentclauseoccurredfirst,weusebefore.Forexample:•“IwentshoppingbeforeIcamehome.”(Iwentshoppingfirst.)•“Hewonfirstprizeinaspellingbeebeforestartingfifthgrade.”(Hewontheprizefirst.)

ConcurrentlyWhentwoactionsoccuratthesametime,thereareseveralsubordinatingconjunctionswecanuse,buteachhasaslightlydifferentmeaning.Ifwearenotaddinganyparticularemphasis,weusewhen:•“Iwassleepingwhenthephonerang.”•“Isawmybrotherwhenhewasoutwithhisfriends.”However,toemphasizethattwoactionsoccurred(orwilloccur)atexactlythesametime,orinrapidsuccession,weuseonceorassoonas:•“Pleasecleanyourroomonceyougethome.”•“Callmebackassoonasyoucan.”

SubsequentlyWhentheactionoftheindependentclausehappenssecondinaseriesofactions,weuseafter:•“IwentshoppingafterIfinishedwork.”(Ifinishedworkfirst,thenwentshopping.)•“Hewonfirstprizeinaspellingbeeafterhestartedfifthgrade.”(Hestartedfifthgradefirst,thenwonaspellingbee.)

UptoacertaintimeTostatethatoneactionstopswhenanotheronebegins,weuseuntil.Forexample:•“Herantrackuntilhemovedhere.”(Hestoppedrunningtrackwhenhemovedhere.)•“YoucanborrowmyjacketuntilIneedit.”(YoumuststopusingitwhenI

needit.)

AnytimeoreverytimeFinally,weusewhenevertostatethatthetimedoesn’tmatter,orthattwoactionsalwayshappentogether.Forexample:•“Callmewheneveryougethome.”(Callmewhenyougethome,butIdon’tmindwhenthatis.)•“Shecrieswheneversheseesasadmovie.”(Shecrieseverytimesheseesasadmovie.)


1.Subordinatingconjunctionsareconjunctionsthatjoin________together.a)twowordsb)twoindependentclausesc)anindependentclauseandadependentclaused)A&B2.Whichofthefollowingwordsisnotasubordinatingconjunction?a)andb)ifc)whend)because3.Completethefollowingsentencewiththecorrectsubordinatingconjunction:“Youcanonlyplayoutside________yourfathergetshome.”a)becauseb)whereasc)untild)incase4.Completethefollowingsentencewiththecorrectsubordinatingconjunction:“I’drathernotseethatmovieagain________wejustsawitlastweek.”a)whereb)assoonas

c)thoughd)because5.Whichofthefollowingsentencesispunctuatedcorrectly?a)“Heworkedharderinorderthathewouldgetthepromotion.”b)“Inorderthathewouldgetthepromotionheworkedharder.”c)“Inorderthathewouldgetthepromotion,heworkedharder.”d)A&Be)A&C

OtherpartsofspeechInadditiontothesevenprimarypartsofspeech—nouns,pronouns,verbs,adjectives,adverbs,prepositions,andconjunctions—thereareseveralclassesofwordsthathaveuniquegrammaticalfunctionsbutdonotfitneatlyintoasinglespecificcategory.Theyoftensharecharacteristicswithoneormoreotherpartsofspeech,butdonotproperlybelongtothesameclass.We’llgiveabriefintroductiontotheseotherpartsofspeechbelow;continueontotheirindividualsectionstolearnmoreabouteach.

ParticlesAparticleisawordthatdoesnothavesemanticmeaningonitsown,butinsteadreliesontheworditispairedwithtohavemeaning.Itisverysimilartoapreposition—infact,theyarealmostalwaysidenticalinappearance.However,prepositionsareusedtoestablisharelationshipbetweentheirobjectsandanotherpartofasentence,whileparticlesareonlyusedtocreateinfinitivesandtoformcertainphrasalverbs.

ArticlesTherearethreegrammaticalarticles:the,a,andan(thoughaandanaresometimesconsideredasinglearticlewithtwoforms).Thedefinitearticletheisusedtoidentifyaspecificoruniqueperson,place,orthing,whiletheindefinitearticlesaandanidentifynonspecificorgenericpeople,places,orthings.

Determiners

Determinersareusedtointroduceanounornounphraseandgivedetermininginformationaboutit.Determinersoftenbehavesimilarlytoadjectivesinthattheymodifythenountheyprecede,buttheydifferinhowtheysignalthatanounwillfollow.

GerundsGerundsarenounsthatareformedfromverbs.Theyareidenticalinappearancetopresentparticiples(thebaseformoftheverb+“-ing”).Becausetheyfunctionasnouns,gerundscanbesubjectsorobjects,andtheycanalsoactasadjectivecomplements.

InterjectionsInterjectionsarewords,phrases,orsoundsusedtoconveyemotionssuchassurprise,excitement,happiness,oranger.Theyaregrammaticallyunrelatedtoanyotherpartofasentence,sotheyaresetapartbycommas.Theyarealsooftenusedaloneasminorsentences.

ParticlesDefinitionAparticleisawordthatdoesnothavesemanticmeaningonitsown,butinsteadreliesontheworditispairedwithtohavemeaning.Aparticlecannotinflect—thatis,itsformdoesnotchangetoreflectgrammaticalperson,number,case,gender,tense,mood,aspect,orvoice.Aparticleisverysimilartoapreposition—infact,theyarealmostalwaysidenticalinappearance.However,prepositionsareusedtoestablisharelationshipbetweentheirobjectsandanotherpartofasentence,andsotheyhaveauniquelexicalmeaningoftheirown.Particles,ontheotherhand,areonlyusedtocreateinfinitivesandtoformphrasalverbs.

InfinitivetoTheparticletoistheonlyparticleinEnglishthatcanbeusedtocreatetheinfinitiveformofaverb.Toispairedwiththebaseform(uninflectedform)ofaverbtocreatethe

infinitive,whichcanfunctionasanoun,adjective,oradverb.Forexample:•“Toloveanotherpersonisawonderfulthing.”(noun—subject)•“Iwouldliketobealone.”(noun—directobject)•“I’mgoingtothestoretobuymilk.”(adverb—modifiestheverbgoing)•“Thisisagoodplacetostartreading.”(adjective—modifiesthenounplace)(GotothesectiononInfinitivesintheVerbschaptertolearnmoreabouthowtheyareused.)

PhrasalVerbsAphrasalverbconsistsofaverbfollowedbyeitheraprepositionoraparticletocreateaunique,idiomaticmeaning.Sinceparticlesandprepositionslookidentical,itcanbetrickytoknowwhenaphrasalverbisusingoneortheother.However,particlesareusedmorelikeadverbs,modifyinganduniquelyexpandingthemeaningoftheverbstheyarepairedwith.Forthisreason,particlesaresometimesreferredtoasadverbialparticles,orevenjustadverbs.Thekeydifferencebetweenparticlesandprepositionsisthatparticlesdonot(andcannot)introduceaprepositionalphrase,whiletheprepositioninaphrasalverbalwayswill.Takethefollowingsentence,forexample:•“Mytabletakesuptoomuchroom.”(Thetableoccupiestoomuchspace.)Takesupismadeupoftheverbtake+up.Upchangesthemeaningoftheverb,butitdoesnotintroduceaprepositionalphraseexpressingdirection,location,time,orpossession—therefore,itisfunctioningasaparticle.Let’slookatanotherexample:•“Pleaselookovertheproposalandletmeknowwhatyouthink.”(Pleasequicklyexaminetheproposal.)Again,theparticleoverischangingthemeaningoftheverblook,butitisnotintroducingaprepositionalphrase.Herearesomeotherexamplesofphrasalverbsformedwithparticles:•“Ican’tbelievethatyou’regivingup!”(I’msurprisedthatyou’regoingtostoptrying.)•“Wehavetowaitforthefiretodiedownbeforewecanenterthebuilding.”(Wehavetowaitforthefiretobecomelessintense.)

•“Theplanetookoffanhourlate.”(Theplanebeganitsflightlaterthanscheduled.)•“Sheisalwaysmakingupexcuses.”(Sheisalwaysinventingexcusesthatarenottrue.)Nowlet’slookatsomeexamplesofphrasalverbsmadewithprepositionssowecanseethedifferencemoreclearly:•“Hehasbeenlookingafterhismother.”(Hehasbeencaringforhismother.)•“IcameacrossthatoldwatchofminewhenIwascleaningoutthedrawers.”(Ifoundmyoldwatchunexpectedly.)•“Stoppickingonyourbrotherlikethat!”(Stopteasingorharassingyourbrotherinthatway.)Wecanseethatthephrasalverbineachoftheaboveexamplesisformedusingaprepositionratherthanaparticle,becausetheinformationthatcomesimmediatelyafterthephrasalverbcompletesaprepositionalphrase(initalics).Withouttheseprepositionalphrases,thesentenceswouldbeincomplete.


1.Whichofthefollowingistheonlyparticlethatcanbeusedtocreateinfinitives?a)onb)inc)tod)with2.Whichofthefollowingissomethingaparticlecannotdo?a)Conjugatetoreflecttenseb)Introduceaprepositionalphrasec)Pairwithanounoradjectived)Alloftheabovee)Noneoftheabove3.Isthewordinitalicsinthefollowingsentencefunctioningasaparticleorapreposition?“MyhusbandcaredformewhileIwassick.”

a)Particleb)Preposition4.Istheitalicizedwordinthephrasalverb(inbold)inthefollowingsentencefunctioningasaparticleorapreposition?“We’relookingforasubstituteteachertofillinnextsemester.”a)Particleb)Preposition

ArticlesDefinitionArticlesidentifywhetheranounisdefinite(specificorparticular)orindefinite(generalorunspecific).Forthisreason,articlesaredividedintotwocategories:thedefinitearticle,the,andtheindefinitearticles,aandan.

TheThedefinitearticletheisusedtoidentifyaspecificperson,place,orthing.Forinstance:•“I’mlookingforwardtothegame.”(Thereisaspecificgamethatthespeakerislookingforwardto.)•“Wouldyoupassmethephone?”(Thereisaspecificphonethatthespeakerisaskingfor.)•“Sheturnedonthelampnexttoherbed.”(Thereisaspecificlampnexttoherbedthatsheturnedon.)•“He’sgoingtotheplaylater.”(Thereisaspecificplaythatheisgoingtosee.)Wecanalsousethetorefertopluralnouns,whentheyarebeingreferencedspecifically,asin:•“Thedogsnextdoorkeepmeawakewiththeirbarking.”•“She’slookingforthepaperssheprintedlastnight.”•“Iseethatthestudentshavealreadyarrived.”

A/AnAandan,ontheotherhand,areusedtoidentifyapersonorthingthatisunspecificorgeneric—thespeakerisnotreferringtosomeoneorsomethinginparticular,orthepersonorthingmaynotbespecificallyknowntothespeaker.Unlikethe,a/ancanonlybeusedbeforesingularnouns.Forinstance:•“I’mlookingforapen.”(Thereisnotaspecificpenthatthespeakerislookingfor.)•“Wouldyoupleaseturnonalight?”(Thereisnotaspecificlightthespeakerisaskingtobeturnedon.)

•“Thereisanangrystudentwaitingtospeakwithyou.”(Althoughthereisaparticularstudent,heorsheisunknowntothespeaker.)•“I’mwaitingforananswer.”(Thereisnotonespecificanswerthespeakeriswaitingfor.)

OtherpartsofspeechArticlesalwaysmodifynouns.Forthisreason,theyareoftenconsideredasub-classofdeterminers.However,anarticlecanalsoprecedeanounphrase,evenifitbeginswithanadjectiveoranadverb.Forexample:•“Thatwasanexcitingnight.”(nounphrasebeginningwithanadjective)•“Thetrulyremarkablethingishowlongthedealtooktohappen.”(nounphrasebeginningwithanadverb)Articlescan’tprecedeverbs,however,asverbsarenotusedtocreatenounphrases.

VowelSoundsvs.ConsonantSoundsWeusetheindefinitearticleawhenitprecedesawordbeginningwithaconsonantsound,andweuseanwhenthearticleprecedesawordbeginningwithavowelsound.Notethatthisruleappliestothesoundofthenoun,ratherthanthespecificspelling.Forexample:✖ “Whataunusualdiscovery!”(incorrect)✔ “Whatanunusualdiscovery!”(Correct—thewordbeginswiththevowel“u,”anditmakesthevowelsound“uh.”)✖ “Whatanuniquediscovery!”(incorrect)✔ “Whatauniquediscovery!”(Correct—thewordbeginswiththevowel“u,”butitmakestheconsonantsound“yu.”)✖ “Itisahonortomeetyou.”(incorrect)✔ “Itisanhonortomeetyou.”(Correct—thewordbeginswiththeconsonant“h,”butitmakesthevowelsound“ah.”)✖ “Therewasanheapoffoodleftover.”(incorrect)✔ “Therewasaheapoffoodleftover.”(Correct—thewordbeginswiththeconsonant“h,”anditmakestheconsonantsound“he.”)Hereareafewotherexampleswhereaword’sspellinggoesagainstitspronunciation:

anhour—makesthevowelsound“ow”anhonestman—makesthevowelsound“awh”auniversity—makestheconsonantsound“yu”aEuropeancitizen—makestheconsonantsound“yu”aonce-in-a-life-timechance—makestheconsonantsound“wuh”

HerbsandHistoryOneareaofdifficultycomesfromdialecticaldifferencesbetweendifferentspeakersofEnglish.Forexample,thewordherbispronouncedas“erb”(ɜːrb)inAmericanEnglish,withasilent“h,”sowewouldsay“anherb.”However,inBritishEnglish,herbispronouncedwithahardconsonant“h”as“herb”(hɜːb),so“aherb”wouldbecorrect.Similarly,somepeoplepronouncetheword“historic”and“historically”withasilent“h”incertaincontexts.Itisnotunusualtoreadorhear“anhistoricmoment”or“anhistoricallyimportantevent,”forinstance.Uniquely,the“h”isneversilentifthesewordsareprecededbyanythingotherthananindefinitearticle,asin“themomentishistoric”or“thehistoricallysignificantmoment.”Somewritersandgrammariansbelieveitisnevercorrecttopronouncehistoricorhistoricallywithasilent“h,”though,insistingthatitcanonlytaketheindefinitearticlea,ratherthanan.Inmoreformalorprofessionalwriting,itisadvisabletofollowthismorestrictguidelineandalwaysusetheindefinitearticlea.ThereareplentyofotherodditiesregardingspellingandpronunciationintheEnglishlanguage.Tolearnmoreaboutthevariousconventions,exceptions,andirregularities,seetheguideonEnglishSpellingandPronunciation.

OtherusesIdentifyingaprofessionInadditiontoidentifyinganunspecificnoun,wealsousetheindefinitearticlea/antotalkorinquireaboutsomeone’sprofession.Forexample:✖ “Areyouteacher?”(incorrect)

✔ “Areyouateacher?”(correct)✖ “Johnisengineer.”(incorrect)✔ “Johnisanengineer.”(correct)Weonlyusethedefinitearticletheifwearereferringtoaparticularpersoninthatprofession.Forinstance:•“Areyouadoctor?”(Unspecific—inquiresabouttheperson’sprofessioningeneral.)•“Areyouthedoctor?”(Specific—inquiresifthispersonisaparticulardoctorthatthespeakerwaswaitingorlookingfor.)•“Maryisatechnicianforthegascompany.”(Unspecific—Mary’sgeneralprofessionisasatechnicianforthespecificgascompany.)•“Maryisthetechnicianforthegascompany.”(Specific—Maryiseitherthesoletechnicianforthegascompany,orelsesheisaspecifictechnicianthespeakerisreferencing.)

UncountablenounsInadditiontopluralnouns,theindefinitearticlea/ancannotbeusedwithuncountablenouns(alsoknownasmassnounsornon-countnouns).Thesearenounsthatcannotbedividedorcountedasindividualelementsorseparateparts.Theycanbetangibleobjects(suchassubstancesorcollectivecategoriesofthings),orintangibleorabstractthingssuchasconceptsorideas.Forexample:✖ “Wouldyoulikeatea?”(incorrect)✔ “Wouldyouliketea?”(correct)✖ “Doyouhaveaninformation?”(incorrect)✔ “Doyouhave(some/any)information?”(correct)(Weoftenusethewordssomeoranytoindicateanunspecifiedquantityofuncountablenouns.)Uncountablenounscansometimestakethedefinitearticlethe,asin:•“Haveyouheardthenews?”•“Thefurnitureinmylivingroomisold.”However,thisisonlythecaseifaspecificuncountablenounisbeingdescribed.Forexample:✖ “Iamlookingforanaccommodation.”(incorrect)

✖ “Iamlookingfortheaccommodation.”(incorrect)✔ “Iamlookingforaccommodation.”(correct)✔ “Iamlookingfortheaccommodationlistedinthisadvertisement.”(correct—referencesspecificaccommodation)


1.Whicharticleisusuallyusedwhensomethingspecificisbeingreferenced?a)theb)ac)an2.Completethefollowingsentencewiththecorrectarticle:“Iknowyouhave___longwaytotravel.”a)theb)ac)an3.Completethefollowingsentencewiththecorrectarticle:“Haveyouseen___bluepenthatIlike.”a)theb)ac)an4.Whichofthefollowingcantheindefinitearticlea/annotprecede?a)nounphrasesb)adjectivesc)adverbsd)uncountablenounse)alloftheabovef)noneoftheabove5.Whichofthefollowingcanthedefinitearticlethenotprecede?a)nounphrasesb)adjectivesc)adverbs

d)uncountablenounse)alloftheabovef)noneoftheabove

DeterminersDefinitionDeterminersareusedtointroduceanounornounphrase.Thereareseveralclassesofdeterminers:articles,demonstrativeadjectives,possessiveadjectives,interrogativeadjectives,distributivedeterminers,pre-determiners,quantifiers,andnumbers.Determinersdotwothings.First,theysignalthatanounornounphrasewillfollow.Then,theygiveinformationabouttheitem.Theymaytelluswhethertheitemisgeneralorspecific,nearorfar,singularorplural;theycanalsoquantifytheitem,describinghowmuchorhowmanyarereferredto;ortheycantellustowhomtheitembelongs.We’lllookateachclassofdeterminersseparately.

ArticlesTherearetwotypesofarticlesinEnglish:thedefinitearticle,the,andtheindefinitearticle,a/an.We’rejustgoingtocoverthebasicrulesregardingwhentousedefiniteandindefinitearticles.Ifyouwouldliketolearnmore,pleaseseethesectiononArticles.

TheIngeneral,weusethedefinitearticle,the,torefertoanitemorindividualthatisspecificandunique.Forexample:•“Closethedoorquietly;thebabyissleeping.”(Thereisaspecificdoor.)•“Pleasepassthesalt.”(Thespeakerisrequestingspecificsalt.)•“Jenisthewomanwearingred.”(ThereisauniqueindividualwearingredclothingwhoisidentifiedasJen.)

A/anTheindefinitearticle,a/an,isusedtoprecedeanounthatisnotaspecificperson,place,orthing.Instead,itindicatesthatitisageneralmemberofaclass

ofnouns.Forexample:•“I’dlovetohaveapetdog.”(Nospecificoruniquedogisbeingdiscussed.)•“Iheardthatafamousmusicianisgoingtobethere.”(Themusicianisunspecifiedbecauseheorsheisunknown.)•“Shehadneverbeeninanairplanebefore.”(Thespeakeristalkingaboutairplanesingeneral,ratherthanaspecificaircraft.)Notethataisusedbeforeconsonantsounds,andanisusedbeforevowelsounds.

DemonstrativeAdjectivesDemonstrativeadjectives,ordemonstrativedeterminers,areusedtospecifywhichitemorindividualisbeingreferredtowhenitcouldbeconfusedwithothersofthesametype.Therearefourdemonstrativeadjectives,whichwechoosefrombasedonwhethertheyintroduceasingularnounorapluralnoun,andwhethertheitemisnearorfarinrelationtothespeaker.

Near Far

Singular this that

Plural these thoseForexample:•“Thispenismine.”(Thepenisnearby,perhapsinmyhand.)•“Thatpenismine.”(Thepenisfaraway,perhapsacrosstheroom.)•“Thesepensaremine.”(Thepensarenearby.)•“Thosepensaremine.”(Thepensarefaraway.)Tolearnmore,gotothesectiononDemonstrativeAdjectivesinthechapteraboutAdjectives.

PossessiveAdjectivesPossessiveadjectives,alsoknownaspossessivedeterminers,areusedtoindicatewhomanitembelongsto.Thepossessiveadjectivesare:

Singular Plural

1stperson my our

2ndperson your your

3rdperson his/her/its theirForexample:•“MyhouseisonStevenStreet.”(Thehousebelongstome.)•“Pleasegiveyoursisterbackherpencil.”(Thepencilbelongstoher.)•“Lookatthedog!Itstailiswagginglikecrazy!”(Thetailbelongstothedog.)•“Canyoufixthetable?Itslegiswobbly.”*(Thelegbelongstothetable.)*Notethataccordingtocertainstyles,itsistypicallyonlyusedwhentheownerisanimate,suchasthedogintheexampleabove.Toavoidusingitswithinanimateobjects,somewriterswouldusethe…ofthe…structure.Forexample:•“Thelegofthetableiswobbly.Canyoufixit?”Inadditiontothepossessiveadjectiveslisted,wecanalsocreatepossessivedeterminersfromnounsusingapostrophes.Weattachthepossessiveapostrophetotheendofthenounorpronounthatnamestheowner.Ifthenounissingular,theapostropheisusuallyfollowedbyan“s.”Thispossessivenounintroducesandmodifiestheownedobject,andsoitisconsideredadetermineraswell.Forexample:•“Dave’scarcoulduseabitofwork.”(ThecarbelongstoDave.)•“CouldyouhelpmefindJen’skeysforher?”(ThekeysbelongtoJen.)•“Myparents’houseisonabeautifullake.”(Thehousebelongstomyparents.)Tolearnmoreaboutusingapostrophestoindicatepossession,seethechapteronApostrophes.

InterrogativeAdjectivesLikealladjectives,interrogativeadjectives(alsoknownasinterrogativedeterminers)modifynounsandpronouns.Englishhasthreeinterrogativeadjectives:what,which,andwhose.Theyarecalled“interrogative”becausetheyareusuallyusedtoaskquestions.Forexample:

•“Whatbookareyoureading?•“Whichshirtareyougoingtobuy?”•“Whosecomputeristhis?”Ineachoftheexamples,theinterrogativeadjectivemodifiesthenounitimmediatelyprecedes:book,shirt,andcomputer.Tolearnmore,pleaseseethesectiononInterrogativeAdjectivesinthechapteraboutAdjectives.

DistributiveDeterminersDistributivedeterminers,alsoknownasdistributiveadjectives,areusedtorefertoindividualmemberswithinagrouporwithinapair.Thedistributivedeterminersareeach,every,eitherandneither.Theyareusedtomodifysingularnounsornounphrases.

EachEachisusedwhenoneconditionappliestoallmembersofagroupequally.Forexample:•“Eachstudentmustattendameetingwithaguidancecounselor.”•“Eachpersoninmyfamilydoesafairshareofthechores.”•“Pleasegiveapenandpapertoeachattendee.”

EveryEveryisalsousedwhenaconditionappliestoallmembersofagroup.Itcannormallybeusedinterchangeablywitheach.Forexample:•“Everystudentmustattendameetingwithaguidancecounselor.”•“Everypersoninmyfamilydoesafairshareofthechores.”•“Pleasegiveapenandpapertoeveryattendee.”However,everyputsaslightemphasisonthegroupasawhole,whileeachemphasizestheindividual.

EitherEitherisusedwhenaconditionappliestooneortheotherinapair.Whenwe

useeither,weimplythattherearetwooptions.•“Eithergirlcouldwinthiscompetition.”(Therearetwogirls.Onewillwin.)•“Wecouldgivethenewcollartoeitherdog.”(Therearetwodogs.Onewillreceivethenewcollar.)•“Eitherbookwouldbeagreatpresent.”(Therearetwobooks.Onewillbechosenasagift.)

NeitherWeuseneithertostatethatnotoneortheotheroptionisviable.Forexample:•“Neitherbookwouldbeagreatpresent.”(Therearetwobooks;bothwouldbeunsuitableasgifts.)•“Neithertablewillfitinourkitchen.”(Therearetwotables;botharetoolargeforthekitchen.)•“Neitherquestioniseasilyanswered.”(Therearetwoquestions;bothhavedifficultanswers.)

Pre-determinersPre-determinersarewordsthatcomebeforeanotherdeterminertogiveusmoreinformationaboutthenounthatfollows.Theyusuallycomebeforethearticlesa/anandthe.Pre-determinerscanbemultipliers,fractions,intensifiers,orthewordsbothandall.

MultipliersMultipliersarewordsandexpressionsthatmodifyuncountablenounsandpluralcountablenounsbymultiplyingquantity.Forexample:•“Inowearndoublemypreviouswage.”•“Forthisrecipe,weneedthreetimesthesugar.”•“Thisairplaneholdstwicethepassengersastheothermodel.”

FractionsFractionsaresimilartomultipliers,butinsteadofmultiplyingthequantityofthenoun,theydivideit.Weusuallyuseofbetweenthefractionalexpressionandtheotherdeterminer,butitisnotalwaysnecessary.Forexample:

•“Iusedtoearnhalf(of)mycurrentsalary.”•“Forthisrecipe,weneedaquarter(of)thesugaraslasttime.”•“One-tenthoftherespondentsanswered‘yes’tomyquestion.”(Ofisnecessaryinthisconstruction.)

IntensifiersThemostcommonintensifiersarewhat,quite,rather,andsuch.Forexample:•“Whatagorgeoushorse!”•“She’ssuchasweetgirl.”•“It’squiteabeautifulhouse,don’tyouthink?”•“They’reratheranicegroupofstudents.”Usagenote:Thewordsquiteandrather,whenusedasintensifiers,aremuchmorecommonincertainvarietiesofEnglishthaninothers.Forexample,BritishEnglishusesthemoften,whileAmericanEnglishusesthemmuchlessfrequently.

Both&allBothandallcanalsooccuraspre-determiners.Bothisusedwhenwerefertotwooutoftwooptions,whileallisusedtorefertoanentireamount.Weoftenuseofbetweenboth/allandtheotherdeterminer,butitisnotrequired.Forexample:•“Both(of)mybrothersarecomingwithme.”(Ihavetwobrothers,andeachoneiscoming.)•“Both(of)thebookshavebeautifulillustrations.”(Therearetwobooksandeachonehasbeautifulillustrations.)•“All(of)mybrothersarecomingwithme.”(Ihaveseveralbrothers;everyoneofthemiscoming.)•“All(of)thebookshavebeautifulillustrations.”(Therearemanybooks,andtheyallhavebeautifulillustrations.)

QuantifiersQuantifiersareusedtoindicatethenumberorquantityofthenounbeingreferredto.Thequantifierwechoosedependsonwhetheritintroducesa

countablenoun(sometimescalledacountnoun),oranuncountablenoun(alsoknownasamassnoun).Below,we’lllookatsomeofthemostcommonquantifiers:

WithcountablenounsThesearesomeofthemostcommonquantifiersforcountablenounsonly,listedinorderfromlargesttosmallestquantity:

manyeachseveralafew*acouple(of)bothfew*notmanynoneofthe

Notethatwhenweusequantifierswithcountablenouns,weusethepluralformofthenounafterthequantifier.Forexample:•“Therearemanyprivateschoolsinthistown.”•“Bothgirlswenttotheparty.”•“Notmanypeoplecametothebooklaunch.”*UsageNote:Thereisanimportantdistinctionbetweenafewandfew.Whileafewhasamorepositiveconnotationofsignifyingthatthereisenoughofanitem,fewhasthemorenegativeconnotationofsignifyingthatthereisnotenoughofanitem.Comparethefollowingtwosentences:•“Therewereafewpeopleatthemeeting.”(morepositive)•“Therewerefewpeopleatthemeeting.”(morenegative)

WithuncountablenounsThesearesomeofthemostcommonquantifiersforuncountablenounsonly,inorderfromlargesttosmallestquantity:

agood/greatdealof(formal)

aloadof/loadsof/heapsof/tonsof(informal)alotof(neutral)a(little)bitofalittle*little*notmuch

Forexample:•“Wehavealotofcoffeealready,sodon’tbuyanymore.”•“Couldyoulendmeabitofsugar?”•“Notmucheffortisneeded.”*UsageNote:Alittleandlittlehavethesameimportantdistinctionasafewandfew.Alittlehasthepositiveconnotationofsignifyingthatthereisenoughofanitem,whilelittlehasthenegativeconnotationofindicatingthatthereisnotenough.Comparethefollowingtwosentences:•“Westillhavealittlemilkleft.”(Wehaveenough,butnotmuch.)•“Wehavelittlemilkleft.”(Weneedmore.)

WitheithercountableoruncountablenounsFinally,thesearesomeofthemostcommonquantifiersthatcanbeusedwitheithercountableoruncountablenouns:

allofthemostofthealotof/lotsof/plentyofenoughsomealackofno

Forexample:•“Alloftherecipescallforsugar.”(countable)•“Allofthesugarisneeded.”(uncountable)

•“Don’tworry,wehaveenoughcarstogetusallthere.”(countable)•“Don’tworry,wehaveenoughtimetogetthere.”(uncountable)

NumbersNumberscanalsobedeterminerswhentheyareusedtointroduceandmodifyanoun.Bothcardinalnumbers(numberssignifyinganamountofsomething)andordinalnumbers(numberssignifyingrankorpositioninalist)areabletofunctioninthisway.

CardinalnumbersCardinalnumbersareusedtocountthespecificquantityofanoun.Assuch,theycanonlybeusedwithcountablenouns.Inwriting,acommonruleistospelloutthenumbersonethroughnine,andusenumeralsforthenumbers10andhigher.Forexample:•“Myfather’scompanyhas10carsand20drivers.”•“I’mtaking12shirtsandthreepairsofjeansonmyvacation.”•“Therewere160participantsinthecompetition.”Analternateruleistospelloutone-wordnumbersandusenumeralsformulti-wordnumbers.So,theexamplesabovewouldberewritten:•“Myfather’scompanyhastencarsandtwentydrivers.”•“I’mtakingtwelveshirtsandthreepairsofjeansonmyvacation.”•“Therewere160participantsinthecompetition.”However,therearemanyvariationsofstyleforwritingnumbers.Intheend,itisbesttobeconsistent,ortofollowthestyleguidebestsuitedtothetypeofwritingyouaredoing.

OrdinalNumbersOrdinalnumbersdonotrepresentquantity,butareusedtoindicatetherankorpositionofanouninalistorseries.Theyhavetwowrittenforms:spelledout,ornumeral+suffix:

Spelling Numeral&Suffix

first 1st

second 2nd

third 3rd

fourth 4th

fifth 5th

sixth 6th

seventh 7th

eighth 8th

ninth 9th

tenth 10th

eleventh 11th

twelfth 12th

thirteenth 13th

fourteenth 14th

fifteenth 15th

sixteenth 16th

seventeenth 17th

eighteenth 18th

nineteenth 19th

twentieth 20th

twenty-second 22nd

twenty-third 23rd

twenty-fourth 24th

thirtieth 30th

fiftieth 50th

hundredth 100thNotethatnumbersendinginone,two,andthreehavedifferentsuffixesthantherestofthenumbers.Acommonruleinwritingistospelloutfirstthroughninthandtousethenumeral+suffixfornumbers10andhigher.Forexample:•“Hewonfirstprize!”•“IwenttoLasVegasformy30thbirthday.”•“Iwasthe42ndpersoninline.”Analternateruleistospelloutone-wordordinalnumbers,buttousethenumeral+suffixequivalentformulti-wordordinalnumbers.So,theexamplesabovewouldbewrittenasfollows:•“Hewonfirstprize!”•“IwenttoLasVegasformythirtiethbirthday.”•“Iwasthe42ndpersoninline.”Again,nomatterwhichwayyouchoosetowritethem,thekeyistobeconsistent.


1.Determinersintroduce________.a)verbsb)nounsc)adjectivesd)clauses2.Whichofthefollowingwordscannotfunctionasadeterminer?a)someb)thec)whend)ten

3.Completethefollowingsentencewiththecorrectdeterminer:“Canyoubuy________moresugar?Wedon’thavemuchleft.”a)tenb)ac)thed)some4.Completethefollowingsentencewiththecorrectdeterminer:“I’mafraidweneedtogoshopping.There’svery________milkleft.”a)littleb)muchc)alotd)some5.Completethefollowingsentencewiththecorrectdeterminer:“Pleasegiveme________glassofwater.Ican’treachit.”a)thisb)thatc)thesed)those

PossessiveDeterminersDefinitionPossessivedeterminers,alsoknownaspossessiveadjectives,areaclassofdeterminersthatareusedtomodifynounstodenotepossession.Theytaketheplaceofthedefinitearticlethe,andstatewhomorwhatanitembelongsto.Weuseadifferentpossessivedeterminertocorrespondwitheachpersonalpronoun.ThemainpossessivedeterminersinEnglishare:

PersonalPronoun PossessiveDeterminer

I my

you your

he his

she her

it its

we our

they theirThewordwhoseandthestructurenoun+possessiveapostrophealsofunctionaspossessivedeterminers,aswewillsee.

UsingPossessiveDeterminersSentenceplacementPossessivedeterminersareusuallyplacedinfrontofthenountheymodify.Forexample:•“YourememberHannah,right?Thisisherbrother,Richard.”•“Pleasereturnmybooksassoonaspossible.”•“Havetheyfoundtheirticketsyet?”•“TheEarthspinsonits*axis.”Ifthenounisfurthermodifiedbyoneormoreotherdeterminers,thepossessivedeterminerisplacedfirst.Forexample:•“YourememberHannah,right?Thisisherlittlebrother,Richard.”•“Pleasereturnmythreelibrarybooksassoonaspossible.”•“Havetheyfoundtheirtrainticketsyet?”•“TheEarthspinsonitsinvisibleaxis.”(*UsageNote:Acommonmistakeistouseanapostrophewiththeworditwhenwewanttoindicatepossession.It’sisacontractionthatweuseinsteadofwritingoutitisorithas.Ifwewanttodenotepossession,wemustuseitswithoutanapostrophe.)

Whose*Whoseisusedasapossessivedeterminerininterrogativesentencestoinquireaboutpossession,aswellasinindirectquestionswhentheidentityoftheowner

isunknown.Forexample:•“Whosecoatisthis?”•“Doyouknowwhoseideathiswas?”•“Ineedtofindoutwhosecarthisis.Theykeepparkinginmyspot.”(*UsageNote:Similartotheissuewithits,acommonmistakeistousewho’sratherthanwhosewhenwewanttoinquireaboutpossession.Who’sisacontractionofwhois;ifwewanttodenotepossession,wemustusethepossessivedeterminerwhose.

ThepossessiveapostropheWecanformpossessivedeterminersfromotherpronouns,nouns,andnounphrasesbyaddingthepossessiveapostrophe+“s”(orjusttheapostropheforpluralnouns).Forexample:•“Caringforone’sfamilyisveryimportant.”•“Hannah’scarisparkedoutside;shemusthavealreadyarrived.”•“TheformerAttorneyGeneral’srecommendationswereincludedinthereport.”•“Ourschooltakesparents’concernsveryseriously.”

DifferenceswithpossessivepronounsPossessivedeterminersareoftenconfusedwithpossessivepersonalpronouns(mine,yours,his,hers,its,ours,theirs).Althoughsomeoftheformsoverlap,thereareimportantdistinctionsbetweenthetwotypesofpossessives.Whilepossessivepronounscanstandontheirown,takingtheplaceofanoun,possessivedeterminerscannot.Forexample:•SpeakerA:“Whoseisthisbook?”✔ SpeakerB:“It’smine.”(correct)✖ SpeakerB:“It’smy.”(incorrect)Thesecondexampleisincorrectbecausepossessivedeterminers,suchasmy,canmodifyanoun,butcannotreplaceone.Wewouldneedtoincludethenounbookinordertousethepossessivedeterminer,asin:•SpeakerA:“Whoseisthisbook?”✔ SpeakerB:“It’smybook.”(correct)

Note,however,thatpossessivedeterminersformedusing“-’s”canfunctionbothasdeterminersandpronouns,asin:•SpeakerA:“Whoseisthisbook?”✔ SpeakerB:“It’sJane’sbook.”(correct)or✔ SpeakerB:“It’sJane’s.”(correct)Anotherdistinctionisthatalthoughthestructureof+possessivepronouncanbeusedtocreateapossessivesentence,apossessivedeterminergivesthenounamoredefinitemeaning.Comparethefollowingtwosentences:•“Afriendofmineisgoingtocomewithus.”•“Myfriendisgoingtocomewithus.”Thefirstexamplegivestheimpressionthateitherthespeakerisunsurewhichfriendisgoingtocome,orthatthelistenerhasnevermetthefriend.Ontheotherhand,thesecondexample,whichusesthepossessivedeterminermytodirectlymodifythenounfriend,givestheimpressionthatthespeakerhasadefinitefriendinmind,and/orthelistenerisfamiliarwiththisfriend.


1.Possessivedeterminersmodify________.a)nounsb)verbsc)adjectivesd)adverbs2.Whichofthefollowingisapossessivedeterminer?a)it’sb)Hank’sc)who’sd)they’re3.Whichofthefollowingwordsisnotapossessivedeterminer?a)myb)hisc)their

d)hers4.Completethefollowingsentencewiththepossessivedeterminerthatismostcorrect:“Yoursisterisworriedthat________phonemightbelost.Shehasn’tbeenabletofinditsincelastnight.”a)hisb)theirc)ourd)her5.Completethefollowingsentencewiththepossessivedeterminerthatismostcorrect:“Weshouldgoshopping;________fridgeislookingempty.”a)ourb)herc)theird)its6.Completethefollowingsentencewiththepossessivedeterminerthatismostcorrect:“Lookatthatdog!________eyesaresoblue!”a)yourb)myc)itsd)their

GerundsDefinitionAgerundisthe“-ing”formofaverbwhenitfunctionsgrammaticallyasanouninasentence.Gerundsareidenticalinappearancetopresentparticiples,buttheyarenotusedtoformtensesoftheverborprovideadjectivalinformation.Gerundscaneitherstandalone,ortheycantakeanoun(theobjectofthegerund)and/ormodifier(s)toformagerundphrase.

FunctionsinasentenceBecausetheyactlikenouns,gerundscanbeusedasthesubjectofasentence,thesubjectcomplementofthelinkingverbbe,theobjectofapreposition,ortheobjectofaverb.Theycanalsobeusedtoformcompoundnouns.

AsthesubjectJustlikeanormalnoun,agerundorgerundphrasecanbethesubjectofasentence.Forexample:•“Swimmingisanexcellentformofexercise!”(gerundonly)•“Eatingvegetablesgivesyoualotofextraenergy.”(gerund+object)•“Studyingtoohastilywillresultinapoorgrade.”(gerund+adverb(s))•“Readingromanticliteratureprovestobeanunpopularpastimeamongacademics.”(gerund+adjective+noun)•“Workingfromhomeallowsmetospendmoretimewithmyfamily.”(gerund+prepositionalphrase)

AdverbsmodifyinggerundsNoticethatinourthirdexample,thegerundstudyingisbeingmodifiedbyanadverb,hastily(itselfmodifiedbytoo).Likewise,workinginthelastexampleismodifiedbytheadverbialprepositionalphrasefromhome.Thismayseemcontradictory,sincegerundsactlikenouns,andadverbscan’tmodifynouns.However,inthiscase,itisthegerundphrasethatisfunctioningasanoun,sothegerunditselfcanstillbemodifiedbyanadverbinthesamewayasanormalverb.

PresentparticipialclausesIt’softeneasytoconfusepresentparticiplesforgerundsbecausetheylookidenticalandoperateinverysimilarways.Forinstance,thepresentparticiplesofverbscanbeusedtocreatedependentclausesthatmodifytherestofthesentence.Forexample:•“Singingintheshower,Iwasoblivioustothedoorbellringing.”(Iwassinging.)•“Havingseenthemoviebefore,Iwouldn’twanttoseeitagain.”

Althoughtheylookquitesimilar,theseclausesfunctionlikeanadjective,whereasthegerundphraseswelookedataboveactlikenounsfunctioningasthesubjectsoftheirsentences.

AsasubjectcomplementLikepredicativeadjectives,gerundscanactassubjectcomplementsafterthelinkingverbbe.Inthiscase,thegerundactsasakindofmodifierthatgivesmoreinformationaboutthesentence’ssubject.Forexample:•“Mymainresponsibilityhereisoperatingtheforklift.”(operatingcomplementsthenounresponsibility)•“MyfavoritethingaboutbeinginJapaniseatingsushi.”(eatingcomplementsthing)•“Thebestthinginlifeisspendingtimewithlovedones.”Again,wehavetobecarefulthatwedon’tmistakeagerundforthepresentparticipleofaverb.Thiscanbeeasytodo,becausethepresentparticipleispairedwiththeverbbetoformthepresentcontinuoustenseandthepastcontinuoustenseofverbs,asin:•“Iamrunningfivemilestomorrow.”(presentcontinuoustense)•“Iheardyouareoperatingtheforkliftatworknow.”(presentcontinuoustense)•“Iwassingingintheshowerwhenthedoorbellrang.”(pastcontinuoustense)•“ShewaseatingdinnerwhenIcalled.”(pastcontinuoustense)Rememberthatagerundorgerundphrasefunctionsasanoun—ifthesentencestillmakesgrammaticalsenseafterthewordorphraseisreplacedbyanormalnoun,thenwearedealingwithagerund;ifitdoesnotmakesenseafterbeingreplacedbyanormalnoun,thenitisapresentparticiple.

AsobjectsOfprepositionsGerundsareusedastheobjectsofprepositionstodescribeanactionthatmodifiesanotheraction,thuscreatingadverbialprepositionalphrases.Thesecanoccuratthebeginning,middle,orendofthesentence.Forexample:•“Aftersneezing,Ialwaysgetthehiccups.”

•“I’mgoingtoimprovemyhealthbyrunningsixmileseverynight.”•“Shestartedgoingcrazyfromsomuchwaiting.”•“He’snotagainstmarryingme,hejustisn’tready.”

OfverbsGerundscanalsoactasthedirectobjectofsomeverbs.Hereafewexamples:•“DoyoumindwatchingmyseatformewhileIgotothebathroom?”•“Ireallylovehikinginthemountains.”•“Ienjoyeatingatrestaurants,butJennypreferscookingathome.”•“Herememberedturningofftheoven,buthishusbandthoughthe’dleftiton.”•“Theycouldn’thelpfeelingsorryforBob.”(Ifyouwanttoseemoreexamples,gotothesectionGerundsasObjectsofVerbs.)

OfphrasalverbsJustliketheydowithnormalverbs,gerundscanalsofunctionastheobjectofphrasalverbs.Forexample:•“Iamcountingongettingticketstothatnewmovie.”•“They’relookingforwardtomeetingyoulater.”

FormingcompoundnounsGerundscanbepairedwithregularnounstobecomecompoundnouns,asin:•“Hisnewrunningshoeswerealreadycoveredinmud.”•“I’mhopingshecangivemeahelpinghand.”•“Theworkingconditionsareverypoorhere.”Thesearedistinctfromgerundphrases,wherethenounisfunctioningastheobjectofthegerund,asinourpreviousexampleof“Eatingvegetablesisgoodforyourhealth.”Theyshouldalsonotbeconfusedwithpresentparticiplesthatarefunctioningasadjectives.Thoughtheylookquitesimilar,adjectivalpresentparticiplesimplyactiononthepartofthenounbeingmodified.Forexample:

•“Shesoothedthecryingbaby.”(Thebabyiscrying).•“Thespeedingcarcrashedintothetree.”(Thecarwasspeeding.)

AsanobjectcomplementForcertainfactitiveverbs,gerundscanalsoactasobjectcomplements.Objectcomplementsfunctionbyrenamingorreclassifyingadirectobject,orbystatingwhatthedirectobjecthasbecomeorisdoing.Gerundscanonlyfunctionasobjectcomplementsthatstatewhatthedirectobjectisorwasdoing.Inthefollowingexamples,theverborphrasalverbisitalicized,thedirectobjectisunderlined,andthegerundorgerundphrase(asobjectcomplement)isinbold:•“Wecameacrosshimlyingintheyard.”•“Mymothernoticedthebabywalkingbyhimself.”•“Ican’tbelievethebossescaughtyounapping.”


1.Inwhichofthefollowingwaysisagerundnotabletofunction?a)Asthesubjectofasentenceb)Astheobjectofaverbc)Asanadjectiveclaused)Asasubjectcomplement2.Whichofthefollowinglinkingverbscanagerundfollowasasubjectcomplement?a)beb)becomec)seemd)appear3.Inwhichofthefollowingsentencesisthewordtalkingagerund?a)“I’llbetalkingtoyourteacherafterschool.”b)“Ireallylovetalkingwithmyfriends.”c)“Thetalkingstudentswereoblivioustotheprincipal.”d)“Talkingwithherparents,itseemsliketheremightbesomeissuesathome.”

4.Whengerundsfunctionastheobjectsofprepositions,wherecantheyoccurinasentence?a)Atthebeginningb)Inthemiddlec)Attheendd)Alloftheabovee)Noneoftheabove5.Whichofthefollowingsentencesdoesnotuseagerund?a)“Hisloveofeatingisgoingtoleadtoserioushealthproblems.”b)“Oneofthebestthingsaboutspringissmellingalltheflowers.”c)“Theyhadbeendrivingforhoursbeforetheyfoundahotel.”d)“Webeganshoutingatthetopofourlungsforthebustostop.”

GerundsasObjectsofVerbsDefinitionGerundsveryfrequentlyfunctionasthedirectobjectsof“true”verbs.However,therearesomeverbsthataremorelikelytotakegerundsasobjectsthanothers.Inthissection,we’lllookatsomecommonverbsthattakegerundsastheirdirectobjecttogetasenseofhowthey’reused.

Stativevs.ActionVerbsStativeverbsthattakegerundsStativeverbs,alsoknownasverbsoffeeling,areverylikelytotakegerundsastheirobjects.Herearesomeexamplesofcommonstativeverbsthattakegerunds(keepinmindthatthisisnotanexhaustivelist):

Stativeverb Examplewithagerundasanobject

love “Ilovegoingtothemovies.”

like “Ilikelivingbytheocean.”

enjoy “Doyouenjoyworkinginretail?”

mind “WouldyoumindwatchingmyseatformewhileIgotothebathroom?”

feellike “Ifeellikestayinghometonight.”

stand “Shecan’tstandbeingaroundhim.”

imagine “Imaginewinningthelottery.Itwouldbegreat!”

ActionverbsthattakegerundsCertainactionverbs(alsocalleddynamicverbs)canalsotakeagerundastheirobjectifdescribingasecondaryaction.Forinstance:

Actionverb Examplewithagerundasanobject

admit(to) “Headmitted(to)cheatingontheexam.”

avoid “Healwaystriestoavoiddoinghishomework.”

consider “HeisconsideringmovingtoLondon.”

delay “Hedelayedpayinghisphonebill.”

deny “Hedeniedstealingthemoney.”

insiston “Heinsistedongivingmearidetothetrainstation.”

keep/continue “Please,keep/continuetellingmeyourstory.”

mention “Shementionedmeetinghimforacoffeeearlier.”

practice “ShepracticesspeakingEnglishwhenevershegetsthechance.”

recommend “Irecommendgoingtothemountainsinthesummer.”

resist “Sheresistedsneakingouttothepartydowntheroad.”

suggest “Theysuggestedstayingatafive-starhotel.”Again,theaboveisnotacompletelist.Therearemanyotherdynamicverbsthatwilltakeagerundastheirobject.

Gerundsvs.InfinitivesGerundsandinfinitivesarebothverbformsthatcanfunctionasnouns,and,assuch,theyarebothoftenusedastheobjectsof“main”verbs.Inmanycases,wecanuseeithertheinfinitiveorthegerundinadditionto“standard”nouns.Someverbs,however,canonlybefollowedbyinfinitivesandnotgerunds.Ineachexamplebelow,wecanseehowagerunddoesnotfitwiththemainverb:

✔ Infinitive(Correct) ✖ Gerund(Incorrect)

“Theypromisedtobequietinthecar.”

“Theypromisedbeingquietinthecar.”

“Iagreedtoleavehimalone.” “Iagreedleavinghimalone.”

“Sheaskedtoseethelandlordaboutthefaultystove.”

“Sheaskedseeingthelandlordaboutthefaultystove.”

Likewise,someverbsarefollowedonlybygerundsandnotinfinitives.Inmostcases,theseareactionverbs.Forexample:

✔ Gerund(Correct) ✖ Infinitive(Incorrect)

“Irecallseeinganadvertisementforthatsomewhere.”

“Irecalltoseeanadvertisementforthatsomewhere.”

“IrecommendreadingMobyDickatsomepointinyourlife.”

“IrecommendtoreadMobyDickatsomepointinyourlife.”

“He’llconsiderhearingyoursideofthestorylater,ifhehastime.”

“He’llconsidertohearyoursideofthestorylater,ifhehastime.”

Unfortunately,thereisnotasetofrulestodeterminewhichverbscantakewhichformsastheirobjects.

VerbsfollowedbybothgerundsandinfinitivesForotherverbs,wecanuseeithertheinfinitiveorthegerund.Mostofthetime,thereisnodifferenceinmeaningwhenwesubstitutetheinfinitiveforthegerund.Thisisespeciallytrueforstativeverbs.Forexample,eachofthefollowingpairsmeanthesamething:

Gerund Infinitive

“Ilikehiking.” “Iliketohike.”

“Iloveswimming.” “Ilovetoswim.”

“Iprefergoingoutontheweekend.” “Iprefertogooutontheweekend.”Withsomeverbs,wecanuseboththeinfinitiveandthegerund,butthemeaningofthesentencechangessubtlyasaresult.Inthiscase,wehavetousecontexttounderstandthemeaningcompletely.Forexample:

Infinitive Gerund

“Irememberedtoclosethewindow.”(Ididn’tforgettodothis)

“No,Ididn’tleavethewindowopen.Irememberclosingit.”(Irecalldoingthis)

“Iforgottoreadthisbookforschool.”(Ididn’tremembertodothis,soitdidn’thappen)

“Iforgetreadingthisbookforschool.”(Idon’trecallthisfact)

“I’vebeentryingtocallyouallday,butthelinehasbeenbusy.”(Attempttodosomething)

“Trycallingmycellphonenexttime.”(Thisisapossiblesolutiontotheproblem)

“Istoppeddrinkingsugarydrinksbecauseofmyhealth.”(Idon’tdrink

“Istoppedtodrinkatthewell.”(IinterruptedwhatIwasdoingto

sugarydrinksanymore) drinkfromthewell)


1.Whichofthefollowingverbswillnottakeagerundasitsobject?a)denyb)neglectc)recommendd)love2.Whichkindofverbismorelikelytotakeagerundasitsobject?a)linkingverbb)auxiliaryverbc)stativeverbd)dynamicverb3.Identifythegerundinthefollowingsentence.“Iamwaitingtoseeifthedoctorrecommendsgettingatransplant.”a)waitingb)toseec)recommendsd)getting4.Trueorfalse:Allgerundscanbereplacedbyinfinitiveswhentheyfunctionastheobjectsofverbs.a)trueb)false

InterjectionsDefinitionAninterjection,alsoknownasanexclamation,isaword,phrase,orsoundusedtoconveyanemotionsuchassurprise,excitement,happiness,oranger.InterjectionsareverycommoninspokenEnglish,buttheyappearinwritten

Englishaswell.Capableofstandingalone,theyaregrammaticallyunrelatedtoanyotherpartofasentence.

PrimaryInterjectionsPrimaryinterjectionsareinterjectionsthataresinglewordsderivednotfromanyotherwordclass,butfromsounds.Nonetheless,primaryinterjectionsdohavewidelyrecognizedmeaning.Somecommonprimaryinterjectionsare:

PrimaryInterjection Emotion

aah fear

aha triumph,suddenunderstanding

argh frustration

brr beingcold

eww disgust

grr anger

hmm thinking

ooh amazement,beingimpressed

phew relief

yay approval,happiness

SecondaryInterjectionsSecondaryinterjectionsareinterjectionsderivedfromwordsthatdobelongtootherwordclasses—theymaybeadjectives,nouns,orentireclauses.Again,theyhavenothingtodowiththegrammarofthesentencesthatcomebeforeorafterthem.Somecommonsecondaryinterjectionsare:

blessyoucongratulationsgoodgrief

hellheyhiohmyohmyGodohwellshootwellwhat

Cursewords(vulgaroroffensivewords;alsocalledswearwords)arealsoconsideredinterjectionswhentheyarenotlinkedgrammaticallywithanotherpartofasentence.

SentencePlacementInterjectionsaremorecommonlyusedinspeech;however,wesometimesdoneedtoexpressthemthroughwriting,especiallyifwearetryingtocapturedialogue.Usually,theinterjectionisplacedbeforethesentencethatexplainsthecauseoftheemotion.Forexample:•“Ooh,that’sabeautifuldress.”•“Brr,it’sfreezinginhere!”•“OhmyGod!We’vewon!”•“Wow!Whatagreatachievement!”

PunctuationAsmentioned,interjectionscanstandalone.Therefore,theycanbepunctuatedwithaperiod,anexclamationpoint,oraquestionmark.Thepunctuationwechoosedependsontheemotionthatwewanttoconvey.However,sinceinterjectionsarenotcompletesentences,somewritersprefertoattachthemtoacompletesentencewithacomma.Ultimately,itisuptopreference.

ExclamationpointWeuseanexclamationpointwhentheemotionwewanttoconveyisverystrongandisnotaquestion.Forexample:

•“Hooray!Igotacceptedtomytopchoiceuniversity!”•“Yuck!Ihatecoconuts!”•“Congratulations!Thatwasanimpressivevictory.”

PeriodorcommaWhentheexpressionisweaker,wecanuseaperiodoracomma.Forexample:•“Well,isn’tthatnice?”•“Ohwell,I’msurewe’llhavebetterlucknexttime.”•“Shoot.Ireallythoughtweweregoingtowin.”

QuestionmarkIftheinterjectionexpressesdisbelief,uncertainty,orisinterrogative,weshoulduseaquestionmark.Forexample:•“Huh?You’renotcoming?”•“Well?Arewegoingtowatchamovie?”•“What?Youdon’tlikecoconuts?”


1.Interjectionsare________tothegrammarofthesentencethatfollows.a)somewhatrelatedb)relatedc)notrelated2.Whichofthefollowingisaprimaryinterjection?a)wellb)ohmygodc)ughd)hello3.Completethefollowingsentencewiththemostappropriateinterjection:“________!Ireallythoughtweweregoingtolose!”a)Phew

b)Ohnoc)Yuckd)Argh4.Completethefollowingsentencewiththemostappropriateinterjection:“________.I’mstillnotsureoftherightanswer.”a)Eewb)Phewc)Hmmd)Congratulations5.Completethefollowingsentencewiththemostappropriateinterjection:“________.Thatbreadisallmoldy.”a)Yayb)Ewwc)Phewd)Ooh

Inflection(Accidence)DefinitionGrammaticalinflection(sometimesknownasaccidenceorflectioninmoretraditionalgrammars)isthewayinwhichawordischangedoralteredinforminordertoachieveanew,specificmeaning.Verbsarethemostcommonlyinflectedwords,changingformtoreflectgrammaticaltense,aswellasmood,voice,aspect,person,andspeech.Collectively,thisisknownasconjugation.Theotherpartsofspeechthatcanundergoinflectionarenouns,pronouns,adjectives,andadverbs.Thesearecategorizedcollectivelyunderthetermdeclension.Mostinflectionisdoneaccordingtoconsistentrulesandpatterns,but,aswe’llsee,therearemanywordsthatareirregularlyinflected.We’lllookatthebasicsofconjugationanddeclensionbelow,andthenbrieflydiscussregularvs.irregulardeclension.Continueontotheindividualsectionstolearnmoreaboutthemingreaterdetail.

ConjugationBelow,we’llgiveabriefoverviewofthedifferentelementsusedinconjugation.ContinueontoConjugationorgotoitsindividualsectionstolearnmoreabouteach.

TenseWhenwediscussconjugatingverbs,weareusuallyreferringtohowaverbchangesaccordingtotense—thatis,whenanactionhappenedintime.Verbsintheirbasicformarenaturallyinthepresenttense(specificallyknownasthepresentsimpletense).Forexample:•“Shewalkstowork.”•“Weliveinthecity.”•“Theyworktoohard.”•“Hesingsforanhour.”Verbscanonlybetrulyinflectedforthepasttense(specificallythepastsimple

tense).Mostverbsarechangedbyadding“-d”or“-ed”totheirend(whichalsoformstheirpastparticipleform).However,manyverbsareconsideredirregularandhavepasttenseandpastparticipleformsthatcannotbepredicted.Forexample:•“Shewalkedtowork.”(regularverb)•“Welivedinthecity.”(regularverb)•“Hesangforanhour.”(irregularverb)Usingauxiliaryverbsandverbparticiples,wecanalsocreatethecontinuous,perfect,andperfectcontinuousformsofeitherthepastorpresenttense.Forinstance:•“Sheiswalkingtowork.”(presentcontinuoustense)•“Wehavelivedinthecity.”(presentperfecttense)•“Theyhadbeenworkingtoohard.”(pastperfectcontinuoustense)•“Hehadsungforanhour.”(pastperfecttense)Finally,wecanalsoformanapproximationofthefuturetense.Verbsdonothaveaspecificformtoreflectfutureaction,soweuseotherverbconstructionstoachievethismeaning,usuallythemodalauxiliaryverbwill,asin:•“Shewillwalktowork.”(futuresimpletense)•“Wewillbelivinginthecity.”(futurecontinuoustense)•“Theywillhaveworkedtoohard.”(futureperfecttense)•“Hewillhavebeensingingforanhour.”(futureperfectcontinuoustense)

AspectGrammaticalaspectisconcernedwithhowanaction,stateofbeing,oreventoccursintime;weuseitwithtensetocreatespecificformsofverbsinrelationtotime.Eachverbtensehasfouraspects,ortemporalstructures:thesimple,theperfect,thecontinuous,andtheperfectcontinuous.Thesecoincidewiththedifferentverbtenseswelookedatabove.Whenweformthepresentcontinuoustense(“Iamwalking”),forinstance,weareactuallyusingthecontinuousaspectofthepresenttense.ContinueontotheAspectsectioninthischaptertolearnmoreabouthowaspectisusedwithverbtenses.

MoodMostofthetimewhenwespeakorwrite,wearediscussingoraskingwhatistrue,real,oractuallyhappening.Thisisknownastheindicativemood.Forinstance:•“Iatebreakfastat3o’clock.”•“Wearegoingswimmingthisafternoon.”•“Willtheybetheretonight?”Whendiscussinganunreal,hypothetical,ordesiredsituation,weusewhat’sknownasthesubjunctivemood.Thisisusuallymarkedbyputtingtheverbinthepasttense,asin:•“Iwishitwas/were*Saturday.”•“IfIhadamilliondollars,IwouldmovetotheBahamas.”(*Traditionally,theverbbealwaysconjugatestowereinthesubjunctivemood,regardlessofthesubjectofthesentence.However,itisbecomingcommoninmodernEnglishtousewasifthesubjectissingular.)Whenwemakedirectcommandstosomeone,weusewhat’sknownastheimperativemoodtoformimperativesentences.Theyhavenosubject(itisimplied),andtheverbisinthebaseorbareinfinitiveform.Forexample:•“Closethatwindow!”•“Sitdown,please.”

VoiceVoicehastodowiththerelationshipbetweenaverbanditssourceofagency—thepersonorthingperformingorcontrollingtheactionoftheverb.Thisisusuallythesubjectofthesentenceorclause,whichisknownasbeingintheactivevoice.Forinstance:•“Hewrotethebook.”•“TheMillersarepreparingdinner.”Wecanalsoconstructsentencesinwhichthesubjectofthesentenceisnottheagentoftheverb,butrathertheobjectofitsaction.Iftheagentisidentified,itisonlyinaprepositionalphraseattheendofthesentence.Thisisknownaspassivevoice.Forexample:

•“Thebookwaswritten(byhim).”•“Dinnerwasprepared(byTheMillers).”

GrammaticalPersonGrammaticalpersonreferstowhetherthesubjectisthespeakerorwriter(firstperson),someonebeingdirectlyaddressed(secondperson),orapersonorthingthatisbeingspokenorwrittenabout(thirdperson).Eachofthesecanbeeithersingularorplural.Almostallverbsareconjugatedaspecificwayonlyifthesubjectisinthethirdperson,issingular,andisinthepresenttense.Wedosobyaddingan“-s”or“-es”totheendoftheverb,asin:•“Iwalkeverywhere.”(first-personsingular)•“She/he/itwalkseverywhere.”(third-personsingular)Theexceptiontothisistheverbbe,whichhasseveraluniqueconjugationsforgrammaticalpersonandtense.Forexample:•“Iamoutside.”(first-personsingular,presenttense)•“She/he/itisoutside.”(third-personsingular,presenttense)•“I/she/he/itwasoutside.”(first/third-personsingular,pasttense)•“You/we/theyareoutside.”(first/second/third-personplural,presenttense)•“You/we/theywereoutside.”(first/second/third-personplural,pasttense)

SpeechSpeechreferstothequotationoforreferencetosomethingsaidorwrittenbysomeoneelse.Whenwesayexactlywhatsomeonesaid(knownasdirectspeechordirectquotation),weusequotationmarks,asin:•Marysaid,“Iwanttohaveanotherbaby,”whichtookhimbysurprise.Whenweareonlyparaphrasingorsummarizingwhatsomeonesaid,itisknownasreportedorindirectspeechandwedonotusequotationmarks.Forexample:•Marytoldmethatshehadn’tbeenserious.

Declension

Whileconjugationonlydealswiththeinflectionofverbs,declensioncoverstheinflectionofnouns,pronouns,adjectives,andadverbs.

DeclensionofnounsGenerally,weonlydeclinenounstomarkplurality—thatis,whetherthereismorethanoneperson,place,orthingbeingdiscussed.Weusuallydosobyaddingan“-s”or“-es”totheendofthenoun,asinbooks,watches,toys,cars,etc.Thereareafewotherspellingpatternsthatapply,andthereareanumberofirregularpluralsthatdonotfollowanyconventionsatall—gotothesectiononPluralstolearnmore.Wecanalsodeclinecertainnounstoreflectgender,asinprince(masculine)vs.princess(feminine).However,themajorityofnounsinEnglisharenotinflectedforgender.

DeclensionofpronounsForthemostpart,onlypersonalpronounsaresubjecttoinflection.Wedeclinepersonalpronounsbasedongrammaticalperson,number,gender,andcase.Thepronounswhoandwhoevercanalsobedeclinedtowhomandwhomevertoreflecttheobjectivecase;however,thisisbecominglesscommonineverydayspeechandwriting.Thetablebelowprovidesaquickbreakdownofthevariouspersonalpronouns.(Reflexivepronouns,thoughnottechnicallyatypeofpersonalpronoun,aresocloselyrelatedinformthattheyhavebeenincludedaswell.)ContinueontotheDeclensionchapterorgototheirindividualsectionsinthechapteronPersonalPronounstolearnmoreabouthowtheyareformedandwhentheyareused.


ObjectiveCase


FirstPerson Singular Masculine/feminine I Me My

FirstPerson Plural Masculine/feminine We Us Our

SecondPerson Singular/Plural Masculine/feminine You You Your

ThirdPerson Singular Feminine She Her Her

ThirdPerson Singular Masculine He Him His

Thirdperson Singular Neuter It It Its

Thirdperson Plural Neuter(Gender

Neutral) They Them Their

DeclensionofadjectivesandadverbsWedeclinebothadjectivesandadverbsinthesamewaytocreatecomparativeandsuperlativeforms.Asthenamesuggests,comparativeadjectivesandadverbsareusedtocomparetwopeopleorthings.Superlativeadjectivesandadverbs,ontheotherhand,identifysomeoneorsomethingwiththehighest(orlowest)degreeofacertainattribute.Weinflectthesemodifiersbyaddingthesuffix“-r”or“-er”toformthecomparativedegree,and“-st”or“-est”toformthesuperlativedegree.Collectively,theseareknownasthedegreesofcomparison.Forexample:

DegreesofComparison-Adjectives DegreesofComparison-Adverbs

“Mycathassharpclaws.” “Iliketodrivefast.”

“Hiscathassharperclawsthanmine.” “Mysisterdrivesfasterthanme.”

“Theircathasthesharpestclawsofthemall.”

“Mydaddrivesthefastestinourfamily.”

Forsomemodifiers,wesimplyaddthewordsmore/lessormost/leastratherthanchangingtheadjectiveoradverbitself.Tolearnthespecificrulesthatgovernthedeclensionofadjectivesandadverbs,gototheDegreesofComparisonsectionforAdjectivesorAdverbs.

RegularandIrregularInflectionInflectionisusuallydeterminedbyclear,consistentrulesorpatterns.Thisisknownasregularinflection.Alltheexampleswe’velookedatsofarhavebeenaccordingtoregularinflection.However,therearealsomanyinstancesofirregularinflection,inwhichthewaythewordchangesiscompletelyuniqueanddoesnotfollow(orseemtofollow)anypredeterminedrules.Forinstance,irregularinflectionoccurswithmanyofthepluralsofnouns.Wordslikechildrenormiceareirregularpluralformsofchildandmouse.Italsooccurswithadjectivesandadverbswhenwedeclinethemforthecomparativeandsuperlativeforms.Forexample,theadjectivegoodbecomesbetter(comparative)andbest(superlative),whicharealsotheinflectedformsoftheadverbwell.Someadverbsthatareformedfromadjectivesarealsoirregular—well,forinstance,istheirregularadverbformoftheadjectivegood.Verbsarethemostnotoriousfortheirirregularinflection,whichisdefinedashavingpasttenseandpastparticipleformsthata)aredifferentfromoneanother,andb)havedifferentspellingsthantheusual“-d”or“-ed”endings.Forinstance,thepasttenseoftheverbsingissang,whileitspastparticipleissung.GotothesectionRegularandIrregularInflectioninthischaptertolearnmoreaboutthesetrickyexceptions.


1.Whichofthefollowingisthepurposeofinflection?a)Tomodifyawordwithotherwordsinordertocreateanewmeaningb)Tochangetheformofawordinordertocreatenewmeaningc)Tocreatewordsthatformthesubjectofthesentenced)Tocreatewordsthatactastheobjectsofverbs2.Whichofthefollowingisnotsomethingweconjugateverbsfor?a)Tenseb)Moodc)Gender

d)Person3.Whatisthemostcommonreasonpersonalpronounsareinflected?a)Toestablishthegenderofthepronounb)Toestablishthepluralityofthepronounc)Toestablishthegrammaticalpersonofthepronound)Toestablishthegrammaticalcaseofthepronoune)Alloftheabovef)Noneoftheabove4.Thesubjunctivemoodcanbeusedtoexpresswhichofthefollowing?a)Wishesb)Statementsoffactsc)Directcommandsd)Alloftheabove5.Whichofthefollowingisthetermforinflectionthatdoesnotfollowpredictablerulesorpatterns?a)Improperinflectionb)Inexactinflectionc)Irregularinflectiond)Impliedinflection

ConjugationDefinitionConjugationreferstothewayweinflect(changetheformof)verbstocreateparticularmeanings.Whenwediscussconjugatingverbs,weusuallyrefertowaysinwhichwechangeaverbinordertoreflectgrammaticaltense,butwealsoconjugateverbstoreflectaspect,mood,voice,person,andspeech.We’llverybrieflylookatthewaysverbsareconjugatedbelow.Continueontotheindividualsectionsinthischaptertolearnmoreabouteach.

Tense

Grammaticaltensereferstotheconjugationofaverbtoreflectitsplaceintime—thatis,whentheactionoccurred.TherearetechnicallyonlytwogrammaticaltensesinEnglish:thepasttenseandthepresenttense.Verbsintheirbasicforminherentlydescribethepresenttime,andtheycanbeconjugatedintoauniqueformthatdescribesthepast.Usingauxiliaryverbsandverbparticiples,wecanalsocreatethecontinuous(orprogressive)tenses,theperfecttenses,andtheperfectcontinuous(orperfectprogressive)tenses.Thesearetechnicallydifferentaspectsoftense,buttheyarecommonlyincludedamongtheverbtenses.Englishhasnofuturetenseinthestrictsense(thereisnouniqueverbformtodenotefutureaction).Nevertheless,wecommonlyrefertoseveralstructuresthatareusedforfuturemeaningasbelongingtothefuturetense.We’lllookatacoupleofexamplesofeachverbtensebelow,buteachsectionhasmoreinformationonhowtheyareformedandused.

PresentTensePresentSimpleTense

“Igotoworkeveryday.”“Heworksinfinance.”“Idon’tgooutveryoften.”“Doyoueatbreakfasteverymorning?”“Theyarehungry.”

PresentContinuousTense“Johnissleepingatthemoment.”“AmIwearingtherightuniform?”“Jackisn’tcomingtothemoviewithus.”“Areyoustillreadingthatbook?”“We’reflyingtoSpaintomorrow.”

PresentPerfectTense“IhavelivedinItalyformanyyears.”

“Shehasbeenheresince8o’clock.”“Haveyoubeenheresincethismorning?”“Wehaven’tbeentothemoviesinalongtime.”“Haveyouseenmyjacketanywhere?”

PresentPerfectContinuousTense“I’vebeenwritingforoveranhour.”“Howlonghaveyoubeenwriting?”“Theyhaven’tbeenlivinginSpainforverylong.”“She’stiredbecauseshe’sbeenworkingalot.”“Thatbaglooksnew.Haveyoubeenshopping?”

PastTensePastSimpleTense

“Sheworkedinfinancebeforethisjob.”“WelivedinChinaforsixyearsafterIgraduatedfromcollege.”“Theydidn’twatchthemovielastnight.”“Iwenttotheparkyesterday.”“Iwastheiraccountantatthetime.”

PastContinuousTense“Iwasreadingabookwhentheyarrived.”“WhatwereyoutalkingaboutwhenIarrived?”“Shewasworryingwewouldn’tbeabletoaffordthewedding.”“Iwasn’tfeelingwell.”“WereyousleepingwhenIcalled?”

PastPerfectTense“ThemoviehadalreadyendedwhenIturnedontheTV.”“IwassadtoleavethehouseIhadlivedinforsomanyyears.”“Untilthismorning,Ihadneverbeenonaplane.”

“Hadyoueverbeenonatractorbeforeworkingonourfarm?”“Ihadn’teatenParmesancheesebeforegoingtoItaly.”

PastPerfectContinuousTense“WhenIarrivedatthebusstop,theotherpeopletherehadbeenwaitingfornearlyanhour.”“Wehadn’tbeentalkingforverylongbeforeshehadtoleave.”“MyeyesweretiredbecauseIhadbeenworkingonthecomputer.”“HadshebeenlivinginItalyforalongtime?”“Hehadbeenfeelingunwell,sohewenttoliedown.”

FutureTenseThemostcommonconstructionsofthefuturetensesusethemodalauxiliaryverbwillortheverbphrasebegoingto.Wecanalsousethemodalverbshalltocreatethefuturetense,butthisisgenerallyreservedformoreformalorpoliteEnglish,anditisnotverycommonineverydayspeechandwriting,especiallyinAmericanEnglish.

FutureSimpleTense“TheQueenwillbeinRometomorrow.”“Shewon’tdoherhomework.”“Willtheybelate?”“Iamgoingtowashmyhairafterdinner.”“Areyougoingtomowthelawntoday?”

FutureContinuousTense“I’llbeflyingtoBostontomorrow,soIcan’tcometolunch.”“Peoplearegoingbeconsumingevenmorenaturalresourcesbytheyear2030.”“Isshegoingtobeworkingfromhomenow?”“I’mnotgoingtobelivinginNewYorkformuchlonger.”“Youshouldn’tcalltheirhousenow;theywillbesleeping.”

FuturePerfectTense“ByOctoberwewillhavelivedinthishousefor20years.”“Afterthisnextrace,Iwillhavecompleted10triathlons.”“Youwillhaveheardbynowthatthecompanyisgoingbankrupt.”“Willtheyhavereadthememoaheadofthemeeting?”“Whyareyougoingtotheairportsoearly?Herflightwillnothavearrivedyet.”

FuturePerfectContinuousTense“She’llhavebeenwaitingfornearlyanhourbythetimewearrive.”“Iwillhavebeenlivinginthiscountryfor10yearsthisNovember.”“Willtheyhavebeenlookingthroughourtaxreturnsforthelastfewyears?”“Howwillhehavebeencopingonhisownforalltheseyears?”“Hewon’thavebeensleepingforverylong,butIhavetowakehimup.”

AspectGrammaticalaspectisoftenconfusedwithtense.Whiletenseisconcernedwithwhenanaction,stateofbeing,oreventoccurs(past,present,orfuture),aspectisconcernedwithhowitoccursintime.Weuseaspectwithtensetoreflecteachconstructionofaverbinrelationtotime.Whenweformthepresentcontinuoustense,forinstance,weareactuallyusingaspecificaspectofthepresenttense.Itisthroughaspectthatweunderstandwhetheranactiontakesplaceatasinglepointintime,duringacontinuousrangeoftime,orrepetitively.

PerfectiveandimperfectiveaspectTheperfectiveaspectisusedwhenwedrawattentiontoanactionasawhole,summarizingit.Theperfectiveaspectmayoccurinpast,present,orfutureactionsandevents.Forexample:•“Iatedinner.”•“Iswimlikeafish.”

•“Wewillhelpyoutomorrow.”Theimperfectiveaspect,ontheotherhand,isusedtodrawattentiontotheactionashavinganinternalstructure(ratherthanasawhole,completeaction)—forexample,anactionthatisinprogressatthemomentofspeakingorwhichhappenedhabituallyinthepast,asin:•“Iwaswashingdisheswhenshecamethroughthedoor.”•“Weusedtogotravelingalot.”

AspectsofverbtensesEachverbtensehasfouraspects,ortemporalstructures:thesimple,theperfect,thecontinuous,andtheperfectcontinuous.Thesecoincidewiththedifferentverbtenseswelookedatabove.

AspectsofthepresenttenseAspect Structure Examples

Simple Subject+presentverb“IgoshoppingonTuesdays.”“Sherunsfast.”

Perfect Subject+have/has+pastparticiple

“Ihaveeatenherebefore.”“Shehaslivedhereforalongtime.”

Continuous Subject+is/are+presentparticiple

“Wearecookingdinner.”“Heissingingasong.”

PerfectContinuous

Subject+have/has+been+presentparticiple

“Hehasbeenthinkingaboutit.”“Ihavebeentakinganartclass.”

AspectsofthepasttenseAspect Structure Examples

Simple Subject+pastverb“IwentshoppingonTuesday.”“Sheranfast.”

Perfect Subject+had+pastparticiple“Ihadeatentherebefore.”“Shehadlivedhereforalongtime.”

Continuous Subject+was/were+presentparticiple

“Wewerecookingdinner.”“Hewassingingasong.”

PerfectContinuous

Subject+had+been+presentparticiple

“Hehadbeenthinkingaboutit.”“Ihadbeentakinganartclass.”

AspectsofthefuturetenseAspect Structure Examples

Simple Subject+will/begoingto+infinitive

“IwillgoshoppingonTuesday.”“Sheisgoingtorunfast.”

Perfect Subject+willhave+pastparticiple

“Iwillhaveeatenbeforearriving.”“Shewillhavelivedhereforalongtime.”

Continuous Subject+will/begoingto+be+presentparticiple

“Wearegoingtobecookingdinner.”“Hewillbesingingasong.”

PerfectContinuous

Subject+will/would+have+been+presentparticiple

“He’llhavebeenthinkingaboutit.”“Iwouldhavebeentakinganartclass.”

MoodGrammaticalmoodreferstothewayinwhichaverbisusedtoexpresscertainmeaningbythespeakerorwriter—thatis,toexpresswhatisactuallythecaseorwhatisunrealorhypothetical,ortocommandorrequestsomethingtobedoneinthefuture.Therearethreemaingrammaticalmoods:theindicativemood,thesubjunctivemood,andtheimperativemood.

IndicativemoodTheindicativemoodexpressesfacts,statements,opinions,orquestions.Itisusedtoformdeclarativesentences(i.e.,statementsordeclarations)orinterrogativesentences(i.e.,questions).Forexample:•“Shegraduatedlastyearwithadoctorateinneuroscience.”•“Heisn’ttakinghisexamatthenewtestingcenter.”•“Areyougoingtogiveyourspeechtomorrow?”

SubjunctiveMoodThesubjunctivemoodusesspecificverbconstructionstodescribehypotheticalornon-realactions,events,orsituations,suchaswishes,suggestions,orpossibleoutcomesthatdependoncertainconditions.Forexample:•“IwishIdidn’thavetogotowork.”(wish)•“Irecommendthatshestudyhardernexttime.”(suggestion)•“IfIhadbeenmoreprepared,Iwouldhavepassedthattest.”

ImperativeMoodWeusetheimperativemoodwhenweformimperativesentences,suchasdirectorders,commands,orgeneralinstructions.Whenwemakeanimperativesentence,weusetheinfinitiveformoftheverb(withoutto),and,uniquely,weomitthesubjectoftheverb.Forexample:•“Turnoffthelightbeforeyouleave.”

•“Gotobed!”•“Pleaseclosethedoor.”•“Payattention!”

VoiceGrammaticalvoicedescribestherelationshipbetweentheverbandthesubject(alsoknownastheagent)inasentence.Therearetwomaintypesofvoice:activevoiceandpassivevoice.Athirdtypecalled“middle”voicealsoexists,butitislesscommon.

ActiveVoiceAverbisintheactivevoicewhentheagentoftheverb(thepersonorthingthatperformstheactionspecifiedbytheverb)isalsothesubjectofthesentence.Forexample:•“Theboysangasong.”(theboyistheagentoftheverbsang)•“Iamwatchingamovie.”(Iistheagentoftheverbamwatching)•“Vivianwriteswell.”(Vivianistheagentoftheverbwrites)

PassiveVoiceAsentenceusesthepassivevoicewhenthesubjectisacteduponbytheverb.Theobjectoftheverb’sactionbecomesthesubjectofthesentence,whiletheagentoftheaction(ifthereisone)isidentifiedbytheprepositionby.Forexample:•“AfamouspianopiecewillbeperformedbyAngietomorrownight.”•“Hisnewbookhasalreadybeenreadbythousandsofpeople.”•“Thelightbulbwaspatentedin1880.”(noagent)

“Middle”VoiceThe“middle”voicedescribesatypeofvoiceinwhichtheagentperformstheverb’sactiononitself.Verbsinthemiddlevoiceareoftenfollowedbyreflexivepronouns.Forexample:•“Mygirlfriendalwayschecksherselfinthemirrorbeforewegoout.”

•“Thedogbititselfonthetail.”“Middle”voicecanalsobeusedtodescribesomeintransitiveverbsthatactupontheiragents.Forexample:•“Thelasagnacookedintheovenforseveralhours.”•“Thebicyclebrokewithoutwarning.”

GrammaticalPersonGrammaticalpersonreferstothedegreeofinvolvementofaparticipantinanaction,event,orcircumstance.Therearethreedegreesofgrammaticalperson:firstperson(thespeaker),secondperson(someonebeingspokento),andthirdperson(anyone/anythingnotbeingdirectlyaddressed).Thevastmajorityofverbsonlyconjugateforthird-personsingularsubjects(e.g.,he,she,andit)bytakingthesuffix“-s”or“-es,”asin:•“Ieatpasta.”(first-personsingular)•“Weeatpasta.”(first-personplural)•“Youeatpasta.”(second-personsingular/plural)•“She/he/iteatspasta.”(third-personsingular)•“Theyeatpasta.”(third-personsingular)However,theverbbeisuniqueinthatithasfivedifferentconjugationsaccordingtothegrammaticalpersonofitssubjectandthetenseoftheverb.•“Iamhappy.”(first-personsingular,presenttense)•“Iwashappy.”(first-personsingular,pasttense)•“Wearehappy.”(first-personplural,presenttense)•“Wewerehappy.”(first-personplural,pasttense)•“Youarehappy.”(second-personsingular/plural,presenttense)•“Youwerehappy.”(second-personsingular/plural,pasttense)•“She/he/itishappy.”(third-personsingular,presenttense)•“She/he/itwashappy.”(third-personsingular,pasttense)•“Theyarehappy.”(third-personplural,presenttense)•“Theywerehappy.”(third-personplural,pasttense)Tolearnmoreaboutthewaythatotherverbsconjugateforthethird-person

singular,gotothesectiononGrammaticalPerson

SpeechGrammaticalspeechreferstohowwereportwhatanotherpersonsaid,whichaffectstheconjugationoftheverbsthatareused.Wealmostalwaysusereportingverbs(suchassay,tell,orask)toformgrammaticalspeech.Therearetwoprimarytypesofspeech:directspeechandreportedspeech(alsoknownasindirectspeech).Therearealsotwoothersub-categories,knownasfreeindirectspeechandsilentspeech.

DirectspeechDirectspeech,sometimesknownasquotedspeech,referstothedirectquotationofsomethingthatsomeoneelsesaid.Becausethequotationhappenedinthepast,weputthereportingverbintothepastsimpletense,butwedon’tchangetheverbsusedwithinthequotation.Whenusedinwriting,weindicatethequotedspeechwithquotationmarks(“”),andweusuallysetitapartwithoneortwocommas(unlesswearequotingafragmentthatblendsinwiththeoverallsentence).Forexample:•Johnsaid,“I’llneverliveinthiscityagain.”•Marytoldhim,“Iwanttohaveanotherbaby,”whichtookhimbysurprise.•Johnsaidhefeels“reallybad”aboutwhathappened.(Thereareanumberofothernuancessurroundingpunctuatingthatoccurwhenweusedirectspeechincertaincircumstances,aswellasifwearewritinginAmericanEnglishorBritishEnglish.ContinueontothesectiondealingwithSpeechtolearnmore.)

Reported(Indirect)SpeechInmanyinstances,wemerelyparaphrase(orrestate)whatsomeonesaid,ratherthandirectlyquotingthem.Thisisknownasreportedorindirectspeech.Inreportedspeech,wedonotusequotationmarks.Accordingtoconventionalrules,wemustalsoshifttheparaphrasedinformationonedegreeintothepast.Ifastatementwasoriginallymadeinthepresentsimpletense,forinstance,wewouldshiftittothepastsimpletense.Forexample:

Non-reportedsentence

Verbshift Reportedspeech

IliveinGermany.

presentsimpletenseshiftstopastsimpletense

HesaidhelivedinGermany.

IwasacarpenterbeforeImovedhere.

pastsimpletenseshiftstopastperfecttense

Shesaidthatshehadbeenacarpenterbeforeshemovedhere.

Heiswritingalettertoourfriend.

presentcontinuoustenseshiftstopastcontinuoustense

Shetoldushewaswritingalettertoourfriend.

Shewassleepingwhenyoucalled.

pastcontinuoustenseshiftstopastperfectcontinuoustense

HetoldmeyouhadbeensleepingwhenIcalled.

However,inmodernEnglish,thisruleisnotalwaysobserved,andthemeaningofyoursentencewouldusuallynotbeaffectedifyoudidn’tshiftthetense.Tolearnmoreabouthowwechange(ordonotchange)thetenseandwordingofsentences,gotothesectiononReportedSpeech.

FreeIndirectandSilentSpeechFreeindirectspeechisusedtoindicatethethoughtsormentalprocessesofacharacter,usuallyintheformofarhetoricalquestion.Wedonotusereportingverbsorquotationmarks.Forexample:•Hehadnomoney,nojob,andnofriends.Howhadhislifearrivedtosuchadesperatepoint?Silentspeechreferstosomethingthatissaidinternally(i.e.,silently)bysomeonetohim-orherself.Westillusereportingverbs,butwecanuseeitherquotationmarksoritalicstoindicatethesilentspeech,ornothingatall—itisuptothewriter’spreference.Forexample:•“I’mnevercomingbacktothistownagain,”hemurmuredtohimself.•Shethought,Whatabeautifulcountry.

•Itwillbequietaroundherewhenthekidsgotocollege,Danthought.

Conjugationvs.DeclensionRememberthatconjugationisthespecifictermusedfortheinflectionofverbs—nootherpartofspeechisconjugated.Foranykindofwordthatgoesthroughinflection(nouns,pronouns,adjectives,andadverbs),weusethetermdeclension.Headtothatsectiontolearnmore.


1.Whichofthefollowingisnotsomethingweconjugateverbsfor?a)Tenseb)Moodc)Genderd)Person2.Whichofthefollowingtypesofconjugationdescribeswhentheactionofaverbtakesplaceintime?a)Tenseb)Moodc)Persond)Speeche)Voice3.Whichofthefollowingtypesofconjugationdescribestherelationshipbetweentheverbandtheagencyoftheverb’ssubject?a)Aspectb)Moodc)Persond)Speeche)Voice4.Thesubjunctivemoodcanbeusedtoexpresswhichofthefollowing?a)Wishesb)Suggestionsc)Hypotheticals

d)Alloftheabove5.Grammaticaltenseisusedinconjunctionwithwhichothertypeofconjugationtodescribeaverb’srelationshipwithtime?a)Moodb)Aspectc)Persond)Speeche)Voice

TenseDefinitionGrammaticaltensereferstotheconjugationofaverbtoreflectitsplaceintime—thatis,whentheactionoccurred.TherearetechnicallyonlytwogrammaticaltensesinEnglish:thepastandthepresent.Verbsintheirbasicforminherentlydescribethepresenttime,andtheycanbeconjugatedintoauniqueformthatdescribesthepast.Wecanthenuseauxiliaryverbsandverbparticiplestocreatedifferentaspectsofthepastandpresenttenses,whichdescribeifanactionisorwascontinuous,orifitbeganatanearlierpointinthepast.However,verbsdonothaveaspecificconjugatedformtoreflectthefuture,and,forthisreason,Englishisconsiderednottohaveatruefuturetense.Nevertheless,althoughEnglishhasnofuturetenseinthestrictsense,wecommonlyrefertoseveralstructuresthatareusedforfuturemeaningasbelongingtothe“futuretense.”Themostcommonofthesestructuresbeginwithwillorbegoingto.Forthesakeofconsistency,wewillbereferringtosuchconstructionsasthefuturetenseinthischapter.

SummaryoftheMainTensesBelow,we’llprovideaverybriefsummaryofeachofthevariationsofthepresent,past,andfuturetenses.Gototheindividualsectionstolearnmoreabouteachvariation.

ThePresentTense

PresentSimpleTenseThepresentsimpletense(alsocalledthesimplepresent)isusedtoexpresshabits,facts,andtimetables.

StructuresofthepresentsimpletenseAffirmative:Thebaseformoftheverb.Itisusuallyconjugatedforthethird-personsingularbyadding“-s”or“-es”totheendoftheverb(exceptforirregularverbs).Question:Usetheauxiliaryverbdo(ordoesforthethird-personsingular)beforethemainverb.Negative:Usedonot(contractedasdon’t)ordoesnot(contractedasdoesn’t)beforethemainverb.Examples:

“Igotoworkeveryday.”“Heworksinfinance.”“Idon’tgooutveryoften.”“Doyoueatbreakfasteverymorning?”“ThesunrisesintheEast.”“Thesundoesn’triseintheWest.”“Thetrainleavesat9:30tomorrowmorning.”“Itdoesn’tleavefromplatform12.”“DoesthetrainforDetroitleaveat9AMtomorrow?”

WiththeverbbeThelinkingverbbehasthreedifferentconjugationsforgrammaticalpersoninthepresenttense:am(first-personsingular);are(first-personplural,secondperson,andthird-personplural);andis(third-personsingular).Bedoesnotneeddowhenmakingquestionsornegativestatementsinthepresentsimpletense.Affirmative:“IamfromtheUnitedStates.”Question:“IsheCanadian?”Negative:“TheyarenotBritish.”

PresentContinuousTenseThepresentcontinuoustense(alsocalledthepresentprogressivetense)isusedforsomethinginprogressatthemomentofspeaking;itdescribessomethingthatishappeninginthepresentmomentandalsoforexpressingfuturearrangements.Itcanonlybeusedwithactionverbs.

StructuresofthepresentcontinuoustenseAffirmative:Theauxiliaryverbbeplusthepresentparticipleofthemainverb.Weconjugatebe,ratherthanthemainverb,forgrammaticalperson.Question:Invertbewiththesubjectofthesentence.Negative:Usenotafterauxiliarybe(contractedasisn’toraren’t;amnotisnotnormallycontracted)beforethepresentparticipleofthemainverb.Examples:PresentmomentAffirmative:“Johnissleepingatthemoment.”Question:“AmIwearingtherightuniform?”Negative:“Jackisn’tcomingtothemoviewithus.”PresentmomentAffirmative:“Themanagersareworkingonthenewproject.”Question:“Areyoustillreadingthatbook?”Negative:“IamnotlivinginNewYorkanymore.”FuturearrangementAffirmative:“We’reflyingtoSpaintomorrow.”Question:“AreyoumeetingTomforlunchonWednesday?”Negative:“They’renothavingthepartyonSaturdayanymore.”

PresentPerfectTenseThepresentperfecttense(sometimescalledthepresentperfectsimpletense)isusedtogivegeneralinformationaboutsomethingthathappenedatanindefinite

pointinthepast.Wealsousethepresentperfectwiththeprepositionsforandsincewhenwespeakaboutsomethingthatstartedinthepastandisstilltruenow.

Structuresofthepresentperfecttense:Affirmative:Theauxiliaryverbhaveplusthepastparticipleofthemainverb.Haveconjugatesashasforthethird-personsingular.Question:Inverthave/haswiththesubjectofthesentence.Negative:Usenotafterhave/has(oftencontractedashaven’t/hasn’t)beforethepastparticipleofthemainverb.Wecanalsouseneverinsteadofnot.Examples:

“IhavelivedinItalyformanyyears.”“Shehasbeenheresince8o’clock.”“Haveyoubeenheresincethismorning?”“Wehaven’tbeentothemoviesinalongtime.”“I’velostmypen.”“Haveyouseenmyjacketanywhere?”“Shehasn’tbeeninworkforafewweeks.”“Ihaveseenthismoviealready.”“HaveyouevertriedIndianfood?”“Shehasneverflownonanairplanebefore.”

PresentPerfectContinuousTenseWeusethepresentperfectcontinuoustense(alsocalledthepresentperfectprogressivetense)totalkaboutthatwhichbeganinthepastandisstillhappeninginthepresent.Weoftenuseittoemphasizethelengthoftimethathaspassedwhilesomethingishappening.Wecanalsouseittotalkaboutsomethingthathasbeenhappeninglatelyoronlyfinishedveryrecently.Itcanonlybeusedwithactionverbs.

Structuresofthepresentperfect

continuoustenseAffirmative:Theauxiliaryverbhave(orhaswiththird-personsingularsubjects)+been+thepresentparticipleofthemainverb.Question:Inverthave/haswiththesubjectofthesentence.Negative:Usenotafterhave/has(oftencontractedashaven’t/hasn’t)beforethepastparticipleofthemainverb.Example:

“I’vebeenwritingforoveranhour.”“Howlonghaveyoubeenwritingfor?”“Theyhaven’tbeenlivinginSpainforverylong.”“She’stiredbecauseshe’sbeenworkingalot.”“Thatbaglooksnew.Haveyoubeenshopping?”“Hehasn’tbeensleepingalotlately.”

ThePastTensePastSimpleTenseWeusethepastsimpletensetoexpressfinishedactions.Itisoftenusedwithanexpressionofpasttimetogivemorecompleteinformation.

StructuresofthepastsimpletenseAffirmative:Thepast-tenseconjugationoftheverb.Thisisgenerallyaccomplishedbyadding“-d”or“-ed”totheendoftheverb,buttherearemanyspecificformsforirregularverbs.Question:Usedid(thepasttenseoftheauxiliaryverbdo)beforethemainverb.Diddoesnotconjugatedifferentlyforthird-personsingular.Negative:Usedidnot(oftencontractedasdidn’t)beforethemainverb.Examples:

“Sheworkedinfinancebeforethisjob.”“WelivedinChinaforsixyearsafterIgraduatedfromcollege.”“Theydidn’twatchthemovielastnight.”“Iwenttotheparkyesterday.”

“Didhewakeupearlyyesterdaymorning?”“Ididn’tgotothesupermarketthismorning.”

WiththeverbbeThelinkingverbbehastwodifferentconjugationsforgrammaticalpersoninthepasttense:was(first-personandthird-personsingular)andwere(first-personplural,secondperson,andthird-personplural).Bedoesnotneeddidwhenmakingquestionsornegativestatementsinthepresentsimpletense.Affirmative:“Iwastheiraccountantatthetime.”Question:“Wereyouinthemilitary?”Negative:“Hewasnotserious.”

PastContinuousTenseThepastcontinuoustense(alsocalledthepastprogressivetense)isusedforsomethinginprogressatacertainmomentinthepast.Itcanonlybeusedwithactionverbs.

StructuresofthepastcontinuoustenseAffirmative:Wasorwere(thepasttenseoftheauxiliaryverbbe)followedbythepresentparticipleofthemainverb.Question:Invertwas/werewiththesubject.Negative:Addnotafterwas/were(oftencontractedaswasn’t/weren’t).Examples:

“Iwasreadingabookwhentheyarrived.”“WhatwereyoutalkingaboutwhenIarrived?”“Shewasworryingwewouldn’tbeabletoaffordthewedding.”“Iwasnotfeelingwell.”“WereyousleepingwhenIcalled?”“Myex-husbandwasalwaysleavingdirtydishesinthesink.”“Iguessthingsweren’timproving.”

PastPerfectTenseThepastperfecttenseexpressestheideathatsomethingoccurredbeforeanotheractioninthepast.Itcanalsoshowthatsomethinghappenedbeforeaspecifictimeinthepast.

StructuresofthepastperfecttenseAffirmative:Had(thepasttenseoftheauxiliaryverbhave)+thepastparticipleofthemainverb.Question:Inverthadwiththesubjectoftheverb.Negative:Addnotafterhad(oftencontractedashadn’t).Wealsooftenmakethepastperfectnegativebyusingthewordneverinsteadofnot.Examples:

“ThemoviehadalreadyendedwhenIturnedontheTV.”“IwassadtoleavethehouseIhadlivedinforsomanyyears.”“Untilthismorning,Ihadneverbeenonaplane.“Hadyoueverbeenonatractorbeforeworkingonourfarm?”“Ihadn’teatenParmesancheesebeforegoingtoItaly.”“Ihadn’teverriddenonarollercoasterbeforegoingtotheamusementparkyesterday.”

PastPerfectContinuousTenseThepastperfectcontinuoustense(alsocalledthepastperfectprogressivetense)isusedtoexpresssomethingthatbeganandwasinprogressuntilamomentinthepastoruntilanotherpastactionoccurred.

StructuresofthepastperfectcontinuoustenseAffirmative:Had+been+thepastparticipleofthemainverb.Question:Inverthadwiththesubjectoftheverb.Negative:Addnotafterhad(oftencontractedashadn’t).Examples:

“WhenIarrivedatthebusstop,theotherpeopletherehadbeenwaitingfornearlyanhour.”“Howlonghadyoubeenstandingtherebeforetheyletyouin?”“Wehadn’tbeentalkingforverylongbeforeshehadtoleave.”“Isawthatithadbeenrainingoutside.”“MyeyesweretiredbecauseIhadbeenworkingonthecomputer.”“HadshebeenlivinginItalyforalongtime?”“Hehadbeenfeelingunwell,sohewenttoliedown.”

TheFutureTenseThemostcommonconstructionsofthefuturetensesusethemodalauxiliaryverbwillortheverbphrasebegoingto.Wecanalsousethemodalverbshalltocreatethefuturetense,butthisisgenerallyreservedformoreformalorpoliteEnglish,anditisnotverycommonineverydayspeechandwriting,especiallyinAmericanEnglish.

FutureSimpleTenseWeusethefuturesimpletensetodescribeanintendedaction,makeaprediction,statefuturefacts,makepromises,oroffertodosomething.

StructuresofthefuturesimpletenseAffirmative:Themodalverbwillortheverbphrasebegoingto+thebaseformoftheverb.Ifusingbegoingto,wemustconjugatebetoreflectgrammaticalpersoninthepresenttense(is,am,orare).Question:Invertthesubjectwithwillorbe.Negative:Addnotafterwill(oftencontractedaswon’t)orbetweenbeandgoing.Examples:

“TheQueenwillbeinRometomorrow.”“Iwilldefinitelyarriveontime.”“He’llhelpyouwiththatheavysuitcase.”“Shewon’tdoherhomework.”“Willtheybelate?”

“Iamgoingtowashmyhairafterdinner.”“Wearen’tgoingtojointhegymafterall.”“Ithinkit’sgoingtoraintomorrow.”“Areyougoingtomowthelawntoday?”

FutureContinuousTenseThefuturecontinuoustense(alsoknownasthefutureprogressive)isusedtodescribeanunfinishedactionoccurringinthefuture.Thisactioncaneitherbegininthefuture,oritcanalreadybeinprogressinthepresentandcontinueintothefuture.Thefuturecontinuouscanonlybeusedwithactionverbs.

StructuresofthefuturecontinuoustenseAffirmative:Themodalverbwillortheverbphrasebegoingto+theauxiliaryverbbe+thepresentparticipleofthemainverb.Ifusingbegoingto,wemustconjugatebetoreflectgrammaticalperson;wedonotconjugatebebeforethepresentparticiple,however.Question:Invertthesubjectwithwillorbe.Negative:Addnotafterwill(oftencontractedaswon’t)orbetweenbeandgoing.Examples:

“Youshouldn’tcalltheirhousenow;theywillbesleeping.”“I’llbeflyingtoBostontomorrow,soIcan’tcometolunch.”“Peoplearegoingbeconsumingevenmorenaturalresourcesbytheyear2030.”“Wewon’tbeleavinguntiltheevening.”“Isshegoingtobeworkingfromhomenow?”“I’mnotgoingtobelivinginNewYorkformuchlonger.”“Willyoubegraduatingthisyear?”

FuturePerfectTenseWeusethefutureperfecttensetosaythatsomethingwillfinishorcompleteata

specificpointinthefuture,oftenindicatinghowlongsomethingwillhavebeenhappeningonceafuturemomentintimeisreached.Wecanalsousethefutureperfecttomakeapredictionthatsomethinghasorshouldhavehappenedinthepast.

StructuresofthefutureperfecttenseAffirmative:Themodalverbwill+theauxiliaryverbhave+thepastparticipleofthemainverb.Wecanalsousebegoingtoinsteadofwill,butitislesscommonwiththefutureperfecttense.Question:Invertthesubjectwithwill.Negative:Addnotafterwill(oftencontractedaswon’t).Examples:

“ByOctoberwewillhavelivedinthishousefor20years.”“Afterthisnextrace,Iwillhavecompleted10triathlons.”“Youwillhaveheardbynowthatthecompanyisgoingbankrupt.”“Willtheyhavereadthememoaheadofthemeeting?”“Whyareyougoingtotheairportsoearly?Herflightwillnothavearrivedyet.”“Howlongwillyouhaveworkedtherebeforeyourmaternityleavebegins?”

FuturePerfectContinuousTenseLikethefutureperfect,weusethefutureperfectcontinuoustense(alsoknownasthefutureperfectprogressivetense)toindicatehowlongsomethinghasbeenhappeningonceafuturemomentintimeisreached;theemphasisisonthecontinualprogressionoftheaction.Itcanalsobeusedtoindicatethecauseofapossiblefutureresult.Wecanonlyusethefutureperfectcontinuouswithactionverbs.

StructuresofthefutureperfectcontinuoustenseAffirmative:Themodalverbwill+theauxiliaryverbhave+been+thepresentparticipleofthemainverb.Wecanalsousebegoingtoinsteadofwill,butitis

lesscommonwiththefutureperfectcontinuoustense.Question:Invertthesubjectwithwill.Negative:Addnotafterwill(oftencontractedaswon’t).However,itisnotverycommontomakenegativeconstructionsofthefutureperfectcontinuoustense.Examples:

“She’llhavebeenwaitingfornearlyanhourbythetimewearrive.”“Iwillhavebeenlivinginthiscountryfor10yearsthisNovember.”“He’snotgoingtohaveanyenergyforthekidsbecausehe’llhavebeenworkingsohardthisweek.”“Willtheyhavebeenlookingthroughourtaxreturnsforthelastfewyears?”“Howwillhehavebeencopingonhisownforalltheseyears?”“Hewon’thavebeensleepingforverylong,butIhavetowakehimup.”

IndicativeMoodvs.SubjunctiveMoodAlloftheabovetensesthatwe’velookedathavebeeninwhat'scalledtheIndicativeMood(alsoknownastheRealisMood),whichisusedtotalkaboutwhatisfactualorreallyhappening.ThereisalsoanothermoodinEnglishcalledthesubjunctivemood,whichdealswiththingsthatarenotobjectivefacts,suchone’sstateofmind,opinions,beliefs,intentions,desires,andsoon.ItisoneoftheIrrealisMoods,socalledbecausetheydealwithwhatisnotobjectivelyreal.Thesubjunctivemoodhasallofthetensesthattheindicativemooddealswith,butitisusedinmuchmorespecializedcircumstances.Whenwetalkaboutverbtenseinthischapter,wewillbefocusingontheindicativemood;tolearnaboutthesubjunctivemoodanditstenses,gotothesectionontheIrrealisMoodsinthechapteraboutGrammaticalMood.


1.HowmanygrammaticaltensesdoesEnglishtechnicallyhave?

a)oneb)twoc)threed)four2.Identifythetenseformthatismadeusingthefollowingstructure:Had+been+thepastparticipleofthemainverba)Presentcontinuoustenseb)Pastperfecttensec)Presentperfecttensed)Pastperfectcontinuoustense3.Whichofthefollowingsentencesusesthefuturesimpletense?a)“Johngoesforawalkeverymorning.”b)“Thetrainisleavingtomorrowat10AM.”c)“Herflightisgoingtoarrivealittlelaterthanexpected.”d)“IwillbeworkingformyUnclethissummer.”4.Whichofthefollowingsentencesusesthepresentperfecttense?a)“Ihavelivedinthistownmyentirelife.”b)“Shehadbeenstayingwithafriendforafewweeks.”c)“We’llhaveworkedsomethingoutbythetimeyougethere.”d)“Theyhavebeensayingthesamethingforyears.”5.Whichofthefollowingisnotusedtocreatethefuturetense?a)willb)shallc)dod)begoingto

PresentTenseDefinitionThepresenttenseismostlyusedtoidentifytheactionofaverbastakingplaceinthepresenttime.However,dependingonwhichwayweformthepresent

tense,itcanalsobeusedtodescribethingsthathappenedinthepast,orevencertaineventsthatareplannedtohappeninthefuture.Therearefourformsofthepresenttensethatcanaccomplishthesetasks.Wewillgiveabriefsummaryofeachbelow,butgototheappropriatesectiontolearnaboutthemmorein-depth.

PresentSimpleTenseThepresentsimpletenseisusedtodescribethatwhichisdonehabitually,thatwhichisgenerallytrue,thatwhichisalwaysthecase,orthatwhichisscheduledtohappen.Itismadeupofonlythebasicformoftheverb:theinfinitive(+-(e)sifusedwiththethird-personsingular).Itiscalled"simple"becauseitdoesnotrelyonanymodalorauxiliaryverbstoaccomplishitsmeaning.

Examples:•"IcomefromBerlin."•"Thetrainleavesat2PM."•"Hehasbreakfasteverymorning."•"Welikeicecream."

PresentContinuousTense(Progressive)Thepresentcontinuousorpresentprogressivetenseisusedtospeakaboutactionsthatarecurrentlyhappening.Itcanalsobeusedtodescribeactionsoreventsthatareplannedforthefuture,butwhicharenotdefinitivelyfixedintime.Wecreatethepresentcontinuoustensebyusingthepresentparticiple(-ingform)ofthe"main"verbafterthepresent-tenseformoftheauxiliarylinkingverb“be.”Thepresentparticiplecreatesthecontinuousformsofverbs,whichiswhere"presentcontinuous"getsitsname.

Examples:•"Sheisrunningforpresidentnextyear."•"Theyarenotwatchingtelevision."

•"Weareeatingicecream."•"Areyoureadingthatbook?"

PresentPerfectTensePresentperfecttense(sometimescalledthepresentperfectsimpletenseisusedtotalkaboutthingsthathappenedsometimeinthepast,butwhicharenotgivenaspecifictimeordate.Weformthepresentperfectbyusingthepresenttenseoftheauxiliaryverb“have”(or“has,”ifusedwiththird-personsingularpronouns)alongwiththepastparticipleofthe“main”verb.Usingformsofanauxiliaryverb(suchas"have")togetherwiththepastparticipleofthemainverbiscalledtheperfectaspectinEnglish,whichiswherethe"presentperfect"getsitsname.(Tolearnmoreabouttheperfectandotheraspects,seethechapteronAspect.)

Examples:•“Ihaveseenthatmoviealready.”•"She’sbeentoPrague.”•"Hehaslosthiskeys."•"Jenny'slivedinDubaifor10years!"

PresentPerfectContinuousTenseThepresentperfectcontinuousisusedinaverysimilarwaytothepresentperfectsimpletense.Itisusedtotalkaboutthatwhichbeganinthepastandisstillhappeninginthepresent,withanemphasisonthecontinuedactionand/ortheamountoftimeitistaking.Wecanalsouseittotalkaboutsomethingthatisonlytemporary,hasbeenhappeninglately,oronlyfinishedveryrecently.Thepresentperfectcontinuoustense(sometimescalledthepresentperfectprogressivetense)isformedbyusingthepresenttenseoftheauxiliaryverb“have”(or“has,”ifusedwiththird-personsingularpronouns)alongwith“been”(thepastparticipleofthelinkingverb“be”)andthepresentparticiple(-ingform)ofthe“main”verb.

Examples:•“IhavebeenlivinginNewYorkCity.”

•"Wehavebeenwalkingforfourhours!"•“Theyhavebeenworkingintheshopfor10years."•“Billhasbeencomingintoworklatealot.”•"I'msosweatybecauseIhavebeenexercising."


1.Whatcanthepresenttensebeusedtodescribe?a)Thingsarehappeninginthepresentmomentintime.b)Thingsthathappenedatanunspecifiedtimeinthepast.c)Thingsthatwillhappeninthefuture.d)Thingsthatbeganinthepastandarestillhappeningnow.e)A&Cf)B&Dg)Alloftheaboveh)Noneoftheabove2.Whichformofthepresenttenseisusedtodescribeahabitorgeneraltruth?a)PresentSimpleb)PresentContinuousc)PresentPerfectd)PresentPerfectContinuous3.Whichofthefollowingisnotinthepresenttense?a)IhearthatheislivinginSaudiArabia.b)Theyhaven'tbeentalkingforyears.c)Shehadbeenspendingsometimewithherfather.d)He'sleftthekidswiththeirnanny.4.Whatform(s)ofpresenttensedoesthefollowingsentenceuse?"Ican'tbelievethathehaslosthiskeysagain!"a)PresentSimpleb)PresentContinuousc)PresentPerfectd)PresentPerfectContinuouse)A&B

f)A&Cg)A&D

PresentSimpleTenseDefinitionThepresentsimpletense(alsocalledthesimplepresenttense)isusedwhenwespeakabouthabits,generalfacts,andtimetables.However,justbecausesomethingistruedoesnotnecessarilymeanittakesthepresentsimpletense,nordoessomethinghavetobeoccurringinthepresentmomentintimeforittobeinthepresentsimpletense.Itiscalledthepresent“simple”becauseitsbasicformconsistsofonewordonly—thatis,itdoesnotrequireanauxiliaryverbtoachieveitsmeaning.Mostverbsinthepresentsimpletenseareinthesameformastheinfinitiveverb.However,ifitisinthethird-personsingularform,thenitusuallytakestheending-(e)s.Forexample:•“IliveinLondon.”(Fact:IlivepermanentlyinLondon.)•“HanscomesfromBerlin.”(Fact:HansisoriginallyfromBerlin.)•“Maryhasbreakfasteverymorning.”(Habit)Nowlet’sseehowtheformandmeaningoftheverbschangeifweaddtheauxiliaryverb“be:”•“IamlivinginLondon.”(Stillafact,butitnowhighlightsthatIamonlylivinginLondontemporarily—thiswasn’talwaysthecase,anditmightchangeinthefuture.)•“HansiscomingfromBerlin.”(HansiscurrentlytravellingfromBerlin.)•“Maryishavingbreakfast.”(Maryiscurrentlyintheprocessofeatingbreakfast.)Theseareexamplesofthepresentcontinuoustense.Asyoucansee,theirmeaningisalteredincomparisontothoseinthepresentsimpletense.(Tolearnmoreaboutthistense,pleaserefertothechaptersectiononPresentContinuousTense.)Presentsimplecanalsobeusedforfutureeventsthatarefixedtohappen,suchasintimetables.Forexample:

•“Thetrainleavesat7PM.”Thisisafixedtimetablewherethepresentsimpleisusedtoindicateafutureevent.Wecanalsosay:“WeleaveforBerlintomorrowat7PM,”asthespeakerseesthisasafixedeventsimilartoatimetable.Normallyweusestativeverbs(alsocalledstateverbs)toexpressafact.Herearesomeexamplesofcommonstativeverbs:

LikeDislikeLoveEnjoyHateHaveKnowNeedWantSeem

Ofcourse,someactionverbs(alsocalleddynamicverbs)usedforhabitscanalsobeseenasastateorgeneraltruth.Forexample:•“Iplaytennis.”(State/fact/generaltruth)•“Iplaytenniseveryweek.”(Habit)However,verbswithastativemeaningcannotbeusedtoindicatehabit.Forexample:✔ “IknowJohn.”(correct–state/fact)✖ “IknowJohneveryweek.”(incorrect–can’tbeexpressedasahabit)Somestativeverbscanalsofunctionasactionverbsindifferentcontexts:•“Ienjoysoup.”(Stativeverb—expressesastate/fact.)•“Ienjoysouponceinawhile.”(Actionverb—expressesahabit.“Enjoy”inthissensemeanstoactivelyconsume.)Wealsousethepresentsimplewiththezeroconditional,whichmeanssomethingisalwaystrue.Forexample:•“Ifyoudropanegg,itbreaks.”(Anyeggwillbreakifitisdropped.)Presentsimplecanbeusedinavarietyofsentenceformations,suchaspositive,

negative,interrogative,andnegativeinterrogative.We’llbrieflyexplaineachandprovideexampleswiththepresentsimpletense.

PositivesentencesSimplyput,positivesentencesindicatewhatisthecase,asopposedtowhatisnot.Inthepresentsimpletense,theylooklikethis:•“Ijogeveryday.”•“HelivesinChicago.”•“Dogsbark,whilecatsmeow.”(Third-personplural.)•“Janetwritessongsforaliving.”

NegativesentencesTheoppositeofapositivesentence,anegativesentencedescribeswhatisnot(ornolonger)thecase.Weformthesebyaddingtheauxiliaryverbdo(ordoesinthethird-personsingular)andthewordnotafterthesubjectofthesentence.Thesecanalsobecontractedtodon’tordoesn’t.Forexample:•“Idon’tjogeveryday.”•“Hedoesn’tliveinChicagoanymore.”•“Dogsdonotmeow,andcatsdonotbark.”•“Janetdoesnotwritemanysongsthesedays.”

InterrogativesentencesInterrogativesentencesaskaquestion.Theyaremarkedbythequestionmarkpunctuation(“?”)attheendinsteadofaperiod.Simpleinterrogativequestionsalsousetheauxiliaryverbdo(ordoesinthethird-personsingular),butbeforethesubjectinsteadofafter.Generallyspeaking,itisuncommontouseafirst-personsubjectinaninterrogativesentenceinthepresentsimple.•“Doyoujogeveryday?”•“DoeshestillliveinChicago?”•“Dodogsbark,ordocats?”(Thesecond“bark”isimplied.)•“DoesJanetwritesongsanymore?”

NegativeinterrogativesentencesNegativeinterrogativesentencesalsoaskaquestion,buttheyimplythatthespeakerexpectstheanswertobe(orbelievestheanswershouldbe)“yes.”Weformthesebyaddingtheauxiliaryverbdo/doesbeforethesubjectofthesentenceandthewordnotafterthesubject.Again,thesecanbecontractedtodon’tordoesn’t;iftheyare,thecontractioncomesbeforethesubject:•“Doyounotjogeveryday?”•“DoeshenotstillliveinChicago?”•“Don’tdogsnormallybark?”•“Doesn’tJanetwritesongsforaliving?”Unliketheinterrogativesentences,negativeinterrogativesentencesaremuchmorelikelytobeusedinthefirst-person,withdoandnottypicallycontracted:•“Don’tIlookgoodinthisdress?”(Formoreinformationaboutdifferenttypesofsentences,gotothechapteraboutSentencesinthepartoftheguideonSyntax.)


1.Whichofthefollowingsentencesisnotinthepresentsimpletense?a)“Iwalkhomeeachday.”b)“Healwaysreadsgoodbooks.”c)“Shewilltalktohermotherat5o’clock.”d)“Igojoggingeverymorning.”2.Thefollowingsentenceisinpresentsimpletense.Whatkindofsentenceisit?“Doeshenothaveacarofhisown?”a)Interrogativesentence.b)Positiveinterrogativesentence.c)Negativesentence.d)Negativeinterrogativesentence.3.Whatkindofverb(usually)cannotbeusedtoindicatehabit?a)Stativeverbs.

b)Actionverbs.c)Passiveverbs.d)Senseverbs.4.Whichofthefollowingsentencesisinthepresentsimpletense?a)“Weareleavingtomorrowonthe10AMbus.”b)“Wewillleavetomorrowonthe10AMbus.”c)“Weleavetomorrowonthe10AMbus.”d)“Wearegoingtoleavetomorrowonthe10AMbus.”

PresentContinuousTense(Progressive)DefinitionWecreatethepresentcontinuoustensebyusingthepresentparticiple(-ingform)oftheverbafterthepresent-tenseformoftheauxiliaryverbbe.Unlikethepresentsimpletense,whichisusedtoexpressthingsthatarealwaysthecaseorareatafixedtimeinthefuture,weusethepresentcontinuous(alsocalledthepresentprogressive)tensetospeakaboutactionsthatarecurrentlyhappening,whethergenerallyorattheexactmomentofspeech.Itcanalsobeusedtodescribeactionsoreventsthatareplannedforthefuture(butarenotdefinitivelyfixedintime,suchasatimetable).

ActionshappeningatthemomentofspeechThemostcommonoccurrenceofthepresentcontinuousiswhensomeoneorsomethingisperforminganactionattheverymomentbeingdescribed.Inthiscase,theobjectoftheverbisusuallyinthepresenceoforveryneartothespeaker.Forexample:•“Iamgoinghomenow.”•“Heiscryingbecauseofthemovie.”•“Weareheadingtothepark.”

•“Itisrainingoutside.”

Actionshappeningcurrently,butnotatthemomentofspeechThepresentcontinuouscanalsoindicatesomethingthatiscurrentlyhappeningbutwhichisnotattheexactmomentofspeech.Itgenerallyreferstosomethingthatthepersonorthingiscurrentlyengagedindoingthatistakingplacecontinuouslyoveralongerperiodoftime,butwhichisnot(necessarily)permanent.Forexample:•“Johnisworkingintelemarketing.”•“Sheisrunningforpresident.”•“IamlivinginLondon.”

ActionsoreventsplannedforthefutureLikethepresentsimpletense,thepresentcontinuouscanalsodescribefutureevents.However,unlikethepresentsimple,itdescribesthatwhichsomeoneisplanningorexpectingtodo,asopposedtothatwhichisatafixedpointintimeinthefuture.Theformationoftheverbdoesnotchangetoreflectthis;rather,informationfromtherestofthesentenceinformsthefutureintention.•“Sheisrunningforpresidentnextyear.”•“IamtakingmydrivingtestaftertheChristmasbreak.”•“Wearewatchingamovielater.”

WithadverbsWecanalsoaddadverbsrelatingtotimebetweenbeandthepresentparticipletospecifyorclarifywhenorhowfrequentlysomethinghappensoroccurs.•“Iamalreadyleaving.”(IamleavingsoonerthanIexpected.)•“Sheisstilllivingnextdoor.”(Shecontinuestolivenextdoor,perhapslongerthanwasexpected.)

TheadverbalwaysThereisalsoaspecialusagewhentheadverbalwaysisusedbetweenbeandthepresentparticiple.Ratherthanliterallymeaningthattheactionalwayshappens(asyoumightexpect),itinsteadmeansthatthatactionveryoftenhappens.Weusethisasameansofaddinghyperbolicemphasistohowfrequentlysomethinghappensoroccurs,anditusuallyimpliesthattheactionoreventisquestionableorundesirabletosomedegree.Forexample:•“Myhusbandisalwaysleavingdirtydishesinthesink!”•“TheusedcarIboughtisalwaysbreakingdown.”•“Youarealwayslosingyourphone!”

NegativesentencesAnegativesentenceinthepresentcontinuousdescribeswhatisnotcurrentlyhappening.Weformthesebyaddingthewordnotaftertheauxiliaryverbbe.Forsecond-person,third-person,andfirst-personplural(butnotfirst-personsingular),beandnotcanalsobecontracted.Forexample:•“Iamnotwatchingthemovie.”•“Heisnotcrying.”•“Youaren’tleavinguntilthehouseisclean.”•“Sheisn’tgoinghomeforThanksgivingthisyear.”✖ “Iamn’treadingthatanymore.”(incorrect)Notcanalsobereplacedwiththeadverbialphrasenolongertoindicatethatsomeoneorsomethingwasdoingsomething,butthatisnotthecasenow.Forinstance:•“SheisnolongerlivinginNewYork.”

InterrogativesentencesInterrogative(question)sentencesinthepresentcontinuoustenseareformedbyreversingtheverbbeandthesubject.Ifadverbsareusedtoclarifyorspecifythetime,theycomebeforethemainverborattheendofthesentence.•“Isshesleeping?”

•“Areyouseeingthis?”•“Aretheygoinghomealready?”•“Isitstillrainingoutside?”Thepresentcontinuouscanalsobeusedwiththequestionwordswho,what,wherewhen,why,andhow:•“Whenisshetakingtheexam?”•“Whatareyouwatching?”•“Whyisheleaving?”•“Who’stalking?”•“Howaretheygettingtothestation?”

NegativeinterrogativesentencesNegativeinterrogativesentencesalsoaskaquestion,buttheyimplythatthespeakerexpects(orexpected)somethingtobethecase.Theycanbeusedtoexpresssurpriseifsomethingisnolongerhappening.Weformthesebyinvertingbeandthesubject,andthenaddingthewordnotafterthesubject.Again,beandnotcanbecontracted;iftheyare,thecontractioncomesbeforethesubject.Thiscanservetomakethesentencesoundlessformalandstuffy.Andadverbscanstillbeusedtospecifyorclarifytime.Forexample:•“Isshenotpaintinganymore?”•“Youwanttoplayoutside?Isn’titraining?•“Wait,aren’ttheystilldating?Likethenegativesentence,nolongercanbeusedinsteadofnot.Justnotethatyoudonotuseotheradverbsinthiscase:•AreTimandJohnnolongerlivingtogether?•Isitnolongerrainingoutside?Negativeinterrogativesentencesinthepresentcontinuouscanalsobeusedwiththequestionwordswhyandhow.Again,itexpressesthespeaker’ssurprise(andsometimesdismay)thatsomethingisnotthecase:•“Whyisshenotleavingtoday?”•“HowareyounotwatchingthematchonTV?”•“Whyarewenotabandoningthisfoolishenterprise?”

•“It’sthemiddleofDecember.Howisitnotsnowingyet?”(Formoreinformationaboutdifferenttypesofsentences,gotothechapteronSentencesinthepartoftheguideonSyntax.)


1.Whichauxiliaryverbisusedinthepresentcontinuoustense?a)Dob)Willc)Bed)May2.Whichofthefollowingsentencesisinthepresentcontinuoustense?a)“Shewillwalkhomealone.”b)“Shewalkshomealone.”c)“Shehaswalkedhomealone.”d)“Sheiswalkinghomealone.”3.Inthepresentcontinuoustense,whichquestionwordorwordscanbeusedinnegativeinterrogativesentences?a)Whob)Wherec)Whyd)Howe)A&Bf)B&Dg)C&Dh)Alloftheabovei)Noneoftheabove4.Inwhichgrammaticalperson(firstperson,secondperson,thirdperson)isitnotcorrecttocontract“be”with“not”?a)First-personsingularb)First-personpluralc)Secondpersond)Third-personsingular

e)Third-personplural5.Whatkindofactionisthefollowingsentencedescribing?“MybrotherWilliamisalwaystalkingabouthisgreatpoliticalambitions.”a)Anactionhappeningatthemomentofspeech.b)Anactionoreventplannedforthefuture.c)Anactionhappeningcurrently,butnotattheexactmomentofspeech.d)Anactionthathappensveryoften,especiallysomethingquestionableorundesirable.6.Whichofthefollowingquestionsisnotinthepresentcontinuoustense?a)“IsshestilllivinginSanFrancisco?”b)“Willwebeseeingyoutonight?”c)“Aren’twemeetingthemlater?”d)“Sorry,Johnisworkingrightnow.”

PresentPerfectTenseDefinitionThepresentperfecttense(sometimesreferredtoasthepresentperfectsimpletense)isformedbyusingthepresenttenseoftheauxiliaryverbhave(orhas,ifusedwiththird-personsingularpronouns)alongwiththepastparticipleofthe“main”verb.Despiteitsname,thepresentperfectisusedtogivegeneralinformationaboutsomethingthathappenedinthepast(anytime“beforenow”),butwhichdidnotoccuratadefinitivepointintime.Forexample:•“Ihaveseenthatmoviealready.”•“ShehasbeentoPrague.”•“They’vedecidedwheretheywanttogofortheirhoneymoon.”•“John’sliedtoustoomanytimes.”

PresentPerfectvs.PastSimpleThepresentperfecttellsusaboutsomethingthatoccurredatsomeindefiniteperiodinthepast.However,ifsomethinghappenedataspecificpointintimein

thepast(“lastnight,”“twoyearsago,”“yesterday,”etc.),thenwemustusethepastsimpletense.Forexample:✖ “IhaveseenTitaniconTVlastnight.”(incorrect)✔ “IsawTitaniconTVlastnight.”(correct)✖ “She’sbeentoPraguewhenshewasalittlegirl.”(incorrect)✔ “ShewenttoPraguewhenshewasalittlegirl.”(correct)Ifthefocusmovestowhen,thenwecannotusethepresentperfectanymorebecausetheattentionshiftstothatparticularpointintime.Whenwesay“IhaveseenTitanic,”wearegivinggeneralinformationaboutsomethingthathappenedanytime“beforenow.”Thefocusisonthefactthat“IsawTitanic”andnotonwhenIsawit.Thesameappliestothesecondexamplefromabove:•Presentperfect:“She’sbeentoPrague.”(Generally,atsomepointinherlifetime.)•Pastsimple:“ShewenttoPraguewhenshewasalittlegirl.”(Wesaywhenbecausetheexactpointintimeisspecified.)

TrueinthepastandstilltruenowInEnglish,weusethepresentperfectsimplewiththeprepositionsforandsincewhenwespeakaboutsomethingthatstartedinthepastandisstilltruenow.Forisusedtospecifythedurationoftimeleadinguptothepresent;sinceclarifiesthepointintimeatwhichsomethingbegan.Let’slookatsomeexamples:•“Ican’tbelieveJennyhaslivedinDubaifor10years!”•“He’shadthatcarsincehewasinhighschool.”•“We’veknowneachother(for)ourwholelives,butwe’veonlybeenfriendssince2006.”Eventhoughapointintimeisbeingspecifiedinthesecases,westillusethepresentperfectbecausetheinformationinthesentenceisstilltruenow.The“for”and“since”jointhepastsituationtoapresentone.Ifweweretousethepastsimpletenseforanyoftheabove,“for”wouldchangetomeanthedurationoftheeventbeforeitfinished,andwewouldbeunabletouse“since”atall:•“Ican’tbelieveJennylivedinDubaifor10years!”(JennynolongerlivesinDubai.)

•“Hehadthatcarinhighschool.”(Heowneditthen,butdoesnotnow.)•“Wekneweachotherforourwholelives,butweonlybecamefriendsin2006.”(Thetwopeoplearenolongeracquainted;perhapstheotherpersonisnolongerliving.)

PresentPerfectvs.PresentPerfectContinuousTenseThereisanother,verysimilartensethatisusedtotalkaboutsomethingthathasbeenhappeninginthepastandwhichisstillhappeningnow.Itiscalledthepresentperfectcontinuous(orprogressive)tense,anditisusedtoemphasizetheactionofthesentence(asopposedtotheresult).Itisformedbyusinghave/hasalongwithbeen(thepastparticipleofbe)andthepresentparticipleofthemainverb.Forexample:•“Ihavebeenwritingmanyletters.”(Thisemphasizestheactionofwriting,inwhichthespeakerisstillengaged.)Thisisslightlydifferentfrom“Ihavewrittenmanyletters”(presentperfect),whichemphasizestheresultofmanylettershavingbeencompleted.Insomecases,eitherthepresentperfectorpresentperfectcontinuouscanbeusedwithalmostnodifferencetothemeaningofthesentence:•“Ican’tbelieveJennyhaslivedinDubaifor10years!”(presentperfect)•“Ican’tbelieveJennyhasbeenlivinginDubaifor10years!”(presentperfectcontinuous)However,thoughquitesimilartopresentperfectsimple,theusagesofpresentperfectcontinuouscanbeabitdifferent.SeethechaptersectionPresentPerfectContinuousTensetolearnmore.

BeforenowornotlongagoLet’scompare“Ilostmykeys”with“I’velostmykeys.”Takenonitsown,thefirstsentenceislesscorrectbecauseweareexpectingthespeakertosaywhenheorshelostthekeys;forexample,“Ilostmykeysyesterday.”“Ilostmykeys”canbecorrectonitsown,butonlyifitanswersaquestion.Forexample:

•A:“Whyareyoulate?”•B:“(Because)Ilostmykeys.”Otherwise,ifthereisnoquestionornospecificationoftime,wesay:“I’velostmykeys.”Thiscarriesthemeaningthatthekeyswerelostjustbeforenowornotlongago.Let’stakealookatanotherexample:•A:“Wouldyoulikeacoffee?”•B:“No,thanks,I’vehadone.”Thisreferstonotlongago.Wedon’tsaywhenbecausethetimeisnotimportant—weunderstandthatthepersonhadthecoffeeashortwhileago.Again,ifthetimeisbeingspecified,thenyouhavetoputthesentenceinpastsimpletense(i.e.,“No,thanks,Ihadoneanhourago”).Herearesomemoreexamples:•“I’mnothungry,I’vehadlunch.”•“He’stakenthedogtothepark.”•“Shehasleftthekidswithhersister.”Remember,whenthetimebecomesmoreimportantthanthefactortheevent,weneedtousethepastsimpletense:•Presentperfect:“I’vehadlunch.”(Meaningjustnowornotlongago.)•Pastsimple:“Ihadlunchat12o’clock.”(Referringtoexactlywhenthespeakerhadlunch.)Itisincorrecttosay:“I’vehadlunchat12o’clock.”

NegativesentencesYoucanalsomakethepresentperfectnegativebysimplyaddingnot(or,incertainuses,never)betweenhave/hasandthemainverb:•“IhaveneverseenTitanic.”•“I’msohungry;Ihaven’thadlunchyet!”•“Hehasnotbeenhomesincehefinishedhighschool.”•“Iregretthatwe’venevertraveledtoParis.”

Interrogativesentences

Ifaninterrogative(question)sentenceisinthepresentperfecttense,thesubjectandtheauxiliaryverbhaveareinverted.Forexample:•“Haveyouseenthismovie?”•“Hassheheardanynews?”•“Havetheystartedthemovieyet?”

NegativeinterrogativesentencesNegativeinterrogativesentencesalsoaskaquestion,buttheyimplythatthespeakerexpectedtheanswertobe(orbelievestheanswershouldbe)“yes.”Negativeinterrogativesentencesinthepresentperfecthavethesameform,simplywiththenegativeword(usuallynot,butalsonever)placedafterthesubject.•“Haveyouneverseenthismovie?”•“Hasshenotheardanynews?”Notcanalsocomeafterhave/has,butitisalmostalwayscontracted:•“Haven’ttheystartedthemovieyet?”•“Hasn’thislicenseexpired?”However,nevercannotbeusedinthisway.

WithaquestionwordInterrogativesentencesusingquestionwords(who,what,where,when,why,which,andhow)maintainthesamestructure.Have/hascanalsobecontractedwiththequestionword:•“WhenhaveyoubeentoItaly?”•“Wherehasshegone?”•“What’vetheydone?”Theycanalsobenegative,butthentheyarestraightforwardquestionsofwho,what,where,when,why,which,orhowsomethingisnotthecase:•“Whichbookhaveyounotread?”•“Whyhaven’tyoueatenyourdinneryet?”

havegotandhasgot

Thereisonetrickyphrasethatdefiesthenormalform:have/hasgot.Wewouldexpectittobeinthepresentperfect,becauseitisintheformhave/hasplusthepastparticipleofget.However,eventhoughitisinthepresentperfecttenseinform,inmeaning,havegotisactuallyinthepresenttense.Itisusedtoindicatepossession,innearlythesamemannerastheverbhave(especiallyinmoreinformalspeechorwriting);gotsimplyaddsacertainlevelofemphasistothepossession.Forexample,thefollowingpairsofsentencesmeanalmostexactlythesamething.•“IhavegotthreeclassesonMonday.”•“IhavethreeclassesonMonday.”•“Ihearshe’sgotlotsofmoney.”•“Ihearshehaslotsofmoney.”•“You’vegotalotofnervecominghere.”•“Youhavealotofnervecominghere.”However,wecanneverusehavegotinterchangeablywithhavewhenitisusedtodescribeanaction.Forexample:✔ “Ihavebreakfasteverymorning.”(correct)✖ “I’vegotbreakfasteverymorning.”(incorrect)Tocreatethepastperfectmeaningofget,weuseitsotherpastparticiple—gotten.Weusethisformtodescribeaprocess,suchasreceiptoracquisition,orsomeotheraction.Forexample:•“Ihavegottenwordthatmyfatherisill.”•“He’sgottenalotofpositivefeedbackabouthisplay.”•“ThosedangkidshavegottenaFrisbeestuckinourtreeagain.”Note,however,thathave/hasgottenisnotusedtodescribepossession:•“Ihearshehasgottenlotsofmoney.”(Impliesacquisitionorreceiptoflotsofmoney,ratherthanoutrightpossession.)GottenisalmostexclusivelyusedinAmericanEnglish.ItveryrarelyusedinBritishEnglish,wherehavegotissometimesusedasthepastperfect(informally).Onesuchexampleis:•“You’vegottaller.”(BritishEnglish)•“You’vegottentaller.”(AmericanEnglish)

Regardless,have/hasgotandhave/hasgotten,thoughcorrect,areoftenseenasbeinglessformalorprofessionalsounding,sodependingonwhatyou’rewriting,youmaybebetteroffrewordingthesentencetoavoidthephrasesaltogether.


1.Whichofthefollowingsentencesusesthepresentperfecttense?a)“IworkedinthefactoryforafewmonthsbeforeIquit.”b)“Shehasbeenlivingwithherfatheruntilrecently.”c)“Ihearhehaslefthiswife.”d)“Ihadwrittentoheryearsago,butIneverexpectedaresponse.”2.Whichprepositionisusedwiththepresentperfecttotalkaboutsomethingthatwastrueinthepastandisstilltruenow?a)Forb)Inc)Atd)Sincee)A&Bf)A&Dg)B&D3.Whenisthepresentperfectnotused?a)Forsomethingthathappenedjustbeforenow.b)Forsomethingthathappenedataspecificpointintimeinthepast.c)Forsomethingthatwastrueinthepastandisstilltruenow.d)Forsomethingthathappenedatsomegeneraltimeinthepast.4.Whichauxiliaryverbisusedtoformthepresentperfecttense?a)Haveb)Bec)Cand)Do

PresentPerfectContinuousTense

DefinitionThepresentperfectcontinuoustense(sometimescalledthepresentperfectprogressivetense)isformedbyusingthepresenttenseoftheauxiliaryverbhave(orhas,ifusedwiththird-personsingularpronouns)alongwithbeen(thepastparticipleoftheauxiliaryverbbe)andthepresentparticiple(-ingform)ofthe“main”verb.Forexample:•“IhavebeenlivinginNewYorkCity.”Thepresentperfectcontinuousisverycloseinmeaningtohowweusethepresentperfecttense.However,therearesomekeydifferencesthatdistinguishwhenandhowthepresentperfectcontinuousispreferable.Generally,weusethepresentperfectcontinuoustotalkaboutthatwhichbeganinthepastandisstillhappeninginthepresent;thefocusisonsomethingthatcontinuestohappen,asopposedtosomethingwhichhappened(finished)sometimeinthepast.Wecanalsousethepresentperfectcontinuoustoemphasizethelengthoftimethathaspassedwhilesomethingishappening,orthatsomethingisonlytemporary.Wecanalsouseittotalkaboutsomethingthathasbeenhappeninglatelyoronlyfinishedveryrecently.

ThatwhichbeganinthepastandcontinuesinthepresentThepresentperfectcontinuousisoftenusedtotalkaboutsomethingthatbeganhappeninginthepast(anytime“beforenow”)andwhichisstillhappening(unfinished)inthepresent.Weusuallyspecifythedurationoftimeinvolved,especiallyusingtheprepositions“for”or“since.”Sometimeswecanusedifferentadverbials;sometimeswedon’thavetospecifythedurationatall.Forexample:•“IhavebeenlivinginNewYorkCity.”•“IhavebeenlivinginNewYorkCityforthreeyears.”•“IhavebeenlivinginNewYorkCitysinceIwas18.”•“IhavebeenlivinginNewYorkCityallmylife.”Ineachoftheaboveexamples,itisunderstoodimplicitlythatthespeakerstilllivesinNewYorkCity;theonlythingthatchangesisthedurationoftime.Inthisusage,thepresentperfectcontinuousisnearlyidenticalinmeaningtothe

presentperfecttense,and,indeed,mostoftheseexampleswouldmakeperfectsenseeitherway:•“IhavelivedinNewYorkCityforthreeyears.”•“IhavelivedinNewYorkCitysinceIwas18.”•“IhavelivedinNewYorkCityallmylife.”Theonlysentencethatchangesinmeaningistheveryfirstexample:tosay“IhavelivedinNewYorkCity”withoutanyfurtherelaborationgivestheimpressionthatthespeakerusedtolivethere,butnolongerdoes.Thisdistinctionbetweensomethingbeingcompletedasopposedtostillhappeningisimportant,becauseithighlightswhenyoumightchoosetousethepresentperfectcontinuousinsteadofthepresentperfectsimpleincertaininstances.Let’slookattheveryfirstexampleagain,butthistimeusingadifferentadverbial:✔ “IhavebeenlivinginNewYorkCitywhileIfinishmyPh.D.”(correct)✖ “IhavelivedinNewYorkCitywhileIfinishmyPh.D.”(incorrect)Wecanseethatthissentencedoesnotmakesenseatallinthepresentperfectsimpletense,becausetheadverbial“whileIfinishmyPh.D.”requirestheactiontostillbetakingplace.Incaseslikethis,wemustusethepresentperfectcontinuoustensetogetacrossthemeaningcorrectly.Thisdistinctioncanalsobeparticularlyusefulwhenwearegivingaresponsetosomeone:•PersonA:“Let'stakethelongertrailwhenwe'rehikingbackdown.”•PersonB:“Butwehavewalkedforthreehours!”(presentperfect)•PersonB:“Butwehavebeenwalkingforthreehours!”(presentperfectcontinuous)Wecanseethattheresponseismoreappropriateinthepresentperfectcontinuous,becauseitlaysemphasisonthecontinuousactionofwalking.Italsoputsemphasisontheamountoftimethatthespeakerhasbeendoingsomething.

EmphasizinglengthoftimeThepresentperfectcontinuousisespeciallyusefulforputtingemphasisonthelengthoftimethathaspassedwhilesomethingishappening.Thisisparticularlytruewhenthemeaningofthesentencecouldotherwisebeexpressedinthe

presentperfectsimple.Herearesomeexamples:

•“Theyhavestudiedforthreeweeksforthisexam.”(presentperfect)•“Theyhavebeenstudyingforthreeweeksforthisexam.”(presentperfectcontinuous)

•“Thegirlhasworkedforfivehours.”(presentperfect)•“Thegirlhasbeenworkingforfivehours.”(presentperfectcontinuous)Thedifferencebetweentheseisslight,butnoticeable.Inbothsetsofexamples,thepresentperfectcontinuousputstheemphasisonhowlongtheactionhastaken,aswellasthefactthatitisstillhappening.Thepresentperfectissimplyreportingthecompletedresultandhowlongittook.Let’slookatanotherexample:•“Hehastalkedonthephoneforalmostanhour.”•“Hehasbeentalkingonthephoneforalmostanhour.”Thefirstsentenceismerelyreportinghowlongthepersonwastalking.Withthepresentperfectcontinuous,thefocusnaturallyshiftstothefactthatanhourisaratherlongperiodoftime—andthathemightcontinuetalkingforevenlonger!

ThatwhichishappeningtemporarilyAnothersubtledifferencebetweenthetwotensesisthatthepresentperfectisbetteratindicatingthatsomethingispermanent,whilethepresentperfectcontinuousisbetteratsuggestingsomethingisonlytemporary.Forexample:•“Ihaveworkedintheshopforthreeyears.”•“Ihavebeenworkingintheshopforthreeyears.”Thefirstsentencesimplyreportsthelengthoftimethespeakerhasbeenworkingintheshop.Itdoesnotsuggestthatheorsheintendstostopworkingthereatanypoint.Thesecondsentence,however,makesthesituationsoundmuchlesspermanent.Wecanseethedifferencemoreclearlyifweaddabitmoreinformation:•“Ihaveworkedintheshopforthreeyears,butIhopetofindsomethingelsesoon.”•“Ihavebeenworkingintheshopforthreeyears,butIhopetofindsomethingelsesoon.”

Thefirstsentencesoundslessnaturalthanthesecond,becausethenewinformationspecificallyrelatestothesituationbeingatemporaryone.Inthiscase,thepresentperfectcontinuousispreferable.

ThatwhichhasbeenhappeninglatelyorfinishedveryrecentlyThepresentperfectcontinuouscanalsobeusedtoexpressthatwhichhasbeenhappeninglately,butisnotnecessarilyhappeningatthepresentmomentintime.Forexample:•“Billhasbeencomingintoworklatealot.”•“Don'tyouthinkMaryhasbeenspendingtoomuchtimeonthecomputerlately?”Itcanalsobeusedwithoutanadverbialtoindicatethatsomethingwashappeninguntilonlyrecently:•“Myneighborsareangrybecausemydoghasbeenbarking.”•“SorryI'msosweaty!I’vebeenexercisingallmorning.”Theactionisnottakingplaceattheexactmomentofspeech(inwhichcasewewouldjustusethepresentsimpletense),butwecaninferthatithadbeenhappeninguntilveryrecently.NegativesentencesPresentperfectcontinuoussentencescanbemadenegativebyusingthewordnot.Itappearsafterhave/has,andthetwocanbe(andveryoftenare)contracted.•“Ihavenotbeenwritingmuchrecently.”•“Shehasn'tbeentryingtofindworksinceherdivorce.”•“Ineedtogetupearlier,becauseIhaven'tbeenmakingittoworkontimelately.”

Wegenerallydonotuseneverwiththepresentperfectcontinuous.

InterrogativesentencesLikethepresentperfecttense,aninterrogative(question)sentenceinthepresentperfectcontinuoushasthesubjectandtheauxiliaryverbhaveinverted.Forexample:

•“Wherehaveyoubeenlivinglately?”•“HasshebeenfeelingOK?”•“Whyhaveyoubeenlyingtome?”Wecanalsomakenegativeinterrogativesentencesinthepresentperfectcontinuousbyaddingnotbetweenthesubjectandbeen.Wecanalsocontracthave/hasandnot:•“Haven'tyoubeenwritinganewbook?”•“Hasshenotbeenfeelingwell?”•“Whyhaven'ttheybeenworkingontheirhomework?”Asweseeinthefirstexample,themeaningofthequestioncanbecomerhetorical,implyingthatthespeakerexpectedtheanswertobe“yes.”


1.Thepastparticipleofwhichauxiliaryverbisusedtoformthepresentperfectcontinuoustense?a)Haveb)Bec)Cand)Do2.Themainverbofthepresentcontinuoustenseisinwhatform?a)Presentparticipleb)Pastparticiplec)Continuousparticipled)Futureparticiple3.Whichofthefollowingissomethingthepresentperfectcontinuoustensecanbeusedfor?(Choosetheanswerthatismostcorrect.)a)Talkingaboutsomethingthatisalwaysthecase.b)Talkingaboutsomethingthatfinishedsometimeinthepast.c)Talkingaboutsomethingthatbeganinthepastandisstillhappening.d)Talkingaboutsomethingthatishappeningrightnow.

4.Whichofthefollowingsentencesusesthepresentperfectcontinuoustense?a)“IamwritingtomysisterinNewEngland.”b)“Shehasspokentoherbossinthehopesofgettingaraise.”c)“Thetrainusuallyarrivesat3PM,butitwaslateyesterday.”d)“Ihavebeenleavingearlierthanusualthisweek.”e)“Hehasn'tseentheresultsofthetestyet.”

PastTenseDefinitionThepasttenseisusedtodescribeorindicateanactionthatbeganinthepast.Dependingonhowweformthepasttense,itmightdescribeactionsthathappenedorwerecompletedinthepast,wereoccurringatthesametimeassomethingelseinthepast,orcontinuedtohappenuntilornearthepresenttime.Therearefourformsofthepasttensethatcanaccomplishthesetasks.Wewillgiveabriefsummaryofeachbelow.Tolearnmoreabouteachofthem,youcangototheappropriatesection.

PastSimpleTenseThepastsimpletense(alsocalledthesimplepasttense,orsimplythepastsimple)isusedtoexpresscompletedactions.Itisknownasthepastsimplebecauseitdoesnotrequireanyauxiliaryverbstocompleteitsmeaning;itsstructureissimplythepast-tenseformoftheverb.Thepastsimpletenseonlyusestheauxiliaryverbdidwhenitisusedinaquestionorbecomesnegative.

Examples•“Iwenttotheparkyesterday.”•“Ididnoteatthecookie.”•“Icalledmysisteroveranhourago,butshedidn’tcallback.”•“Didtheymowthelawnyet?”•“Whatdidyouwearlastnight?"

PastContinuousTenseAlsocalledthepastprogressive,thepastcontinuoustense,isusedtodescribe

somethingthatwasinprogressatacertainmomentinthepastandeitherfinishedinthepastorcontinueduntilthepresentmoment.Itiscalledthepastcontinuousbecauseitusesthepasttenseoftheauxiliaryverbbe(wasorwere)followedbythepresentparticipleofthemainverb(whichisusedtodescribeanactionthatisorwascontinuouslyhappening).

Examples•“Wewereworkingonourassignmentwhenourparentscamehome.”•“Thephonerangastheywereleaving.”•“Shewasstillwritingherthesisat2o’clockinthemorning.”•“Myroommateswerefightingallthetime,soIdecidedtomoveout.”•“Hismemorywasfadingashegotolder.”•“SorryI’msomuddy;Iwasworkinginthegarden.”

PastPerfectTenseThepastperfecttenseexpressestheideathatsomethingoccurredbeforeanotheractioninthepast.Itcanalsoshowthatsomethinghappenedbeforeaspecifictimeinthepast.Toformthepastperfect,weusehad(thepasttenseoftheauxiliaryverbhave)+thepastparticipleofthemainverb.Becauseweusethepastperfecttohighlighttwoseparatepointsinthepast,weoftenusetheconjunctionsbefore,when,because,until,orbythetimetospecifytheorderinwhichtheyoccurredintime.

Examples:•“ThefilmhadalreadyendedwhenIswitchedontheTV.”•“Unfortunately,hehadlefthiskeysinthehousewhenheleft.”•“Theconstructionhadbeengoingquitesmoothlybeforetheearthquake.”•“Ihadn’tdreamedoflivinginIrelandbeforeIvisitedthecountry.”•“Hadyoueverriddenonatractorbeforeworkingonthefarm?”•“Whathadyoudonethatforcedyoutomoveabroad?”

PastPerfectContinuousTense

Thepastperfectcontinuoustense(alsocalledthepastperfectprogressivetense)isusedtodescribeanactionthatbeganandwasstillinprogressinthepastbeforeanotherpastactionstarted.Weusuallyusethepresentperfectcontinuoustensetoemphasizethedurationofthepastactionbeforethesecondactionoreventoccurred.Wecanalsouseittotalkaboutapastactionthatcausedorresultedinapasteventorsituation.Toformthepastperfectcontinuous,weusehadbeen+thepresentparticipleofthemainverb.

Examples•“Wehadbeenwaitingforalongtimebeforethebusfinallycame.”•“IhadbeenworkingontheranchformorethanhalfmylifewhenIretired.”•“I’dbeencleaningallday,soIwastootiredtogooutlastnight.”•“ShehadbeentravelingaroundEuropewhensheheardabouthermother’sillness.”•“Hehadn’tbeenfeelingwell,sohewenttolaydown.”•“IwascoveredinmudasI’dbeendigginginthebackyard.”•“Heneededtostudyharder,becausehehadn’tbeendoingverywellonhisexams.”•“Wherehadyoubeenstayingatthetimeoftheincident?”

TheSubjunctiveMoodSofar,we’veseenexamplesofthepasttensebeingusedtodescribewhatdidordidnotactuallyhappen.ThisisknownastheIndicativeMood.However,wecanalsousethepasttensetodescribehypotheticalscenarios,conditions,anddesires—thisisknownasthesubjunctivemood,oneoftheIrrealisMoodsinEnglish.

ExpressingWishesWegenerallyuseoneofthepasttensestodescribeawishordesireforahypotheticalalternative,evenifitisforsomethinginthepresentorthefuture.Forexample:•“Iwishitweren’tMonday.”

•“IwishIhadn’tagreedtoworkonSunday.”•“Webothwishyouweren’tmovingtoEuropeforcollege.”

ConditionalSentencesWecanalsousethedifferentpasttensestocreateconditionalsentences,whichdescribepossible(butunreal)outcomesbasedonhypotheticalconditions.Forexample:•“IfIwonthelottery,Iwouldbuyanewhouse.”•“Ifyouwereolder,youcouldstayupaslateasyouwant.”•“IfIdidn’tliveinLondon,IcouldneverspeakEnglishsowell.”•“Ifshehadbeenthere,shecouldhavehelpedyou.”•“Whatmightyouhavedonehadyouknownthetruth?”•“Hadyoubeenlistening,youwouldhaveheardthatthereportwasneededonMonday.”•“Imighthavelostmyjobifmybrotherhadn’tbeenworkingintheheadofficeatthetime.”Gotothesectionsrelatedtothesubjunctivemoodifyouwanttolearnmoreaboutusingthepasttensetodescribehypotheticalactions,events,andsituations.


1.Whichofthefollowingcannotbedescribedbyoneofthepasttenses?a)Anactionthatbeganinthepastandwillcontinueintothefutureb)Anactioninthepastthatwasinterruptedbyanotherpastactionc)Anactionthatbeganandendedinthepastd)Thingsthatbeganinthepastandcontinueduntilthepresentmomente)A&Df)Noneoftheabove2.Whichformofthepasttenseisusedtoindicatethecauseofapastresult?a)Pastsimpletenseb)Pastcontinuoustensec)Pastperfecttensed)Pastperfectcontinuoustense

3.Whichofthefollowingsentencesusesoneofthepasttenses?a)“IregrettoinformyouthatIshallbesubmittingmyresignationsoon.”b)“They’vebeentryingtogetaloan.”c)“Shehadbeenspendingsometimewithherfather.”d)“He’llhavebeenworkinginthisfactoryfornearly30yearsnextMarch.”4.Whichformofthepasttensedoesthefollowingsentenceuse?"Ihadn’tconsideredherasapossiblecandidateforthejob."a)Pastsimpletenseb)Pastcontinuoustensec)Pastperfecttensed)Pastperfectcontinuoustense5.Whendoweusethepasttensetodescribeawishordesire?a)Forthingshappeninginthepastb)Forthingshappeninginthepresentc)Forthingshappeninginthefutured)Alloftheabove

PastSimpleTenseDefinitionThepastsimpletense(alsocalledthesimplepasttense,orsimplythepastsimple)isusedtoexpresscompletedactions.Weoftenusethepastsimplewithanadverboradverbialphrasethatspecifiesatimefromthepast,suchasyesterday,lastyear,anhourago,etc.

StructureThistenseisknownasthepastsimplebecause,likethepresentsimpletense,itdoesnotrequireanyauxiliaryverbstocompleteitsmeaning;itsstructureissimplythesubject+thepasttenseformoftheverb.Forexample:•“Iwenttothepark.”Thespeaker’sactionofgoingtotheparkhasbeencompleted.Theverbgoisthereforeputinthesimplepasttense,went.However,wedonotknowanythingaboutwhentheactionwascompleted.Weoftenaddadverbsoradverbialphrasesthatprovideadditionalinformationaboutpasttime,whichcanbeplacedatthebeginningorendofthesentence.Ifappearingatthebeginningofthesentence,theseadverbsareoftensetapartbycommas(althoughthisisnotnecessaryiftheinformationisonlyoneortwowords).However,thisinformationcan’tcomebetweenthesubjectandtheverb,anditusuallydoesnotcomebetweentheverbandanyinformationthatisnecessarytocompletetheverb’smeaning(suchasitsdirectobjectoranadverbialcomplement).Forexample:✔ “Iwenttotheparkyesterday.”(correct)✔ “YesterdayIwenttothepark.”(correct)✔ “Yesterday,Iwenttothepark.”(correct)✖ “Iyesterdaywenttothepark.”(incorrect)✖ “Iwentyesterdaytothepark.”(incorrect)Inmorestylizedwriting,however,adverbialsrelatingtotimewillsometimescomebetweenaverbanditscomplement,whichgivesthemextraemphasisinthesentence.Forexample:

•“Iwroteoveranhouragotomysister,buthaveyettohearareply.”Noticethatthetonebecomesmuchmoreformalandthesentencesoundsabitmoreconvoluted.Inmostcases,itisbesttoavoidthisstructure.

TypesofsentencesPositive(affirmative)sentencesThetypesofpastsimpletensesentenceswe’velookedatsofarhaveallbeenexamplesofpositivesentences,alsoknownasaffirmativesentences.Thesetellthereaderwhatdidhappen.Wecanalsocreatenegative,interrogative,andnegativeinterrogativesentencesinthepastsimpletense;however,thestructureofthesentencechangesslightlyineachcase.

NegativesentencesIncontrasttopositivesentences,negativesentencesinpastsimpletensetellthereaderwhatdidnothappen.Toformnegativesentencesinthepastsimpletense,wemustusetheauxiliaryverbdid(thepasttenseofdo)togetherwithnotbeforethemainverbofthesentence.Themainverb,meanwhile,goesbacktopresentsimpletense,whichistheinfinitiveformoftheverbwithoutto.Forexample:•“Ididnoteatthecookie.”•“Shedidn’tenjoythemovie.”•“Hedidn’thavetoleavesoearly.”

Interrogativesentences(questions)Likenegativesentences,wehavetousetheauxiliaryverbdidtomakeinterrogativesentences(sentencesthataskquestions)inthepastsimpletense.Inthiscase,however,didcomesbeforethesubject,ratherthantheverb.Wecanseethisconstructionmoreclearlyifwecompareaffirmativevs.interrogativeconstructions:•Affirmative:“Iwenttothepark.”•Interrogative:“Didyougotothepark?”•Affirmative:“JanetsawagreatmovieonFriday.”•Interrogative:“DidJanetseeamovieonFriday?”•Affirmative:“Theymowedthelawnalready.”

•Interrogative:“Didtheymowthelawnyet?”

WithquestionwordsWecanalsousequestionwords(suchaswho/whom,what,where,etc.)beforedidifweareaskingforspecificinformation.Forexample:•“Who/whomdidyousee?”•“Whatdidyouwearlastnight?"•“Whendidtheyarrive?”Additionally,wecanusewhowithouttheauxiliarydidininterrogativesentencesinthepastsimpletense.Inthiscase,itisfunctioningasaninterrogativepronounandactsasthesubjectofthesentence.Becausewenolongerneeddidtocompletethesentence’smeaning,weusethepasttenseofthemainverbonceagain.•“Whowenttothemoviewithyou?”•“Wholefttheirwalletbehind?”

NegativeinterrogativesentencesNegativeinterrogativesentencesalsoaskaquestion,buttheyimplythatthespeakerexpectstheanswertobe(orbelievestheanswershouldbe)“yes.”Weformthesebyaddingtheauxiliaryverbdidbeforethesubjectofthesentenceandthewordnotafterthesubject.Didandnotareveryoftencontracted,inwhichcasedidn’tcomesbeforethesubject:•“Didn’tyougotoEuropelastyear?”•“DidJessienottrythecakewebakedforher?”•“DidInottellyoutocleanyourroomanhourago?”•“Didn’thesayhewasleavinginthemorning?”

OthertypesofsentencesThetypesofsentenceswe’vecoveredabovearethemostcommonusesofthepastsimpletense.However,thereareacoupleofotherwayswecanusethepastsimpletoexpressspecificmeanings.

Emphaticdid–thepastemphatic

tenseThereisanotherwaythatwecanformapositivesentenceinthepastsimpletense.Itisknownasthepastemphatictense,anditisformedbyusingdidbeforethemainverb,whichisinpresenttense.Itisthesameconstructionasnegativesentencesinthepastsimpletense,exceptthatweleaveoutthewordnot.Thisformplacesspecialemphasisonthefactthatsomethinghappenedinthepast,whichisusuallyusedasameansofexplanationortoconvincesomeoneofsomething.Forexample:•“ButI’mtellingyou,Ididcleanmyroomwhenyouaskedmeto!”•“Johnwasinasorrystatelastnight.Isupposehedidhavealottodrink.”Wecanheartheemphasisthatisplacedontheworddidinthesesentencesifwereadthemaloud,anditisthisstressthatcreatestheexplanatoryintonationinthetext.

Usingthepastsimpletenseforhypotheticals(thesubjunctivemood)Ifweareexpressingawishordesire,weusuallyusethepasttense;forapresentwish,weusethepastsimple.Forexample:•“Iwishitweren’t/wasn’tMonday.”•“IwishIdidn’thavetogotowork.”Thisisanexampleofwhat’scalledthesubjunctivemoodinEnglish,whichisusedforexpressingthingsthatarehypotheticalornotobjectivelyfactual.Tolearnmoreabouthowthepastsimpletenseisusedinthisway,seethesectiononsubjunctivemoodunderthechapteronMood.


1.Whatdoweprimarilyusethepastsimpletensefor?a)Toexpresswhatwillhappenb)Toexpresswhatdidhappen

c)Toexpresswhatdidnothappend)Toexpresswhatshouldhavehappened2.Inwhichofthefollowingtypesofsentencesdoweneedtheauxiliaryverbdidtomakethepastsimpletense?a)Negativesentencesb)Interrogativesentencesc)Positivesentencesd)A&Be)B&C3.Selectthesentencebelowthatiscorrect:a)“Iknewwheretogo.”b)“Hedidn’tstudiedhardenough.”c)“ButIdidwashedthedishes!”d)“Iwishitisn’training.”4.Wheredoestheauxiliaryverbdidappearinaninterrogativesentencethatdoesnotusequestionwords?a)Immediatelybeforethemainverbb)Immediatelyafterthemainverbc)Immediatelybeforethesubjectd)Immediatelyafterthesubject5.Whichofthefollowingsentencesisnotinthepastsimpletense?a)“Hefoundawayofkeepingpossessionofthehouse.”b)“Wedidn’ttraveltoRomeafterall.”c)“Well,youcanbesurethathedoeshaveasolutioninmind.”d)“Didhenotknowthatwewerecoming?”

PastContinuousTenseDefinitionAlsocalledthepastprogressive,thepastcontinuoustenseisusedtodescribesomethingthatwasinprogressatacertainmomentinthepast.

Itiscalledthepastcontinuousbecauseitusesthepasttenseoftheauxiliaryverbbe(wasorwere)followedbythepresentparticipleofthemainverb(whichisusedtodescribeanactionthatisorwascontinuouslyhappening).

StructureToformthepastcontinuous,weorderthesentencelikethis:subject+was/were+presentparticipleofmainverb.Forexample:•“Iwasworking.”•“Shewasreadingabook.”Thesesentencesarebothcomplete,buttheygiveverylittleinformation.Often,thepastcontinuoustenseisusedwithadditionalinformationtoconveyamorecompletestoryaboutwhatsurroundedacontinuousactionorevent.

FunctionsofthepastcontinuousThereareanumberoffunctionsforwhichweusethepastcontinuoustenseinspeechandwriting.Let’slookatsomeexamplesofthesevariousfunctions.

Beforeandafteranotheractionoreventhappened•“Wewerebusyworkingonourassignmentwhenourparentscamehome.”•“Iwaswatchingthelovelysunsetasaflockofbirdssoaredby.”

Interruptedbyanotheractionorevent•“Hewashavingthemostwonderfultimeonthebeachwhentheweathersuddenlyturnedawful.”•“Astheywereleaving,thephonerang.”

Beforeandafteracertaintime•“Twoyearsago,IwasworkingatabarinNewYorkCity.”

•“Shewasstillupwritingherthesisat2o’clockinthemorning.”

Foracertainlengthoftime(whetherspecificorundefined)•“Myheadwasthrobbing.”(undefinedlengthoftime)•“Youwereeatingthatsandwichforanhour!”(specificlengthoftime)

Repeatedlyandfrequently•“MyparentswerefightingallthetimewhenIdecidedtoleave.•“Iwasoftenworryingwewouldn’tbeabletoaffordtheweddinginthemonthsleadinguptoit.”

AsourceofirritationWecanalsoindicatethatthingsthathappenedrepeatedlywereasourceofirritationbyusingtheadverbsoffrequencyalwaysorconstantly,asin:•“Myex-husbandwasalwaysleavingdirtydishesinthesink.”•“Theoldbosswasconstantlyberatingemployeesoversillyissues.”

Toshowdevelopment,growth,orotherchange(s)overtime•“Thingswerechanging;therewasnodenyingthat.”•“Ithoughtherconditionwasimproving,butIguessnot.”•“Hismemorywasfadingashegotolder.”

Narratingastoryordescribinganatmosphere•“Astheywalkedintothesunshine,thebirdsweresingingandthebreezewassoftlyblowing.”•“IwasworkinginaNewYorkCitybarwhenallofthistookplace.”

SentencetypesAlloftheexamplesabovehaveusedthepastcontinuousinpositivesentences.Aswiththeothertenses,wecanusethepastcontinuousinnegative,imperative,andnegativeimperativesentences,withslightchangesinstructureasaresult.

NegativesentencesTomakeasentencenegativeinthepastcontinuous,wesimplyadd“not”betweentheauxiliaryverb(was/were)andthepresentparticipleofthemainverb.Notisoftencontractedwiththeauxiliaryverbtomakewasn’t/weren’t.Forexample:•“Iwasnotfeelingwell.”•“Thekidsweren’tsleepingwhenwegothome.”•“Shewasn’tworkingfortwoyearsafterthebabywasborn.”

Interrogativesentences(questions)Toformaninterrogativesentence(i.e.,onethatasksaquestion)inthepastcontinuoustense,simplyinvertthesubjectwiththeverb.Forexample:•Positive:“Iwassleepingwhenyoucalled.”•Interrogative:“WereyousleepingwhenIcalled?”•Positive:“Theywerewatchingamovielastnight.”•Interrogative:“Wereyouwatchingamovielastnight?”•Positive:“Shewasworkingonherthesisatthetime.”•Interrogative:“Wassheworkingonherthesisatthetime?”

NegativeinterrogativesentencesNegativeinterrogativesentencesalsoaskaquestion,buttheyimplythatthespeakerexpectstheanswertobe(orbelievestheanswershouldbe)“yes.”Weformthesebyaddingthewordnotafterthesubject.Was/wereandnotareveryoftencontractedintowasn’t/weren’t,inwhichcasetheybothcomebeforethesubject:•“Wasshenotlookingforanewplacetolive?”

•“Weren’tyouwatchingamovielastnight?”•“Wasn’thekeepingtrackoftheinventory?”


1.Whichofthefollowingauxiliaryverbsisusedtoformthepastcontinuoustense?a)canb)doc)bed)will2.Whatformofthemainverbisusedinthepastcontinuoustense?a)presentparticipleb)pastparticiplec)futureparticipled)infinitiveform3.Whichofthefollowingsentencesisinthepastcontinuoustense?a)“Ihadbeenwatchingamoviewhentheywalkedin.”b)“Heknewalotofpeoplewhohadseenthemovie.”c)“ShewaswaitingtohearfromhersisterinNewYork.”d)“Iamcertainlytryingtofindasolution.”4.Whichofthefollowingsentencesisnotinthepastcontinuoustense?a)“Iwasalwaystryingtofindthebestopportunities.”b)“Theyleftwithoutsayinggoodbye.”c)“Weren’twelookingforsomethingjustlikethis?”d)“Sure,he’sdoinghisbest,butisitgoodenough?”

PastPerfectTenseDefinitionThepastperfecttenseexpressestheideathatsomethingoccurredbeforeanotheractioninthepast.Itcanalsoshowthatsomethinghappenedbeforea

specifictimeinthepast.Considerthesetwosentences,forinstance:•“Whenshearrivedattheairport,sherealizedshedroppedherpassport.”•“Whenshearrivedattheairport,sherealizedshehaddroppedherpassport.”Shearrivedattheairportinamomentinthepast,butthemomentshedroppedherpassporthappenedbeforethispastmoment.Becausethefirstsentenceonlyusesthepastsimpletense,itsoundsasifbothmomentshappenedatthesametimeinthepast,andthesentencebecomesconfusing.Byusingthepastperfecttenseinthesecondsentence,weareabletodistinguishthatoneeventhappenedearlierthantheother.

StructureToformthepastperfecttense,weusehad(thepasttenseoftheauxiliaryverbhave)+thepastparticipleofthemainverb.Becauseweusethepastperfecttohighlighttwoseparatepointsinthepast,weoftenusetheconjunctionsbefore,when,because,until,orbythetimetospecifytheorderinwhichtheyoccurredintime.

AnactionoreventbeforeanotheractionoreventIfwearehighlightingthattheactionoreventinthepastperfecttensecamebeforeanotheractionorevent,thissecondverbisoften(butnotalways)inthepastsimpletense.Forexample:•“WhenIturnedontheTV,thefilmhadended.”•“IhaddreamedoflivinginIrelandevenbeforeIvisitedthecountry.”•“Shewassadwhensheleftthehouseshehadlivedinforsomanyyears.”•“Unfortunately,hehadnottakenhiskeysbeforeheleftthehouse.”Noticethatthepastperfectcanappearinasentenceeitherbeforeorafteralateractionorevent.Regardlessofitsposition,thepastperfectalwaysreferstoanearliertime.Thisisespeciallyimportanttorememberwhenusingtheconjunctionwhen,becauseitwillhelpdistinguishbetweeneventsthathappenedsimultaneouslyinthepastandeventsthathappenedsequentially.Forexample,considerthesetwo

subtly(butdistinctly)differentsentences:•“Marycookeddinnerwhenthekidscamehome.”•“Maryhadcookeddinnerwhenthekidscamehome.”Inthefirstsentence,itsoundslikeMarystartedcookingatthesametimeasthekidsarrivedhome.Byusingthepastperfectinthesecondsentence,itismadeclearthatMaryhadalreadycookeddinnerbeforethekidsarrived.

OmittingthepastperfectThepastperfectisnotalwaysnecessary,however,whenweusetheconjunctionsbeforeoraftertolinktwoclausesofpastevents.Thisisbecausethesetwowordsalreadyspecifyanorderoftime.Ifthisisthecase,bothverbscanbeinthepastsimpletense.Forexample:•“IpackedabagofsnacksbeforeIleftfortheairport.”(correct)•“IhadpackedabagofsnacksbeforeIleftfortheairport.”(correct,butnotnecessary)Althoughnotabsolutelynecessary,thepastperfectstillgivesagreatersenseoftimethanthepastsimplealone.Thefirstsentenceaboveiscompletelycorrectandeasytounderstand.Thesecondsentenceisequallycorrect,butitletsusknowthattheearliereventdidnothappenimmediatelybeforethelaterone.Inthisparticularexample,itgivestheimpressionthatthespeakerhadtheforesighttopackabagofsnacks,ratherthansimplydoingsojustbeforeheorsheleftfortheairport.Thisdistinctionissubtle,anditsimpactonthesentenceissomewhatminor,butusingthepastperfecttenseinthiswaycreatesamorerichandnuancedmeaning.

AnactionoreventbeforeaspecificpointintimeIfwearetalkingaboutapastperfectactionthatcamebeforeacertainpointintimeinthepast,thenweuseanadverbialprepositionalphrasetospecifyexactlywhenwearetalkingabout.Forexample:•“Untilthatafternoon,shehadneverconsideredlivingabroad.”

•“Theconstructionhadgonequitesmoothlybeforetheearthquake.”•“Ihadexpectedtobemarriedbythismorning.”•“Ihadn’tusedahammerbeforeworkinginconstruction.”(Notethat,inthelastexample,“workinginconstruction”actsastheobjectoftheprepositionbefore.Workingisagerundinthiscase,soitdoesnothavetobeinthepastsimpletense,aswiththeotherverbsweexaminedintheprevioussection.)

OthertypesofsentencesAlloftheabovesentencesareeitherpositivesentences(alsoknownasaffirmativesentences)ornegativesentences—aswecansee,thenegativesentencesareformedbysimplyinsertingnotorneverbetweenhadandthepastparticipleofthemainverb.However,thereisanotherwaywecanconstructnegativesentencesinthepastperfect.We’llbrieflylookathowthisisused,andthenwe’llexaminetheothertypesofsentencesthatcanbemadeinthepastperfecttense.

Negativesentences–alternativeconstructionMostofthetime,wemakethepastperfectnegativebysimplyaddingnotorneveraftertheauxiliaryverbhad.Ifwewanttoemphasizethatsomethingneverhappenedbeforeagiventime,event,oractioninthepast,wecanalsoplacethewordneverbeforetheverbhad.Inthiscase,bothneverandhadcomebeforethesubjectoftheclause.Forinstance:•“NeverhadIfeltsoalive.”•“Neverhadsheimaginedthatlovelikethiscouldexist.”Ifwewanttoaddevenmoreemphasis,wecanalsoincludethewordbeforebetweenneverandhad,asin:•“Neverbeforehadsheseemedsobeautifultohim.”Suchsentencesaremuchmoreliteraryinstyle—theytypicallywouldnotbefoundinacademic,professional,orcolloquialspeechorwriting.Becauseofthisliteraryusage,theconstructionisalsoprimarilyusedwithstativeverbs(e.g.

feel,imagine,appear)asopposedtoactionverbs.Forexample,thestatement“neverbeforehadIrunsofar”soundsratherover-embellishedorhyperbolic.Finally,youmayhavenoticedthatnoneoftheabovesentencesincludeanotheraction,event,orpointintimetowhichthepastperfectisreferring.Thisagainisduetotheliteraryusageofsuchaconstruction.Insuchcases,thepastperfectoftenalludestosomethingthathasalreadybeenmentionedelsewhereinthenarrative.

Interrogativesentences(questions)Toforminterrogativesentences(sentencesthataskquestions)inthepastperfect,theauxiliaryverbhadagaincomesbeforethesubject,whichisthenfollowedbythepastparticipleofthemainverb.Mostofthetime,weusethewordeverbeforethemainverbtoaskifsomethinghadhappenedorbeenthecaseatanytimebeforesomethingelse.Itisusuallyconstructedwiththeconjunctionorprepositionbefore.Forexample:•“Hadyoueverbeenonatractorbeforestartingworkonthefarm?”•“Beforethewar,hadyoueverconsideredlivingabroad?”

NegativeinterrogativesentencesNegativeinterrogativesentencesalsoaskaquestion,buttheyimplythatthespeakerexpectstheanswertobe(orbelievestheanswershouldbe)“yes.”Weformthesebyaddingthewordnotorneverafterthesubject.Hadandnotareveryoftencontracted,inwhichcasehadn’tcomesbeforethesubject.Negativeinterrogativesentencesinthepastperfectarenotverycommonineverydayspeechandwriting.Likethealternativeuseofneverthatwelookedatabove,itwouldbemorecommontoheartheminastoryornarrative.Forexample:•“Ibegantopanic.Itwasnearlymidnight.Hadn’tthetrainarrivedyet?”Negativeinterrogativesentencesinthepastperfectmightalsooccurifsomeoneisaskinganotherpersonaquestionaboutastorytheyaretelling.Forexample:•PersonA:“ItwasnearlymidnightbythetimeIgothome,withstillmoreworkaheadofme.”

•PersonB:“Hadn’tyouatleastgottenclosetofinishingbythen?”•PersonA:“No,Iwasbarelyevenhalfwaydone!”


1.Weusethepasttenseofwhichauxiliaryverbtoformthepastperfect?a)beb)willc)haved)do2.Whichofthefollowingisnotsomethingweusethepastperfecttensetodescribe?a)Anactionoreventbeforeaspecificpointintimeb)Anactioninthepastthatwashappeninguntilrecentlyc)Anactionoreventbeforeanotheractionoreventd)Ahypotheticalsituationinthepastthatmighthaveledtoadifferentoutcome3.Whichofthefollowingtypesofsentencesismorelikelytobefoundinliterarywritingwhenitisinthepastperfecttense?a)Negativeinterrogativeb)Conditionalc)Positived)Interrogative4.Whichofthefollowingsentencesisinthepastperfecttense?a)“Ihadbeenhitchhikingformilesbeforesomeonepickedmeup.”b)“Ihaveseensomeweirdthingsouthereontheroad.”c)“Unfortunately,Ihadn’teatenbeforeIlefthomethatday.”d)“IfeltawfulbythetimeIfinallygothome.”5.Whichofthefollowingisnotinthepastperfecttense?a)“Hadsheeverbeeninthisbarbeforetoday?”b)“Hehadn’tseenherwhenhefirstcamein.”c)“Neverbeforehadhemetsomeonesointeresting.”d)“Hehadastronghopethattheywouldmeetagain.”

PastPerfectContinuousTenseDefinitionThepastperfectcontinuoustense(alsocalledthepastperfectprogressivetense)isusedtodescribeanactionthatbeganandwasstillinprogressinthepastbeforeanotherpastactionstarted.Incontrasttothepastperfecttense,whichdescribesapastactionthatfinishedbeforethesecondactionstarted,thepastperfectcontinuousemphasizesthecontinuousprogressofthataction.Weusuallyusethepresentperfectcontinuoustensetoemphasizethedurationofthepastactionbeforethesecondactionoreventoccurred.Wecanalsouseittotalkaboutapastactionthatcausedorresultedinapasteventorsituation.Toformthepastperfectcontinuous,weusehadbeen+thepresentparticipleofthemainverb.Itisnearlyidenticalinstructuretothepresentperfectcontinuoustense,exceptthatthemodalauxiliaryverbhaveisnowinthepasttense.Forexample:•“Wehadbeenwaitingforalongtimewhenthebusfinallycame.”•“Mylittlesisterhadbeensittingveryquietly,butthenshestartedtocry.”•“I’dbeencleaningallday,soIwastootiredtogooutlastnight.”Likethepastcontinuoustense,thepastperfectcontinuousisgenerallyonlyusedwithactionverbs,notstativeverbs.

UsingthePastPerfectContinuousActionsinterruptedinthepastThemostcommonuseofthepastperfectcontinuoustenseistodescribeanactionthatwasinprogressinthepastbeforeanotherpastactionoreventoccurred.Whenthesecondactionhappens,itinterruptsandmarksthecompletionofthefirstone.Forexample:•“IhadbeenteachingEnglishinTokyowhentheearthquakehit.”•“They’dbeenlivinginNewYorkbeforeshegotthejobinWashington,D.C.”•“ShehadbeentravelingaroundEuropewhensheheardabouthermother’sillness.”

PastdurationsoftimeWhenweusethepastperfectcontinuoustenseinthisway,weoftendescribethedurationofthecontinuouspastaction.Themeaningisverysimilartothepresentperfectcontinuoustenseinthisway.However,whereasthepresentperfectcontinuousdescribesanactionthatwashappeningupuntilthepresentmoment,thepastperfectcontinuoushighlightsanactionthatwasfinishedwhenanotheractionoreventinthepastoccurred.Consider,forexample,thesetwosentences:•“Shehasbeenwaitingforoveranhourforhimtoarrive.”(presentperfectcontinuoustense)•“Shehadbeenwaitingforoveranhourforhimtoarrive.”(pastperfectcontinuoustense)Themeaningofbothsentencesisquitesimilar.However,inthefirstsentence,shebeganwaitinganhouragointhepast,andisstillwaiting;inthesecondsentence,shebeganwaitinganhouragointhepast,butthewaitingwascompleted,eitherwhenhearrivedorwhenshedecidedtostopwaiting.Herearesomeotherexamplesusingthefutureperfectcontinuoustense:•“IhadbeenworkingontheranchformorethanhalfmylifewhenIretired.”•“ShehadbeenstudyingJapaneseforfouryearsbythetimeshemovedtothecountry.”•“Whentheteachercameback,wehadbeenreadingforhalfanhour.”

CauseofpastresultsWecanalsousethepastperfectcontinuoustoindicatethatthecontinuousactionthatfinishedinthepastwasthecauseofacondition,situation,oreventinthepast.Usedinthisway,thepastcontinuousactionwasnotinterruptedbyasecondactionorevent.Forexample:•“Shewasverysweatybecauseshehadbeenrunningfornearlyanhour.”•“Ididn’thaveanyenergytoplaywiththekidsbecauseIhadbeenworkingsohardalltheweek.”•“Icouldtellyouhadbeenswimmingallmorningbecauseyoulookedlikeaprune!”Wecanalsousethepastperfectcontinuousinthiswaywithoutanexpressionof

duration,asin:•“Hehadbeenfeelingunwell,sohewenttolaydown.”•“IwascoveredinmudasIhadbeendigginginthebackyard.”

Pastcontinuousvs.PastperfectcontinuousWecanusethepastcontinuoustenseinasimilarwaytoshowcausation,butthedifferenceisthatthepastcontinuousdescribesanactionthatfinishedjustnoworveryrecently,whilethepastperfectcontinuousdescribesanactionthatmayhavefinishedfurtherinthepast.Forexample:•“MyeyesweretiredbecauseIwasworkingonthecomputer.”(pastcontinuous)Theactionfinishedjustnoworveryrecently.•“MyeyesweretiredbecauseIhadbeenworkingonthecomputer.”(pastperfectcontinuous)Theactionlikelyfinishedatapointfurtherinthepast.

WithactionverbsBecauseitdescribescontinuous,dynamicaction,thepastperfectcontinuouscanonlybeusedwithactionverbs;itcannotbeusedwithstativeverbs(suchaslinkingverbsorverbsofthesenses),whichdescribenon-continuousactions.Forstativeverbs,wecanonlyusethepastsimpleorpastperfecttenses.Forexample:✔ “Weweremarriedfor10yearsbeforewehadkids.”(correct—pastsimpletense)✔ “Wehadbeenmarriedfor10yearsbeforewehadkids.”(correct—pastperfecttense)✖ “Wehadbeenbeingmarriedfor10yearsbeforewehadkids.”(incorrect—pastperfectcontinuoustense)✔ “Bythenextmorning,itallseemedlikejustabaddream.”(correct—pastsimpletense)✔ “Bythenextmorning,itallhadseemedlikejustabaddream.”(correct—pastperfecttense)✖ “Bythenextmorning,itallhadbeenseeminglikejustabaddream.”

(incorrect—pastperfectcontinuoustense)

OthertypesofsentencesSofarwe’veonlylookedataffirmativesentences—declarativesentencesthatdescribeanactionthatdidhappen.Let’slookatsomeoftheothertypesofsentenceswecanmakewiththepastperfectcontinuous.

NegativesentencesSentencesinthepastperfectcontinuoustensecanbemadenegativebyusingthewordnotafterhad;thetwowordsareoftencontractedintohadn’t.Forexample:•“Ididn’tmindhercomingover;Ihadn’tbeengettingmuchworkdoneanyway.”•“Shehadn’tbeenlivingthereforverylongbeforeshehadtomovebackhome.”•“Heneededtostudyharder,becausehehadn’tbeendoingverywellonhisexams.”Wegenerallydonotuseneverwiththepastperfectcontinuoustense.

InterrogativesentencesWhenwemakequestionswiththepastperfectcontinuoustense,thesubjectandtheauxiliaryverbhadareinverted.Forexample:•“Wherehadyoubeenworkingatthetimeoftheincident?”•“HadshebeenlivinginItalyforalongtime?”•“WhyhadtheybeentellingmeIwasdoingagoodjobiftheywereplanningonfiringme?”Wecanalsomakeinterrogativesentencesnegativebyaddingnotbetweenthesubjectandbeen,orwecancontracthadandnotintohadn’t:•"Hadn'tyoubeenwritinganovelbeforeyougotthisjob?"•"Hadhenotbeenfeelingwellatthetime?•"Youhadplentyofmoney,sowhyhadn’tyoubeenpayingyourbills?”Asweseeinthefirstexample,anegativeinterrogativequestioncansometimesbeusedrhetorically,implyingthatthespeakerexpectstheanswertobe“yes.”

ConditionalsentencesConditionalsentencesdescribeahypotheticalactionoroutcomethatmighthappenifacertainconditionisorwasmet.Conditionalsentencesthatusethepastperfectcontinuoustenseareknownasthirdconditionals,whichestablishahypotheticalsituationinthepastfollowedbyahypotheticaloutcomethatdidnotreallyhappen.Therearetwowayswecanusethepastperfectcontinuoustoformconditionalsentences.Wecaneitherusethenormalforminaconditionalclausethatbeginswithif,orwecaninverthadwiththesubjecttocreateaconditionalclause,whichaddsabitmoreformalitytothetoneofthesentence.Forexample:•“IfIhadstillbeenlivingtherewhentheearthquakehit,IprobablywouldhavelosteverythingIowned.”•“WewouldhavegonehikingonSaturdayifithadn’tbeensnowinginthemountains.”•“Hadyoubeenlistening,youwouldhaveheardthatthereportwasneededonMonday.”•“Icouldhavelostmyjobhadmybrothernotbeenworkingintheheadofficeatthetime.”


1.Whatformofthemainverbisusedtocreatethepastperfectcontinuoustense?a)infinitiveb)baseformc)presentparticipled)pastparticiple2.Whichofthefollowingisafunctionofthepastperfectcontinuoustense?a)Todescribehowlongsomethinghadbeenhappeningbyaspecificpointinthepastb)Toindicatethecauseofapastresultd)Toindicateacontinuousactionthatbeganinthepastandcontinuesintothefuture

d)Toindicateacontinuousactionthatfinishedinthepresente)A&Bf)B&Cg)C&D3.Wheredoesnotappearinanegativesentenceinthepastperfectcontinuoustense?a)Afterthesubjectb)Afterhadc)Afterbeend)Afterthepresentparticipleofthemainverb4.Whichofthefollowingusesthepastperfectcontinuoustensetoformaconditionalsentence?a)“Hadyoubeenwaitingforlongbeforeyourbrotherarrived?”b)“Ihadn’tbeenstudyingformorethananhourwhentheyclosedthelibrary.”c)“Hadwebeendiggingjustafewfeetfromhere,wewouldhavehitagasline.”d)“HehadbeenlivinginRomeforeightyears,sohespokeperfectItalian.”5.Whichofthefollowingtypesofverbscannotbeusedinthepastperfectcontinuoustense?a)actionverbsb)stativeverbsc)factitiveverbsd)conditionalverbse)A&Bf)B&Cg)C&D

FutureTense(Approximation)DefinitionGrammaticallyspeaking,therearenofuturetensesintheEnglishlanguage;verbsdonotinflect(conjugate)acertainwaytoreflectfutureactions.Therearereallyonlyaspectsofthefuturetense—thatis,waysofexpressingthefuture

usingothergrammaticalelementsandconstructions.Totalkaboutotherfutureeventsoractions,weusedifferentsentenceconstructionstoachieveafuturepointofview.Thisismostoftenaccomplishedbyusingthemodalauxiliaryverbwillortheverbphrasebegoingto.Theseconstructionsmakeupwhatarecommonlyreferredtoasthefuturetenses.

FutureSimpleTenseThefuturesimpletenseisusedinafewdifferentwaystodescribethingsthathavenothappenedyet—itcanbeusedtopredictsomething,tomakepromises,todescribeafuturefact,todescribeunplannedactions,ortooffertodosomething.Thesimplestwaywecreatethefuturesimpletenseisbyusingwill/begoingto+thebaseform(theinfinitivewithoutto)ofthemainverbofthesentence.Forexample:•“Iwillwalktowork.”•“ThepresidentwillbeinPortlandtomorrow.”•“Don’tworry,I’mgoingtopayforthecoffee.”•“Iamgoingtodrivetoworktomorrow,ifyouwantaride.”

FutureContinuousTenseThefuturecontinuoustense(alsoknownasthefutureprogressive)isusedtodescribeanunfinishedactionoccurringinthefuture;thisactioncaneitherbegininthefuture,oritcanalreadybeinprogressinthepresentandcontinueintothefuture.Wecanalsousethefuturecontinuoustensetomakepredictionsaboutanactionwethinkwillstillbehappeninginthefuture.Toformthefuturecontinuous,weusuallyusewill/begoingto+theauxiliaryverbbe+thepresentparticipleofthemainverb.Forexample:•“Iwillberunning10milestomorrow.”•“Thisisyourcaptainspeaking;theplanewillbelandingin10minutes.”•“Wearegoingtobebuyingourownhousesoon.”•“They’llbesleepingbythetimewereturnhome.”•“In10years,peoplearegoingtobeconsumingevenmorenaturalresources.”

FuturePerfectTenseWeusethefutureperfecttensetosaythatsomethingwillfinishorcompleteataspecificpointinthefuture.Wealsooftenincludedurationsoftimetoindicatehowlongsomethinghasbeenhappeningonceafuturemomentintimeisreached.Inaddition,wecanusethefutureperfecttensetomakeapresentpredictionaboutsomethingthatwebelievehasorshouldhavehappenedinthepast.Themostcommonwaywecreatethefutureperfecttenseisbyusingwill+have+thepastparticipleoftheverb.Forexample:•“ThisJune,IwillhavelivedinNewYorkforfouryears.”•“Youwillhaveheardbynowthatthecompanyisgoingbankrupt.”•“She’llhavesleptforthewholedayifshedoesn’tgetupsoon!”(Wecanalsousebegoingtoinsteadofwill,butthisconstructionislesscommonandcannotbeusedtomakeapresentpredictionaboutapastaction.)

FuturePerfectContinuousTenseLikethefutureperfecttense,weusethefutureperfectcontinuoustense(alsoknownasthefutureperfectprogressivetense)toindicatehowlongsomethinghasbeenhappeningonceafuturemomentintimeisreached,emphasizingthecontinuousnatureoftheaction.Itcanalsobeusedinthiswaytoindicatethecauseofapossiblefutureresult.Themostcommonwaywecreatethefutureperfectcontinuoustenseisbyusingwill+havebeen+thepresentparticipleoftheverb.Forexample:•“ByJune,IwillhavebeenlivinginNewYorkforfouryears.”•“She’sgoingtomisshalfthedaybecauseshe’llhavebeensleepingforsolong!”•“BythetimeIgetthere,shewillhavebeenwaitingforoveranhour.”•“IwillhavebeenworkingonthisranchformorethanhalfmylifewhenIturn40.”•“I’mnotgoingtohaveanyenergytoplaywiththekidsbecauseI’llhavebeenworkingsohardthisweek.”(Likethefutureperfecttense,wecanalsousebegoingtoinsteadofwill,butthis

constructionislesscommon.)

UsingshallInadditiontowillandbegoingto,themodalverbshallcanalsobeusedtoformeachofthefuturetenses.AlthoughwillisgenerallypreferredinmodernEnglish(especiallyAmericanEnglish),usingshalladdsanadditionaldegreeofpolitenessorformalitytothesentencesometimeslackingwithwillorbegoingto.


1.Whichofthefollowingcannotbedescribedbythefuturetenses?a)Thingsthatbeganinthepastandwillcontinueintothefutureb)Thingsthatwebelievehavealreadyhappenedc)Thingsthataregoingtohappeninthefutured)Thingsthatbeganinthepastandcontinueduntilthepresentmomente)A&Cf)B&Cg)Noneoftheabove2.Whichformofthefuturetenseisusedtoindicatethecauseofapossiblefutureresult?a)Futuresimpletenseb)Futurecontinuoustensec)Futureperfecttensed)Futureperfectcontinuoustense3.Whichofthefollowingsentencesdoesnotuseoneofthefuturetenses?a)“IregrettoinformyouthatIshallbesubmittingmyresignationsoon.”b)“They’regoingtoseeiftheycangetaloan.”c)“Shehadbeenspendingsometimewithherfather.”d)“He’llhavebeenworkinginthisfactoryfornearly30yearsnextMarch.”4.Whichformofthefuturetensedoesthefollowingsentenceuse?“Iwon’tbecominghereeveragain!”a)Futuresimpletense

b)Futurecontinuoustensec)Futureperfecttensed)Futureperfectcontinuoustense

FutureSimpleTenseDefinitionEnglishverbsdonothaveuniqueformsforthefuturetense;instead,weusedifferentsentenceconstructionstodescribeactionsthatwilloccurinthefuture.Therearetwowayswedothisforthefuturesimpletense.Thesimplestwaywecreatethefuturesimpletenseisbyusingthemodalverbwill+thebareinfinitive(withoutto)ofthemainverbofthesentence,asin,“Iwillwalktowork.”Wecanalsoformthefuturesimpletensebyusingbegoingto+thebareinfinitiveofthemainverb,asin“Iamgoingtowalktowork.”However,theusagesofthisconstructionareslightlydifferent.Fornow,wewillfocusonwillconstructions;alittlelateron,we’lllookathowgoingtocanbeusedtocreatesubtledifferencesinmeaning.

Usesofthefuturesimpletense–willconstructionsThefuturesimpletensecanbeusedinafewdifferentwaystodescribethingsthathavenothappenedyet.Thestructureofthesentencedoesnotchange,though,sowegenerallyrelyoncontextorotherpartsofthesentencetocreatethesedifferencesinmeaning.

TopredictsomethingExample:•“Ithinkitwillraintoday.”Thisisaprediction;itmaybebasedonfact(i.e.,becausetherearedarkstormclouds),orperhapsoncurrent,lesstangibleevidence(i.e.,it“feels”likerainiscoming).•“Ourteamwillwinthegame.”

Thisisalsoaprediction,whichmayormaynotbebasedonfactsorpastexperience.Weoftenusethefuturesimpletenseforsimplepredictionsthatarebasedondesires.

TomakepromisesExample:•“Iwilldefinitelycometotheparty.Youhavemyword.”•“I’llwashthedisheslater.”Neitheroftheseisaprediction;eachisanassurancethatsomethingisgoingtohappen.Theadverbdefinitelyinthefirstsentencesolidifiesthispromise,whilelaterinthesecondsentenceletsthereader/listenerknowwhenthedisheswillbewashed.

TodescribeafuturefactExample:•“ThepresidentwillbeinPortlandtomorrow.”•“Iwilldrivetoworktomorrow,ifyouwantaride.”Theseareneitherpredictionsnorpromises,butratherarefactualstatementsofthingthataregoingtohappen.

UnplannedactionsordecisionsWecanalsousethefuturesimplewhenwedecidetodosomethingatthemomentofspeaking,ratherthansomethingthatwasalreadyplannedordecided.Forexample:•PersonA:“There’snomilkleft.”•PersonB:“IwillgetsomethenexttimeI’mout.”•PersonA:“TheTVisn’tworking,soyouwon’tbeabletowatchthefootballgame.”•PersonB.“I’lljustreadabookinstead.”

TooffertodosomethingExample:Imagineyouseeyourneighborcomingoutofthesupermarketcarryingtwo

heavyshoppingbags.Youmightsay:•“I’llhelpyou.GivemeoneofthebagsandIwillcarryitforyou.”Ifyourfriendislowonmoneywhenyouarebothoutatacoffeeshop,youmightsay:•“Don’tworry,I’llpayforthecoffee.”

NegativesWecanachievestrongnegativemeaningsformostoftheaboveusesbyaddingnotornevertowill,asin:•“Ourteamwillneverwinthegame.”(negativeprediction)•“Iwon’twashthedisheslater.”(negativepromise;alsousedforrefusals)•“Hewon’tdrivetoworktomorrow.”(negativefuturefact)However,wegenerallydon’tputunplanneddecisionsoroffersinthenegativewiththewillconstruction,becausethesentenceendsupdescribinganegativepromise,arefusal,oranegativefuturefact:•“I’llneverreadabook.”(negativepromise)•“Iwon’tpayforthecoffee.”(refusalornegativefact)

Interrogativesentences(questions)Toformquestionsinthefuturesimpletense,wesimplymovewillbeforethesubjectofthesentence.Forexample:•“Willitraintoday?”(questionofaprediction)•“Willyoucometotheparty?”(questionofanintention,promise,orassurance)•“WillthepresidentbeinPortlandtomorrow?”(questionofafuturefact)•“Willyougetsomemilkthenexttimeyouareout?”(anunplannedrequest,phrasedasaquestion)Wecanalsouseshallinsteadofwillinquestionswhenmakingoffers,asin:•“ShallIcarrythatbagforyou?”•“ShallIgetsomemilkthenexttimeI’mout?”Thismakesthequestionmoreformalandpolite.

GoingtoconstructionsInseveralofthecaseswelookedatabove,wecanusebegoingtoinplaceofwill.Forexample:•“Ithinkitisgoingtoraintoday.”•“Iamgoingtocometotheparty.”•“ThepresidentisgoingtobeinPortlandtomorrow.”

GoingtoforintendedfutureactionsUnlikethewillconstruction,wedonotusegoingtotodescribeunplanneddecisionsoroffers;instead,weusethisconstructiontoexpressintended,pre-plannedactions,asin:•PersonA:“There’snomilkleft.”•PersonB:“I’mgoingtogetsomethenexttimeI’mout.”•PersonA:“Idon’thaveanycash.”•PersonB:“Don’tworry,Iamgoingtopayforthecoffees.”Thisisalsothecaseifweusegoingtoinoneofourpreviousexamplesthatdescribedafuturefact:•“I’mgoingtodrivetoworktomorrow,ifyouwantaride.”Whenweusedthewillconstruction,weweredescribingsomethingthatisconsideredaconcretefact;now,however,itexpressesaplannedintention.Wecanseethisinotherexamplesaswell:•“She’sgoingtoplaysoccerlater.”(Shehasalreadydecidedthatthisiswhatshewantstodolater.)•“Heisgoingtomakeacakeforustomorrow.”(Thisishisplanofaction.)Wecanalsousegoingtowhensomethingiscertainorverylikelytohappen,butnotintheimmediatefuture.Forexample:•“Lookatthoseblackclouds.It’sgoingtorain.”(Thisisverylikelyduetotheevidenceoftheweather.)•“Mymamatoldmethatshe’sgoingtohaveababy.”(Thisisacertainty,butitwillnothappenrightaway.)

•“Hurryup!We’regoingtobelate.”(Thisisalsoevidentandverylikely.Althoughitwillhappensoon,itwillnothappenimmediately.)Finally,childrenoftenusethegoingtoconstructionwhentheyspeakaboutwhattheywanttobewhentheygrowup,asin:•“WhenIgrowup,I’mgoingtobeapoliceofficer.”(Atthismoment,thatiswhatIintendtobe.)

InterrogativesentencesusinggoingtoToforminterrogativesentencesinthefuturesimpletenseusingthegoingtoconstruction,wesimplyputthelinkingverbbebeforethesubjectofthesentence.Thisisalsothecaseifweusequestionwords.Forexample:•“AreyougoingtoseeJenniferlater?”•“Isitgoingtorain?”•“Whatareyougoingtosaytohim?”•“Wherearetheygoingtostay?”


1.Whichmodalauxiliaryverbiscommonlyusedtocreatethefuturesimpletense?a)canb)doc)willd)would2.Whatisthemainfunctionofthegoingtoconstruction(ascomparedtothewillconstruction)?a)Toexpressintendedactionb)Toexpresscertaintyinpredictionsc)Toexpressanunplanneddecisiond)Tomakearefusal3.Whatisthefollowingsentencedescribing?“I’lldrivetotheairporttopickyouup,ifyoulike.”

a)Apredictionb)Anunplannedactionc)Afuturefactd)Anoffer4.Whatotherauxiliaryverbcanbeusedinsteadofwillininterrogativesentencesinthefuturesimpletense?a)canb)shallc)wouldd)going5.Whichconstructionwouldwemostlikelyusetodescribesomethingthatiscertainorverylikelytohappen,butnotintheimmediatefuture?a)will+bareinfinitiveb)begoingto+bareinfinitivec)EitherAorBd)NeitherAnorB

FutureContinuousTenseDefinitionThefuturecontinuoustense(alsoknownasthefutureprogressive)isusedtodescribeanunfinishedactionoccurringinthefuture.Thisactioncaneitherbegininthefuture,oritcanalreadybeinprogressinthepresentandcontinueintothefuture.

StructureAswithallso-calledfuturetenses,Englishverbsdonotinflectintoaunique“futureform”—rather,wemustuseauxiliariesandparticiplesinothertensestodescribefutureeventsoractions.Toformthefuturecontinuous,weusewillbeoris/aregoingtobe+thepresentparticipleofthemainverb.Forexample:•“Iwillberunning10milestomorrow.”

•“Heisgoingtobeleavingthecompanysoon.”Muchofthetime,eitherconstructionmaybeusedwithnoappreciabledifferenceinthemeaningofthesentence.However,aswiththefuturesimpletense,wesometimesusethewillbeconstructionforactionsoreventsthataremorecertaintohappen,whereasthegoingtobeconstructioncanbeusedtoimplyanintendedactionorevent.

UsingthefuturecontinuoustenseThefuturecontinuousisprimarilyusedinthreeways:1.Tosaythatsomethingwillbeinprogressfromacertainmomentinthefuture.2.Topredictthatsomethingwillbeinprogressatsomepointinthefuture(i.e.,notstartingataspecifictime).3.Todescribesomethingthatisexpectedorpredictedtocontinuehappeningfromthepresentforanuncertainamountoftimeintothefuture.Let’slookatexamplesofeachoftheseuses.

FromacertainpointinthefutureInthisusage,wedescribesomethingthatwilldefinitelybehappeninginthefuture—thatis,itisnotapredictionoranexpectation.Becauseitisacertainty,weoftenreferencespecificpointsintime.Forexample:•“Thisisyourcaptainspeaking;theplanewillbelandingin10minutes.”Thismeansthatitwillbegintolandprogressivelystarting10minutesfromnow.•“Pleasemakeyourwaytocheckoutcounters,asthestorewillbeclosinginfiveminutes.”Thismeansthatinfiveminutes’time,thestorewillbegintoclose.•“IjustwantedtoletyouknowthatI’llbearrivinginMilanonSaturday.”Inthisexample,theactionofarrivingwillbeginonSaturday.Wecanalsousemorevaguereferencesintime,solongastheyarenottoovagueortoofarinthefuture.Forinstance:•“Ineedtogetthisreportfinished,asthebossisgoingtobeleavingshortly.”Theprogressivefutureactionisgoingtobeginhappening(itisnotaprediction),butthetimeframeisnotexact.

Wecansee,however,thatthiscaneasilyturnintoapredictionwhenweusevaguetimereferences:•“Wewillbebuyingourownhousesoon.”•“Ourkidsaregoingtobeleavingforcollegeeventually.”

PredictionsoffutureactionsThefuturecontinuousisoftenusedtopredictactionsthatwethinkorpresumewillbehappeningatanuncertainorgenericpointinthefuture.•“Don’tcallPaulafter7PM;he’llbehavingdinner.”Wepredictthatthiswillbeinprogressatsomepointafter7o’clock.•“In10years,peoplearegoingtobeconsumingevenmorenaturalresources.”Wepredictthistobeinprogressatacertainpointinthefuture.Eventhoughaspecifictimeisreferenced,itisfarenoughinthefuturethatwecanassumethisisn’tacertainty.•“Bythetimewearrivehome,they’llbesleeping.”Again,wepredictthisactionwillbeinprogressatafuturepoint(whenwearrivehome);wehavereasontobelievethis,butitisnotanabsolutecertainty.

InprogressnowandintothefutureWecanalsousethefuturecontinuoustopredictthataneventoractioniscurrentlyhappening,andthatitwillcontinueforanuncertainamountoftimeintothefuture.Forexample:•“Don’tcallthehousenow,asJohnwillbesleeping.”Wepredictthistobeinprogressnow,andthatitwillcontinuetobehappeninginthenearfuture.Ifwewanttodescribesomethingthatisdefinitelyhappeningnowandwill(orisexpectedto)continuetohappeninthefuture,weusetheadverbstillafterwillorbeforegoing.Forinstance:•“I’msobehindonthisassignment.ThesunisgoingtoriseandIwillstillbeworkingonit.”•“Nomatterwhoiselected,we’restillgoingtobedealingwiththeeffectsoftherecessionforyearstocome.”

Typesofsentences

Sofar,we’velookedatexamplesofpositivesentencesusingthefuturecontinuoustense.Aswiththeothertenses,wecanalsoformnegative,interrogative,andnegative-interrogativesentences.

NegativesentencesWeformthenegativeofthefuturecontinuousbyaddingnotafterwillorbeforegoinginthesentence.(Willandnotareoftencontractedtowon’t.)Weformthenegativetoachievetheoppositemeaningofalltheuseswe’velookedatsofar.Forexample:•“Contrarytoourpreviousannouncement,thestorewillnotbeclosinginfiveminutes.”(negativecertaintyofafutureaction)•“Don’tbothertryingtogetaholdofPaulafter7;hewon’tbetakingcallsthen.”(negativepredictionofafutureaction)•“Imaybebehindonthisassignment,butIamnotgoingtobeworkingpast5o’clock.”(negativeintentionofallowingacurrentactiontoprogressintothefuture)

Interrogativesentences(questions)Wecreatequestionsinthefuturecontinuousbyinvertingwillorbewiththesubject.Thisisalsothecaseifweusequestionwords—what,where,when,etc.(Anexceptionisthewordwho,whichbecomesthesubjectofthesentencebutremainsatthebeginning.)Wemostoftenuseinterrogativesentencesinthefuturecontinuoustensetopolitelyinquireaboutinformation:•“Willyoubejoiningusafterdinner?”•“WhatwilltheybedoinginMexico?”•“Whoisgoingtobeperformingattheconcert?”

NegativeinterrogativesentencesNegativeinterrogativesentencesalsoaskaquestion,buttheyimplythatthespeakerexpectstheanswertobe(orbelievestheanswershouldbe)“yes.”Again,inthefuturecontinuous,thisisdonetocreateapoliteinquiry.Weformthesebyusingtheinterrogativeformwelookedatabove,andaddingthewordnotafterthesubject.However,thisisconsideredaformalconstruction

—moreofteninmodernEnglish,willandtheformsofbearecontractedwithnottocreatewon’t,isn’t,oraren’t,allofwhichcomebeforethesubject.•“Willyounotbejoiningusafterdinner?”(moreformal,butlesscommon)•“Won’twebeleavingaftertheconcert?”(lessformal,butmorecommon)•“Ishenotgoingtobestudyingforanexam?”(moreformal,sometimesusedforemphasis)•“Aren’tyougoingtobeworkingnextweek?”(lessformal,butmorecommonlyused)Wedonotusequestionwordswithnegativeinterrogativesentencesinthefuturecontinuoustense.


1.Whichauxiliaryverbisoftenusedtocreatethefuturecontinuoustense?a)willb)bec)haved)A&Be)A&Cf)Alloftheabove2.Whichofthefollowingisnotausageofthefuturecontinuoustense?a)Tosaythatsomethingwillbeinprogressfromacertainmomentinthefuture.b)Tosaythatsomethingwillendsometimeinthenearfuture.c)Topredictthatsomethingwillbeinprogressatsomepointinthefuture.d)Todescribesomethingthatishappeninginthepresentandwillcontinueintothefuture.3.Whatformdoesthemainverbtakeinthefuturecontinuoustense?a)Infinitiveb)Pastparticiplec)Presentparticipled)Presenttense4.Whichofthefollowingsentencesusesthefuturecontinuoustense?

a)“ItoldhimwewillbecominghomeonSaturday.”b)“Shesaidshe'llworkweekendswhileMikeisoutsick.”c)“Theysaidtheywouldbearrivingat8PM.”d)“I'mtravelingtoFrancenextweek.”5.Whichofthefollowingsentencesdoesnotusethefuturecontinuoustense?a)“I'msurehe'llbetryingasbesthecantobetheretomorrow.”b)“Thatno-goodsnitchisgoingtobesleepingwiththefishesbythemorning.”c)“Shetoldhimshewouldbeworkingatthewarehousethisweek.”d)“IheardDanielisgoingtobemovingtoCanadasoon!”

FuturePerfectTenseDefinitionWeusethefutureperfecttensetosaythatsomethingwillfinishorbecompletedataspecificpointinthefuture.Wealsooftenincludedurationsoftimetoindicatehowlongsomethinghasbeenhappeningonceafuturemomentintimeisreached.Inaddition,wecanusethefutureperfecttensetomakeapresentpredictionaboutsomethingthatwebelievehasorshouldhavehappenedinthepast.Themostcommonwaywecreatethefutureperfecttenseisbyusingthemodalauxiliaryverbwill+have+thepastparticipleoftheverb.Forexample:•“ThisJune,IwillhavelivedinNewYorkforfouryears.”•“Youwillhaveheardbynowthatthecompanyisgoingbankrupt.”•“She’llhavesleptforthewholedayifshedoesn’tgetupsoon!”

FunctionsoftheFuturePerfectActionscompletedinthefutureWeoftenuseanadverbialexpressionofafuturepointintimewiththefutureperfecttensetodescribewhenanactionwillbecompletedoraccomplished.Thisadverbialphrasecanoccureitherbeforeorafterthefutureperfectverb.Forexample:•“Withthewayyou’respendingmoney,youwillhavegonethroughyour

savingsinlessthanamonth.”•“Afterthisnextrace,Iwillhavecompleted10triathlons.”

FuturespansoftimeThefutureperfecttenseisoftenusedtoindicateapointinthefutureatwhichacertainactionorsituationwillhavebeenhappeningforagivenlengthoftime.Forexample:•“It’shardtobelievethatbynextmonthwe’llhavebeenmarriedfor10years.”•“IwillhaveworkedonthisranchformorethanhalfmylifewhenIturn40.”Aswecanseeabove,theadverbialphraseexpressingthedurationoftime(“for10years,”“formorethanhalfmylife”)usuallycomesafterthefutureperfecttenseconstruction.Theexpressionofthefuturepointintime(thepointatwhichthedurationisaccomplished)canappeareitherbeforeorafterthefutureperfecttense.

PresentpredictionsofpastactionsWealsousethefutureperfectforapresentpredictionofsomethingwebelievehasalreadyhappenedinthepast.Ifweincludeadverbialsrelatedtotime,wegenerallyincludeexpressionsrelatedtothepresenttimeratherthanthefuture.Forexample:•“Youwillhaveseenonpage18howtosetupthecomputer.”•“Yourmotherwillhaveleftthedentist’sbynow.”•“Atthisstage,everyonewillhaveheardtherumorsalready.”

OthersentencetypesNegativesentencesTodescribesomethingthatwillnotbecompletedatapointinthefuture,wemakethefutureperfecttensenegativebyaddingnotafterthemodalverbwill(usuallycontractedaswon’t).Forexample:•“Whyareyougoingtotheairportsoearly?Herflightwillnothavearrivedyet.”•“Atthisrate,Iwon’thavefinishedhalfoftheworkIneedtogetdoneby

tomorrow.”

InterrogativesentencesWecanaskwhetheranactionwillbecompleteinthefuturebyinvertingwillwiththesubject,asin:•“Willtheyhavereadthememoaheadofthemeeting?”•“Willyouhavehadsomethingtoeatbeforeyouarrive?”Wecanalsoaskaboutspecificaspectsofafutureactionbyusingdifferentquestionwordsorphrases.Remember,westillinvertwillwiththesubjectinthiscase:•“Whatwillwehavelearnedfromsuchtragiceventsasthese?”•“Whowillhavepreparedthenotesfortheseminar?”•“Howmuchmoneywillwehavespenttryingtogetthiscarworking?”•“Howlongwillyouhaveworkedtherebeforeyourmaternityleavebegins?”

OtherconstructionsAlthoughwemostcommonlyusethemodalverbwill,therearetwootherwayswecanformthefutureperfecttense:begoingtoandshall.

BegoingtoBegoingtocanonlyformthefutureperfecttensewhenitisusedtodescribeanactionthatfinishesinthefuture—inthisway,itisinterchangeablewithwillinmeaning.Weusuallycontractbewiththesubjectwhenweusebegoingto.Forexample:•“She’sgoingtohavewonninechampionshiptitlesbythetimeshe’s25.”•“Ifyoukeepreadingatthatpace,you’regoingtohavefinishedthebookbeforetherestofthestudents.”However,usingbegoingtocansometimesresultinanawkwardconstruction,anditisnotascommonaswill.Wealsocannotusethebegoingtoconstructionwhentalkingaboutsomethingthatwepredicttohavehappenedinthepast.

Shall

Wecanalsousethemodalverbshallinsteadofwilltoformthefutureperfecttenseinformalspeechorwriting.Unlikebegoingto,wecanuseshallforallusesofthefutureperfect.Forexample:•“Bynextspring,Ishallhavelivedonmyownfornearlyadecade.”•“Thestudentsshallhavefinishedtheirevaluationsthistimenextweek.”•“Youshallhaveheard,nodoubt,theunflatteringremarksmadeaboutmycharacter.”However,thiscreatesaveryformaltonethatisnotcommoninmodernEnglish;asaresult,will+have+pastparticipleremainsthemostcommonconstructionofthefutureperfecttense.


1.Whichofthefollowingmodalauxiliaryverbsisusedtocreatethefutureperfecttense?a)wouldb)mayc)willd)can2.Whichofthefollowingisnotafunctionofthefutureperfecttense?a)Tosaythatsomethingwillbecompletedorachievedataspecificpointinthefutureb)Toindicatehowlongsomethingwillhavebeenoccurringbyaspecificpointinthefuturec)Tomakeapresentpredictionaboutsomethingthathappenedinthepastd)Toindicateacontinuousactionthatbeganataspecificpointinthefuture3.Howdoesthestructureofthefutureperfecttensechangeinaninterrogativesentence?a)willinvertswiththesubjectb)haveinvertswiththesubjectc)willinvertswithaquestionwordd)haveinvertswithaquestionword

4.Forwhatpurposecanweuseshallinsteadofwilltoformthefutureperfecttense?a)Tomakethesentenceaquestionb)Tomakethesentencemoreformalc)Tomakeapresentpredictionaboutsomethingthathappenedinthepastd)Toindicateanintentiontodosomethinginthefuture5.Whenarewenotabletousebegoingtoinsteadofwilltoformthefutureperfecttense?a)Whensayingthatsomethingwillbecompletedorachievedataspecificpointinthefutureb)Whenindicatinghowlongsomethingwillhaveoccurredbyaspecificpointinthefuturec)Whenmakingapresentpredictionaboutsomethingthathappenedinthepast

FuturePerfectContinuousTenseDefinitionLikethefutureperfecttense,weusethefutureperfectcontinuoustense(alsoknownasthefutureperfectprogressivetense)toindicatehowlongsomethinghasbeenhappeningonceafuturemomentintimeisreached.Itcanalsobeusedinthiswaytoindicatethecauseofapossiblefutureresult.Themostcommonwaywecreatethefutureperfectcontinuoustenseisbyusingthemodalauxiliaryverbwill+havebeen+thepresentparticipleoftheverb.Forexample:•“ByJune,IwillhavebeenlivinginNewYorkforfouryears.”•“She’sgoingtomisshalfthedaybecauseshe’llhavebeensleepingforsolong!”

UsingtheFuturePerfectContinuousThefutureperfectcontinuoustenseisusedinaverysimilarwaytothefutureperfecttodescribethedurationofacompletedfutureaction.Theybothcarrythesamemeaningwhenusedinthisway,butthefutureperfectcontinuousemphasizesthecontinuousnatureoftheaction.Consider,forexample,thesetwosentences:

•“BythetimeIgetthere,shewillhavewaitedforoveranhour.”(futureperfecttense)•“BythetimeIgetthere,shewillhavebeenwaitingforoveranhour.”(futureperfectcontinuoustense)Themeaningistechnicallythesameinbothexamplesabove;however,thesecondsentencestressesthefactthatshewascontinuouslywaitingduringthefutureperiodbythetimeIgetthere.Thechangeinmeaningissubtle,butitaddsgreaterdepthtothesentence.Herearesomeotherexamplesusingthefutureperfectcontinuoustense:•“IwillhavebeenworkingonthisranchformorethanhalfmylifewhenIturn40.”•“She’llhavebeenstudyingJapaneseforfouryearsbythetimeshegraduates.”•“Whentheteachercomesback,we’llhavebeenreadingfornearlytwohours.”

WithactionverbsBecauseitdescribescontinuous,dynamicaction,thefutureperfectcontinuouscanonlybeusedwithactionverbs;itcannotbeusedwithstativeverbs(suchaslinkingverbsorverbsofthesenses),whichdescribenon-continuousactions.Forstativeverbs,wecanonlyusethefutureperfecttenseinstead.Forexample:✔ “Nextmonthwe’llhavebeenmarriedfor10years.”(correct)✖ “Nextmonthwe’llhavebeenbeingmarriedfor10years.”(incorrect)✔ “Bytomorrowmorning,thisallwillhaveseemedlikejustabaddream.”(correct)✖ “Bytomorrowmorning,thisallwillhavebeenseeminglikejustabaddream.”(incorrect)

CauseoffutureresultsWecanalsousethefutureperfectcontinuoustoindicatethatthecontinuousactionthatfinishesinthefuturewillbethecauseofsomethinginthefuture.Forexample:•“Ibethe’llbehungrybecausehewillhavebeenstudyingstraightthroughlunch.”•“I’mnotgoingtohaveanyenergyforthekidsbecauseI’llhavebeenworking

sohardthisweek.”•“You’regoingtolooklikeaprunesinceyouwillhavebeenswimmingallafternoon!”

OthersentencetypesNegativesentencesTodescribesomethingthatwillnotbecompletedoveracertainspanoftimeintothefuture,wemakethefutureperfectcontinuoustensenegativebyaddingnotafterthemodalverbwill(usuallycontractedaswon’t).Forexample:•“Whyareyoubringingyourbooktotheairport?Wewon’thavebeenwaitingforverylongbeforeherplanearrives.”•“Hewillnothavebeenworkinghereforverylongifheisfiredoverthisincident.”However,it’snotverycommontomakenegativeconstructionsofthefutureperfectcontinuoustense.

InterrogativesentencesWecanaskwhetheranactionwillbecompletedinthefutureafteracertaindurationbyinvertingwillwiththesubject,asin:•“Willtheyhavebeensearchingforusforverylong?”•“WillshehavebeenworkinginJapanforthewholetimeshe’slivedthere?”Wecanalsoaskaboutspecificaspectsofafutureactionbyusingdifferentquestionwordsorphrases.Remember,westillinvertwillwiththesubjectinthiscase:•“Who’llhavebeenwritingthenotesfortheclasswhiletheteachingassistantisabsent?”•“Howlongwillyouhavebeenworkingtherebeforeyourmaternityleavebegins?”

OtherconstructionsAlthoughwemostcommonlyusethemodalverbwill,therearetwootherwayswecanformthefutureperfectcontinuoustense:begoingtoandshall.

BegoingtoBegoingtoisinterchangeablewithwillinmeaningwhenwemakethefutureperfectcontinuoustense.However,usingbegoingtocansometimesresultinawordy,awkwardconstruction,anditisnotascommonaswill.Weusuallycontractbewiththesubjectwhenweusebegoingto.Forexample:•“She’sgoingtohavebeenworkingfornearly18hoursbythetimeshe’sfinishedwithhershifttonight.”•“I’mgoingtohavebeenreadingthisbookfornearlysixmonthsifIdon’tfinishitsoon!”

ShallWecanalsousethemodalverbshallinsteadofwilltoformthefutureperfectcontinuoustenseinmoreformalspeechorwriting.Forexample:•“Bynextspring,Ishallhavebeenlivingonmyownfornearlyadecade.”•“Thestudentsshallhavebeenreadingtheirbooksfortheentireperiod.”•“Youshallhavebeenhearing,nodoubt,theunflatteringremarksmadeaboutmycharacter.However,thiscreatesaveryformaltonethatisnotcommoninmodernEnglish.Amongthethreeoptionsavailable,willisthemostcommonwaytoconstructofthefutureperfectcontinuoustense.


1.Whatformofthemainverbisusedtocreatethefutureperfectcontinuoustense?a)infinitiveb)baseformc)presentparticipled)pastparticiple2.Whichofthefollowingisafunctionofthefutureperfectcontinuoustense?a)Toindicatehowlongsomethingwillhavebeenoccurringbyaspecificpointinthefuture

b)Toindicatethecauseofafutureresultc)Tomakeapresentpredictionaboutsomethingthathappenedinthepastd)Toindicateacontinuousactionthatbeganataspecificpointinthefuturee)A&Bf)B&Cg)C&D3.Wheredoesnotappearinanegativesentenceinthefutureperfectcontinuoustense?a)Afterwillb)Afterhavec)Afterbeend)Afterthepresentparticipleofthemainverb4.Whichofthefollowingisthemostcommonwaytoformthefutureperfecttense?a)begoingtohavebeen+thepresentparticipleofthemainverbb)willhavebeen+thepresentparticipleofthemainverbc)shallhavebeen+thepresentparticipleofthemainverbd)Eachisequallycommon5.Whichtypeofverbcannotbeusedinthefutureperfectcontinuoustense?a)actionverbb)factitiveverbc)conditionalverbd)stativeverbe)A&Bf)B&Cg)C&D

AspectDefinitionAspectisagrammaticalelementthathastodowithhowanaction,stateofbeing,oreventasdescribedbyaverbrelatestotime.Aspectisoftenconfusedwithtense.Whiletenseisconcernedwithwhentheaction,stateofbeing,or

eventoccurs(past,present,orfuture),aspectisconcernedwithhowitoccursintime.Itisthroughaspectthatweunderstandwhetheranactiontakesplaceatasinglepointintime,duringacontinuousrangeoftime,orrepetitively.Sometimesaspectisconveyedbyasentence’sstructure,throughacombinationofparticles,verbs,andverbphrases;othertimes,sentencestructuremaybeusedformorethanoneaspect,sowerelyontheoverallsentencetounderstanditstemporalmeaning.

PerfectiveandimperfectiveaspectThemostcommondistinctionmaderegardingaspectisbetweentheperfectiveandimperfectiveaspects.Whileotherlanguagesmarkthedifferencebyusingtwoseparateverbforms,Englishdoesnot.Theperfectiveaspectcanbeconveyedthroughavarietyofverbstructures.Itisusedwhenwedrawattentiontoanactionasawhole,summarizingit.Theperfectiveaspectmayoccurinpast,present,orfutureactionsandevents.Forexample:•“Iatedinner.”•“Iswimlikeafish.”•“Ihaveneverbeentherebefore.”•“Wewillhelpyoutomorrow.”Theimperfectiveaspect,ontheotherhand,isusedtodrawattentiontotheactionashavinganinternalstructure(ratherthanasawhole,completeaction).Liketheperfective,thisisthecaseregardlessofwhentheeventoccurs.Oneinstanceoftheimperfectiveiswhenwerelateanactionthatisconsideredtobeinprogressatthemomentofspeaking(oratthetimeofanotherevent).Thisisusuallyconveyedthroughthecontinuousaspect.Forexample:•“Iwaswashingdisheswhenshecamethroughthedoor.”Wealsousetheimperfectivewhenwedescribeactionsoreventsasoccurringrepetitively,eithernoworinthepast:•“Weusedtogotravelingalot.”•“Johnrunsfivemileseveryday.”Thisisknownasthehabitualaspect.

AspectsofverbtensesTraditionally,eachverbtenseissaidtohavefouraspects,ortemporalstructures:thesimple,theperfect,thecontinuous,andtheperfectcontinuous.Thesetraditionalaspectsofthetensesdonotalwayscoincidewiththeoryonperfectiveaspectandimperfectiveaspect—itshouldberememberedthatcertainstructuresmayexpressperfectiveaspectinsomecasesandimperfectiveaspectinothers,dependingontheintendedmeaning.

AspectsofthepresenttenseThepresenttenseisusedforrepeatedactions,andforactionsoccurringorhavingaresultinthepresent.Thedifferentaspectsofthepresenttensecanbefoundinthetablebelow:

Aspect Structure Examples

Simple Subject+presentverb"IgoshoppingonTuesdays.""Sherunsfast."

Perfect Subject+have/has+pastparticiple

"Ihaveeatenherebefore.""Shehaslivedhereforalongtime."

Continuous Subject+is/are+presentparticiple

"Wearecookingdinner.""Heissingingasong."

PerfectContinuous

Subject+have/has+been+presentparticiple

"Hehasbeenthinkingaboutit.""Ihavebeentakinganartclass."

Usually,thesimpleandtheperfectaspectsmatchupwiththeperfectiveaspectingrammaticaltheory.However,asmentioned,thisisnotalwaysthecase.Itcouldbearguedinthiscasethatthesimpleaspectofthepresenttenseactuallycorrespondswiththeimperfectiveaspect,sinceitisusuallyusedtoconveyhabitualacts,asin:

•“Igotoschooleveryday.”•“WegoshoppingonSaturdays.”

AspectsofthepasttenseLikethepresent,thepasttensealsohasfourtraditionalaspects,whichcanbefoundinthetablebelow:


Simple Subject+pastverb"IwentshoppingonTuesday.""Sheranfast."

Perfect Subject+had+pastparticiple"Ihadeatenherebefore.""Shehadlivedhereforalongtime."

Continuous Subject+was/were+presentparticiple

"Wewerecookingdinner.""Hewassingingasong."

PerfectContinuous

Subject+had+been+presentparticiple

"Hehadbeenthinkingaboutit.""Ihadbeentakinganartclass."

Thesimpleandperfectsimpletensesgenerallycorrespondwiththeperfectiveaspect,whilethecontinuousandperfectcontinuouscorrespondwiththeimperfectiveaspect.Again,thesedonotalwaysmatchupalongclearlines,andweshouldconsiderwhattheverbphraseconveysoveralltodecidewhetherthesentencehasperfectiveorimperfectiveaspect.

AspectsofthefuturetenseAlthoughEnglishdoesnothaveaninflectedverbformforfuturetense,thereareseveralstructuresthatweusetoconveyfuturemeaning,namelywill/would/begoingto+verb.Thedifferentaspectsofthesestructuresarefoundinthetable:


Simple Subject+will/would/begoingto+infinitive

"IwillgoshoppingonTuesday.""Sheisgoingtorunfast."

Perfect Subject+willhave+pastparticiple

"Iwillhaveeatenbeforearriving.""Shewillhavelivedhereforalongtime."

Continuous Subject+will/would/begoingto+be+presentparticiple

"Wearegoingtobecookingdinner.""Hewillbesingingasong."

PerfectContinuous

Subject+willhave/wouldhave/begoingto+have+been+presentparticiple

"He’llhavebeenthinkingaboutit.""Iwouldhavebeentakinganartclass."

Again,thesimpleandperfectaspectsgenerallycorrespondwithperfectiveaspectinthefuture,whilethecontinuousandperfectcontinuousstructurescorrespondwiththeimperfective.


1.Ingrammar,aspectisconcernedwith________.a)wheneventsoccuronatimelineb)howeventsoccuronatimelinec)whyeventsoccuronatimeline2.Theperfectiveaspectisusedwhenweviewanactionas________.a)awholeb)apartc)acontinuouseventd)ahabitualevent

3.Theimperfectiveaspectisusedwhenweviewanactionas________.a)habitualb)inprogressc)awholed)A&Be)alloftheabove4.Whichofthefollowingsentencesconveysthecontinuousaspect?a)“IwenttothedoctoronTuesday.”b)“She’sgoingtotakemeonavacation.”c)“They’vebeenwatchingthatTVallday.”d)“Wehaven’tseenthatmovieyet.”5.Whichofthefollowingsentencesusestheperfectaspect?”a)“Iwasreading.”b)“Hewenthome.”c)“Sheiseating.”d)“Theyhavegonehome.”

PerfectiveandImperfectiveAspectDefinitionAspectisagrammaticaltermthathastodowithhowanaction,stateofbeing,oreventunfoldsinrelationtotime.Thegreatestdistinctionismadebetweentheperfectiveaspect,whichfocusesonactionsandeventsaswholeelements,andtheimperfectiveaspect,whichdeconstructshowaneventisstructuredandlocatedintime.Whileotherlanguagesmaymarkthedifferencewithaninflectedverbform,Englishinsteadreliesonacombinationofparticles,verbs,verbphrases,andlexicalcluestodeterminewhethertheoverallmeaningoftheactionisperfectiveorimperfective.

PerfectiveaspectTheperfectiveaspecthighlightsactions,states,oreventsasawhole,presentingtheactionsfromanoutsideperspectiveascomplete,boundedevents.Theperfectiveaspectisencounteredinallofthetenses—past,present,andfuture—butitiseasiesttoillustrateinthepast.Forexample:•“Iwenttothesupermarketyesterday.”(pastsimpletense)•“Shesanginthechoir.”(pastsimpletense)•“Wehadeatenalready.”(pastperfecttense)Inalloftheaboveexamples,theactionispresentedasacompleteeventinthepast.Wearesimplytoldthattheeventoccurred,withnocluesastohowoftentheactionshappenedorhowlongtheytook.Asmentioned,theperfectiveaspectalsooccursinothertenses.Forexample:•“Ihaveadog.”(presentsimpletense)•“She’llbetheresoon.”(futuresimpletense)•“Theywillhavefinishedbythen.”(futureperfecttense)

ImperfectiveaspectTheimperfectiveaspect,ontheotherhand,isusedwhenwefocusontheinternalstructuresofanaction,state,oreventasitrelatestotime,suchasbeing

continuousorhabitual(repeating).Again,thishasnothingtodowithwhentheeventoccurs,and,aswiththeperfective,thereisnoseparateverbforminEnglishfortheimperfectiveaspect.Instead,itisexpressedthroughdifferentgrammaticalstructures,whichchangedependingonwhatwearesayingaboutthetemporalstructureoftheaction.Wesometimesclassifythesestructuresasthecontinuousaspectandthehabitualaspect,bothofwhicharesubclassesoftheimperfective.

ContinuousAspectThecontinuousaspect,alsocalledtheprogressiveaspect,isasubclassoftheimperfectivethatemphasizestheprogressivenatureoftheverb,lookingatitasanincompleteactioninprogressoveraspecificperiodoftime.Thecontinuousaspectdoesnotindicatethedurationoftheaction,norhowoftenitoccurs.Itsimplyshowsthattheactionoreventisinprogress,eitheratthetimeofspeaking,oratthetimethatanothereventoccurs.Itcanbeusedwiththepast,present,andfuturetenses,anditisusuallyconveyedusingaformoftheverbbe+thepresentparticiple.Forexample:Past•“Iwastalkingtomymotherwhenyoucalled.”•“Theyhadbeenlivinghereforalongtimewhentheymoved.”Present•“I’mcookingdinneratthemoment,soI’llhavetocallyouback.”•“She’sbeenplayingoutsidewithherfriendsallday.”Future•“He’llbesleepingby10o’clock,hopefully.”•“Nextmonthwe’llhavebeenlivinginNewYorkCityfor10years.”Itshouldbenotedthatstativeverbsdonotnormallyoccurusingthebe+presentparticiplestructure.Forexample,youcouldnotsay“IamknowingJohnalongtime”or“Sheisappearingunwell.”

OtherconstructionsThereisdisagreementoverwhetherstructuresusingbe+thepresentparticiplearetheonlystructuresthatdepictthecontinuousaspect.Itisoftenargued,forexample,thatthepastsimpleoftenconveysthecontinuousaspect.Forexample:

•“Istayedupallnight.”•“Wewereoutsideforhours.”Otherswouldarguethatsinceitistheadditionalinformationintheexamplesabove(allnightandforhours)thatgivesthecontinuousaspecttothesentenceasawhole,theverbphrasesthemselvesshouldnotbeconsideredtoconveycontinuousaspect.

HabitualAspectThehabitualaspect,likethecontinuousaspect,isalsoasubclassoftheimperfectiveaspect.Itisusedwhenanactionoccursrepetitivelyand(usually)predictably.Englishonlyhastwomarkedwaysofexpressinghabitualaspect:would+baseformoftheverb(theinfinitivewithoutto)andusedto+baseformoftheverb.Whenweusethesestructures,weimplythattheactionoccurredhabituallyinthepast,butdoesnotanymore.Forexample:•“WhenIwasyoungIusedtowalktoschool.”•“WhenIwasyoungIwouldwalktoschool.”Althoughthemeaninginthetwoexamplesaboveisthesame,usedtoandwouldarenotalwaysdirectlyinterchangeable.Forexample,usedto,standingalone,conveyshabitualaspect,butwoulddoesn’t.ObservewhathappensifweremovethetimemarkerwhenIwasyoung:•“Iusedtowalktoschool.”•“Iwouldwalktoschool.”WhenweremovewhenIwasyoungfromtheexamples,theexampleusingusedtoretainsitshabitualaspect,buttheexamplewithwoulddoesn’t.Sincewouldcanalsobeusedinconditionalconstructions,weneedtoincludeatimemarkertoclarifywhenitisbeingusedforthehabitualpast.Inaddition,whileusedtocanbeusedwithbothactionverbsandstativeverbs,wouldcanonlybeusedwithactionverbs.Forexample:✔ “WhenIwasyoung,Iusedtolovemovies.”(correct)✖ “WhenIwasyoung,Iwouldlovemovies.”(incorrect)

OtherconstructionsAlthoughusedto+baseformandwould+baseformaretheonlystructuresthatexplicitlymarkhabitualaspect,weoftenuseotherverbtensestoconveyitas

well.Forexample,weoftenusethepresentsimpletensetoindicatehabitualactions,asin:•“Igotoschooleveryday.”•“SheattendskarateclassonSundays.”•“Theyworksixdaysaweek.”However,otherverbtensescanbeusedwithanimpliedhabitualaspect.Forexample:•“Iwalkedtoschooleverydayfor10years.”(pastsimpletense)•“IhadlivedinthesametownmywholelifebeforeIdecidedtomovetoTokyo.”(pastperfecttense)•“ShehaseatenthesamesandwichforlunchforaslongasI’veknownher.”(presentperfecttense)Whenthehabitualaspectisunmarked,asabove,itisoftenaccompaniedbyatimemarkerthatclarifieshowoftentheactionoccurs,suchaseveryday,onSundays,sixdaysaweek,etc.

FuturehabitsEnglishdoesnothaveanexplicithabitualaspectmarkerforthefutureeither.Mostoften,weusethefuturesimpletensealongwithatimemarkertoindicatehabit.Forexample:•“IwillworkextrashiftseveryeveninguntilIsaveenoughmoney.”•“Iwillgoforaruneverydayafterschoolthisyear.•“Wewilleatfruitandcerealeverymorningnextmonth.”Aswiththealternateconstructionsoftheperfectiveaspect,thereisdisagreementoverwhetherunmarkedverbformscanbeconsideredtoexpresshabitualaspect,sinceitmaysimplybetheadditionalinformationinthesentencethatexpressesthehabitualmeaning,ratherthantheverbphrasesthemselves.


1.Whichofthefollowingsentencesconveystheperfectiveaspect?a)“Ihaveeatenbreakfastalready.”b)“I’vebeeneatingbreakfast.”

c)“Iwaseatingbreakfast.”d)“Iusedtoeatbreakfastinthelatemorning.”2.Whichofthefollowingsentencesconveystheimperfectiveaspect?a)“Hefinishedhishomework.”b)“Hehadalreadyfinishedhishomework.”c)“Hewillfinishhishomeworklater.”d)“He’sfinishinghishomework.”3.Whichofthefollowingsentencesconveysthehabitualaspect?a)“Iattendedaballetlesson.”b)“Iwanttoattendballetlessons.”c)“Iusedtoattendballetlessons.”d)“Iwillattendaballetlesson.”4.Whichofthefollowingsentencesusesthecontinuousaspect?a)“IusedtowatchalotofTV.”b)“IwatchedalotofTVyesterday.”c)“IwillwatchTVlater.”d)“I’vebeenwatchingalotofTV.”5.Whichofthefollowingsentencesisincorrect?a)“IusedtolikesweetswhenIwaslittle,butnowIdon’t.”b)“IlikedsweetswhenIwaslittle,butnowIdon’t.”c)“IwouldlikesweetswhenIwaslittle,butnowIdon’t.”d)A&C

AspectsofthePresentTenseDefinitionThepresenttenseiscombinedwithfourtraditionalaspectstoformthestructuresthatareknownasthepresentsimple,thepresentcontinuous(orpresentprogressive),thepresentperfect,andthepresentperfectcontinuous.Althoughthesestructuresaregenerallytaughtasindividual“tenses”ofverbs,theyareactuallyacombinationofthepresenttenseandaspect.Whilethetense

tellsuswhentheactiontakesplaceinrelationtotime(inthiscase,thepresent),theaddedaspectgivesusinformationabouthowtheeventtakesplaceintime.

PresentSimpleThepresentsimplestructureisusedtoexpressfactsandhabitsthataretrueinthepresenttime.Itisformedusingthebareinfinitive(thebaseformoftheverb),or,inthecaseofthethirdpersonsingular,thebareinfinitive+“-s”.Forexample:•“WeloveThaifood.”•“JamesswimsonSundays.”•“Westudyatthelibraryeveryday.”

PresentContinuousThepresentcontinuousisthecombinationofthepresenttensewiththecontinuousaspect.Itisusedforactionsthatareeitherinprogressatthemomentofspeaking,orwillbeinprogressinthenearfuture.Itisformedusingthepresentformoftheverbbe(are,am,oris)+thepresentparticiple.Forexample:•“They’replayingoutside.”(inprogressnow)•“CanIcallyouback?I’mdriving.”(inprogressnow)•“We’reeatingdinnerwithmyin-lawstonight.”(inprogressinthefuture)Thecontinuousaspectisnotusuallyusedwithstativeverbs.Forexample,wecannotsay“IamknowingJohnmanyyears”or“Sheisseemingsad.”

PresentPerfectThepresentperfectisthecombinationofthepresenttenseandtheperfectaspect.Itisusedforactionsorstatesthatbeganinthepastbuthaveaneffectonorrelevancetothepresent,stressingthecompletionoftheaction.Itisformedusinghave/has+thepastparticiple.Forexample:•“She’salreadyeaten.”•"We’veseenthismovie.”•“I’vehadabadcoldthisweek.”

PresentPerfectContinuous

Thepresentperfectcontinuousisthecombinationofthecontinuousandperfectaspectswiththepresenttense.Itisusedforactionsthatbeganinthepastandcontinuetohaverelevanceinthepresent.Themaindifferencebetweenitandthepresentperfectaspectisthatthepresentperfectcontinuousaspectemphasizestheprogressoftheactioninsteadofitscompletion.Likethepresentcontinuous,itistypicallyonlyusedwithactionverbs,notwithstativeverbs.Thepresentperfectcontinuousisformedusinghave/has+been+thepresentparticiple.Forexample:•“Wehavebeenwaitingforalongtime.”•“Mylittlesisterhasbeensittingveryquietly.”•“I’vebeencleaningallday.”


1.Whichofthefollowingisinthepresentsimpleform?a)wentb)havebeenc)goesd)going2.Whichofthefollowingisinthepresentperfectform?a)sawb)haveseenc)seesd)seeing3.Whichofthefollowingisinthepresentperfectcontinuousform?a)hasbeengoingb)hadbeengoingc)hadgoned)goes4.Whichofthefollowingisinthepresentcontinuousform?a)sangb)havesungc)singing

d)beensinging5.Whichofthefollowingstructuresisusedforfactsthataretrueatthemomentofspeaking:a)presentsimpleb)presentcontinuousc)presentperfectd)presentperfectcontinuous5.Whichofthefollowingsentencesstressesthecompletionofanactionthatoccurredinthepastbuthasrelevancetothepresent?a)“Shebuyseverythingweneed.”b)“She’sbeenbuyingeverythingweneed.”c)“Sheboughteverythingweneed.”d)“Shehasboughteverythingweneed.”

AspectsofthePastTenseDefinitionThepasttenseiscombinedwithfourtraditionalaspectstoformthestructuresthatareknownasthepastsimple,thepastcontinuous(orpastprogressive),thepastperfect,andthepastperfectcontinuous.Althoughthesestructuresaregenerallytaughtasindividual“tenses”ofverbs,theyareactuallyacombinationofthepasttenseandaspect.Whilethetensetellsuswhentheactiontakesplaceinrelationtothetime(inthiscase,thepast),theaddedaspecttellsushowtheeventtakesplaceintime.

PastSimpleThepastsimplestructureisusedtoexpressactionsandeventsthatwerecompletedatagivenmomentinthepast.Whethertheoccurrenceisofshortorlongduration,thesimpleaspectemphasizesitscompletion.Thepastsimpleisformedbyadding“-d”or“-ed”totheendofregularverbs,butthepastformofirregularverbsmustbememorized.Forexample:•“Theylivednextdoortousforyears.”(regular)•“Ilockedmyselfoutofthehousethismorning.”(regular)

•“Wewenttoaprivateschoolwhenwewereyoung.”(irregular)

PastContinuousThepastcontinuousisthecombinationofthepasttensewiththecontinuousaspect.Itemphasizestheprogressofanactionthatoccurredinthepast,ratherthanitscompletion.Itisoftenusedforactionsthatareinterruptedbyotheractions,anditisformedusingthepastformoftheverbbe(was/were)+thepresentparticiple.Forexample:•“Theywereplayingoutsidewhentheirfatherarrived.”•“I’msorryIdidn’tanswerthephone;Iwasdrivingwhenyoucalled.”•“Wewereeatingdinnerwhenmyin-lawstoldusthegoodnews.”Thepastcontinuoususuallyoccursonlywithactionverbs,notwithstativeverbs.Forinstance,wecannotsay“IwasknowingJohnmanyyears”or“Shewasseemingsad.”

PastPerfectThepastperfectisthecombinationofthepasttensewiththeperfectaspect.Itisusedforactionsorstatesthatbeganandwerecompletedbeforeanotheractioninthepasttookplace.Itisformedusinghad+thepastparticiple.Forexample:•“Shehadalreadyeatenwhenshearrived.”•“Wehadseenthemovie,butwewatcheditagain.”•“I’dhadabadcoldthatweek,butIwentonmyvacationanyway.”

PastPerfectContinuousThepastperfectcontinuousisthecombinationofthecontinuousandperfectaspectswiththepasttense.Itisusedforactionsthattookplacebeforeanotherpastaction.Themaindifferencebetweenitandthepastperfectstructureisthatthepastperfectcontinuousemphasizestheprogressoftheactioninsteadofitscompletion.Itisalsousedtoemphasizetheaction’sstrongeffectonanothermomentinthepast.Likethepastcontinuous,thepastperfectcontinuousisgenerallyonlyusedwithactionverbs,notstativeverbs.Itisformedusinghad+been+thepresentparticiple.Forexample:•“Wehadbeenwaitingforalongtimewhenthebusfinallycame.”•“Mylittlesisterhadbeensittingveryquietly,butthenshestartedtocry.”

•“I’dbeencleaningallday,soIwastootiredtogooutlastnight.”


1.Whichofthefollowingisinthepastsimpleform?a)sangb)havesungc)singd)singing2.Whichofthefollowingisinthepastperfectform?a)wasb)hadbeenc)isd)being3.Whichofthefollowingisinthepastperfectcontinuousform?a)hadbeendoingb)hasbeendoingc)haddoned)does4.Whichofthefollowingstructuresisusedtoemphasizegeneralcompletioninthepast?a)pastcontinuousb)pastsimplec)pastperfectd)pastperfectcontinuous5.Whichofthefollowingsentencesemphasizestheprogressofapastactionthatoccurredbeforeanotheractioninthepast?a)“Shesanginaband.”b)“Shehadbeensinginginabandatthatpoint.”c)“Shesingsinaband.”d)“Shehassunginaband.”

AspectsoftheFutureTenseDefinitionAlthoughEnglishhasnofuturetenseinthestrictsense(i.e.,ithasnoverbformspecifictofuturemeaning),wecommonlyrefertoseveralstructuresthatareusedforfuturemeaningasbelongingtothe“futuretense.”Themostcommonofthesestructuresbeginwithwilloraformoftheverbbe+goingto.Forexample:•“Iwillgowithyou.”•“Iamgoingtosendyouanemail.”Whiletheseverbmarkerstellusthattheactiontakesplaceinthefuture,itistheaspectoftheverbthattellsushowtheeventwillbetemporallystructured.Thecombinationofthefuturemarkerandtheaspectresultsintheverbstructuresthatweusuallycallthefuturesimple,thefuturecontinuous(orfutureprogressive),thefutureperfect,andthefutureperfectcontinuous.Forthepurposeofclarity,ourexamplesentenceswillallusewill,butitshouldberememberedthat,ineachoftheexamples,wecanreplacewillwithanothermodalverboffuturemeaning(shall,might,would,could,etc.)orwithaformofbe+goingto.

FutureSimpleThefuturesimplestructureisthecombinationofthefuturetenseandthesimpleaspect.Thefuturesimpleisusedtoexpressactionsandeventsthatwilloccuratagivenmomentinthefuture.Thesimpleaspectemphasizestheactionorstateasawhole.Thestructureisformedusingwill+thebaseformoftheverb(theinfinitivewithoutto).Forexample:•“Wewillgotoaprivateschoolwhenweareolder.”•“Theywillmovenextdoortoussoon.”•“Iwillbefamousinthefuture.”

FutureContinuousThefuturecontinuousstructureisthecombinationofthefuturetensewiththecontinuousaspect.Itisusedtoexpressactionsandeventsthatwillbein

progressatagivenmomentinthefuture.Thefuturecontinuousisformedusingwill+be+thepresentparticiple.Forexample:•“Theywillbeplayingoutsidewhentheirfatherarrives.”•“Iwon’tanswermyphonelaterbecauseI’llbedriving.”•“Wewillbeeatingdinnerat7o’clock.”Likeotherstructuresthatreflectthecontinuousaspect,itisusuallyonlyusedwithactionverbs,notwithstativeverbs.Forexample,wecouldn’tsay“IwillbeknowingJohnlater”or“Shewillbeseemingsadthisevening.”

FuturePerfectThefutureperfectisthecombinationofthefuturetenseandtheperfectsimpleaspect.Itisusedtoexpressactionsandeventsthatwillbecompletedatagivenmomentinthefuture.Itisformedusingwill+have+thepastparticiple.Forexample:•“Shewillhaveeatenbeforeshearrives.”•“Wewillhaveseenthatmoviealready.”•“Iwillhavespentalotofmoneyafterthisweekend’sfestivities.”

FuturePerfectContinuousFinally,thefutureperfectcontinuousisthecombinationoftheperfectandcontinuousaspectswiththefuturetense.Itisusedtoemphasizethatanactionwillbeinprogressuntilagivenmomentinthefuture,atwhichtimetheactionwillstop.Likethefuturecontinuous,itistypicallynotusedwithstativeverbs,butonlywithactionverbs.Itisformedusingwill+have+been+thepresentparticiple.Forexample:•“Wewillhavebeenwaitingforalongtimewhenthebusfinallycomes.”•“Mylittlesisterwillhavebeensittingquietlyforanhourwhenthemoviefinishes.”•“Iwillhavebeencleaningalldaywhenyouarrive,soI’llbetootiredtogoout.”


1.Whichofthefollowingisinthefuturesimpleform?

a)singb)willhavesungc)willsingd)willbesinging2.Whichofthefollowingisinthefutureperfectform?a)willwatchb)willhavewatchedc)willbewatchingd)willhavebeenwatching3.Whichofthefollowingisinthefutureperfectcontinuousform?a)willhavebeendoingb)willhavedonec)willbedoingd)willdo4.Whichofthefollowingstructuresisusedtoemphasizeanactionthatwillbeinprogressataparticularmomentinthefuture?a)futuresimpleb)futurecontinuousc)futureperfectsimpled)futureperfectcontinuous5.Whichofthefollowingsentencesemphasizesthecompletionofafutureactionbeforeanotheractioninthefuture?a)“She’llhavebeendoingallherwork.”b)“She’llbedoingallherworkthen.”c)“She’lldoallherwork.”d)“She’llhavedoneallherworkbythen.”

MoodDefinitionGrammaticalmoodreferstothewayinwhichaverbisusedtoexpresscertain

meaningbythespeakerorwriter.Inlinguistics,moodsarebrokendownintotwomaincategories:realismoods(expressingwhatisrealortrue)andirrealismoods(expressingwhatisunreal,hypothetical,oruntrue).

Realismoods(theindicativemood)Theindicativemoodisatypeofgrammaticalmoodusedtoexpressfacts,statements,opinions,orquestions.ItistheonlyrealismoodusedinEnglish.Thismoodisusedinallverbtensestoformdeclarativesentences(i.e.,statementsordeclarations)orinterrogativesentences(i.e.,questions).Forexample:•“Shegraduatedlastyearwithadoctorateinneuroscience.”(declarativesentenceinthepastsimpletense)•“Heistakinghisexamatthenewtestingcenter.”(declarativesentenceinthepresentcontinuoustense)•“Areyougoingtogiveyourspeechtomorrow?”(interrogativesentenceinthefuturesimpletense)TheindicativemoodisthemostcommonlyusedgrammaticalmoodinEnglish.

IrrealisMoodsThetermirrealismeans“unreal,”anditreferstogrammaticalmoodsthatreflectwhatisnotactuallythecase.TherearetwoirrealismoodsinEnglish:thesubjunctivemoodandtheimperativemood.

SubjunctiveMoodThesubjunctivemoodreferstoverbsthatareconjugatedacertainwaytodescribehypotheticalornon-realactions,events,orsituations.Thisisincomparisontotheindicativemood,whichisusedtoexpressfactual,non-hypotheticalinformation.Wemostcommonlyusethesubjunctivemoodtoexpresswishes;toexpresscommands,suggestions,requests,orstatementsofnecessity;ortodescribehypotheticaloutcomesthatdependoncertainconditions.Forexample:•“IwishIdidn’thavetogotowork.”(wish)

•“Hedemandedthattheyleavetheroomatonce.”(command)•“Irecommendthatshestudyhardernexttime.”(suggestion)•“Iaskthattheaudiencebecompletelysilentduringthedemonstration.”(request)•“It’snecessarythatwebevigilanttoavoidanotherdisaster.”(statementofnecessity)•“IfIhadbeenmoreprepared,Iwouldhavepassedthattest.”(hypotheticalcondition)Thereareveryspecificwaysweconjugateverbstocreatethesubjunctivemood;continueontothatsectiontolearnmore.

ImperativeMoodAlthoughwecanusethesubjunctivemoodtoexpresscommandsorrequests,itisbecominglesscommoninmodernEnglish.Instead,weusuallyusetheimperativemoodtoformimperativesentenceswhenwewanttoissuedirectorders,commands,orgeneralinstructions.Itisconsideredanirrealismoodbecausetheactionbeingdemandedhasnotactuallyhappened(andmightnothappen).Whenwemakeanimperativesentence,weusetheinfinitiveformoftheverb(withoutto),andweomitthesubjectoftheverb.Forexample:•“Turnoffthelightbeforeyouleave.”•“Gotobed!”Asyoucansee,therearenosubjectsinthesentencesabove.However,wedooftenuseanounofaddress(alsocalledavocative)instead,whichisanounornounphraseusedtoaddressthepersontowhomthecommandisdirected.Forexample:•“John,pleaseturnoutthatlight.”•“Standup,Janet.”•“Bequiet,sir!”•“Youthere,payattention!”Tolearnmoreabouthowweformandusesentencesintheimperativemood,seethesectionImperativeSentencesinthechapteronSentences.

OthermoodsThethreetruemoodsinEnglisharetheindicative,thesubjunctive,andtheimperative.However,therearetwosub-categoriesthataresometimesdescribedasmoodsindifferentgrammarguides:the“emphaticmood”and“infinitivemood.”Whilewedonotconsiderthemtobediscretegrammaticalmoodsinthisguide,theyareworthmentioningforgeneralreference.

EmphaticmoodThe“emphaticmood”referstotheuseoftheauxiliaryverbdotoaddemphasistoaverbthatwouldotherwisenotrequireanauxiliary.Weusuallyuseemphaticdotostressthefactthatsomethingisthecase.Forexample:•“Yes,Idoknowthatwearemeetingyourparentstonight.”•“Well,shedoeshaveaPh.D.,afterall.”Wecanalsousedotoaddemphasistodemandsorrequests,asin:•“Dobecareful,John.”•“Oh,dobequiet!”However,theuseofdoinsuchimperativesentencesisnowratherformalandoldfashioned.

InfinitivemoodThe“infinitivemood”merelyreferstoaverbbeingputintoitsinfinitiveform—thatis,thebaseformwiththeparticleto.Forexample:•“Tobelovedisawonderfulthing.”Inthiscase,theinfinitivetobeformstheinfinitivephrasetobeloved,whichisusedasanounandthesubjectofthesentence.Infinitiveshaveavarietyoffunctionsinasentence,butnoneofthemisasatrueverb,whichiswhywedonotconsidertheso-called“infinitivemood”asbelongingtoanyofthetruegrammaticalmoodsinEnglish.

Quiz


1.Whichofthefollowingmoodsisusedtodescribewhatistrueorreal?a)Indicativemoodb)Subjunctivemoodc)Imperativemoodd)A&Ce)B&C2.Whichofthefollowingmoodsisusedtodescribewhatisunreal,hypothetical,ordesired?a)Indicativemoodb)Subjunctivemoodc)Imperativemoodd)A&Ce)B&C3.Whichofthefollowingkindsofsentencescanbemadeusingtheindicativemood?a)Declarativesentencesb)Conditionalsentencesc)Interrogativesentencesd)Imperativesentencese)A&Cf)B&D4.Identifythegrammaticalmoodusedinthefollowingsentence:“IwishIwereinSpainrightnow,insteadofathome.”a)Indicativemoodb)Subjunctivemoodc)Imperativemoodd)Emphaticmood5.Whichofthefollowingisnotoneofthetruegrammaticalmoods?a)Indicativemoodb)Subjunctivemoodc)Imperativemood

d)Emphaticmoode)Infinitivemoodf)A&Bg)C&Eh)D&E

IndicativeMoodDefinitionTheindicativemoodisatypeofgrammaticalmoodusedtoexpressfacts,statements,opinions,orquestions.ItisthesolerealismoodinEnglish(asopposedtotheirrealismoods).Thismoodcanbeusedinthepast,present,orfuturetenseandinadeclarativesentence(i.e.,astatement)oraninterrogativesentence(i.e.,aquestion).Forexample:•“Shegraduatedlastyearwithadoctorateinneuroscience.”(declarativesentenceinthepastindicative)•“Heistakinghisexamatthenewtestingcenter.”(declarativesentenceinthepresentindicative)•“Areyougoingtogiveyourspeechtomorrow?”(interrogativesentenceinthefutureindicative)Theindicativemoodcoversawidebreadthofsentencestructuresandverbtenses,anditismorecommonlyusedthantheimperativeandsubjunctivemoods(thetwoirrealismoodsinEnglish).

FunctionIndicative-moodverbsfunctioninmanytensesandforms.Thefollowingsectionscontainexplanationsforandvariousexamplesofdeclarativeandinterrogativesentencesinthepastindicative,presentindicative,andfutureindicative.

PastindicativeVerbsinthepastindicativedescribethingsthathavehappenedorarebelievedtohavehappenedatsomepointinthepast.

DeclarativesentencesinthepastindicativeIndeclarativesentencesinthepastindicative,thepastsimpletenseandpastperfecttensedescribesomethingthatfinishedinthepast,whereasthepastcontinuoustenseandpastperfectcontinuoustensedescribeacontinuousactionoriginatinginthepast.Forexample:•“Vernelefthishouseandheadedtotheairport.”(pastsimpletense)•“WehadlivedinSingaporeforthreeyearsbeforereturningtoAmerica.”(pastperfecttense)•“Shewaslookingonlineforasolutiontoherhomeworkproblem.”(pastcontinuoustense)•“Ihadbeenstudyingphilosophyatthetime,butmyrealinterestwasinJapaneseliterature.”(pastperfectcontinuoustense)

InterrogativesentencesinthepastindicativeInterrogativesentencesinthepastindicativemayusethepasttensetoinquireaboutapastactionorevent.Forexample:•“Didyoufinishthemoviewithoutme?”(pastsimpletense)•“Hadthecandidatesuccessfullycompletedtheinternshipatthetime?”(pastperfecttense)•“Whereweretheytrainingfortheirrace?”(pastcontinuoustense)•“Whohadshebeenspendinghertimewithwhenallthishappened?”(pastperfectcontinuoustense)

PresentindicativeThepresentindicativedescribesthingsthatarehappening,areabouttohappen,orarebelievedtobehappening.

Declarativesentencesinthepresent

indicativeIndeclarativesentencesinthepresentindicative,thepresentsimpletenseandpresentcontinuoustensedescribehabitsorthingsoccurringinthepresentornearfuture,whereasthepresentperfecttenseandpresentperfectcontinuoustensedescribeexperiencesorthingsoriginatinginthepastandcontinuingintothepresent.Forexample:•“Shebringsherownlunchtoworkeveryday.”(presentsimpletense)•“Thecashieriscountingthecustomer’schange.”(presentcontinuoustense)•“Ihavevisitedeverymajorthemeparkintheworld.”(presentperfecttense)•“Theyhavebeenstayingwithmyparentswhiletherepairsarefinished.”(presentperfectcontinuoustense)

InterrogativesentencesinthepresentindicativeInterrogativesentencesinthepresentindicativemayusethepresenttensetoinquireaboutacurrentorcloselyoccurringactionorevent.Forexample:•“Whatkindsofbooksdoyounormallyread?”(presentsimpletense)•“WhatisMaedoingrightnow?”(presentcontinuoustense)•“Haveyouheardthatnewsongontheradioyet?”(presentperfecttense)•“Wherehaveyoubeenworkingthesedays?”(presentperfectcontinuoustense)

FutureindicativeThefutureindicativedescribesthingsthatwillhappenorthingsthatitisbelievedwillhappen.ThefuturetenseinEnglishisnotauniqueverbinflection(incomparisontothepresentandpasttenses),butisapproximatedusingtheformwillorbegoingto+themainverb.

Declarativesentencesinthefutureindicative

Declarativesentencesinthefutureindicativeusethefuturetensetodescribethingsthatwillorarelikelytooccuratafuturetime.Forexample:•“Iwilltrytobemorepatientwithchildren.”(will)•“Eugeneisgoingtocompeteinaskiingcompetitionnextweek.”(begoingto)

InterrogativesentencesinthefutureindicativeInterrogativesentencesinthefutureindicativeusethefuturetensetoinquireaboutafutureactionorevent.Forexample:•“Willtheyarriveontime?”(will)•“Whatareyougoingtowriteaboutforyourthesis?”(begoingto)


1.Theindicativemoodcanbeusedtoexpresswhichofthefollowing?a)statementsb)opinionsc)questionsd)factse)Alloftheabove2.Whichofthefollowingsentencesusesthepastindicative?a)“Judeispreparingbreakfastfortheguests.”b)“HaveyoueverbeentoEgypt?”c)“Thechildwascomplainingabouthermissingtoy.”d)“Iwon’tbeabletotaketimeofffromwork.”3.Whichofthefollowingsentencesusesthepresentindicative?a)“She’llbebusyatsummercampfromJunetoAugust.”b)“Heusuallygoesforajogintheafternoon.”c)“Wereyouatthemovietheaterlastnight?”d)“Thetwobestfriendshadn’tseeneachotherinyears.”4.Whichofthefollowingsentencesusesthefutureindicative?

a)“Caseysuffersfromterriblemigraines.”b)“Theyspentalldayyesterdayexploringthemuseum.”c)“Ishegoingtoattendcollegeortakeayearoff?”d)“Whatcountryareyoumovingtowithyourfamily?”

SubjunctiveMoodDefinitionThesubjunctivemoodreferstoverbsthatareusedtodescribehypotheticalornon-realactions,events,orsituations.Thisisincomparisontotheindicativemood,whichisusedtoexpressfactual,non-hypotheticalinformation.Wemostcommonlyusethesubjunctivemoodtoexpressdesiresorwishes;toexpresscommands,suggestions,requests,orstatementsofnecessity;ortodescribehypotheticaloutcomesthatdependoncertainconditions.

UsingtheSubjunctiveMoodVerbsdonothavedifferentformstoexpressthesubjunctivemoodinEnglish.Instead,theyareconjugatedacertainwaydependingonthemeaningwewishtoachieve.

ExpressingWishesWhenweawishforsomethingtobetrue,weconjugatetheverbonedegreeintothepasttocreatethesubjunctivemood.Forexample:•Indicativemood:“It’sMonday.Ihavetogotowork.”•Subjunctivemood:“Iwishitweren’tMonday.IwishIdidn’thavetogotowork.”(Noticethattheverbbealwaysconjugatestowereinthesubjunctivemood,regardlessofwhetheritreferstoasingularorpluralnoun.)SeethefullsectiononExpressingWishestolearnmoreaboutconjugatingwishesindifferenttenses.

ExpressingCommands,Suggestions,Requests,andStatementsofNecessity

Whenweexpressactionsthatwedemand,suggest,orrequestthatsomeoneelsetake,ordescribesomethingthatmustbethecase,weusethebaseformoftheverb—thatis,theinfinitiveformwithoutthewordto.Forexample:•“Hedemandedthattheyleavetheroomatonce.”(command)•“Irecommendthatshestudyhardernexttime.”(suggestion)•“Iaskthattheaudiencebecompletelysilentduringthedemonstration.”(request)•“It’snecessarythatwebevigilanttoavoidanotherdisaster.”(statementofnecessity)Thebiggestdifferencebetweenthesubjunctiveandindicativemoodinthiscaseisthattheverbdoesnotchangeaccordingtowhoistakingtheaction.Forinstance,itisshestudy,theaudiencebe,andwebeinthesubjunctive,whileitwouldbeshestudies,theaudienceis,andweareintheindicativemood.Notethatwhenweissuedirectdemandsusingimperativesentences(asin,“Doyourhomework!”or“Pleaseclosethewindow.”),wearenolongerusingthesubjunctivemood—instead,weareusingwhat’sknownastheimperativemood.

ConditionalSentencesConditionalsentencesareusedtodescribehypotheticalscenariosthatrequireacertainconditionorconditionstobemet.Theyusewhat’sknownastheconditionalmoodandaregenerallyconstructedusingiftoidentifytheconditionsthatmustbemet.Therearefour“degrees”ofconditionals,allofwhichvaryinstructureandmeaning.We’llgiveabriefsynopsisofthedifferentconditionalsbelow;seethesectiononConditionalSentencestolearnmoreabouthowtheyareformedandused.

ZeroConditionalThezeroconditionalisusedtotalkaboutsomethingthatisgenerallytrue.Forinstance:•“Ifyouthrowaballintheair,itcomesbackdown.”(Alwaystrue:Aballwillcomebackdowneverytimeyouthrowitintheair.)

FirstConditionalThefirstconditionalisverysimilarinstructuretothezeroconditional,exceptthatwenowusethefuturesimpletense(will+bareinfinitive)todescribeaprobableorintendedresultofthecondition.Forexample:•“IfIseehim,Iwilltellhim.”•“IfIwinthelottery,Iwillbuyanewhouse.”

SecondConditionalWeusethesecondconditionaltospeakaboutahypotheticalsituationoroutcomeresultingfromthecondition.Unlikethefirstconditional,wegenerallyusethesecondconditionaltotalkaboutthingsthatcannotorarelesslikelytohappen.Tocreatethesecondconditional,weusethepastsimpletenseaftertheifclause,followedbywould,couldormight+thebareinfinitivefortheresultofthecondition.Forexample:•“Ifyouhadaphone,youcouldcallmeeveryday.”•“IfIwereolder,Imightstayupallnightlong.”

ThirdConditionalThirdconditionalsareusedtoestablishahypotheticalsituationinthepast,followedbyahypotheticaloutcomethatdidnotreallyhappen—typically,theoutcomeistheoppositeofwhatactuallyhappened.Toformthethirdconditional,weusethepastperfecttensefortheifconditionalclause,andwould/could/should/mighthave+thepastparticipleoftheverbforthehypotheticaloutcome.•“IfIhadbeenmoreprepared,Iwouldhavepassedthattest.”•“IfIhadn’toverslept,Iwouldn’thavebeenlateforwork.”


1.Whichofthefollowingisnotsomethingweusethesubjunctivemoodtoexpress?a)Awish

b)Commands,suggestions,requests,andstatementsofnecessityc)Conditionalsd)Factual,non-hypotheticalinformation2.Howareverbsconjugatedtoexpresswishesinthesubjunctivemood?a)Shiftedonetenseintothefutureb)Shiftedonetenseintothepastc)Intothebaseformoftheverbd)Intotheinfinitiveformoftheverb3.Howareverbsconjugatedtoexpresscommandsinthesubjunctivemood?a)Shiftedonetenseintothefutureb)Shiftedonetenseintothepastc)Intothebaseformoftheverbd)Intotheinfinitiveformoftheverb4.Whichofthefollowingwordsisusedtoindicateaconditionalsentence?a)ifb)werec)willd)wish5.Whichofthefollowingsentencesisinthesubjunctivemood?a)“I’mgoingoutforawalklater.”b)“It’sreallyimportantthatyoubestillduringtheprocedure.”c)“Pleasedon’tbesonoisy!”d)“Shewillbestudyingtonight,soshecan’tcometobaseballpractice.”

SubjunctiveMood-ExpressingWishesDefinitionOneofthemoststraightforwardwaysofusingthesubjunctivemoodiswhenwewanttodescribeawishforsomethingtobedifferentthanitisorwas.We

generallyconstructthesesentencesusingthewordwish,followedbytheverbofthedesiredaction.

CreatingthesubjunctivemoodWhenweexpresswishes,wecreatethesubjunctivemoodbymovingthemainverbofthesentenceonetensebackinthepast.We’lllookatsomeexamplesofthesetenseshiftsbelow,buthereisaquickreferencetorememberhoweachtensemovesbackinthepast:

presentsimpletense—>pastsimpletensepresentcontinuoustense—>pastcontinuoustensepresentperfecttense—>pastperfecttensepresentperfectcontinuoustense—>pastperfectcontinuoustense

pastsimpletense—>pastperfecttensepastcontinuoustense—>pastperfectcontinuoustensepastperfecttense—>pastperfecttense(nofurthershiftpossible)pastperfectcontinuoustense—>pastperfectcontinuoustense(nofurthershiftpossible)

PresenttensewishesAswecanseeabove,forawishaboutasituationinthepresent,weusethepasttenseequivalentoftheverb:•Situation:“It’sMonday.Ihavetogotowork.”(presentsimpletense)•“Iwishitweren’tMonday.IwishIdidn’thavetogotowork.”(pastsimpletense)

ConjugatingbeinthesubjunctivemoodYoumightbemoreinclinedtosay“Iwishitwasn’tMonday,”becausethissoundslikethenaturalsubject-verbagreementresultingfrom“ItisMonday.”However,theverbbealwaysconjugatestowereinthesubjunctivemood,regardlessofwhetheritreferstoasingularorpluralnoun.Althoughitisbecomingincreasinglycommontousewasineverydaywriting

andspeech,youshouldalwaysusewerewhentalkingaboutwishesordesires,especiallyinformal,professional,oracademiccontexts.Beistheonlyverbthatconjugatesirregularlytoreflectthesubjunctivemoodforwishesanddesires.Forallotherverbs,wesimplymovethembackonetenseinthepastasnormal.Forexample:•Situation:“Ican’tspeakFrench,butwouldliketo.”•Desire:“IwishIspokeFrench.”Whenweuseauxiliaryverbs,wemovethesebackatenseinsteadofthemainverbs:•“IwishIcouldspeakFrench.”Wecanalsousethesubjunctivemoodwithinthesamesentenceasverbsintheindicativemood:•“Ican’tspeakFrench,butIwishIcould.”

Examplesofotherpresenttensewishes•Situation:“Itisrainingoutside.”(presentcontinuoustense)•Desire:“Iwishitweren’training.”(pastcontinuoustense)•Situation:“HehaslivedinNewYorkCityhiswholelife.”(presentperfecttense)•Desire:“Hewisheshehadlivedsomewhereelseatsomepoint.”(pastperfecttense)•Situation:“Myassistanthasbeenorganizingthefilingcabinet.”(presentperfectcontinuoustense)•Desire:“Iwishhehadbeenworkingonsomethingmoreimportant.”(pastperfectcontinuoustense)

PasttensewishesForpastwishes,wegobackinthepastonetensefurther.Forinstance:•Situation:“I’llmissmyappointmentbecauseIleftthehouselate.”(pastsimpletense)•“IwishIhadleftthehouseearlier.”(pastperfecttense)

Aswiththepresenttense,wecanalsohavesentencesthatuseboththeindicativemoodandthesubjunctivemood.Forinstance:•“Iforgottosetanalarm;IwishIhadn’t.”

Examplesofotherpasttensewishes•Situation:“IwaslivinginCanadawhenImetyou.”(pastcontinuoustense)•Desire:“IwishIhadbeenlivinginAmericawhenImetyou.”(pastperfectcontinuoustense)•Situation:“Hehadstartedsmokingagain.”(pastperfecttense)•Desire:“Theyallwishedhehadn’tstartedsmokingagain.”(pastperfecttense—nofurthershiftpossible)•Situation:Ihadbeenworkingoutsidewhenyoucalled.(presentperfectcontinuoustense)•Desire:“IwishIhadn’tbeenworkingoutsidewhenyoucalled.”(pastperfectcontinuoustense)

Wishesaboutothers’behaviorWhenwetalkaboutsomeone’scontinuedbehaviorthatwewishweredifferent,weeitherusewould+thedesiredverb,orsimplythepasttenseoftheverb.Forexample:Yoursonisalwaysleavinghisclotheslyingaroundthebedroomfloor.•“IwishhewouldpickuphisclothesoffthefloorwhenIaskedhimto.”or•“IwishhepickeduphisclothesoffthefloorwhenIaskedhimto.”Yourmotheralwayswhistleswhensheisinthehouse.•“Iwishshewouldn’twhistleinthehouselikethat.”or•“Iwishshedidn’twhistleinthehouselikethat.”Intheexamplesabove,bothconstructionsofthesubjunctiveareacceptable,thoughthewouldconstructionismoreconventional.Ifwewanttoimplythatwefindacertainbehaviorannoying,wetendtousethewouldconstruction.

IfonlyinsteadofwishToexpressadesirethatismorefanciful,unrealistic,orthatweconsidertobe

ideal,wecanuseifonlyinsteadofIwishtoaddmoreemphasistothedesire.(Notethatthesubjunctiveverbstillgoesbackonetenseinthepast.)Forexample:•“Ihatebeingcoldallthetime.IfonlyIlivedinahotcountry.”•“IfonlyIwererich—Iwouldspendmywholelifetraveling.”•“We’respendingtwoweeksintheFrenchalpsnextmonth;ifonlyIcouldski!”


1.Whichverbconjugatesirregularlywhendescribingwishesinthesubjunctivemood?a)canb)willc)bed)have2.Forasituationinthepresentperfecttense,whatverbtensewouldweuseforawishinthesubjunctivemood?a)presentperfectcontinuoustenseb)pastsimpletensec)pastcontinuoustensed)pastperfecttense3.Whichofthefollowingsentencesiscorrectlyconjugatedforawishinthesubjunctivemood?a)“IwishIweren’tshort.”b)“IwishIwasn’tshort.”c)“IwishIwon’tbeshort.”d)“IwishI’mnotshort.”4.Whichofthefollowingphrasescanbeusedinsteadofwishtodescribeanidealorfancifuldesire?a)ifsob)ifonly

c)ifpossibled)ifhopefully5.Whichauxiliaryverbcanweusewhenweexpressadesireaboutsomeoneelse’sbehaviorinthesubjunctivemood?a)willb)wouldc)couldd)should

VoiceDefinitionVoice,alsoknownasdiathesis,isagrammaticalfeaturethatdescribestherelationshipbetweentheverbandthesubject(alsoknownastheagent)inasentence.Morespecifically,voicedescribeshowtheverbisexpressedorwritteninrelationtotheagent.Therearetwomaintypesofvoice:activevoiceandpassivevoice.Athirdtypeofvoicecalled“middle”voicealsoexistsbutislesscommonlyused.Herearesomeexamplesofthethreetypesofvoice:•“Shewroteanovel.”(activevoice)•“Thehousewaspurchasedbyanelderlycouple.”(passivevoice)•“Thecatlickeditself.”(“middle”voice)

ActivevoiceAverbisintheactivevoicewhentheagentoftheverb(thepersonorthingthatperformstheactionspecifiedbytheverb)isalsothesubjectofthesentence.TheactivevoiceisthemostcommontypeofvoiceinbothspokenandwrittenEnglish,andisgenerallyconsideredtobethedefaultvoice.Notallactive-voiceverbsarerequiredtotakeanobject.Anyobjectpresent,however,mustcomeaftertheverb(whichalwayscomesaftertheagent).Forexample:•“Theboysangasong.”(withanobject,asong)•“Iamwatchingamovie.”(withanobject,amovie)

•“Viviansingswell.”(withoutanobject)

PassivevoiceAsentenceusesthepassivevoicewhenthesubjectisacteduponbytheverb.Passive-voicesentencesarestructurallyoppositetoactive-voicesentences,withtheobject(nowthesubject*ofthesentence)comingbeforetheverbandtheverbcomingbeforetheagentoftheaction.Apassive-voiceverbisusedinthepastparticipleformprecededbytheauxiliaryverbbe,andtheprepositionbyisinsertedbeforetheagenttoformaprepositionalphrase.Forexample:•“Angiewillperformafamouspianopiecetomorrownight.”(activevoice)•“AfamouspianopiecewillbeperformedbyAngietomorrownight.”(passivevoice)•“Thousandsofpeoplehavealreadyreadhisnewbook.”(activevoice)•“Hisnewbookhasalreadybeenreadbythousandsofpeople.”(passivevoice)(*Whenconvertingasentencefromactivetopassive,theoriginalobjectbecomesthenewsubjectduetoitspositionatthebeginningofthesentence.Atthesametime,theagentchangesintotheobjectofaprepositionalphrase.)Unlikeactive-voice,passive-voicesentencesdonotrequireagents.Ifanagentisunknownorirrelevant,youmayeliminatetheprepositionalphrasecontainingtheagent.Forexample:•“ThelightbulbwaspatentedbyThomasEdisonin1880.”(withagent)•“Thelightbulbwaspatentedin1880.”(withoutagent)•“Theweddingvenuehasbeendecidedonbythebrideandgroom.”(withagent)•“Theweddingvenuehasbeendecidedon.”(withoutagent)

“Middle”voiceTheterm“middle”voicedescribesatypeofvoicethatisacombinationofsortsbetweentheactiveandpassivevoices.ThemiddlevoiceisnotclearlydefinedintheEnglishlanguage;thatis,itdoesnothaveaverbformspecifictoit.Itdoes,however,containseveraloddorirregularverbusagesthataresaidtocorrespondmostcloselywiththemiddlevoiceofotherlanguages.Inmost“middle”-voicesentences,theagentperformstheverb’sactiononitself.Tocompensateforthelackofamiddle-voiceverbform,theseverbsare

typicallyfollowedbyareflexivepronoun.Forexample:•“Mygirlfriendalwayschecksherselfinthemirrorbeforewegoout.”•“Thedogbititselfonthetail.”“Middle”voicecanalsobeusedtodescribesomeintransitiveverbs.Theseverbssyntacticallyappearactive(agent+verb)butfunctionmoresimilarlytoverbsinthepassivevoice.Inotherwords,theagentisbeingactedupon(likethepassivevoice)despiteitspositioninfrontoftheverb(asintheactivevoice).Forexample:•“Thelasagnacookedintheovenforseveralhours.”(Theverbcookisactingupontheagentlasagna.)•“Thebicyclebrokewithoutwarning.”(Theverbbreakisactingupontheagentbicycle.)


1.Whichofthefollowingvoicesistypicallyregardedasthedefaultvoice?a)passivevoiceb)activevoicec)“middle”voiced)noneoftheabove2.Whichofthefollowingchoicescontainsthecorrectwordorderforanactive-voicesentence?a)agent–verb–objectb)verb–agent–objectc)agent–verb–reflexivepronound)subject–verb–prepositionalphrase3.Whichofthefollowingchoicescontainsthecorrectwordorderforapassive-voicesentence?a)agent–verb–objectb)verb–agent–objectc)agent–verb–reflexivepronound)subject–verb–prepositionalphrase

4.Whichofthefollowingsentencesusesthe“middle”voice?a)“Herparentshadchosentheschoolshewouldattend.”b)“Iwasblindedbyabrightlight.”c)“Hethrewabirthdaypartyforhimself.”d)“Allofourfoodburned.”

ActiveVoiceDefinitionTheactivevoiceisatypeofgrammaticalvoiceinwhichthesubjectofasentenceisalsotheagentoftheverb—thatis,itperformstheactionexpressedbytheverb.Inactive-voicesentences,theagentalwayscomesbeforetheverb.Forexample:•“Myfriendboughtanewcar.”(Myfriendperformedtheactionbought.)•“Sheenjoyswatchingmovies.”(Sheperformstheactionenjoys.)•“Barneyistalkingtohissister.”(Barneyisperformingtheactiontalking.)Adirectobjectisnotalwaysrequiredforactive-voiceverbs.Whenanobjectisincluded,however,itmustcomedirectlyaftertheverb.Forexample:•“Iamdrinkingsometea.”(withadirectobject,sometea)•“Theboyhidhisreportcardfromhisparents.”(withadirectobject,hisreportcard)•“Dr.Johnsonwillspeakattheconvention.”(withoutadirectobject)

WhentousetheactivevoiceTypically,theactivevoiceispreferabletothepassivevoice,asitrequiresfewerwordsandexpressesaclearerrelationshipbetweentheverbanditsagent.TheactivevoiceisgenerallythoughtofasthedefaultvoiceinspokenandwrittenEnglish.Thefollowingsectionscontaincircumstancesinwhichyoushouldalwaystrytousetheactivevoiceoverthepassivevoice.

WhenthereisnodirectobjectBecausepassive-voicesentencesrequiredirectobjects(whichareturnedinto

subjectswhenconvertedfromactivetopassivevoice),sentenceswithoutdirectobjectsmustbeactive.Forexample:•“Thatmanhaspaintedformorethan40years.”•“Wedepartedimmediatelyafterthegrandfinale.”•“Thekidschattedforseveralminutes.”Wecanseehowthesesentencescannotbeputinthepassivevoice,becausethereisnodirectobjecttobecomethesubject.Take,forinstance,thefirstsentence:•“Formorethan40years,hasbeenpaintedbytheman.”(Whathasbeenpainted?)Itnolongermakesanysensewhenstructuredinthepassivevoice,soitmustremainactive.

WhentheagentisimportantTheactivevoiceiscommonlyusedtoemphasizetheimportanceofanagentinasentence.Byusingtheactivevoice,wecanhighlightanagent’sresponsibilityfororinvolvementwithaparticularaction.Theexamplesbelowdemonstratethedifferencesbetweenanimportantagent(activevoice)andanunimportantagent(passivevoice):•“Theemployeesdrinklotsofcoffeebeforeworkeveryday.”(activevoice—describestheemployeesinrelationtotheactofdrinkingcoffee)•“Lotsofcoffeeisdrunkbytheemployeesbeforeworkeveryday.”(passivevoice—describestheactofdrinkingcoffeeinrelationtotheemployees)•“SirIsaacNewtondiscoveredgravitymorethan300yearsago.”(activevoice—emphasizesNewton’sresponsibilityforthediscoveryofgravity)•“GravitywasdiscoveredbySirIsaacNewtonmorethan300yearsago.”(passivevoice—emphasizesthediscoveryofgravityoverNewton’sinvolvement)

WhentheagentisknownorrelevantYoushouldalwaysusetheactivevoiceifanagentisidentifiableorcontainsinformationthatisrelevanttotherestofthesentence.Forexample:•“Shawnstoleamenufromtherestaurant.”(ThespeakerknowsorisfamiliarwithShawn.)•“Aveterinarianfoundanabandonedpuppybytheroad.”(Thespeakerknows

thatitwasaveterinarianwhofoundthepuppyandbelievestheinformationisrelevant.)•“Dr.Liopenedthehospitalin1989.”(Thespeakerknowsthenameofthepersonwhostartedthehospitalandtheinformationisrelevanttotheconversation.)Ontheotherhand,whenanagentisunknownorirrelevant,weusuallyswitchtothepassivevoiceandeliminatetheagentaltogether.Forexample:•“Amenuwasstolenfromtherestaurant.”•“Anabandonedpuppywasfoundbytheroad.”•“Thehospitalwasopenedin1989.”

WhenexpressinganauthoritativetoneTheactivevoicemayalsobeusedtostresstheauthorityofanagent.Thisauthoritativetoneisastrategycommonlyusedincopywriting,advertising,andmarketinginordertoconvinceconsumersofthebeneficialeffectsofaproductorservice.Itmayalsobeusedtoestablishacommandortomorestronglyemphasizeanagent’sresponsibilityforanaction.Forexample:•“Brushingyourteethatleasttwiceadayisrecommendedbydentists.”(passivevoice)•“Dentistsrecommendbrushingyourteethatleasttwiceaday.”(activevoice—emphasizestheauthorityofthedentists)•“Allofyourbroccolimustbeeatenbyyoubeforedessertisserved.”(passivevoice)•“Youmusteatallofyourbroccolibeforedessertisserved.”(activevoice—emphasizesyourresponsibilitytoeatyourbroccoli)

WhentheagentisanongoingtopicAgentsthatcanperformmultipleactionsmaybetreatedastopics.Makinganagentanongoingtopicplacesemphasisonthatagentinsteadoftheactionsitperforms.Whenanagentactsasatopic,itusuallyremainstheprimarysubjectinmostactive-voicesentencesusedtodescribeorrefertoit.Thiscanbeseenmostprominentlyinworksoffiction,inwhichprotagoniststypicallyperformnumerousactionsthroughoutastory.

Forexample,lookathowthepassagebelowdescribesafictionalprotagonistnamedCaroline:“Carolinejumpedbackandgasped.Shewasafraidofspidersanddespisedthefeelingoftheirsilkywebsonherskin.Butsheknewitwastimetofaceherfears.Sighingandbrushingherselfoff,Carolineslowlycontinueddownthepathtowardthehill.”


1.Inthefollowingactive-voicesentence,whichwordistheagentoftheverb?“Damienbuiltabookshelfwithhisowntwohands.”a)builtb)bookshelfc)Damiend)hands2.Whichofthefollowingactive-voicesentencesdoesnotcontainadirectobject?a)“Shereadsachapterfromherbookbeforebedeverynight.”b)“Momalreadymadeplansfortheweekend.”c)“Thetornadocausedseveredamagetotheneighborhood.”d)“TomorrownightIwillbediningwithmyfriends.”3.Inwhichofthefollowingcasesshouldyoualwaysusetheactivevoice?a)Whentheagentisknownorrelevantb)Whentheagentisanongoingtopicc)Whenthereisnodirectobjectd)A&Be)B&Cf)Alloftheabove4.Whichofthefollowingsentencesusestheactivevoice?a)“Thetownwasfoundedover400yearsago.”b)“Thefathersurprisedhischildrenbybringinghomeakitten.”c)“Hercarhasbeenmissingsincelastweek.”d)“Iwillbevisitedbymygrandfathertomorrow.”

PassiveVoiceThepassivevoiceisatypeofgrammaticalvoiceinwhichthesubjectisacteduponbytheverb.Inpassive-voicesentences,thesubjectisthereceiveroftheaction(i.e.,whatwouldbethedirectobjectinanactive-voicesentence).Forexample:•“Theconcertwasattendedbymanyyoungpeople.”(Thesubjecttheconcertreceivestheactionofattended.)•“Thenecklaceisbeingmadebyachild.”(Thesubjectthenecklacereceivestheactionofbeingmade.)Passive-voiceverbsarealwaysprecededbytheauxiliaryverbbeandareintheirpastparticipleforms.Whilethereceiveroftheactioncomesbeforetheverb,thepersonorthingperformingtheaction(knownastheagent)comesaftertheverbandisprecededbytheprepositionbytoformaprepositionalphrase.Forexample:•“Thelightswereturnedoffbythejanitor.”(Thelightsisthesubject,butthejanitorperformstheactionturnedoff.)•“FinalexamswillbetakenbystudentsonFriday.”(Finalexamsisthesubject,butstudentsperformstheactiontaken.)•“LetterstoSantaaresentbychildreneveryyear.”(LetterstoSantaisthesubject,butchildrenperformstheactionsent.)

ConvertingtheactivevoiceintothepassivevoiceYoumayonlyconvertasentencefromtheactivevoiceintothepassivevoiceifthereisadirectobject.Aswe’veseen,thisdirectobjectbecomesthesubjectinthepassivevoice.Forexample:•“Ahighschooltrackandfieldstarwontherace.”(activevoice)•“Theracewaswonbyahighschooltrackandfieldstar.”(passivevoice)•“Localbusinessesarehandingoutpamphletsnearthemall.”(activevoice)•“Pamphletsarebeinghandedoutbylocalbusinessesnearthemall.”(passivevoice)Ifanactive-voicesentencesdoesnotcontainadirectobject,itcannotbe

convertedintothepassivevoice,asthesentencewilllackcoherencywithoutasubject.Forexample:•“Thekidsareplayingoutside.”(activevoice)•“Isbeingplayedbythekidsoutside.”(Whatisbeingplayedbythekids?)

ConvertingthepassivevoiceintotheactivevoiceYoumayonlyconvertasentencefromthepassivevoiceintotheactivevoiceifthereisanidentifiableagentoftheverb.Intheactivevoice,thisagentbecomesthesubject.Forexample:•“Thisblanketwasknittedbymygrandmother.”(passivevoice)•“Mygrandmotherknittedthisblanket.”(activevoice)•“Thedeerwasbeingchasedbyabear.”(passivevoice)•“Abearwaschasingthedeer.”(activevoice)Ifapassive-voicesentencesdoesnotcontainanagent,itcannotbeconvertedintotheactivevoice,asthesentencewilllackcoherencywithoutasubject.Forexample:•“TheGreatPyramidofGizawasconstructedmorethan4,000yearsago.”(passivevoice)•“ConstructedtheGreatPyramidofGizamorethan4,000yearsago.”(WhoconstructedtheGreatPyramidofGiza?)

WhentousethepassivevoiceThepassivevoiceislesscommonlyusedthantheactivevoicebecauseitiswordyandoftenlacksclarity;however,thereareseveralcasesinwhichusingthepassivevoicemaybenecessaryorpreferable.Thefollowingsectionscontainvariouscircumstancesinwhichyoumightwishtousethepassivevoiceinsteadoftheactivevoice.

WhenthereceiveroftheactionisimportantThepassivevoicemaybeusedtoemphasizetheimportanceofthereceiverof

theaction.(Incontrast,theactivevoicetypicallyemphasizestheimportanceoftheagent.)Theexamplesbelowdemonstratethedifferencesbetweenanimportantreceiveroftheaction(passivevoice)andanimportantagent(activevoice):•“Theschooldancewillbeorganizedbythescienceteachersthisyear.”(passivevoice—emphasizestheactivityinrelationtotheorganizers)•“Thescienceteacherswillorganizetheschooldancethisyear.”(activevoice—emphasizestheorganizersinrelationtotheactivity)•“Sheisalwaysbeingpraisedbyherparents.”(passivevoice—emphasizessheinrelationtoherparents)•“Herparentsarealwayspraisingher*.”(activevoice—emphasizesherparentsinrelationtoher)(*Whenthepronounsheisconvertedintoanobject,itbecomesher.)

Whentheagentisunknown,irrelevant,orimpliedOccasionally,theagentofanactionmaybeunknownorirrelevanttotherestofasentence,oritmayalreadybeheavilyimpliedthroughtheactionorreceiveroftheaction.Inthesecases,theagentmaybeeliminatedaltogether(whichcanonlybedonewiththepassivevoice—nottheactivevoice).Forexample:•“Mymissingwalletwasreturnedtoalost-and-found.”(unknownagent—wedon’tknowwhoreturnedthemissingwallet)•“Apopularplayisbeingperformedatthelocaltheater.”(irrelevantagent—thenamesoftheperformersareirrelevant)•“Bathingsuitsareusuallysoldinthesummermonths.”(impliedagent—wecanassumethattheagentisclothingstoresorsomethingsimilar)

WhensofteninganauthoritativetoneBecausethepassivevoiceplaceslessemphasisontheresponsibilityoftheagentandmoreemphasisonthereceiveroftheaction,wecanusethepassivevoicetoexpresscommandsinasofter,lessauthoritativetonethanthoseexpressedthroughtheactivevoice.Forexample:•“InexperiencedmountaineersshouldnotattemptMountEverest.”(activevoice—emphasizesinexperiencedmountaineers’responsibilitytoavoidthe

mountain)•“MountEverestshouldnotbeattemptedbyinexperiencedmountaineers.”(passivevoice—emphasizesthedifficultyordangerofthemountain)Iftheagentisclearlyimplied,itmaybeeliminatedforthesakeofconciseness:•“Youneedtofinishthisprojectbytomorrow.”(activevoice)•“Thisprojectneedstobefinishedbyyoubytomorrow.”(passivevoicewithagent)•“Thisprojectneedstobefinishedbytomorrow.”(passivevoicewithoutagent)

Whenexpressingaprofessional,neutral,orobjectivetoneVariousformsofwriting,includingscientificreportsandinstructionmanuals,usethepassivevoicetoexpressaprofessional,neutral,orobjectivetone.Typically,thereceiveroftheactionfunctionsastheprimarytopicthroughoutthetext.Theagentisusuallyremovedduetoirrelevanceortoavoidasenseofsubjectivity.Forexample:•“Theexperimentwasconductedoverthecourseoftwoweeks.”•“OncePartAhasbeeninsertedintoPartB,tightenthescrewswithascrewdriver.”•“Adversereactionstothemedicationshouldbeassessedandtreatedbyamedicalprofessional.”


1.Inthefollowingpassive-voicesentence,whichgroupofwordsisthereceiveroftheaction?“Thelargemonumentwaserectedbytheconstructioncrewlastspring.”a)thelargemonumentb)waserectedc)bytheconstructioncrewd)lastspring2.Whichofthefollowingpassive-voicesentencesdoesnotcontainanagentof

theverb?a)“ThehomeworkassignmentwascompletedlastThursday.”b)“Frankwasstruckbylightning.”c)“Herpoemwillbereadaloudbyherteacher.”d)“Thisdeskwasassembledbymyaunt.”3.Whichchoicecorrectlyconvertsthefollowingactive-voicesentenceintothepassivevoice?“Youshouldcongratulateyoursisteronheracademicachievement.”a)“Yoursistershouldcongratulateonheracademicachievement.”b)“Yoursistershouldbecongratulatedonheracademicachievement.”c)“Yoursistershouldcongratulateonheracademicachievementbyyou.”d)“Yoursisteronheracademicachievementshouldbecongratulated.”4.Inwhichofthefollowingcasesshouldyouusethepassivevoice?a)Whensofteninganauthoritativetoneb)Whentheagentisimportantc)Whenexpressinganeutralorprofessionaltoned)A&Be)A&Cf)Alloftheabove5.Whichofthefollowingsentencesusesthepassivevoice?a)“YoucangettoViennafromSalzburgbytrain.”b)“Theelementaryschoolisbythepark.”c)“IlearnedKoreanbywatchingdramas.”d)“Thisscarfwascrochetedbymyfriend.”

MiddleVoiceDefinitionTheso-calledmiddlevoiceisanapproximatetypeofgrammaticalvoiceinwhichthesubjectbothperformsandreceivestheactionexpressedbytheverb.Inotherwords,thesubjectactsasboththeagentandthereceiver(i.e.,thedirectobject)oftheaction.Forexample:

•“Heinjuredhimselfplayingrugby.”(Heistheagentandhimselfisthereceiveroftheaction.)•“Thecatisscratchingitself.”(Thecatistheagentanditselfisthereceiveroftheaction.)Middle-voiceverbsfollowthesamesyntacticstructureasintheactivevoice(agent+verb),butfunctionsemanticallyaspassive-voiceverbs.Asaresult,themiddlevoiceisdescribedasacombinationoftheactiveandpassivevoices.Becausethereisnoverbformexclusivetothemiddlevoice,itisoftencategorizedastheactivevoicesinceitusesthesameverbstructureinasentence.Thefollowingexampleshighlightthesimilaritiesbetweenthetwo:•“Somesnakeshavetriedtoeatinediblethings.”(activevoice)•“Somesnakeshavetriedtoeatthemselves.”(middlevoice)•“Themanaccidentallyhithisface.”(activevoice)•“Themanaccidentallyhithimselfintheface.”(middlevoice)

HowtoidentifythemiddlevoiceWecandistinguishthemiddlevoicefromtheactivevoicebydeterminingwhetherthereisareflexivepronounaftertheverb(inthedirectobjectposition)oranintransitiveverbactingupontheagent.

WhenthedirectobjectisareflexivepronounBecausetheagentisalsothereceiveroftheactioninthemiddlevoice,wecanclarifythisconnectionbyinsertingareflexivepronounaftertheverb.Thereflexivepronounassumestheroleofthedirectobjectandindicatesthattheagentisactinguponitself.Forexample:•“Thechildwarmedherselfbyblowingintoherhands.”(Herselfisareflexivepronounthatreferstothechild.)•“Smalldogstendtohurtthemselveswhenplayingwithbiggerdogs.”(Themselvesisareflexivepronounthatreferstosmalldogs.)Manymiddle-voiceverbsaretransitiveverbsandthereforerequireadirectobjectintheformofareflexivepronoun.Withoutareflexivepronoun,thereceiveroftheactionbecomesunclear,andthesentencelosescoherence.Forexample:

•“Thechildwarmedbyblowingintoherhands.”(Whatorwhomdidthechildwarm?)•“Smalldogstendtohurtwhenplayingwithbiggerdogs.”(Whatorwhomdosmalldogstendtohurt?)Reusingtheagentinsteadofaddingareflexivepronounwillaffectthecoherenceofthesentenceorevenchangeitsmeaningaltogether:•“Thechildwarmedthechildbyblowingintoherhands.”(impliesthechildwarmedadifferentchild)•“Smalldogstendtohurtsmalldogswhenplayingwithbiggerdogs.”(impliessmalldogstendtohurtothersmalldogs)Likewise,usingapersonalpronouninsteadofareflexivepronounwillchangeorconfusethemeaningoftheverb’saction:•“Thechildwarmedherbyblowingintoherhands.”(impliesthechildwarmedadifferentchild)•“Smalldogstendtohurtthemwhenplayingwithbiggerdogs.”(indicatesanunspecifiedobjectoftheverbhurtotherthansmalldogs)However,theredoexistcertainverbsforwhichthereflexivepronounsareimpliedandmaythereforebeeliminated.Forexample:•“Myfatherisshavinghimselfinthebathroom.”(withthereflexivepronounhimself)•“Myfatherisshavinginthebathroom.”(withoutreflexivethepronoun)•“Shealwaysstretchesherselfbeforedoingyoga.”(withthereflexivepronounherself)•“Shealwaysstretchesbeforedoingyoga.”(withoutreflexivethepronoun)

WhentheverbisintransitiveandactingupontheagentCertainintransitiveverbscanbeusedtomodifyanagent(usuallyaninanimateobject)thatisalsothereceiveroftheaction.Inthemiddlevoice,thistypeofverbdoesnottakeareflexivepronoun(oranydirectobject).Forexample:•“Mysister’slunchiscookingonthestove.”(Cookisanintransitiveverbindicatingwhatisbeingcooked.)•“Thiscardoesn’tdrivesmoothlyanymore.”(Driveisanintransitiveverb

indicatingwhatisbeingdriven.)•“Herengagementringbrokeinhalf.”(Breakisanintransitiveverbindicatingwhatisbeingbroken.)However,active-voiceverbscanalsobeintransitiveandareexpressedidenticallytomiddle-voiceverbs.Forexample:•“Theboylaughedwhenheheardthejoke.”(Laughisanintransitiveverbindicatingwhoislaughing.)•“Someoneiscryinginthehallway.”(Cryisanintransitiveverbindicatingwhoiscrying.)Youcandeterminewhetheranintransitiveverbisintheactivevoiceorthemiddlevoicebychangingtheverbintothepassivevoice.Doingsowillconverttheintransitiveverbintoatransitiveverbandtheagentintothereceiveroftheaction.Ifthemeaningofthesentencestaysroughlythesame,itisinthemiddlevoice.Ifthemeaningchangesdramaticallyorlackscoherence,itisintheactivevoice.Forexample:•“Mysister’slunchiscookingonthestove.”(original)✔ “Mysister’slunchisbeingcookedonthestove.”(passivevoice)Becausecookcanbeconvertedintoatransitiveverbinthepassivevoicewithoutalteringthemeaningoftheoriginalsentence,theoriginalsentencemustbeinthemiddlevoice.Hereisanotherexample:•“Theboylaughedwhenheheardthejoke.”(original)✖ “Theboywaslaughedwhenheheardthejoke.”(passivevoice)Whenconvertedintothepassivevoice,theoriginalsentencelosescoherence;therefore,itmustbeintheactivevoice.


1.Whichofthefollowingisthecorrectwordorderforamiddle-voicesentence?a)agent–verb–reflexivepronounb)subject–verbc)subject–reflexivepronoun–verbd)A&Be)A&Cf)Noneoftheabove

2.Whichofthefollowingsentencesisinthemiddlevoice?a)“Briannawantstoseetheworldforherself.”b)“Themountainappearedvasterthantheskyitself.”c)“Ican’tcontainmyselfwhenI’mexcitedaboutsomething.”d)“Childrenareencouragedtoplaybythemselves.”3.Whichofthefollowingsentencesisintheactivevoice?a)“Hecannevercontrolhimselfwhenhe’sangry.”b)“Edmundisshavingintheupstairsbathroom.”c)“What’scookingfordinnertonight?”d)“Youshouldalwaysstretchyourmusclesbeforeexercising.”4.Whichofthefollowingsentencesisnotinthemiddlevoice?a)“Thechildexhaustedherbyplayingtoomanygames.”b)“Themansawhimselfinthemirror.”c)“Joannaentertainedherselfbywhistling.”d)“Theemployeesdedicatedthemselvestotheirwork.”

SpeechDefinitionGrammaticalspeechreferstohowwereportsomethinganotherpersonsaid.Dependingonhowwedothis,wesometimeshavetoinflect(changetheformof)theverbsthatweuse.Speechisusuallydividedbetweentwotypes:directspeechandreportedspeech(alsoknownasindirectspeech).Therearealsoothersub-categoriesofspeech,whichwe’lllookatalittlelaterinthissection.

ReportingverbsBothdirectandindirectspeechusewhatareknownasreportingverbs,themostcommonofwhicharesayandtell.Whenweusetell,weneedtouseanotherperson’snameorapersonalpronounasanindirectobject.Otherreportingverbsincludeask,instruct,explain,mention,suggest,claim,andmanymore.

DirectSpeechDirectspeechreferstothedirectquotationofsomethingthatsomeoneelsesaid.Itissometimesknownasquotedspeech.Becausethequotationhappenedinthepast,weputthereportingverbintothepastsimpletense,butwedon’tchangetheverbsusedwithinthequotation.Wealsopunctuatesentencesinacertainwaywhenweusedirectspeechinwriting.

PunctuatingdirectspeechWhenusedinwriting,weindicatethequotedspeechwithquotationmarks.(NotethatAmericanEnglishusesdoublequotationmarks(“”),whileBritishEnglishtypicallyusessinglequotationmarks(‘’).)Ifwearequotinganentiresentence,wesetitapartwithoneortwocommas.Forexample:•Johnsaid,“I’llneverliveinthiscityagain.”•Marytoldhim,“Iwanttohaveanotherbaby,”whichtookhimbysurprise.•Theotherday,mydaughterasked,“Mommy,whydoIhavetogotoschool,butyoudon’t?”However,ifwearequotingafragmentofspeechthatisusedasanintegralpartoftheoverallsentence,thennocommasareused.Westillusereportingverbsinthepasttense,though.Forinstance:•Johnsaidhefeels“reallybad”aboutwhathappened.

DirectspeechbeforeareportingverbWecanalsoputdirectspeechbeforethereportingverb.Again,weusuallyuseacommatoseparatethequotedtextfromtheunquotedtext,asin:•“Ican’twaittoseedaddy,”mysonsaid.However,ifaquestionmarkorexclamationpointisusedinthedirectspeech,thenwedonotuseacomma:•“Wherearewegoing?”askedSally.•“Thisisgoingtobegreat!”Tomexclaimed.

Endpunctuation—Americanvs.

BritishEnglishInAmericanEnglish,aperiodorcommausedattheendofdirectspeechalwaysappearswithinthequotationmarks.InBritishEnglish,however,ifthequotationendsinaperiodorcomma,itisusuallyplacedoutsidethequotationmark,asin:•TheCEOsaid,‘Thisisagreatdayforthecompany’.•‘IwanttobeadoctorwhenIgrowup’,Susytoldusyesterday.Notethatifaquotedsentenceendsinaquestionmarkorexclamationpointthatbelongstothequotation,itwillappearwithinthequotationmarks.Ifthequestionmarkorexclamationpointbelongstotheoverallsentence(thatis,itisn’tactuallypartofthequotation),itwillappearoutsidethequotationmarks.ThisisthesameinbothAmericanandBritishEnglish.Forexample:•Samanthaasked,“Howlongwillittaketogetthere?”•ButIdon’twanttojust‘seehowthingsgo’!

UsingmultiplesetsofquotationmarksIfasentencealreadyusesquotationmarks,thenwehavetodifferentiatebetweenthequotedspeechandtherestofthesentence.Ifweareusingdoublequotationmarks,thenwehavetoputthequotedspeechinsinglequotationmarks;ifitisinsinglequotationmarks,thenthequotedtextisputintodoublequotationmarks.Therestofthepunctuationinthesentencedoesnotchange.Forexample:•“Theytoldus,‘Wedon’thavethebudgetformorestaff.’”•‘Theprimeministerisreportedtohavesaidthatheis“indisagreementwiththepresident’sremarks”,whichpromptedaquickresponsefromtheWhiteHouse.’

ReportedSpeech(IndirectSpeech)Whenwetellotherpeoplewhatsomeoneelsetolduswithoutdirectlyquotingthatperson,itiscalledreportedspeech.(Itisalsosometimesknownasindirectspeechorindirectquotation.)Westillusereportingverbsinreportedspeech,butwenolongerusequotation

marksbecausewearereportingaversionofwhatwassaid.Wealsodonotusecommastosetthereportedspeechapart,thoughweoften(butnotalways)introduceitwiththewordthat.Forexample:•Janetsaidshewouldgotothestationherself.•Hetoldusthathewantedtobealone.

ShiftingverbtenseinreportedspeechTheconventionalgrammarrulewhenusingreportedspeechistoshifttheverbtenseonedegreeintothepast.Thisisbecauseweusuallyputthereportingverbinthepasttense(Iasked,shesaid,theytoldus,hesuggested,etc.),sothespeechthatisbeingreportedmustshiftbackaswell.Inthetablebelow,we’lllookatthewaysentencesinvarioustensesareshiftedinreportedspeechaccordingtothisconvention:

Non-reportedsentence Verbshift Reportedspeech

IliveinGermany.

presentsimpletenseshiftstopastsimpletense

HesaidhelivedinGermany.

IwasacarpenterbeforeImovedhere.

pastsimpletenseshiftstopastperfecttense

Shesaidthatshehadbeenacarpenterbeforeshemovedhere.

Heiswritingalettertoourfriend.

presentcontinuoustenseshiftstopastcontinuoustense

Shetoldushewaswritingalettertoourfriend.

Shewassleepingwhenyoucalled.

pastcontinuoustenseshiftstopastperfectcontinuoustense

HetoldmeyouhadbeensleepingwhenIcalled.

IhavebeentoParisfourtimes.

presentperfecttenseshiftstopastperfecttense

ShesaidshehadbeentoParisfourtimes.

ThefilmhadendedwhenI

Noshiftinthefirstverb,becausethereisnotensefurtherinthepast.

Hesaidthefilmhadendedwhen

switchedontheTV.

Thesecondverbshiftsfrompastsimpletensetopastperfecttense.

he’dswitchedontheTV.

Whenshefinallyarrived,Ihadbeenwaitingforovertwohours.

Noshift,asthereisnotensefurtherinthepast.

Hesaidhehadbeenwaitingforovertwohourswhenshefinallyarrived.

Iwillcallyoutomorrow.

Themodalverbwillshiftstoitspast-tenseversion,would.

Hetoldmethathewouldcallmetomorrow.

Itshouldbenoted,though,thatitisquitecommontokeeptheverbtensethesameinmodernEnglish.Thisisespeciallytrueincasesinwhichthereportingverbremainsinthepresenttense,orwhenthethingbeingreportedisstillcurrentlytrue.Tolearnmoreaboutsuchnuances,continueontotheReportedSpeechsection.

OthercategoriesofspeechWhiledirectandreportedspeecharethetwomainformsofgrammaticalspeech,therearetwoothersub-categoriesthatweuse:freeindirectspeechandsilentspeech.

FreeIndirectSpeechFreeindirectspeech(alsoknownasfreeindirectdiscourse)isusedtoindicatethethoughtsormentalprocessesofacharacter;assuch,itismostcommonlyfoundinprosewriting.Itismostoftenusedintheformofaquestion,rhetoricallyaskingsomethingaboutthecharacter’ssituation.Wedonotusereportingverbstointroduceorindicatefreeindirectspeech,and,likereportedspeech,itisusedwithoutquotationmarks.Forexample:•Hehadnomoney,nojob,andnofriends.Howhadhislifearrivedtosuchadesperatepoint?•Janethadjustlearnedthatsheneededtogiveaspeechtotheentireschoolinlessthananhour.Whatwasshegoingtodo?

SilentSpeechSilentspeechreferstoadirectquotationthatissaidinternally(i.e.,silently)bysomeonetohim-orherself.Westillusereportingverbs,andweoftenapplytheexactsamepunctuationrulestosilentspeechthatweuseindirectspeech.Forinstance:•“I’mnevercomingbacktothistownagain,”hemurmuredtohimself.•Shethought,“Whatabeautifulcountry.”Itisequallycommon,however,tousesilentspeechwithoutquotationmarks(althoughwestillusecommasinthesameway).Tomakethequotationstandoutfromtherestofthetext,somewriterswilluseitalicstoindicatesilentspeech.Notethat,ifthereportingverbappearsbeforethesilentspeech,wegenerallydonotcapitalizethefirstwordifwedon’tusequotationmarks.Forexample:•Itwillbequietaroundherewhenthekidsgotocollege,Danthought.•Sheaskedherself,howamIgoingtogetoutofthisone?Whetheryouchoosetousequotationmarks,italics,ornothingatallisentirelyamatterofpersonalpreferencewhenitcomestosilentspeech—theimportantthingistobeconsistent.


1.Whattypeofspeechisusedtoindicateanexactquotationbysomeoneelse?a)Directspeechb)Reportedspeechc)Freeindirectspeechd)Silentspeech2.Whattypeofspeechisusedtoindicateaninternalquotationbysomeone?a)Directspeechb)Reportedspeechc)Freeindirectspeechd)Silentspeech3.Whatistheconventionalruleforconjugatingverbsinreportedspeech?

a)Shifttheverbonetenseintothefutureb)Shifttheverbonetenseintothepastc)Alwaysusethepastsimpletensed)Noverbshiftisnecessary.4.InAmericanEnglish,whendoestheendpunctuationinquotedspeechappearwithinthequotationmarks?a)Onlyifitisacommaorperiodb)Onlyifitisaquestionmarkorexclamationpointc)Neverd)Always5.Identifythetypeofspeechusedinthefollowingsentence:Heknewhehadtofindsomeonetocoverhisshiftatwork,butwhowouldbefreethislateonaSaturday?a)Directspeechb)Reportedspeechc)Freeindirectspeechd)Silentspeech6.Identifythetypeofspeechusedinthefollowingsentence:Shesaidhadseenthemoviealready,butshewouldgoagainifIwantedtoseeitwithher.a)Directspeechb)Reportedspeechc)Freeindirectspeechd)Silentspeech

ReportedSpeech(IndirectSpeech)DefinitionWhenwetellotherpeoplewhatsomeoneelsetoldus,itiscalledindirectspeechorreportedspeech.Weusereportingverbstointroducetheinformationthatwasspokenpreviously.

Reportingverbs

Themostcommonso-called“reportingverbs”aresayandtell.Whenweusetell,weneedtouseanotherperson’sname,orapersonalpronounrepresentinghimorher,asanindirectobject.Forexample:✖ “Shesaidmeshewaslatefortheappointmentyesterday.”(incorrect)✔ “Shesaidshewaslatefortheappointmentyesterday.”(correct)✖ “Shetoldshewaslatefortheappointmentyesterday.”(incorrect)✔ “Shetoldmeshewaslatefortheappointmentyesterday.(correct)Remember,thepersonalpronounsareme,you,him,her,it,us,andthem.Wecanalsochangetheindirectobjectanduseaperson’sname,asin“ShetoldMarkshewaslatefortheappointmentyesterday.”Otherreportingverbsincludeask,instruct,explain,mention,suggest,claim,andmanymore.Althoughwewillfocusonsayandtellinthisarticle,let’sseesomeexamplesthatemployotherreportingverbs:•“HeaskedifIcouldcomeinearlytomorrow.”•“Sheexplainedthatshewasonlyjoking.”•“Imerelysuggestedthatweshouldgohomeearly.”

ShiftinggrammaticaltenseinindirectspeechTheconventionalgrammarruleistogobackatensewhenyoureporttoanotherpersonwhatsomeonesaidtoyou.Thisisbecauseweusuallyputthereportingverbinthepasttense(Iasked,shesaid,theytoldus,hesuggested,etc.),andsothespeechthatisbeingreportedmustshiftbackaswell.InmodernEnglish,though,itisquitecommontokeeptheverbtensethesame.Thisisespeciallytrueincaseswherethereportingverbremainsinthepresenttenseand/orthatwhichisbeingreportedisstillcurrentlytrue.Let’shavealookateachverbtenseandexaminehowthesentencechangeswhenspeechisreported.

PresentsimpletenseDirectspeech:“IliveinGermany.”ReportedSpeech:“HesaidIlivedinGermany.”

Butbecausethereportedspeechisstilltrue,itisoftenleftinthepresentsimpletense:•“HetoldthemIliveinGermany.”

PastsimpletenseDirectspeech:“Shewasacarpenterbeforeshemovedhere.”Reportedspeech:“Shesaidshehadbeenacarpenterbeforeshemovedhere.”Withthepasttense,thegeneralruleistomoveitbackatensetothepastperfecttense.However,foractionverbsinthepasttense,itismuchmorecommonforthereportedspeechtoremaininthepasttense:•“Shewenttothesupermarketthismorning.”•“Itoldhimshewenttothesupermarketthismorning.”or:•“Isaidshehadgonetothesupermarketthismorning.”

PresentcontinuoustenseDirectspeech:“Heiswritingalettertotheirfriend.”Reportedspeech:Ifheiswritingtheletterattheexactmomentitisreportedtoanotherperson,wegenerallysayeither:•“Shesaysheiswritingalettertotheirfriend.”or:•“Shesaidheiswritingalettertotheirfriend.”Ifthereportedactionhappenedsometimebeforeitwasreported,weshiftthereportedspeechbackonetensetothepastcontinuous,asin:•“Shetoldushewaswritingalettertotheirfriend.”

PastcontinuoustenseDirectspeech:“YouweresleepingwhenIcalled.”Reportedspeech:“HesaidyouweresleepingwhenIcalled.”InmodernEnglish,itisverycommontomaintainthepastcontinuoustenseinthereportedspeech.However,theconventionalgrammarruleistochangethereportedtensetothepastperfectcontinuoustense,asin:•“HetoldmeyouhadbeensleepingwhenIcalled.”

PresentperfecttenseDirectspeech.“IhavebeentoParisfourtimes.”ReportedSpeech:“Shetoldmeshehasbeen/hadbeentoParisfourtimes.”Whenreportinganactioninthepresentperfect,itiscommontoeithermaintainthetenseinreportedspeech,ortoshiftitbacktothepastperfect.However,ifthereportedspeechisusedincontrasttoanothereventoractioninthepast,thenthepastperfectmustbeused.Forexample:•“ShesaidshehadbeentoParisfourtimesbeforeshemetTom.”

PastperfecttenseDirectspeech:“ThefilmhadendedwhenIswitchedontheTV.”Reportedspeech:“Hesaidthefilmhadendedwhenhe’dswitchedontheTV.”Reportedspeechinthepastperfectremainsthesame,asthereisnoothertensebeyondthepastperfect.Theotherelementofthesentence(“whenIswitchedontheTV”)conventionallygoesintothepastperfecttenseaswell.However,itisalsocommonforthistoremaininthepastsimpleinreportedspeech,asin:•“HetoldmethefilmhadendedwhenheswitchedontheTV.”

PastperfectcontinuoustenseDirectspeech:“Whenshefinallyarrived,Ihadbeenwaitingforovertwohours.”Reportedspeechremainsthesame,asthereisnotensebeyondthepastperfectcontinuous:•“Hesaidhehadbeenwaitingforovertwohourswhenshefinallyarrived.”

FuturesimpletenseDirectspeech:“Iwillcallyoutomorrow.”Inreportedspeech,willgoesbackatenseandbecomeswould:•“Hesaidhewouldcallmetomorrow.”Itisalsocommonforthefuturesimpletoremaininthesametenseinreported

speech,especiallyifwhatwasreportedhappenedveryrecently.Forexample:•PersonA:“WhatdidBarrysayjustnow?”•PersonB:“Hesaid/sayshewillcallmetomorrow.”

SpecialcasesCanDirectspeech:“Icanswim.”Inreportedspeech,aswithwill,canmovesbackatenseandbecomescould:•“Shetoldmeshecouldswim.”

MustDirectspeech:“Imustgo.”Inreportedspeech,mustcaneitherremaininthesimplepresent,orelsetakethepasttenseofhavetoinreportedspeech,asin:•"Shesaidshehadtogo.”or:•“Shetoldmeshemustgo.”

ModalauxiliaryverbsIfweusethemodalauxiliaryverbsshould,would,could,may,might,oroughtto,thendirectspeechandreportedspeecharealwaysthesame.Forexample:Directspeech:“Youshouldtakeanaspirin.”Reportedspeech:“ShesaidIshouldtakeanaspirin.”Directspeech:“IwouldphonehimifIhadhisnumber.”Reportedspeech:“Shetoldmeshewouldphonehimifshehadhisnumber.”Directspeech:“Theycouldstayanotherdayifyouwant.”Reportedspeech:“TheysaidtheycouldstayanotherdayifIwanted.”Directspeech:“Imight/maybelate.”Reportedspeech:“ItoldthemImight/maybelate.”

ReportingthenegativeWhereweputthenegatingnotorneverdependsonwhatisnegativeinthereportedspeech:thespeechbeingreportedorthereportitself.Bothcasesaresimpletostructure.

ReportingnegativespeechWhenwereportnegativespeech,wesimplyusethereportingverbsandtenseshiftsthatwe’velookedatalready.Forexample:Directspeech:“Ididnotbuyacar.”(negativepasttense)Reportedspeech:“Hesaidhehadn’tboughtacar.”(shiftstothenegativepastperfect)However,aswithreportingspeechinthepositivepastsimple,itiscommoninmodernEnglishtoleavethereportedspeechinthenegativepastsimple,asin:•“Hesaidhedidn’tbuyacar.”

ReportingnegativecommandsTherearetwogeneralwaystoreportimperativespeechthatwasinthenegative:weeitherusenottobeforetheverbofareportedclausewithoutasubject,orelseusewas/werenottobeforetheverbofareportedclausewithasubject.(Weoftencontractwas/werewithnotinthisconstruction.)Forexample:Directspeech:“Don’tspeak.”Reportedspeech:•“Hesaidnottospeak.”•“HesaidIwasn’ttospeak.”•“Itoldyouwewerenottospeak.”

GivingnegativereportsWhenwearegivinganegativereportofquotedspeech,wetypicallyusethenegativepasttenseofthereportingverb:Directspeech:“Sheisstudyingforatest.”Reportedspeech:“Shedidn’tsayshewasstudyingforatest.”

Ifwewanttoputthereportfurtherinthepast,wecanalsousethenegativepastperfect,asin:•“Shehadn’tsaidshewasstudyingforatest.”

Usinginfinitivestoreportimperatives,requests,andadviceWhenwereportorders,requests,oradvice,wecanusetheinfinitiveformoftheverbsthattheotherpersonhassaid.

Imperatives(orders)Directspeech:“Standupstraight!”Reportedspeech:“Theteachersaidtostandupstraight.”

RequestsDirectspeech:“Canyoutakemetotheairport,please?”Reportedspeech:“Heaskedmetotakehimtotheairport.”

AdviceDirectspeech:“Youshouldstudyabithardernexttime.”Reportedspeech:“Sheadvisedmetostudyabitharder.”


1.Whatistheconventionalrulefortheverbtenseofspeechthatwereport?a)Itstaysthesameastheoriginaltenseb)Itshiftsbackonetenseinthepastc)Itshiftsforwardonetenseinthefutured)Itisalwaysinthepastsimpletense2.Whatdoesthereportingverbtellrequirethattheverbsaydoesnot?a)adirectobjectb)adirectsubject

c)anindirectobjectd)anindirectsubject3.Whichverbsalwaysremaininthesametensewhentheyarereported?a)reportingverbs(otherthansuggestandadvise)b)modalauxiliaryverbs(otherthancanandwill)c)linkingverbs(otherthanseemandfeel)d)actionverbs(otherthansayandgo)4.Whichverbformisuniquelyusedtoreportingcommands,requests,andadvice?a)infinitiveb)pastperfectc)futuresimpled)presentparticiple5.Whichoftheseisnotareportingverb?a)adviseb)sayc)suggestd)speak6.Completethefollowingsentencewiththeappropriatetenseaccordingtoconventionalgrammarrules:Directspeech:“Ihaveseenthatmoviealready.”Reportedspeech:“Hesaidhe________thatmoviealready.”a)sawb)hasseenc)hadseend)havingseen

GrammaticalPersonDefinitionGrammaticalpersonreferstothedegreeofinvolvementofaparticipantinan

action,event,orcircumstance.Therearethreedegreesofgrammaticalperson:firstperson(thespeaker),secondperson(someonebeingspokento),andthirdperson(anyone/anythingnotbeingdirectlyaddressed).Thegrammaticalpersonofaclause’ssubject(anounorpronoun)willaffecthowweconjugatetheverbofthatclause.Thevastmajorityofverbsonlyconjugateforthird-personsingularsubjects(e.g.,he,she,andit)bytakingthesuffix“-s”or“-es.”However,theverbbeisuniqueinthatithasfiveconjugationsaccordingtothegrammaticalpersonofitssubjectandthetenseoftheverb.

Non-beVerbsWhentoconjugateforpersonEveryverbinEnglish(exceptmodalauxiliaryverbs)conjugatesforgrammaticalperson.However,thisconjugationonlyoccursinonespecificinstance:ifthesubjectissingularandinthethirdperson,andiftheverbisinthepresentsimpletense.Ifthisisthecase,wemostoftenconjugatetheverbbyadding“-s”or“-es”totheend.Inthefirstorsecondpersoninthepresentsimpletense,wesimplyusethebaseform(bareinfinitive)oftheverb.Forexample:•“Iwantasoda.”(first-personsingular,presentsimpletense)•“Youwantasoda.”(second-personsingular,presentsimpletense)•“Shewantsasoda.)(third-personsingular,presentsimpletense)•“Theywantasoda.)(third-personplural,presentsimpletense)Notethatthisconjugationdoesnotoccurwiththepastorfuturesimpletenses:•“Iwantedasoda.”(first-personsingular,pastsimpletense)•“Youwantedasoda.”(second-personsingular/plural,pastsimpletense)•“Shewantedasoda.)(third-personsingular,pastsimpletense)•“Iwillwantasoda.”(first-personsingular,futuresimpletense)•“Youwillwantasoda.”(second-personsingular/plural,futuresimpletense)•“Shewillwantasoda.”(third-personsingular,futuresimpletense)

AuxiliaryverbsAuxiliaryverbscombinewiththemainverbofaclausetocreateaunique,specificmeaning.Therearethreeprimaryauxiliaryverbsthatcanallconjugatetoreflecttenseandperson:do,have,andbe.

Weusetheverbdoasanauxiliarywhenwewanttoaskquestionsortomakeverbsnegative.Inthepresenttenseinthethird-personsingular,weconjugatedointodoes.Forexample:•“Doyouwantanyicecream?”(second-personsingular/plural)•“Doeshewantanyicecream?”(third-personsingular)•“Theydon’twantanyicecream.”(third-personplural)•“Shedoesn’twantanyicecream.”(third-personsingular)Theauxiliaryverbshaveandbeareusedtocreatetheperfect,continuous,andperfectcontinuousformsofthepastandpresenttenses.Themainverbinthesetenseswillnotconjugateforperson,but,incertaincases,theauxiliaryverbscan.Thepresentperfectandpresentperfectcontinuoustensebothusethepresent-simpletenseformoftheauxiliaryverbhave,whichconjugatesashasinthethird-personsingular.Forexample:PresentPerfectContinuousTense•“Ihavebeenworkingalotlately.”(first-personsingular)•“Youhavebeenworkingalotlately.”(second-personsingular/plural)•“Hehasbeenworkingalotlately.”(third-personsingular)•“Theyhavebeenworkingalotlately.”(third-personplural)PresentPerfectTense•“Ihaveeatentoomuchfood.”(first-personsingular)•“Youhaveeatentoomuchfood!”(second-personsingular/plural)•“Thedoghaseatentoomuchfood!”(third-personsingular)•“Thedogshaveeatentoomuchfood!”(third-personplural)Thepresentcontinuousandpastcontinuoustenses,ontheotherhand,usetheverbbeasanauxiliaryverb,anditconjugatesinseveralwaysaccordingtopersonandtense:PresentContinuousTense•“Iamrunningoutoftime.”(first-personsingular)•“Wearerunningoutoftime.”(first-personplural)•“Youarerunningoutoftime.”(second-personsingular/plural)•“Heisrunningoutoftime.”(third-personsingular)•“Theyarerunningoutoftime.”(third-personplural)PastContinuousTense•“Iwasrunningoutoftime.”(first-personsingular)

•“Wewererunningoutoftime.”(first-personplural)•“Youwererunningoutoftime.”(second-personsingular/plural)•“Hewasrunningoutoftime.”(third-personsingular)•“Theywererunningoutoftime.”(third-personplural)We’llexamineallthewaysbecanconjugatealittlebitlaterinthissection.

SpellingconjugatedverbsAswe’veseenalready,someverbstake“-s”or“-es”toconjugateforthird-personsingularsubjects,dependingonhowtheyarespelled.Let’slookattherulesthatguidewhichkindsofverbstakewhichendings.

Add“-s”Thevastmajorityofverbssimplytakethesuffix“-s”ontotheendoftheirbaseform,asin:

Baseform Third-personsingular

Iplay sheplays

theybreak itbreaks

webuy hebuys

youwrite theauthorwrites

Ibake myfatherbakes

theylie helies

Add“-es”Therearesomeverbsthatalreadyendinasibilantsound(asoundlikeahissorbuzz)createdbytheendings“-ss,”“-z,”“-x,”“-sh,”“-ch,”or“-tch.”Adding“-s”totheendwouldjustelongatethatsoundinanoddway,soweaddthesuffix“-es”insteadsothatthesoundisdistinguished.Forexample:


theycatch shecatches

wemix itmixes

Ihush hehushes

wepass hepasses

theyquiz theteacherquizzes

Iapproach sheapproachesWealsousuallyaddthe“-es”suffixtoverbsendinginaconsonant+“-o,”asin:

Baseform ThirdPersonSingularPresentTense

Igo hegoes

wedo shedoes

theyforgo heforgoes

theyveto thecommitteevetoes

Ilasso therancherlassoes

youundo heundoesHowever,verbsendinginavowel+“-o”(suchasmoo,boo,woo,orradio)simplytakethe“-s”ending(moos,boos,woos,radios).Soloisuniqueinthatitendsinaconsonant+“o,”yetitalsoonlytakes“-s”forthethird-personsingular(solos).

Change“y”to“i”andadd“-es”Ifaverbendsinaconsonantfollowedby“-y,”weconjugatebychanging“y”to“i”andthenadding“-es.”(Notethatif“y”isprecededbyavowel,asinplay,buy,stay,etc.,thenwesimplyadd“-s”asusual.)


theycry hecries

wetry shetries

theyscurry itscurries

thedogsbury heburies

Ifly thepilotflies

Ispy shespies

ConjugatingbeTheverbbeisknownasahighlyirregularverbduetothehugevariationinhowitconjugatesfortenseandperson.Belowareallthepossibleconjugationsoftheverb—eightformsintotal!

Grammaticalperson

Baseform

PastTense

Singular

PastTensePlural

PastParticiple

PresentTense

Singular

PresentTensePlural

PresentParticiple

n/a be been being

firstperson Iwas wewere Iam weare

secondperson youwere

youwere youare youare

thirdperson he/she/itwas

theywere he/she/it

istheyare

Be,liketheverbshaveanddo,canbebothanauxiliaryverborthemainverbofaclause.Aswesawabove,whenbefunctionsasanauxiliary,itisusedtocreatethepastcontinuousandpresentcontinuoustenses;whenitfunctionsasamainverb,itiscalledalinkingverb,meaningitconnectsasubjecttoadescriptionratherthanexpressingadynamicaction.We’vealreadyseenexamplesofbefunctioningtocreatethecontinuoustenses;

nowlet’slookatsomeexamplesofhowitfunctionsasalinkingverb.•“Iam32yearsold.”•“Wereyoucoldlastnight?”•“ItwasveryrainyinIreland.”•“Johnisintheotherroom.”•“Sheisabully.”•“Theyarealostcause.”Notethatwedon’tconjugatebeintoitspastandpresentparticiplestoreflectgrammaticalperson;instead,theyareusedwhenbeisfunctioningasthemainverbintheperfectorcontinuoustenses.Forexample:•“Ihavebeenunwelllately.”(presentperfecttense)•“Youarebeingsilly.”(presentcontinuoustense)


1.Whichofthefollowingistheonlytypeofverbthatdoesnotconjugateforgrammaticalperson?a)Auxiliaryverbsb)Modalauxiliaryverbsc)Linkingverbsd)Stativeverbs2.Whichofthefollowingisnotasuffixusedtoconjugatenon-beverbsforgrammaticalperson?a)-reb)-sc)-esd)-ede)A&Df)B&C3.Whichofthefollowingdoestheverbbeconjugatefor?a)First-personsingularpresenttenseb)Second-personsingularpasttense

c)Third-personsingularpresenttensed)Third-personpluralpasttensee)A&Cf)B&Dg)Alloftheabove4.Whichofthefollowingdoallverbs(exceptmodalverbs)conjugatefor?a)First-personsingularpresenttenseb)First-personsingularpasttensec)Third-personsingularpresenttensed)Third-personsingularpasttense5.Whichofthefollowingisnotaconjugationofbe?a)hasb)wasc)isd)am

DeclensionDefinitionDeclensioncollectivelyreferstotheinflection(changeinform)ofnouns,pronouns,adjectives,andadverbstoreflectcertainaspectsofhowtheyareusedinasentence.Declensionstandsincontrasttoconjugation,whichrefersspecificallytotheinflectionofverbs.

NounsThedeclensionofnounsreflectstwothings:pluralityandgender.

PluralsNounsaredeclinedprimarilytoreflectnumber.Anouninitsbasicformisinherentlysingular,sowemustinflectitwhenthereismorethanone.Themostcommonwaytodothisistoaddthesuffix“-s”totheendofthenoun,asinbooks,dogs,tables,etc.

However,certainnounstake“-es”attheendinstead,andmanyirregularpluralsdefyanysortofspellingguidelinesatall.Continueontothesectiononpluralstolearnmoreaboutthevariousspellingrulesandirregularitieswhenwritingaboutmultiplenouns.

GenderInEnglish,nounsaregenerallygenderneutral.Whileitisverycommontoinflectnounsforgenderintheromancelanguages(suchasFrench,Italian,andSpanish),inflectionforgenderhasallbutdisappearedinmodernEnglish(exceptforpersonalpronouns,aswe’llsee).However,therearestillafewEnglishnounsthatstilldoinflectforgender.Themostcommonofthesetakean“-ess”endingtoreflectfeminine(female)gender.Forexample,count(male)vs.countess(female),orprince(male)vs.princess(female).Continuetothesectiondescribingtheinflectionofnounsforgendertolearnmoreaboutwhenandhowwespellthefewremaininggender-specificnounforms.

PersonalPronounsPronounsareusedforawiderangeofpurposes,butweonlyinflectarelativelysmallportionofthem—personalpronouns.However,otherthantheconjugationofverbs,personalpronounsarethemostheavilyinflectedpartofspeechinEnglish,changingformtoreflectcase,gender,number,andperson.Reflexivepronouns,thoughnottechnicallyanexampleofdeclension,aresosimilartopersonalpronounsthatwewillalsoconsiderthemwithinthisgroup.

CasePersonalpronounschangeformtoreflectthesubjectivecase,theobjectivecase,andthepossessivecase.

SubjectiveCaseWhenapersonalpronounisactingasthesubjectofaverb(thatis,itisthepersonorthingdoingtheaction),itissaidtobeinthesubjectivecase.Forinstance:•“Iknowthatshesaidthat.”(Bothpronounsaresubjective,asbothareagents

oftheirrespectiveactions.)•“Hetoldhertobequiet.”(Here,onlyheisinthesubjectivecase;her,therecipientor“object”ofhisaction,isintheobjectivecase.)

ObjectiveCaseApersonalpronounisintheobjectivecasewhenitisadirectorindirectobjectofaverb,orelseifitistheobjectofapreposition.Forexample:•“Ican’tbelievehefiredyou.”(Youisthedirectobjectoftheverbfire.)•“Pleasesendthemathankyoucard.”(Themistheindirectobjectoftheverbsend.)•“Youcan’tsaythattome!”(Meistheobjectoftheprepositionto;togethertheyformtheprepositionalphrasetome.)

Possessive(Genitive)CaseAsthenameimplies,thepossessivecasechangestheinflectionofapersonalpronountomarkpossession.Possessivedeterminersfunctiongrammaticallylikeadjectives,modifyinganounornouns.Forexample:•“Mydad’sglasseswentmissing.”(Myisapossessivedeterminerthatshowstherelationofdadtothespeaker.)•“Hesaiditwashiscomputer.”(Hisisapossessivedeterminerthatmodifiescomputer.)Possessivepronounsarepersonalpronounsinthepossessivecasethathavethegrammaticalfunctionofnouns.Forexample:•“Icanseeminethroughthewindow!”•“Jennyseemsprettysurethatthebookishers.”

GenderPersonalpronounsareonlyinflectedforgenderwhentheyareinthethirdpersonandsingular—first-personandsecond-personpronouns(singularorplural)andthird-personpluralpronounsremaingenderneutral.HerearethegenderedpronounsinEnglish:Third-personfemininesingular:she,her,hers,herselfThird-personmasculinesingular:he,him,his,himself

Thethird-personsingularcanalsobeneuter.Thisisusedwhenapersonalpronounrepresentsathingorananimal.Animalscansometimestakegenderedpersonalpronounsiftheyarepetsordomesticatedanimals;otherwise,theytakethethird-personneuterform:Third-personneutersingular:it,its,itsown,itselfRemember,whentherearemultiplepeopleorthings,weusetheungenderedformsofthey:Thirdpersonplural:they,them,their,theirs,themselves

PersonGrammaticalpersonreferstotheperspectivesofthepersonalpronounsusedtoidentifyapersoninspeechandtext—thatis,itdistinguishesbetweenaspeaker(firstperson),anaddressee(secondperson),andothersbeyondthat(thirdperson).

FirstpersonFirst-personpronounstellwhatisdirectlyhappeningtothespeakerornarrator:Singular:I,me,my,mine,myselfPlural:we,us,our,ours,ourselves

SecondpersonWeusethesecond-personpronounstoindicatethosewhoarebeingaddresseddirectlybythespeaker:Singular/Plural:you,you,your,yours,yourself(singular),yourselves(plural)

ThirdpersonThirdpersonisusedtotalkaboutsomeoneorsomethingthatisnotthespeakerandisnotbeingdirectlyaddressed:Femininesingular:she,her,hers,herselfMasculinesingular:he,him,his,himselfNeutersingular:it,its,itsown,itselfHowever,whentherearemultiplepeopleorthings,weusetheun-genderedformsofthey:

Thirdpersonplural:they,them,their,theirs,themselves

NumberPersonalpronouns,unlikenouns,havevariousspecificinflectionsdependingonwhethertheyaresingularorplural.Forthemostpart,onlythefirst-personandthird-personpersonalpronounshavepluralforms;theonlypluralsecond-personpronounisthereflexivepronounyourselves.Therearenorulesorguidelinesforhowwechangethepersonalpronounsfornumberbecausedoingsoaffectsalltheotherforms;wesimplyhavetomemorizetheirvariousforms.


ObjectiveCase


FirstPerson Singular Masculine/feminine I me my

FirstPerson Plural Masculine/feminine we us our

SecondPerson Singular/Plural Masculine/feminine you you your

ThirdPerson Singular Feminine she her her

ThirdPerson Singular Masculine he him his

Thirdperson Singular Neuter it it its

Thirdperson Plural Neuter/gender

neutral)they them their

ReflexivePronounsandintensive

pronounsReflexiveandintensivepronounsareidenticalinappearance,formedbyadding“-self”or“-selves”tothepronounsmy,our,your,her,him,it,them,orone(anindefinitepronoun).Reflexivepronounsareusedwhensomeoneorsomethingisboththesubjectandtheobjectofthesameverb.Whenthishappens,thereflexiveverbisusedastheobjectoftheverbtorepresentthepersonorthing;areflexivepronouncanneverbeusedasthesubjectofaverb.Forexample:•“Iwishyoucouldhearyourselvesrightnow!”•“Sheadmittedtoherselfthatshewaswrong.”•“Thevolehidesitselfbeneaththegroundforsafety.”•“Theplayershavereallyoutdonethemselvestoday!”•“Oneshouldstrivetobetteroneselfeveryday.”Intensivepronounslookidenticaltoreflexivepronouns,buttheyareusedtoaddemphasistoaperson’s(orthing’s)roleinanaction.Forexample:•“Itoldthemmyselfthatthereportwouldbefinishedontime.”•“Youneedtodotheworkyourselves,oryouwillneverlearnthematerial.”•“Thepresidentherselfwillbespeakingattheceremony.”Reflexiveandintensivepronounsarenottypicallyconsideredinflectionsofpersonalpronouns.However,becausetheyareformedfromotherpronouns,wehavegroupedthemtogetherherewiththeothertypesofpersonalpronoundeclension.

AdjectivesAdjectivesareinflectedwhenwewanttoformcomparisonsbetweentwopeopleorthings(comparativeadjectives),ortoidentifythepersonorthingwiththehighestdegreeofacharacteristicamongagroup(superlativeadjectives).Forinstance:•“Mikeisstrong.”(adjective)•“Iamstrongerthanhim.”(comparativeadjective)

•“Jeffisthestrongestofallofus.”(superlativeadjective)Theprogressionofinflectionforadjectivesisknownasthedegreesofcomparison.Thespellingrulesthatdictatehoweachdegreeisformeddependonhowthebaseform(knownasthepositivedegree)oftheadjectiveisspelled.

Adjectivespelling Howtomodify Positive

degreeComparative

degreeSuperlativedegree

Onesyllable,endinginaconsonantprecededbyonevowel.

Add“-er”forcomparativedegreeor“-est”forsuperlativedegree.Doublefinalconsonant.

big bigger biggest

Onesyllable,endinginaconsonantprecededbytwovowelsoranotherconsonant.

Add“-er”forcomparativedegreeor“-est”forsuperlativedegree.Donotdoublefinalconsonantifprecededbyonevowel.

strong stronger strongest

Onesyllable,endinginan“e”

Add“-r”forcomparativedegreeor“-st”forsuperlativedegree.

large larger largest

Twosyllables,endingina“y”

Replace“y”with“i”andadd“-er”forcomparativedegreeor“-est”forsuperlativedegree.


Threeormoresyllables,ortwosyllablesnotendingin

Addthewordsmoreorlessbeforetheadjectivetomakethemcomparative,ormost/leastto

clever more/lesscareful

most/leastcareful

"y" makethemsuperlative.

Thereareseveralexceptionstotheserules,however,especiallywhenusingirregularadjectives.GotothesectiononDegreesofComparisonintheAdjectiveschaptertolearnmore.

AdverbsWecanalsoinflectadverbswhenwewanttocomparethedegreetowhichtwoactionsareperformed(comparativeadverbs),ortoidentifythehighestdegreeofhowanactionisperformed.(superlativeadverbs).Forexample:•“Susanrunsfast.”(adverb)•“JanetrunsfasterthanSusan.”(comparativeadverb)•“Bettyrunsthefastest.”(superlativeadverb)Theprogressionofinflectionforadverbsisknown(likeadjectives)asthedegreesofcomparison.Again,thespellingrulesthatdictatehoweachdegreeisformeddependonhowthebaseform(knownasthepositivedegree)oftheadverbisspelled.

Adverbspelling Howtomodify Positive

degreeComparative

degreeSuperlativedegree

Onesyllable,endinginaconsonant

Add“-er”forcomparativedegreeor“-est”forsuperlativedegree.

fast faster fastest

Onesyllable,endinginan“e”

Add“-r”forcomparativedegreeor“-st”forsuperlativedegree.

late later latest

Adverbsendingina“y”

Addthewordsmoreorlessbeforetheadverbtomakeitcomparative,ormost/leasttomakeit

carefully more/lesscarefully

most/leastcarefully

superlative.

Therearemanyirregularadverbsthatgoagainsttheruleswejustlookedat.GotothesectionondegreesofcomparisonintheAdverbschaptertolearnmorehowtheircomparativeandsuperlativedegreesareformed.


1.Whichofthefollowingdonotundergogrammaticaldeclension?a)nounsb)pronounsc)adjectivesd)verbse)adverbs2.Whatisthemostcommonreasonnounsareinflected?a)Toestablishthegenderofthenounb)Toestablishthepluralityofthenounc)Toestablishthegrammaticalpersonofthenound)Toestablishthegrammaticalcaseofthenoune)Alloftheabovef)Noneoftheabove3.Whatisthemostcommonreasonpersonalpronounsareinflected?a)Toestablishthegenderofthepronounb)Toestablishthepluralityofthepronounc)Toestablishthegrammaticalpersonofthepronound)Toestablishthegrammaticalcaseofthepronoune)Alloftheabovef)Noneoftheabove4.Howareadjectivesmostcommonlyinflectedtocreatethecomparativedegree?a)Byaddingthesuffix“-er”b)Byaddingthesuffix“-est”c)Byaddingthesuffix“-es”

d)Byaddingthesuffix“-s”5.Whichadverbsdonotadheretothespellingruleswheninflectingforthecomparativeandsuperlativedegree?a)One-syllableadverbsendinginan“e”b)Adverbsformedfromadjectivesc)Irregularadverbsd)Adverbsofmanner

PluralsDefinitionPluralsofnounsareusedtoindicatewhenthereismorethanoneperson,place,animal,orthing.Thenormalmethodformakingnounspluralistoaddan“-s”attheendofthenoun.Forexample:

oneboy–twoboysonegirl–twogirlsonepen–twopensonepencil–twopencilsoneprize–twoprizesoneprice–twoprices

Ifanounendsin“-s,”“-x,”“-z,”orwithaclusterofconsonants,suchas“-sh,”“-ch,”or“-tch”(asin“watch”),weadd“-es”torenderitplural.Forexample:

onecoach–twocoachesonewitch–twowitchesonedish–twodishesonebox–twoboxesonebus–twobusesonekiss–twokissesonewaltz–twowaltzes

Wordsendingin“-y”Whenthenounendsina“-y”anditisprecededbyaconsonant,wechange“y”to“i”andadd“-es.”Forexample:

onecountry–twocountriesonecity–twocitiesonegallery–twogalleriesonebaby–twobabiesonelady–twoladiesonereality–tworealitiesonefly–twofliesonebutterfly–twobutterflies

However,whenawordendsina“-y”precededbyavowel,thenwesimplyaddan“-s”asusual:

onetoy–twotoysoneplay–twoplaysonekey–twokeysoneguy–twoguys

IrregularpluralsTherearesomenounsthatareirregular.Theydonotadheretospellingrules,andsotheseneedtobememorized.Herearethemostcommonones:

oneman–twomenonewoman–twowomenoneperson–twopeople*onemouse–twomiceonegoose–twogeeseonechild–twochildrenonetooth–twoteethonefoot–twofeet

(*Personsisalsoapluralformofperson,butinmodernEnglishitisusuallyreservedformoreformal,bureaucratic,orlegallanguage,asin,“Anysuchpersonsfoundtoguiltyofshopliftingwillbeprosecuted.”)Beawarethatirregularpluralnounscannotbemadepluralagain;thatis,youcannothavechildrens,orfeets.However,peopleisanexception—itcanbepluralizedaspeoplesinsomecases.

Adding“-ves”vs.“-s”Withsomenounsthatendin“-f,”“-fe,”or“-lf,”wereplacetheendingswith“-ves”tomakethemplural.Belowisalistofsomecommonexamples:

onelife–twolivesonewife–twowivesoneloaf–twoloavesoneleaf–twoleavesoneknife–twoknivesonethief–twothievesonecalf–twocalvesonehalf–twohalvesonewolf–onewolves

However,manyotherwordsthatendin“-f,”“-fe,”or“-lf”aresimplymadepluralwithan“-s”ontheend.Herearesomecommonexamples:

onechief–twochiefsonebrief–twobriefsonesafe–twosafesonegulf–twogulfsonebelief–twobeliefsoneroof–tworoofs

Andyetsomeotherwordscanreceiveeither“-ves”or“-s,”suchas:onehandkerchief–twohandkerchiefs–twohandkerchievesonehoof–twohoofs–twohoovesonescarf–twoscarfs–twoscarves

Unfortunately,thereisnosteadfastruleforwhichwordswillreceivea“-ves”ending,an“-s”ending,orboth—theyareirregularandhavetobememorized.

Wordsendingin“-ff”or“-ffe”Wordsendingin“-ff”or“-ffe,”ontheotherhand,havestraightforwardpluralforms:wesimplyadd“-s”totheend,asin:

onecliff–twocliffsonebailiff–twobailiffsonegiraffe–twogiraffesonegaffe–twogaffes

WordswiththesamepluralandsingularformsWealsohavesomenounsthatremainthesameinsingularandplural.Forexample:

onefish–twofish*onesheep–twosheeponebison–twobisononeaircraft–twoaircraft

*Notethatfishcanalsobepluralizedasfishes.However,itismorecommonforthis“-es”formtobeusedinreferencetomorethanonekindoffish,asopposedtomultiplefishingeneral.

UncountablenounsAlthoughsimilarinnaturetotheabovenouns,uncountablenounsrefertothingsthatcannotbedividedintoindividualunits,andthatthereforecannotbemadepluralatall.Forexample:

ricebuttermilkadvicenews

Toquantifythem,weneedtouseaunitofmeasure,suchasonepoundofrice,a

bottleofmilk,apieceofadvice,etc.Therulessurroundingthesecanbequitecomplex,soseethesectiononUncountableNounstolearnmore.

WordsfromLatinorGreekTherearealsonounstakenfromLatinorGreekthatmaintaintheiroriginalformsintheplural.However,aswe’llsee,someofthesewordshavebegunshiftingtowardsmoreconventionalpluralforms,inadditiontotheiroriginalspellings.Forexample:

index–indices(indexesisnowalsoacceptable)appendix–appendices(appendixesisnowalsoacceptable)fungus–fungicriterion–criterianucleus–nucleisyllabus–syllabifocus–focicactus–cacti(cactusesisnowalsoacceptable)thesis–thesescrisis–crisesphenomenon–phenomena

Non-ExistentPluralAdjectivesInmanylanguages,especiallylanguagesderivingfromLatin,adjectivesbecomepluralwhentheyareusedtodescribepluralnouns.However,inEnglish,adjectivesarenevermadeplural.Forexample:✖ “Twobluespens.”(incorrect)✔ “Twobluepens.”(correct)✖ “Rosesarereds.”(incorrect)✔ “Rosesarered.”(correct)✖ “Several10-years-oldboys.”(incorrect)✖ “Several10-year-oldsboys.”(incorrect)

✔ “Several10-year-oldboys.”(correct)Asyoucansee,itisalwaysthenounthatispluralized,andnevertheadjective.


1.Whatisthecorrectpluralformofthenounbatch?a)batchsb)batchesc)batchiesd)batch2.Forwordsendingin“-f,”“-fe,”or“-lf,”inwhatinstancesdowereplacetheendingswith“-ves”tomakethemplural?a)alwaysb)neverc)Onlyiftheendingsareprecededbyavoweld)Wehavetomemorizewhentodoso3.Whenawordendsinaconsonant+“y,”howisthewordmadeplural?a)Byreplacingthe“y”with“-ies”b)Byreplacingthe“y”with“-es”c)Byadding“-s”totheendofthewordd)Nochangenecessary4.Howcananuncountablenounbemadeplural?a)Itssingularformisthesameasitspluralformb)Itcannotbemadepluralc)ByusingitsoriginalLatinorGreekendingd)Wehavetomemorizehowtodoso5.Whichofthefollowingsentencesisincorrect?a)“Thereareanumberofmissingpersonsfollowingthedisaster.”b)“Manymenandwomensacrificedtheirlivesinthelineofduty.”c)“Therearemanydifferentchildrenstryingtofindtheirparents.”d)“Theroofsofseveralhouseshavecollapsedinthelasthalfhour.”

GenderinNounsDefinitionInmodernEnglish,nounsaregenerallyonlydeclined(inflected)tocreateplurals.Thereare,however,stillsomeinstancesinwhichnounsaredeclinedtoshowmasculineorfemininegender.

ConveyinggenderinEnglishnounsInmanyotherlanguages,especiallytheRomancelanguages(suchasFrench,Spanish,andItalian),alargenumberofnounsarecodedasbeingeitherfeminineormasculine.ThisusedtobethecaseinOldEnglishaswell,butinmodernEnglishonlycertainnounsthatdescribeapersonwhoperformsanactionareinflectedforgender.Thisisusuallyachievedbychangingtheendofthewordtoafemininesuffix,suchas“-ess,”“-ine,”and“-trix.”Wordsarelesscommonlychangedtospecificallyreflectmasculinegender,butthefewthatdousethesuffixes“-er”or“-or.”

MakinganounfeminineOfthenounsthatdeclinetomarkgender,mostdosotoindicatethenounasbeingfeminine.However,eventhispracticeisbecominglesscommoninmodernEnglish.

“-ess”Themostcommonsuffixusedtomarkfemininenounsis“-ess.”Itisusedprimarilytoidentifyaprofessional,noble,royal,orreligioustitleofawoman.Forexample:

stewardesswaitressactressabbesscountessduchess

princessTheuseof“-ess”todistinguishfemalesworkinginacertainprofessionisbeginningtowane,givingwaytothebasicmasculineform(actorisbecomingmorecommontorefertobothmalesandfemales)oranon-genderedalternative(flightattendantisnowpreferredtoeithersteward(m)orstewardess(f)).However,genderedtitlesofroyalty,nobility,andreligiosityarestillcommoninmodernEnglish.

“-ette”Theothersuffixmostcommonlyrecognizedasbeingafemininemarkeris“-ette,”duelargelytoitsuseinthetermsuffragette,thenamegiventosupportersandadvocatesofwomen’ssuffrageintheearly20thcentury(especiallyinBritain).Twootherwordscommonlydistinguishedasfeminineusingthissuffixarebachelorette(ayoungunmarriedwoman,usedespeciallyinthecontextof“bacheloretteparties”)andbrunette(agirlorwomanwithbrownhair),bothofwhichtermsarestillwidelyusedinmodernEnglishtoday.Otherthantheaboveexamples,though,“-ette”ismorecommonlyusedtorefertonon-gendereditemsthataresmallordiminutive,suchascigarette,kitchenette,novelette,launderette,cassette,andsoon.

OtherfemininesuffixesOtherthan“-ess”and“-ette,”theonlyextantsuffixesthatexisttosignifyfemininityare“-ine,”usedtoformheroine(fromhero),and“-trix,”whichalmostonlyappearsinold-fashionedorlegalisticterms,suchasaviatrix(fromaviator),executrix(fromexecutor),ormediatrix(frommediator).

MakinganounmasculineNounsthatare,were,orcanbedistinguishedbetweenfeminineandmasculinegendersareoftenmasculineintheirbasicform.Thesetendtoendin“-er”or“-or”todenotesomeonewhoperformstheactionofaverb.Forexample:

actorcleanerlawyer

executionerexecutoraviatorbachelor

IncreasinglyinmodernEnglish,thedistinctionoftheabovetermsasbeingsolelyorinherentlymasculineisfadingaway,andthetermsrefertoanyone—regardlessofgenderidentity—whoperformssuchanactionorrole.Uniquely,thereisonewordthatisinherentlyfemininethatcantakethesuffix“-er”tobecomemasculine:wemaketheinherentlyfemininewordwidow(meaningawomanwhosespousehaddied)masculinebyadding“-er”—widower(amanwhosespousehasdied).

NounswithinherentgenderidentityThereisarelativelysmallamountofnounsinEnglishthatareinherentlygenderedbecausetheydescribemembersofthemaleorfemalesex;theydonotusesuffixestoalterthemeaningofanexistingword.Mostcommonly,theyaretermsdescribingfamilial,social,orsometimesroyaltitles.Belowisalistofcommon(butbynomeansexhaustive)examples:

Feminine Masculine

queen king

girl boy

bride groom(lesscommonly,bridegroom)

mother father

wife husband

madam sir

lady gentleman

witch wizard

AnimalnamesWealsohavespecificgenderedwordstoidentifymaleandfemalemembersofanimaltypes.Althoughsomearedependentontheuseofsuffixes(forinstance,afemalelionisalioness),manyaretotallyuniquewordsspecifictothatgender.Hereareafewcommonexamples:

Animaltype Feminine Masculine

horses mare stallion

deer doe buck

pigs sow boar

chickens hen rooster

sheep ewe ram


1.WhatisusedtochangeanountoreflectgenderinEnglish?a)aprefixb)asuffixc)pronunciationd)syllablestresse)A&Cf)B&D2.Whichofthefollowingismostcommonlyusedtoindicateafemininenoun?a)-etteb)-inec)-trixd)-esse)A&Bf)C&D

3.Whichofthefollowingismostcommonlyusedtoindicateamasculinenoun?a)-erb)-orc)-edd)-inge)A&Bf)C&D4.Whichofthefollowingnounsidentifiesforgenderwithoutusingagenderedsuffix?a)madameb)actressc)widowerd)brunette

RegularandIrregularInflectionDefinitionInflection,thewaywechangeaword’sformtoreflectthingsliketense,plurality,gender,etc.,isusuallygovernedbyconsistent,predictablerules.Thisisknownasregularinflection.Forexample,weusuallycreatethepastsimpletenseofverbsbyadding“-d”or“-ed”(asinheardorwalked,whichalsofunctionastheverbs’pastparticiples),andwenormallycreatepluralsbyadding“-s”or“-es”totheendsofnouns(asindogs,cats,watches,etc.).However,therearemanyinstancesinwhichthewayawordisinflecteddoesn’tseemtofollowanyrulesorconventionsatall—thisisknownasirregularinflection.Forexample,thepastsimpletenseoftheverbgoiswent(ratherthangoed,asregularinflectionwouldsuggest),anditspastparticipleisgone.Irregularinflectionaffectsnouns,adjectives,adverbs,and(mostcommonly)verbs.

PluralsofNounsAlthoughnounsarelargelyuninflectedinEnglish(remainingthesame

regardlessofcase,gender,orperson),wedostillinflectthemtoindicateplurals—thatis,whenthereismorethanoneofsomething.

RegularpluralsAswenotedabove,thestandardwaytoinflectanounforpluralityistoadd“-s”or“-es.”Occasionallywehavetomakeaslightalterationtothespellingofthewordtoaccommodatethisinflection(forexample,whenthenounendsina“-y”anditisprecededbyaconsonant,wechange“y”to“i”andadd“-es”),butthesearestillconsideredregularbecausethereisastandardrulethattheyfollow.Herearesomeexamplesofregularnounsandtheirpluralcounterparts:

Regularnoun Pluralform

boy boys

book books

box boxes

beach beaches

lady ladies

city cities

IrregularpluralsHowever,therearealargenumberofnounsthathaveirregularpluralformsthatdefythisconvention.Thesearecompletelyuniquewordsthatdonotfollowanyrulesorconventionsforhowtheyarespelled.Herearesomeofthemostcommonirregularnouns:

Irregularnoun Pluralform

person people/persons*

mouse mice

goose geese

child children

foot feet

man men

woman women(*Personsisalsoapluralformofperson,butinmodernEnglishitisusuallyreservedformoreformal,bureaucratic,orlegallanguage,asin,“Anysuchpersonsfoundtobeguiltyofshopliftingwillbeprosecuted.”)Therearemanyotherunique,irregularwaysthatnounsarepluralized.Tolearnmore,gotothesectiononPluralsinthechapterdealingwithDeclension.

AdjectivesAdjectivesinflectwhenwechangethemintotheircomparativeandsuperlativeforms.Comparativeadjectivesareusedtocompareaqualitybetweentwonouns,whilesuperlativeadjectivesidentifyanounwiththehighest(orlowest)degreeofanattributeamongagroup.

RegularadjectivesWegenerallyformthecomparativedegreebyaddingthesuffix“-er”totheendoftheadjective,orbyaddingthewordsmoreorlessbeforeit.Toformthesuperlativedegree,weeitheradd“-est”totheendoftheadjectiveoraddthewordmostorleastbeforeit.Wesometimeshavetochangethespellingoftheadjectiveslightlytoaccommodatetheadditionofthesuffix,buttherulesforwhenthisisnecessaryarestraightforwardandconsistent.Theshiftfromabasicadjectivetoitscomparativeorsuperlativeformsisknownasthedegreesofcomparison.Let’slookathowthisisaccomplishedwithregularadjectives:

Adjective Comparativedegree

Superlativedegree Spellingrule

Withone-syllableadjectives,add“-er”or“-est”anddoublethefinal

big bigger biggest consonantifprecededbyonevowel.

strong stronger strongestThefinalconsonantisnotdoubledifitisprecededbytwovowelsoranotherconsonant.

large larger largest Iftheadjectiveendsinan“e,”thenyouonlyneedtoadd“-r”or“-st.”


Ifanadjectivehasoneortwosyllablesandendsin“-y,”wereplace“y”with“i”andadd“-er”or“-est.”

beautiful more/lessbeautiful

most/leastbeautiful

Foradjectivesthathavethreeormoresyllables,oradjectivesthathavetwosyllablesanddonotendin“-y,”usethewordsmore/lessormost/least.

IrregularadjectivesThevastmajorityofadjectivesfollowtheaboveconventionswhenformingthecomparativeorsuperlativedegrees.However,thereareafewadjectivesthatareirregularandhaveuniqueformsthatdonotconformtoanyspellingconventions.Becauseofthis,theymustallbememorized.

Irregularadjective Comparativedegree Superlativedegree

fun more/lessfun most/leastfun

bad worse worst

well(healthy) better best

good better best

far farther/further farthest/furthest

little(amount) less least

many/much more mostTolearnmoreabouthowcomparativeandsuperlativeadjectivesareformed,gototheDegreesofComparisonsectionoftheAdjectiveschapter.

AdverbsRegularadverbsAlargenumberofadverbsareformedfromadjectives.Thestandardwayofdoingthisisbyadding“-ly”totheendoftheadjective.Sometimestheadjective’sspellingneedstobealteredslightlytoaccommodatethis,buttherulesofdoingsoarefairlystraightforward.Herearesomecommonexamples:

Adjective Regularadverb Spellingrule

beautiful beautifully Adjective+“-ly”

enthusiastic enthusiastically Iftheadjectiveendsin“-ic,”itwillchangeto“-ically.”

happy happily Iftheadjectiveendsina“-y,”itwillchangeto“-ily.”

terrible terribly Iftheadjectiveendsin“-le,”theendingisdroppedandisreplacedwith“-ly.”

due duly Iftheadjectiveendsin“-ue,”the“e”ontheendisdroppedandisreplacedwith“-ly.”

IrregularadverbsAlthoughthemajorityofadverbsfollowtheaboveruleswhentheyareformedfromadjectives,thereareanumberofirregularadverbsthatgoagainsttheconventions.Muchofthetime,irregularadverbshavethesamespellingastheir

adjectivalcounterparts,buttherearenocluesintheadjectives’spellingastowhenthisisthecase;likeallirregularinflections,theyjusthavetobememorized.Belowaresomeofthemostcommonirregularadverbs.

Adjective Irregularadverb Sourcesofconfusion

fast fast Lastbecomeslastly,butfastbecomesfast.

hard hard Hardly(ever)isanadverboffrequency,meaning“almostnever.”

straight straight

lively livelyLivelystillexistsasanadverbinphraseslikesteplively;however,itismoreoftenusedintheadverbialprepositionalphraseinalivelymanner.

late(tardy) late Latelyisadifferentadverbthatmeans“recently.”

daily daily Adverbsoffrequencythatrelatetounitsoftimehavethesameformasbothadjectivesandadverbs.

early early

friendly noadverb Canonlybeusedintheadverbialprepositionalphraseinafriendlymanner.

timely noadverb Canonlybeusedintheadverbialprepositionalphraseinatimelymanner.

good well Wellistheadverbialformofgood;itcanalsofunctionasapredicativeadjectivemeaning“healthy.”

GotothesectiononRegularandIrregularAdverbsintheAdverbschaptertolearnmoreabouthowadverbsareformedfromadjectives.

IrregularDegreesofComparisonJustlikeadjectives,adverbsalsohavecomparativeandsuperlativedegrees,

whichareusedtocompareactionsamongpeopleorthings.Theyareformedinthesameway,byadding“-er”ormore/lessforcomparativeadverbsor“-est”ormost/leastforsuperlativeadverbs.However,therearesomeadverbsthathaveirregularcomparativeandsuperlativeforms.Wecan’trelyontheirregularadverbswelookedatabove,either,becausemanyofthoseadverbsareregularinhowtheyinflecttobecomecomparativeorsuperlative.Asalways,wejusthavetocommitthemtomemory:

Irregularadverb(positivedegree)

Comparativedegree

Superlativedegree

badly worse worst

early earlier earliest

far farther/further farthest/furthest

little less least

well better best

VerbsVerbspresentthegreatestchallengewhenitcomestolearningaboutregularandirregularinflection.Ahugevarietyofverbsareirregular,whichmeanstheyhavepastsimpletenseandpastparticipleformsthatdefythenormalconventions.Thatmeansthateveryirregularverbhasthreeuniqueconjugationsthatmustbememorized.Inaddition,theverbbeisknownasbeinghighlyirregular,becauseithassixirregularconjugationsinadditiontoitsbaseandpresentparticipleform—eightinall!We’llbrieflylookattherulesforconjugatingregularverbsandthenlookatsomecommonirregularverbsbelow.YoucanlearnmorebygoingtothesectionRegularandIrregularVerbsinthechapteronVerbsinPartsofSpeech.(Notethatallverbs,whetherregularorirregular,conjugatethesamewaytoformpresentparticiples,taking“-ing”attheendofthebaseform.Becauseofthis,wewon’tincludethepresentparticipleforminthebreakdownsbelow.)

Conjugatingregularverbs

Themajorityofverbstaketheending“-d”or“-ed”totheirbaseform(theinfinitiveoftheverbwithoutto)tocreateboththepastsimpletenseandpastparticiple.Therearesomeinstancesinwhichtheverb’sspellingmustchangeslightlytoaccommodatethis,buttheserulesarestraightforwardandconsistent.Herearesomecommonregularverbinflections:


playbakelistenapproachgatherclimbchopcopypanic

playedbakedlistenedapproachedgatheredclimbedchoppedcopiedpanicked

playedbakedlistenedapproachedgatheredclimbedchoppedcopiedpanicked

ConjugatingirregularverbsIrregularverbsdonothavespellingrulesthatwecanfollowtocreatethepastsimpletenseandpastparticiples.Thismeansthattheonlywayofknowinghowtospelltheseformsistomemorizethemforeachirregularverbindividually.Hereareafewcommonexamples:


seegrowgivethinkthrowdriveriderunswimsit

sawgrewgavethoughtthrewdroveroderanswamsat

seengrowngiventhoughtthrowndrivenriddenrunswumsat

ConjugatingbeAswementionedabove,theverbbeisuniqueamongverbsforhavingahugevarietyofconjugations.Notonlydoesithaveirregularinflectionsforthepastsimpletenseandpastparticiple,butitalsohasspecificformsdependingonpluralityandgrammaticalperson(firstperson,secondperson,andthirdperson).Thetablebelowshowsabreakdownofallthedifferentwaysweconjugatebe.

Grammaticalperson

Baseform

PresentTense

Singular

PresentTensePlural

PresentParticiple

PastTense

Singular

PastTensePlural Participle

n/a be being been

firstperson Iam weare Iwas wewere

secondperson youare youare youwere

youwere

thirdperson he/she/itis

theyare he/she/it

wastheywere

LearningirregularinflectionAswe’veseen,wordsthatinflectinirregularwaysare,unfortunately,unpredictablebynature.Becausetherearenopatternsforhowtheyareformed,itcanbeverydifficulttolearnthem.Thebestwaytolearnirregularwordsistopaycloseattentionwhenyouarereading—ifawordlookslikeithasanunusualspellingcomparedtootherwordsthatareusedinthesameway,thenitisprobablyanirregularinflection.Inthesecases,lookupthewordinagooddictionaryandmakeanoteofhowitisused,thentrytorememberitfornexttime.


1.Inwhichofthefollowingdoesirregularinflectionnotoccur?

a)Adjectivesb)Adverbsc)Pronounsd)Verbs2.Whatisthemostcommonwayofformingregularadverbsfromadjectives?a)Adding“-ly”totheendofthewordb)Adding“-er”totheendofthewordc)Adding“-est”totheendofthewordd)Adding“-s”totheendoftheword3.Whatisthemostcommonwayofformingregularsuperlativeadjectives?a)Adding“-ly”totheendofthewordb)Adding“-er”totheendofthewordc)Adding“-est”totheendofthewordd)Adding“-s”totheendoftheword4.Whendoregularandirregularverbsconjugatedifferently?a)Whenformingthepastsimpletenseb)Whenformingthepastparticiplec)Whenformingthepresentparticipled)A&Be)B&Cd)Noneoftheabove5.Whichofthefollowingsentencesisincorrect?a)“Thereareanumberofmissingpersonsfollowingthedisaster.”b)“Manymenandwomensacrificedtheirlivesinthelineofduty.”c)“Therearemanydifferentchildrenstryingtofindtheirparents.”d)“Theroofsofseveralhouseshavecollapsedinthelasthalfhour.”6.Whichofthefollowingisacorrectconjugationoftheverbbe?a)isb)wasc)beend)are

e)A&Bf)C&Dg)Alloftheaboveh)Noneoftheabove

SyntaxDefinitionSyntaxreferstothewaysinwhichweorderspecificwordstocreatelogical,meaningfulsentences.Whilethepartsofspeechareallthedifferenttypesofwordsthatwecanuse,syntaxisthesetofrules,patterns,orprocessesbywhichwecanputthemtogether.BecauseEnglishissuchaflexiblelanguage,itcanbedifficulttounderstandallthespecificnuancesthatgoverntheserulesandpatterns.However,wehavesomebasicbuildingblocksthathelpusidentifythehierarchyofhowthelanguageisstructured.We’llbrieflylookatthepartsthatmakeupthishierarchyofstructure.Gototheindividualsectionstolearnmoreabouteach.

TheHierarchyofGrammaticalStructureSubjectsandPredicatesThebasisofallsyntaxreallybeginswiththesubjectandthepredicate,bothofwhicharerequiredtoformacompleteandlogicalstatement.Thesubjectisthepersonorthingthatperformsorcontrolsanactioninasentence,whilethepredicatedescribesthataction.Putinthesimplestterms,thesubjectisatleastanoun(orapronounrepresentinganoun),whilethepredicateisatleastaverb.However,thesubjectcanalsoincludeanywordsthataddmeaningtothenounorpronoun,suchasdeterminersorothermodifiers(adjectives,adverbs,orphrasesactinglikethem).Take,forexample,thefollowingsentence:•“Myfatherdrivesacartoworkeachday.”Thesubjecthereisnotjustfather(thenoun),butalsothedeterminermy.Thisspecifieswhichfatheriscontrollingtheactionoftheverbdrives.Likewise,thepredicateincludesanywordsthataddmeaningtotheverb,suchas

modifiers,objects,orcomplements.Let’slookatthatsentenceagain:•“Myfatherdrivesacartoworkeachday.”Here,thepredicateistheentirephrasedrivesacartoworkeachday.Inadditiontotheverbdrives,italsocontainsthephrasesacar(thedirectobjectoftheverb),towork(aprepositionalphrasethatmodifiestheverb),andeachday(anadverbialphrasethatalsomodifiestheverb).

ModifiersModifiersarewords,phrases,orevenclausesthatadddescriptivemeaningtoanotherword;theyarecategorizedasbeingeitheradjectivesoradverbs.Modifierscanappearanywhereinasentence,andtheycanbeapartofeitherthesubjectorthepredicate.Forexample:•“Theredcarwenttoofast.”Inthissentence,wehavethreemodifiers.Theadjectiveredismodifyingthenouncarandispartofthesubject.Theadverbtooisanintensifiermodifyingtheadverbfast;together,theymodifytheverbwentasanadverbialphrase.Themodifierredinthissentenceisknownasanadjunct,becauseitdoesnotprovideessentialinformationtothesentence;ifweweretoremoveit,themeaningwouldnotchangeinanysignificantway.Theadverbialphrasetoofast,ontheotherhand,isessentialtothemeaningofthesentence.Withoutthephrase,itwouldread“Theredcarwent.”Thisisstillacompletesentence,buttheintendedmeaningiscompletelychanged.Modifiersthatarenecessarytothemeaningofthesentenceareknownascomplements,andtheyarealwayspartofthepredicate.

PhrasesPhrasesaregroupsoftwoormorewordsthatdonotcontainbothasubjectandapredicate.Theyareformedwhenadeterminer,modifier,orcomplementisusedtodescribeorcompletethemeaningofanotherword.Itisalsocommonforaphrasetobemadeupofsmallerphrases.Forexample:•“Thebrightredcarismine.”Thesubjectthebrightredcarisallasinglephrase.Itisconsideredanounphrasewiththenouncaratitsroot(sometimesreferredtoasthe“head”noun).Thephraseisalsomadeupofthedeterminertheandtheadjectivephrase

brightred(theadjectiveredplusitsownmodifier,theadverbbright).Likewise,thepredicateofthesentence,ismine,isaverbphrasemadeupoftheverbisandthepossessivepronounmine.Becausephrasescanbepartofboththesubjectandthepredicate,theyareoftenaconstituentpartofclauses.

ClausesAlloftheinformationcontainedinthesubjectandthepredicatefunctiontogethertoformaclause.Assuch,allclausesare,bydefinition,agroupoftwoormorewordscontainingbothasubjectandapredicate.Dependingonitsstructure,aclausecanbeeitherdependentorindependent.Adependentclause(alsocalledasubordinateclause)isunabletostandonitsown.Itismarkedbycertainkindswords(commonlycalleddependentwords)thatconnectittoanindependentclause,whichitreliesontohaveacomplete,logicalmeaning.Independentclauses,ontheotherhand,areabletofunctionassentencesontheirown.Theydonotdependontheinformationfromotherclausestobeconsideredcomplete.Takethesetwoexamples:•“whentheywereyounger”•“MarkandBettyoftentraveledtogether”Bothexampleshaveasubject—theyinthefirstexampleandMarkandBetty(acompoundsubject)inthesecond—andapredicate—wereyoungerandoftentraveledtogether.However,thefirstexampleisadependentclausebecauseofthewordwhen.Thissubordinatingconjunctiontellsthereaderthatmoreinformationisrequiredforacompletethought.Thesecondexample,ontheotherhand,isanindependentclause—ithaseverythinginitthatthereaderneedstoknow.Wemustalwayshaveatleastoneindependentclausewhenweareformingasentence.

SentencesAsentenceisconsideredthemostcompleteunitofsyntaxinEnglish.Itisalwaysmadeupofatleastoneindependentclause,and,becauseofthis,it

alwayscontainsasubjectandapredicate.Asentencethatonlycontainsasingleindependentclauseisknownasasimplesentence,suchasourexamplefromearlier:•“MarkandBettyoftentraveledtogether.”Wecanalsoattachadependentclausetothebeginningorendofanindependentclausetoaddmoreinformationorelaborateuponthemeaningofthesentence.Thisformswhat’sknownasacomplexsentence,asin:•“MarkandBettyoftentraveledtogetherwhentheywereyounger.”or:•“Whentheywereyounger,MarkandBettyoftentraveledtogether.”It’salsocommontojointwoormoreindependentclausestogether,eitherbyusingacoordinatingconjunctionandacomma;aconjunctiveadverb,acomma(usually),andasemicolon;orjustasemicolon.Theseareknownascompoundsentences.Forexample:•“MarkandBettyoftentraveledtogether,andtheyhavebeentomanydifferentcountries.”•“MarkandBettyoftentraveledtogether;asaresult,theyhavebeentomanydifferentcountries.”•“MarkandBettyoftentraveledtogether;theyhavebeentomanydifferentcountries.”Ifwelinkacomplexsentencetoasimplesentenceoranothercomplexsentence,weformwhat’scalledacompound-complexsentence:•“MarkandBettyoftentraveledtogetherwhentheywereyounger,andtheyhavebeentomanydifferentcountries.”Inadditiontothefourcategoriesofstructure(simple,compound,complex,andcompound-complex),thereareseveralcategoriesofsentencesbasedontheirpurpose.We’lllookatthosemorecloselyinthechapteronSentences.


1.Whatisthefunctionofthesubjectofasentence?a)Toidentifythepersonorthingperforminganactionb)Todescribeanactionthatapersonorthingperformsc)Toidentifythepersonorthingreceivingtheactionofaverbd)Todescribeanotherwordinasentence

2.Whichofthefollowingmustaclausealwayscontain?a)Amodifierb)Asubjectc)Apredicated)A&Ce)B&C3.Trueorfalse:Modifierscanonlyappearaspartofthepredicate.a)Trueb)False4.Whichofthefollowingtypesofclausescanfunctionaloneassentences?a)Dependentclausesb)Nounclausesc)Independentclausesd)Adverbialclauses5.Whichofthefollowingtypesofsentencescanbemadeofoneindependentclauseandonedependentclause?a)Simplesentencesb)Compoundsentencesc)Complexsentencesd)Compound-complexsentences

SubjectsandPredicatesSentencesmustalwaysincludebothasubjectandapredicate.Thesubjectofaclauseorsentenceisthenoun(aperson,place,orthing)thatperforms,controls,orisresponsiblefortheactionofaverb.Thepredicateismadeupofatleastonefiniteverb,theactionofwhichisperformedorcontrolledbythesubject.

TheSubjectThesubjectusuallyappearsbeforeitsverbandismadeupofatleastonenoun,anygrammaticalelementfunctioningasanoun,orapronounstandinginplace

ofanoun.Forexample:

Examplesentence Typeofsubject

“Computerscanprocessnumbersveryquickly.” Noun

“AboyIknowownsamotorcycle.” Nounphrase

“Someoneatemycake!” Pronoun

“Swimmingisgreatexercise.” GerundThereareseveralothertypesofgrammaticalconstructionsthatcanbeusedasthesubjectofasentenceorclause,aswellasinstancesinwhichthesubject’spositioninrelationtotheverbchanges.Tolearnmore,continueontothenextsectioninthischapter,TheSubject.

ThePredicateInadditiontoafiniteverb,thepredicatecanalso(butdoesnotalways)includeparticiples,objects,complements,andmodifiers.Inmostcases,thepredicatecomesafterthesubjectinasentenceorclause,althoughsomepartsofthepredicate(especiallyadverbialmodifiers)cansometimesappearbeforethesubject.Herearesomeexamples,withthepredicateinbold:

Examplesentence Partsofthepredicate

“Irefuse.”•refuse—intransitivefiniteverbinthepresentsimpletense

“Myfamilylovesgoingtothebeacheachsummer.”

•loves—transitivefiniteverbinthepresentsimpletense•goingtothebeach—gerundphraseactingasthedirectobjectoftheverbloves•eachsummer—adverbialphrasemodifyingtheverbphraselovesgoingtothebeach

“InschoolwearelearningabouttheAmericanRevolution.”

•inschool—adverbialprepositionalphraseactingasamodifierofthepresentparticiplelearning•are—finiteauxiliaryverbusedwiththepresentparticiplelearningtocreatethepresentcontinuoustense•learning—presentparticiple(atypeofnon-finiteverb)usedwiththeauxiliaryfiniteverbaretoformthepresentcontinuoustense•abouttheAmericanRevolution—prepositionalphrasefunctioningasthedirectobjectofthepresentparticiplelearning

Tolearnmoreaboutformingandidentifyingthepredicate,aswellasthevariousgrammaticalelementsthatcanbeincludedinit,gotothesectioninthischaptercalledThePredicate.

TheSubjectDefinitionThesubjectinasentenceorclauseisthepersonorthingdoing,performing,orcontrollingtheactionoftheverb.Everysentencerequiresasubjectandaverbtobecomplete.Withoutasubject,wewouldhaveanactionbeingdonebynooneornothing—simplyhappeningonitsown,whichcannothappen.(Theonlyexceptiontothisisinimperativesentences,inwhichthesubjectisimplied,asin:“Doyourhomework!”)

SubjectFormsOnlythatwhichhasthegrammaticalfunctionofanouncanbethesubjectofaclause.Thisisbecauseitissomeoneorsomethingthatiscapableofperformingor“controlling”theactionoftheverb.Thisfunctioncanbeperformedbyeachofthefollowing:

nouns–“Computerscanprocessnumbersveryquickly.”nounphrases–“AboyIknowownsamotorcycle.”pronouns–“Someoneatethiscake!”gerunds–“Swimmingisgreatexercise.”

gerundphrases–“Travelingtheworldhasbeenmylifelongdream.”infinitives–“Toerrishuman;toforgiveisdivine.”infinitivephrases–“Tofallinlovecanbebothwonderfulandtragic.”nounclauses–“Whoeverknowsthetruthshouldcomeforward.”dummypronouns–“Thereisnothingwecandoforhimnow.”

SubjectPositionsAswecanseeintheaboveexamples,thesubjectmosttypicallyoccursatornearthebeginningofaclause,precedingthemainverbthatdescribestheactionoftheclause(knownasthefiniteverb).

AuxiliaryquestionsWhenauxiliaryverbsareusedtomakequestions(interrogativesentences)withoutquestionwords,thenthesubjectcomesbetweentheauxiliaryverbandthemainverb.Forexample:•“Ishikingyourfavoriteactivity?”•“DidMarycomebyyesterday?”•“Haveyouheardthissongbefore?”

PassivevoiceTheexampleswe’veseensofarhavebeenofsentencesintheactivevoice,meaningthesubjectofaclauseorsentenceisalsotheagentoftheverb’saction.Sentencesinthepassivevoice,however,createabitofconfusion.Structurally,theobjectoftheverb’sactionbecomesthegrammaticalsubjectoftheclause,whilethe“proper”subject(theagentoftheaction)becomesmodifyinginformation.Forexample:•“Jackisreadingthebook.”(activevoice)•“ThebookisbeingreadbyJack.”(passivevoice)Inthefirstsentence,Jackisboththesubjectofthesentenceandtheagentoftheverbisreading.Inthesecondsentence,though,thebookisnowthesubjectofthesentence.The

agentoftheverb’saction,Jack,becomestheobjectoftheprepositionalphrasebyJack,whichmodifiestheverbisbeingread.

Subject-VerbAgreementSubject-verbagreementreferstousingcertainconjugationsofverbswithsingularsubjectsanddifferentconjugationswithpluralsubjects.Thishappensmostnoticeablywiththeverbtobe,whichbecomesisorwaswithsingularsubjectnounsandareorwerewithpluralsubjects.Forexample:•“Mybrotherisbackfromcollege.”(singularpresentsimpletense)•“Thecompanywasinfinancialtrouble.”(singularpastsimpletense)•“Manypeoplearefrustratedwiththegovernment.”(pluralpresentsimpletense)•“Thecomputerswereratherold.”(pluralpastsimpletense)Foranyotherverb,weonlyneedtomakeachangeifitisinthepresentsimpletense.Formostverbs,thisisaccomplishedbyaddingan“-s”totheendifitissingularandleavingitinitsbaseformifitisplural.Forexample:•“Myfatherrunshisownbusiness.”(singular)•“Buthissonsrunitwhenhe’saway.”(plural)•“Thedogwagshistailwhenheishappy.”(singular)•“Dogssometimeswagtheirtailswhenthey’reangryorscared.”(plural)Theverbshaveanddoalsoonlyconjugateforsingularsubjectsinthepresentsimpletense,buttheyhaveirregularformsforthis:hasanddoes.Forexample:•“Theapplehasamarkonit.”(singular)•“Alltheappleshavemarksonthem.”(plural)•“Myteacherdoesnotthinkit’sagoodidea.”(singular)•“Theotherteachersdonotmind,though.”(plural)Finally,themodalauxiliaryverbs(will,would,shall,should,can,could,might,must,andoughtto)donotconjugateforsingularorpluralsubjects—theyalwaysremainthesame.Forinstance:•“ThisphonecanalsosurftheInternet!”(singular)•“Mostphonescandothatnow.”(plural)•“ThepresidentwillarriveinMaltanextweek.”(singular)•“Theotherdiplomatswillarriveshortlyafterthat.”(plural)

SubjectPronounsPronounsstandinforapersonorthingwearespeakingaboutorreferringto;theyareusedtoavoidrepetitioninspeechorwriting.Thepersonalpronounsinthesubjectivecase—I,you,he,she,it,we,andthey—canactassubstitutesforthesubjectoftheclauseorsentence.Inthisinstance,theyareknownassubjectpronouns.Forexample:•“Johnisrunninglate,butheisalmostready.”(Thepronounhe,replacesthenounJohnintheclauseheisalmostready.)•“Thebookisonthetable.Itisjustoverthere.”(Thebookisanon-personnoun,soitcanbesubstitutedwiththepronounitinsubsequentclausesorsentences.)Thequestionwordswhoandwhatcanalsoactassubjectpronounsofthesentenceorclause.Forexample:•“Whoisgoingtothepartylater?”•“Whatjusthappened?”(Theseformwhatareknownassubjectquestions;we’lllookatthesealittlemoreindepthlateron.)

OtherpronounsThereareotherpronounsinEnglishthatcanactasthesubjectsofclausesorsentences.Indefinitepronouns,forexample,areusedinplaceofnounswithoutspecifyingaparticularpersonorthingthatisbeingrepresented,asin:•“Everyoneiswaitingforthepartytobegin.”(Theactionofwaitingisbeingdonebyeveryone.”•“Ihavefiveteachers,butonlyoneiswritingmearecommendation.”(Theactionofwritingisbeingdonebyone.)•“Nobodytoldmeaboutthis.”(Theactionoftoldwasdonebynobody.)

CommonSubjectErrorsBecausethesubjectcanbesowidelyvariedinEnglish,anumberoferrorscanariseabouthowtocorrectlyuse(ornotuse)asubjectinasentence.Let’slookatsomecommonerrorsthatoccur.

Subject-VerbAgreementErrorsUnfortunately,therearemanyopportunitiesforconfusionastowhentoomitthe“-s”whenconjugatingaverbforsubject-verbagreement.Remember:weonlyneedthe“-s”whenusingthepresentsimpletenseinaffirmative(non-negative)sentences,andwhenusingsubjectsthatareinthethirdperson.Forexample:Firstperson:✖ “IlivesinParis.”(incorrect)✔ “IliveinParis.”(correct)Secondperson:✖ “YoulivesinParis.”(incorrect)✔ “YouliveinParis.”(correct)Thirdperson:✖ “HeliveinParis.”(incorrect)✔ “HelivesinParis.”(correct)

IrregularpluralsHerearesomeotherexamplesofsubject-verberrorswiththird-personsingularandthird-personplural:✖ “Peopleliveshere.”(incorrect)✔ “Peoplelivehere.”(correct)✖ “Thechildrenisplayingoutside.”(incorrect)✔ “Thechildrenareplayingoutside.”(correct)Aperson(singular)lives,whilepeople(plural)live;achild(singular)isplaying,whilechildren(plural)areplaying.Wecanhave“oneperson”or“onechild,”butwehave“two/three/10/manypeopleorchildren.”Theseareknownasirregularpluralsbecausetheydonotfollowthenormalruleofmakinganounpluralbyaddingan“-s”or“-es”totheend.Nevertheless,theystillrequirethecorrectthird-personverbconjugations,aswithanyothernoun.(SeethechapteronPluralstolearnmoreaboutthespellingrulesforregularandirregularplurals.)

IndefinitepronounsIndefinitepronounscansometimescauseconfusionbecausemanyseemtobereferringtoagroupofpeopleorthings,andsoshouldtakethird-personpluralverbs,wheninfacttheyrequirethird-personsingularverbs.Forexample:✖ “Everyonehaveatelevision.”(incorrect)✔ “Everyonehasatelevision.”(correct)Theindefinitepronouneveryonerefersto“eachsingleperson.”Itdoesnotrefertoagroup,butinsteadtoseparateindividuals,soitthereforerequiresathird-personsingularverb.Otherexamplesthattakethird-personsingularverbsincludenoone/nobody,someone/somebody,andanyone/anybody.Otherindefinitepronounsusequalifyinginformationthatcanmakesubject-verbagreementconfusing.Forexample:✖ “OneofmystudentshavegonetoEngland.”(incorrect)✔ “OneofmystudentshasgonetoEngland.”(correct)Ininstanceslikethis,theauxiliaryverbhaveshouldbeconjugatedwiththeindefinitepronounone(singular)insteadofstudents(plural)—oneisfunctioningasthesubjectofthesentence,whileofmystudentsisanadjectivalprepositionalphrasethatdescribesit.Here’sasimilarexample:✖ “Eachpersonstudyindividually.”(incorrect)✔ “Eachpersonstudiesindividually.”(correct)Becauseeachispairedwiththewordperson,whichitmodifies,itimpliesagroupofpeople.However,likeone,thissubjecthastotakeathird-personsingularverb.

DoubleSubjectErrorWemustbecarefultoavoidusingapronounasa“double”subjectinthesameclause—weonlyuseapronounasasubjectwhenitreferstothesubjectinadifferentclause.Forexample:✖ “MybrotherhespeaksEnglish.”(incorrect)✔ “MybrotherspeaksEnglish.”(correct)✔ “HespeaksEnglish.”(correct)✖ “Mycountryitisverybeautiful.”(incorrect)

✔ “Mycountryisverybeautiful.”(correct)✔ “Itisverybeautiful.”(correct)✖ “Thismycarcostmealotofmoney.”(incorrect)✔ “Mycarcostmealotofmoney.”(correct)✔ “Thiscostmealotofmoney.”(correct)

OmissionofthesubjectWeoccasionallyusewhat’sknownasa“dummypronoun”tofunctionasasubjectinaclause.ThetwodummypronounsinEnglisharethereandit,andtheydonothaveantecedentsthewayproperpronounsdo.Becausetheydon’trefertoaconcreteelementsemantically,itcanseemliketheyshouldbeomittedincertaincircumstances,butwemustbecarefultoalwaysincludethemwherenecessary.Forexample:✖ “Ithinkisgoingtorain.”(incorrect)✔ “Ithinkitisgoingtorain.”(correct)Inthefirstexample,thereisnosubjectbeforeis.Wealwaysneedasubjectbeforetheverb.Whenwetalkabouttheweather,time,speed,distance,orthings,weusethedummypronounitasthesubjectoftheclause.Hereisanotherexampleofthiskindoferror:✖ “IsanythingIcanhelpyouwith?”(incorrect)✔ “IsthereanythingIcanhelpyouwith?”(correct)Inthefirstexample,wedonotknowwhatthespeakerwantstohelpwith,becausethereisnosubject.Inthiscase,weusethereasthesubjecttomakethesentencecomplete.

SubjectbeforeauxiliaryverbsinquestionsWhenweformquestions,thesubjectofthesentencestillcomesbeforethemainverb.However,ifanauxiliaryverbisbeingusedtocreatethequestion,it’salsoimportanttorememberthatthesubjectcomesaftertheauxiliaryverb.Forinstance:✖ “WheredoesworkMary?”(incorrect)✖ “WhereMarydoeswork?”(incorrect)✔ “WheredoesMarywork?”(correct)

✖ “YoudospeakEnglish?”(incorrect)✔ “DoyouspeakEnglish?”(correct)

SubjectQuestionErrorIna“subjectquestion,”inwhichthesubjectisimpliedbythequestion,wedonotusuallyaddtheauxiliaryverbdointhesamewayasinnormalquestions.Forinstance:•“Whatdidhappenlastnight?”(lesscommon;onlyusedforemphasiswhentryingtodeterminewhatdidhappenvs.whatdidnothappen)•“Whathappenedlastnight?”(muchmorecommon)Sincethesubjectisalreadyinthequestion,wedonothavetouseanauxiliaryverb.Whenweuseasubjectquestioninthepastsimpletense,theverbneedstobeusedinthepasttensetoo.Thisisbecausetheauxiliaryverbdid,thepasttenseofdo,isabsent.

NormalQuestionsvs.SubjectQuestionsTobetterunderstandthis,let’slookatacomparisonbetweenanormalquestionandasubjectquestion.First,let’slookattwostatements:A)IsawMary.B)Annesawme.IfwewereaskingaquestiontowhichsentenceAwastheanswer,itwouldbeanormalquestion:•“Whodidyousee?”•“IsawMary.”Thesubjectinthenormalquestion,you,correspondstothesubjectintheanswer,I.Sincethisisanormalquestion,weusetheauxiliaryverb,did,toformthepasttenseofthemainverb,see.IfwewereaskingaquestiontowhichsentenceBwastheanswer,itwouldbeasubjectquestion:•“Whosawyou?”

•“Annesawme.”Here,who,thequestionword,iswhatcorrespondstothesubjectintheresponse,Anne.Youisthedirectobjectoftheverbsaw,whichisputinthepasttensebecausewedonotusetheauxiliaryverbdid;itcorrespondstomeintheresponse,whichisalsothedirectobjectofsaw.


1.Whereisthesubjectusuallyplacedinaclause?a)Beforeanadjectiveb)Afteranadjectivec)Beforethemainverbd)Afterthemainverb2.Whendoesathird-personverbconjugatedifferentlytoaccommodatethesubject?a)Whenthesubjectissingular,inthepresentsimpletenseb)Whenthesubjectisplural,inthepresentsimpletensec)Whenthesubjectissingular,inthepastsimpletensed)Whenthesubjectisplural,inthepastsimpletense3.Whatroledoesthesubjecthaveinaclauseorsentencethat’sintheactivevoice?a)Itisthepersonorthingthatreceivestheactionoftheverbb)Itisthepersonorthingthatdoesorperformstheactionoftheverbc)Itmodifiesordescribestheactionoftheverbd)Itmodifiesordescribesthepersonorthingperformstheactionoftheverb4.Whatroledoesthesubjecthaveinaclauseorsentencethat’sinthepassivevoice?a)Itisthepersonorthingthatreceivestheactionoftheverbb)Itisthepersonorthingthatdoesorperformstheactionoftheverbc)Itmodifiesordescribestheactionoftheverbd)Itmodifiesordescribesthepersonorthingperformstheactionoftheverb5.Whichofthefollowinghasaclausewithasubjectthatisagerundphrase?

a)“JohnisswimmingonSaturday,whichI’mexcitedtosee.”b)“AlotofpeopleIknowarecomingtotheparty.”c)“Readingbycandlelightisthoughttobebadforyoureyes.”d)“Seeingeyedogsprovideaninvaluableservice.”6.Whichofthefollowinghasaclausewithasubjectthatisapronoun?a)“Cellphonesarewaytooadvancedthesedays.”b)“WherevershelivesiswhereI’mdestinedtobe.”c)“Severaleyewitnesseshaveplacedthesuspectatthesceneofthecrime.”d)“Everyoneisbeingcaughtoffguardbythisnewlaw.”

ThePredicateDefinitionSentencesmustalwaysincludebothasubjectandapredicate.Thesubjectisthenoun(aperson,place,orthing)thatperforms,controls,orisresponsiblefortheactionoftheverb.Thepredicateis,essentially,everythinginthesentencesthatfollowsthesubject.Itismadeupofatleastonefiniteverb,theactionofwhichisperformedbythesubject.Inaddition,thepredicatemay(butdoesnotalways)include:•Participles,whichareusedtoformtheperfectandcontinuoustenses;•Directandindirectobjects(iftheverbistransitive);•Othercomplements(whichincludeobjectcomplements,adjectivecomplements,andsubjectcomplements);and•Modifiers(iftheyarenotapartofthesubject).First,let’slookathowwecanidentifythepredicateinaclauseorsentence.Lateron,wewilllookmorecloselyatthevariouspartsofthepredicate.

IdentifyingthepredicateInmostcases,thepredicatecomesafterthesubjectinasentenceorclause.It’spossibleinsimplesentencestohaveonlyasubjectfollowedbyafiniteverb(averbthathasarelationshipwithsubjectandcaninflectforgrammaticaltense).Forexample:

•“Irefuse.”•“Dogsbark.”•“Beessting.”•“Catsmeow.”Intheaboveexamples,thesubject(initalics)beginsthesentencesandthepredicate(inbold)endsthem.Thepredicate,madeupofjustanintransitiveverbinthepresentsimpletense,containsallthenecessaryinformationaboutthesubjecttobelogical;therefore,eachexampleisconsideredanindependentclauseandisacompletesentence.However,itismuchmorecommonforthepredicatetocontainmuchmoreinformationthanjustaverb.Let’slookatanexampleofasentencewithamorecomplexpredicate:


“Myfamilylovesgoingtothebeacheachsummer.”

•loves—transitivefiniteverbinthepresentsimpletense•goingtothebeach—gerundphraseactingasthedirectobjectoftheverbloves•eachsummer—adverbialphrasemodifyingtheverbphraselovesgoingtothebeach

Becauseeveryelementafterthesubjectmyfamilyisrelatedtotheverbloves,theentirephraselovesgoingtothebeacheachsummerisconsideredthepredicate.Notethatadverbs(whichcanbesinglewords,adverbialphrases,orevenadverbialclauses)thatmodifyelementsofthepredicatedonotalwaysappearafterthesubject.It’squitecommonforcertainadverbstoappearatthebeginningofasentencetoaddemphasistotheinformation.Forexample:


“InschoolwearelearningabouttheAmerican

•inschool—adverbialprepositionalphraseactingasamodifierofthepresentparticiplelearning•are—finiteauxiliaryverbusedwiththepresentparticiplelearningtocreatethepresentcontinuoustense•learning—presentparticiple(atypeofnon-

Revolution.” finiteverb)usedwiththeauxiliaryfiniteverbaretoformthepresentcontinuoustense•abouttheAmericanRevolution—prepositionalphrasefunctioningasthedirectobjectofthepresentparticiplelearning

Noticethattheadverbialprepositionalphraseinschoolisstillpartofthepredicate,eventhoughitappearsatthebeginningofthesentencebeforethesubject.Thisisbecauseitmodifiestheparticiplelearning,whichispartofthepredicate.

CompoundpredicatesThesubjectofaclauseorsentencemustalwaysbeperformingatleastoneaction,buttherearemanyinstancesinwhichitperformsmorethanoneaction.Insuchacase,inwhichthesubjectisrelatedtotwoormorefiniteverbs,thesentenceissaidtohaveacompoundpredicate;apredicatecomposedofoneverbissometimesknownasasimplepredicate.Weusuallyusecoordinatingconjunctionstolinktheverbsinacompoundpredicate.Iftherearemorethantwopredicateelements,weseparatethemwithcommasanduseaconjunctionbeforethefinalone.Forexample:

Examplesentence Partsofthecompoundpredicate

“IliveinNewJerseybutworkinNewYorkCity.”

1.liveinNewJersey2.workinNewYorkCity

Connectedbythecoordinatingconjunctionbut.

Theybothhavethesamesubject—I.

1.teachesinthemorning2.volunteersinthe

“MyfriendDanielteachesinthemorning,volunteersintheafternoon,andplaysvolleyballintheevening."

afternoon3.playsvolleyballintheevening

Connectedbycommasandthecoordinatingconjunctionand.

Theyallhavethesamesubject—myfriendDaniel.

CompoundsubjectsJustasthesamesubjectmayhavemultiplecompoundpredicates,thesamepredicatemayhavemultiplecompoundsubjects.Inthesameway,wejoinmultiplesubjectswithcoordinatingconjunctionsand(iftherearemorethantwosubjects)commas.Forexample:•“MybrotherandIgofishingontheweekends.”•“John,Mary,andJoewenttoschooltogether.”

Compoundpredicatesvs.compoundsentencesIt’simportanttodistinguishacompoundpredicatefromacompoundsentence.Acompoundsentencesismadeupoftwoindependentclausesconnectedbyacoordinatingconjunction;eachclausehasitsownsubject.Evenifthesubjectsrelatetothesamepersonorthing,thereisadifferentpredicateforeachsubject.Forexample:•“JohnstudiesatHarvard,buthealsoworksasamechanicontheweekend.”Thisisacompoundsentence,whichhastwoindependentclauseswithtwosubjects:Johnandhe.Eventhoughtheytalkaboutthesameperson,eachsubjecthasitsownuniquepredicate—itisnotacompoundpredicateoracompoundsubject.

ComplexsentencesComplexsentencesarecomposedofanindependentclauseandoneormoredependentclauses.Eachclauseinacomplexsentencehasasubject,and,again,eachsubjecthasitsownpredicate.Forinstance:•“Whenmyfatherishomeontheweekends,thewholefamilyalwaysgoestoamovietogether.”Thedependentclausehasthesubjectmyfather,andthepredicateisishomeontheweekends.Thedependentclauseislinkedtotheindependentclausebythesubordinatingconjunctionwhen,whichcanalsobeconsideredpartofthedependentclause’spredicate.Thesubjectoftheindependentclauseisthewholefamily,andthepredicateisalwaysgoestoamovietogether.Sentencescanbecomeincreasinglycomplex,withmultipleindependentclausesandmultipledependentclauses.Justrememberthatforeveryclausewithitsownsubject,theremustbeatleastonecorrespondingpredicateaswell.

PartsofthepredicateWe’veseenwheretolooktoidentifythepredicateinasentence.Nowlet’slookmorecloselyatthedifferentelementsthatcanbeapartofthepredicate.

Finitevs.Non-finiteVerbsWhenweareidentifyingthepredicateinasentence,weusuallylookforthefiniteverbthatactsastherootofthesentence.Theonlyverbsthatcanbeconsideredfiniteareverbsintheirbaseform(theinfinitiveformwithouttheparticleto),verbsintheirpast-tenseform,orverbsinflectedforthethird-personsingular.(Theverbbe,uniqueamongverbs,alsohasuniqueformstoreflectplurality(multiplesubjects),aswellasfirst-personvs.secondandthirdperson.)Let’slookatthelastexamplefromabove:•“InschoolwearelearningabouttheAmericanRevolution.”Thesentenceusesthepresentcontinuousverbarelearning.Thislargelyfunctionsasasingleunit,withlearningcarryingthemostmeaninginthesentence.However,learningisapresentparticiple,whichisconsideredanon-finiteverb;thefiniteverbofthesentenceisactuallyjusttheauxiliaryverbare.Itisaninflectionoftheverbbethatdenotesafirstpersonpluralsubject(we).

Verbformsthatareneverconsideredtobefiniteverbsinasentencearegerunds,infinitives,andparticiples(bothpastandpresent).Hereareafewexamplesentencestoillustratethedifference,withfiniteverbsinboldandnon-finiteverbsinitalics:

Examplesentence Finitevs.non-finiteverbs

“Wehateworkingonthefarm.”

Finiteverb:hate(presentsimpletense,first-personplural)

Non-finiteverb:working(gerund)

“Johnranquicklytocatchhisbus.”

Finiteverb:ran(pastsimpletense,third-personsingular)

Non-finiteverb:tocatch(infinitive)

“SusylivesinNewYorkCity.”

Finiteverb:lives(presentsimpletense,third-personsingular)

Non-finiteverb:none

“Theywerebeingverydifficult.”

Finiteverb:were(pastsimpletense,third-personplural)

Non-finiteverb:being(presentparticiple)

“Wehaveseenthatmoviealready.”

Finiteverb:have(presentsimpletense,first-personplural)

Non-finiteverb:seen(pastparticiple)Notethatgerundsandinfinitivesareabletofunctionasnouns,soitispossibleforthemtobethesubjectofaclauseratherthanpartofthepredicate.Iftheyappearbeforethefiniteverbinasentence,theyareusuallyactingasthesubject.Forexample:•“Workingallweekmakesmesotired.”•“Toerrishuman.”

Tolearnmoreaboutthedifferencesbetweenthesetwoclassesofverbs,gotothesectionFiniteandNon-finiteVerbsinthechapterdealingwithVerbs.

ObjectsofverbsGrammaticalobjectsarenounsorpronounsthatcompletethemeaningofverbsorprepositions.Theobjectsofverbstelluswhoorwhatisreceivingtheactionoftheverb.Theyaretechnicallyakindofcomplement(sometimesknownasaverbcomplement);however,becausetheyareoftensoimportanttothestructureofthepredicate,theyareusuallydescribedasaunique,separatepartofit.Theobjectofaverbcaneitherbeadirectobject,meaningitdirectlyreceivestheactionoftheverb,oritcanbeanindirectobject,meaningitreceivesthedirectobjectoftheverb.Notethatonlytransitiveverbstakeobjects.

DirectobjectsDirectobjectsaredirectlyaffectedbytheverbstheycomplete—thatis,theverb’sactionishappeningdirectlytothem.Forexample:•“Thedogchaseditstail.”(Theobjectitstailisreceivingtheactionoftheverbchase.)•“Maryreadsanewbookeveryweek.”(Theobjectanewbookisreceivingtheactionoftheverbread.)•“IaskedJonathanonadate.”(TheobjectJonathanisreceivingtheactionoftheverbasked.)

IndirectobjectsAnindirectobject,ontheotherhand,isthepersonorthingwhoreceivesthedirectobjectoftheverb.Indirectobjectsappeardirectlybetweentheverbanditsdirectobject.Forexample:•“Pleasepassmethesalt.”(Thepronounmeisreceivingthedirectobjectthesalt,whichreceivestheactionoftheverbpass.)•“Isentthecompanyanapplicationforthejob.”(Thenounphrasethecompanyisreceivingthedirectobjectanapplication,whichreceivestheaction

oftheverbsent.)

ComplementsComplementsarewordsorgroupsofwordsthatarenecessarytocompletethemeaningofanotherpartofthesentence.Unlikemodifiers,theydonotaddsupplementalinformation—theyprovideinformationthatisnecessarytoachievetheintendedmeaninginthesentence.Inadditiontoobjects,therearefourothertypesofcomplements:objectcomplements,adjectivecomplements,adverbialcomplements,andsubjectcomplements.We’lllookatsomeexamplesofeachbelow,buttolearnmoreaboutthem,continueontothesectioncoveringComplements.

ObjectComplementsAnobjectcomplementisawordorgroupofwordsthatdescribes,renames,orcompletesthedirectobjectoftheverb.Itcanbeanoun,adjective,relativeclause,infinitive,orgerund.Forexample:•“Thecommitteeelectedhimtreasurer.”(Thenountreasurerrenamestheobjecthim.)•“Allhewantedwastomakehishusbandhappy.”(Theadjectivehappydescribestheobjecthishusband.)•“Doyouknowsomeonewhocanworktheprinter?”(Therelativeclausewhocanworktheprinterdescribestheobjectsomeone.)•“Ididn’texpectyoutoapprove.”(Theinfinitivetoapprovedescribesapotentialactionoftheobjectyou.)•“Wecameacrosshimlyingintheyard.”(Thegerundphraselyingintheyarddescribestheactionoftheobjecthim.)

AdjectiveComplementsAnadjectivecomplementisaphraseorclausethatprovidesinformationnecessarytocompleteanadjective’smeaning.Adjectivecomplementsalmostalwaysappearwithpredicativeadjectives(adjectivesthatappearafterlinkingverbs)andcanbeprepositionalphrases,infinitivesandinfinitivephrases,ornounclauses.

Forexample:•“Iamperfectlycontentonmyown.”(Theprepositionalphraseonmyowncompletesthemeaningoftheadjectivecontent.)•“We’rejustgladtobeofservice.”(Theinfinitivephrasetobeofservicecompletesthemeaningoftheadjectiveglad.)•“Wewerealittlecuriouswhytheydecidedtoleave.”(Thenounclausewhytheydecidedtoleavecompletesthemeaningoftheadjectivecurious.)

AdverbialComplementsAdverbialcomplementsareadverbsoradverbialelementsthatarerequiredtocompletethemeaningoftheverb.Theyalwaysappearaftertheverbtheycomplement.Forexample:•“TheteachersentTimhome.”(Theadverbialnounhomecompletesthemeaningoftheverbsent.)•“Pleaseputthebookontheshelf.”(Theadverbialprepositionalphraseontheshelfcompletesthemeaningoftheverbput.)

SubjectComplementsAsubjectcomplementistheinformationthatfollowsalinkingverbtodescribe,identify,orrenamethesubjectoftheclause.Subjectcomplementscanbenouns,pronouns,oradjectives.Eventhoughtheymodifythesubject,theyaredependentontheverboftheclauseandthusarepartofthepredicate.Forexample:•“Loveisavirtue.”(Thenounphraseavirtuerenamesthesubjectlove.)•“Herhusbandtookallthecredit,butitwasshewhodidallthework.”(Thepronounshere-identifiesthesubjectit.)•“Youlooknice.”(Theadjectivenicedescribesthesubjectyou.)

ModifiersModifiersareadjectivesandadverbsthatdescribe(modify)anotherpartofthesentence.Theycanappearaspartofeitherthesubjectorthepredicate,

dependingonwhattheyaremodifying.Bothadjectivesandadverbscanbemadeintophrasesandclauses,whichfunctionasawholeunittomodifyaword(orgroupofwords).Below,we’lllookatsomeexamplesofmodifiersfunctioningaspartofthepredicate(thepredicatewillbeinitalics,whilethemodifierwillbeinbold).GotothesectionModifierstolearnmoreaboutthem.

Examplesentence Modifiers Whattheymodify

“Jonathanalwaysbringshisfavoritetoytoschool.”

1.always—adverb2.favorite—adjective3.toschool—adverbialprepositionalphrase

1.Theverbbrings2.Thenountoy3.Theverbbrings

“Iworkinarestaurantthatisoftenbusy.”

1.inarestaurant—adverbialprepositionalphrase2.often—adverb3.oftenbusy—predicativeadjectivephrase4.thatisoftenbusy—relativeclause(alsocalledanadjectiveclause)

1.Theverbwork2.Theadjectivebusy3.Thesubjectpronounthat4.Thenounrestaurant

“Wetookthebrightorangepaintinginthelivingroomoffthewall.”

1.bright—adverb2.brightorange—adjectivephrase3.inthelivingroom—adjectivalprepositionalphrase4.offthewall—adverbialprepositionalphrase

1.Theadjectiveorange2.Thenounpainting3.Thenounpainting

4.Theverbtook


1.Wheredoesthepredicateusuallyappearinasentence?a)Beforethesubjectb)Afterthesubjectc)Afterthesubjectcomplementd)A&Ce)B&C2.Whatmustthepredicatealwayscontain?a)Afiniteverbb)Anon-finiteverbc)Adirectobjectd)Asubjectcomplement3.Whichofthefollowingisusedtocreateacompoundpredicate?a)Acoordinatingconjunctionb)Asubordinatingconjunctionc)Commasd)A&Ce)B&C4.Identifythepredicateinthefollowingsentence:“Mysisterandmybrotherbothliketoread.”a)Mysisterandmybrotherb)bothliketoreadc)liketoreadd)toread5.Identifythefiniteverbinthefollowingsentence:“Ihavebeenworkingalotlately.”a)have

b)beenc)workingd)havebeenworking6.Whichpartofthepredicatetellsuswhoorwhatisreceivingtheactionoftheverb?a)Verbsb)Objectcomplementsc)Objectsd)Modifiers7.Whichpartofthepredicatecompletesthemeaningofanotherpartofthesentence?a)Verbsb)Complementsc)Objectsd)Modifiers

ComplementsDefinitionComplementsarewordsorgroupsofwordsthatarenecessarytocompletethemeaningofanotherpartofthesentence.Complementsactlikemodifierstoaddadditionalmeaningtothewordorwordstheyareattachedto.However,unlikeadjunctmodifiers,theydonotaddsupplementalinformation—theyprovideinformationthatisnecessarytoachievetheintendedmeaninginthesentence.Complements,eventhosethatcompletethemeaningofthesubject,arealwayspartofthepredicate.

TypesofComplementsTherearefivemaincategoriesofcomplements:objects,objectcomplements,adjectivecomplements,adverbialcomplements,andsubjectcomplements.We’llbrieflylookateachbelow.Tolearnmoreaboutthem,continueontotheirindividualsections.

ObjectsGrammaticalobjectsarenounsorpronounsthatcompletethemeaningofverbsandprepositions.Dependingonwhattheycomplete,objectsarealsosometimesknownaseitherverbcomplementsorprepositionalcomplements.Therearethreetypesofobjects:directobjects,indirectobjects,andobjectsofprepositions.

DirectobjectsDirectobjectsaredirectlyaffectedbyverbstheycomplete—thatis,theverb’sactionishappeningdirectlytothem.Forexample:•“Thedogchaseditstail.”•“Maryreadsanewbookeveryweek.”

IndirectobjectsAnindirectobjectisthepersonorthingwhoreceivesthedirectobjectoftheverb.Forexample:•“Pleasepassmethesalt.”•“Isentthecompanyanapplicationforthejob.”

ObjectsofprepositionsPrepositionsalsotakeobjects,connectingthembacktoanotherelementofthesentencetoelaborateonitsmeaning.Together,theprepositionanditsobjectformaprepositionalphrase.Forexample:•“Yourbackpackisunderthetable.”•“Igotaticketforspeeding.”

ObjectComplementsAnobjectcomplementisawordorgroupofwordsthatdescribes,renames,orcompletesthemeaningofthedirectobjectofaverb.Itcanbeanoun,adjective,relativeclause,infinitive,gerund,oraphrasemadefromanyoneofthem.

NounsandnounphrasesWhenweusenounsasobjectcomplements,theyservetorenameorre-identifytheobjectoffactitiveverbs.Forexample:•“Thecommitteeelectedhimtreasurer.”•“Mrs.Fieldsnamedherlatehusbandtheexecutorofherestate.”

AdjectivesandadjectivephrasesAdjectivesthatfunctionasobjectcomplementsservetodescribeormodifythedirectobject.Likeallobjectcomplements,adjectivesmustfollowthedirectobjecttheyaredescribing.Iftheycomebeforeit,theyaresimplyactingasattributiveadjectives,whicharenotnecessarytocompletethemeaningofthesentence.•“Allhewantedwastomakehishusbandhappy.”•“Theexcitementofthedaygotthekidswaytoohyper.”

RelativeclausesRelativeclausesaredependentclausesthatareintroducedbyrelativepronouns.Likeadjectives,relativeclausesservetodescribetheobjectthattheyfollow;forthisreason,theyareoftencalledadjectiveclauses.Forexample:•“Doyouknowsomeonewhocanworktheprinter?”•“Ihatethecolorthattheypaintedthisroom.”

InfinitivesandinfinitivephrasesAninfinitiveorinfinitivephraseactsasanobjectcomplementbydescribingtheintendedordesiredactionofthedirectobject.Forexample:•“Ididn’texpectyoutoapprove.”•“She’sforcingmetoworkthistheweekend.”

GerundsandgerundphrasesGerundsgenerallyfunctionasobjectcomplementsbydescribingwhatthedirect

objectisorwasdoing(asopposedtoinfinitives,whichdescribeanactthathasnotyetbeendone).Forexample:•“Wecameacrosshimlyingintheyard.”•“Mymothernoticedthebabywalkingbyhimself.”

AdjectiveComplementsAnadjectivecomplement(alsocalledanadjectivephrasecomplement)isaphraseorclausethatprovidesinformationnecessarytocompleteanadjective’smeaning.Adjectivecomplementscanbeprepositionalphrases,infinitivesandinfinitivephrases,ornounclauses.

PrepositionalPhrasesPrepositionalphrasesdescribetherelationshipbetweentheadjectivestheycomplementandtheobjectsoftheirprepositions.•“Iamperfectlycontentonmyown.”•“Hefeltaloneintheworld.”

InfinitivesandinfinitivephrasesInfinitivesandinfinitivephrasesdescribeactionsthatresultfromorleadtotheadjectivetheycomplement.Forexample:•“I’mveryhappytoknowyou!”•“We’rejustgladtobeofservice.”

NounClausesAnounclauseisadependentclausethatisabletofunctiongrammaticallylikeanoun.Itconnectstheadjective’smeaningtoanactionbyasecondarysubject.•“Wewerealittlecuriouswhytheydecidedtoleave.”•“I’mthrilledthatyouarecomingtovisit!”

AdverbialComplements

Adverbialcomplementsareadverbsoradverbialelementsinaclausethatarerequiredtocompletethemeaningoftheverb.Adverbialcomplementsusuallydescribelocationordirection,andmostfrequentlyoccurwithverbsthatindicatemotion.Theyalwaysappearaftertheverbtheycomplement.Iftheverbisintransitive,thecomplementwillappeardirectlyaftertheverb;iftheverbistransitive,thecomplementwillappearaftertheverb’sdirectobject.Forexample:•“TheteachersentTimhome.”•“Pleaseputthebookontheshelf.”

SubjectComplementsAsubjectcomplementistheinformationthatfollowsalinkingverbtodescribe,identify,orrenamethesubjectoftheclause.Asubjectcomplementcaneitherbeapredicatenoun,apredicatepronoun,orapredicativeadjective.

PredicatenounsPredicatenounsservetorenameorre-identifythesubjectafteralinkingverb.Ifthenounisaccompaniedbyanydirectmodifiers(suchasdeterminers,adjectives,orprepositionalphrases),theentirenounphraseactspredicatively.Forexample:•“Loveisavirtue.”•“Tommyseemslikearealbully.”

PredicatepronounsWecanalsouseapredicatepronounafteralinkingverbtore-identifythesubject.Thisismostcommoninquestionsandresponsesinwhichtheidentityofthesubjectisnotknownorisbeingexplained.Forexample:•Question:“Whoisit?”•Answer:“It’sme!”Wecanalsousepredicatepronounsindeclarativestatements,butthisislesscommonineverydayspeechandwriting.Forinstance:•“ItwasIwhodidthis.”

•“Herhusbandtookallthecredit,butitwasshewhodidallthework.”

PredicativeAdjectivesApredicativeadjectiveisanadjectiveusedafteralinkingverbtodescribeormodifythesubjectoftheclause.Forexample:•“Youlooknice.”•“Heisveryhandsome.”Whenaprepositionalphrasefollowsalinkingverb(especiallytheverbbe),itfunctionsinthesamewayasapredicativeadjectivetodescribethesubject.Forexample:•“Thecatisintheshed.”(Theprepositionalphraseintheshedisdescribingthesubjectthecat.)•“Iamacrossthestreet.”(TheprepositionalphraseacrossthestreetisdescribingthesubjectI.)


1.Whatkindofcomplementisusedtocreateaprepositionalphrase?a)Objectb)Objectcomplementc)Adjectivecomplementd)Adverbialcomplemente)Subjectcomplement2.Whatkindofcomplementisusedtocompleteanadjective’smeaning?a)Objectb)Objectcomplementc)Adjectivecomplementd)Adverbialcomplemente)Subjectcomplement3.Whichofthefollowingsentencesusesasubjectcomplement?a)“Weleftschoolearly.”b)“Yourfutureiswhatyoumakeit.”c)“I’mabitanxiousaboutthetesttomorrow.”

d)“Iwantyoutoworkalittleharder.”4.Whichofthefollowingsentencesusesanobjectcomplement?a)“Weleftschoolearly.”b)“Yourfutureiswhatyoumakeit.”c)“I’mabitanxiousaboutthetesttomorrow.”d)“Iwantyoutoworkalittleharder.”5.Identifytheadverbialcomplementinthefollowingsentence:“IhavebeenlivinginIrelandforsixyears.”a)Ihaveb)beenlivingc)inIrelandd)forsixyears

ObjectsDefinitionGrammaticalobjectsarenounsorpronounsthatcompletethemeaningofverbsandprepositions.Additionally,almostanygroupofwordsthatfunctionsasanouncanbeanobject,suchasnounphrases,nounclauses,gerunds,andinfinitives.

ObjectsofverbsTheobjectsofverbsrelayinformationaboutwhoorwhatisreceivingtheactionoftheverb.Theobjectofaverbcaneitherbeadirectobject,meaningitdirectlyreceivestheactionoftheverb,oritcanbeanindirectobject,meaningitreceivesthedirectobjectoftheverb.Notethatonlytransitiveverbstakeobjects.

DirectobjectsDirectobjectsaredirectlyaffectedbytheverbstheycomplete—thatis,theverb’sactionishappeningdirectlytothem.Forexample:•“Thedogchaseditstail.”(Theobjectitstailisreceivingtheactionoftheverb

chase.)•“Maryreadsanewbookeveryweek.”(Theobjectanewbookisreceivingtheactionoftheverbread.)•“IaskedJonathanonadate.”(TheobjectJonathanisreceivingtheactionoftheverbasked.)WecanidentifythedirectobjectbyaskingthequestionWhom?orWhat?abouttheverb.Thepartofthesentencethatanswersthatquestionisthedirectobject.

“Thedogchaseditstail.”

“Maryreadsanewbookeveryweek.”

“IaskedJonathanonadate.”

Question:Thedogchasedwhat? Question:Maryreadswhat? Question:Iasked

whom?

Answer:itstail Answer:anewbook Answer:Jonathan

IndirectobjectsAnindirectobjectisthepersonorthingwhoreceivesthedirectobjectoftheverb.He,she,oritisstillaffectedbytheactionoftheverb,butnowthishappensindirectly.Indirectobjectsappeardirectlybetweentheverbanditsdirectobject.Forexample:•“Pleasepassmethesalt.”(Thepronounmeisreceivingthedirectobjectthesalt,whichreceivestheactionoftheverbpass.)•“Isentthecompanyanapplicationforthejob.”(Thenounphrasethecompanyisreceivingthedirectobjectanapplication,whichreceivestheactionoftheverbsent.)Onlyverbsthatexpressanactionbeingrelayedtoordoneforanotherpersonorthingcantakeindirectobjects.Thesearecalledditransitiveverbs.(Thosethatcanonlytakedirectobjectsarecalledmonotransitiveverbs.)

IndirectobjectsasprepositionalphrasesTheindirectobjectcomesimmediatelybeforethedirectobjectinasentence,as

wesawabove.However,wecanalsocommunicatethesameinformationbyplacingtheindirectobjectafterthedirectobjectinaprepositionalphraseusingtoorfor.Wecandothiswithanyindirectobject,butitisoftenpreferablewhentheindirectobjectisparticularlylong.Forinstance:

IndirectObject PrepositionalPhrase

“Isentmybrotheraletter.” “Isentalettertomybrother.”

“Myfatherbakedourclassabatchofcupcakes.”

“Myfatherbakedabatchofcupcakesforourclass.”

“Sheteachesmanydifferentstudentsmathematics.”

Sheteachesmathematicstomanydifferentstudents.”

ObjectsofprepositionsPrepositionsalsotakeobjects,whichworktogethertocreateprepositionalphrases.Generally,aprepositionisdirectlyfollowedbyitsobject.Forexample:•“Iamlookingforwork.”(Thenounworkistheobjectoftheprepositionfor,whichcreatestheprepositionalphraseforwork.)•“Yourbackpackisunderthetable.”(Thenounphrasethetableistheobjectoftheprepositionunder,whichcreatestheprepositionalphraseunderthetable.)•“Igotaticketforspeeding.”(Thegerundspeedingistheobjectoftheprepositionfor,whichcreatestheprepositionalphraseforspeeding.)•“Shecanstudywithwhomevershelikes.”(Thenounclausewhomevershelikesistheobjectoftheprepositionwith,whichcreatestheprepositionalphrasewithwhomevershelikes.)

TheObjectiveCaseWelargelydonotinflect(changetheformof)wordstoreflectwhethertheyareactingassubjectsorobjectsinasentence.Personalpronouns,however,stillhaveauniqueformintheobjectivecasewhentheyactasobjectsofverbsorprepositions.Inaddition,thepronounswhoandwhoeverchangeintheobjectivecase,becomingwhomandwhomever;however,thisdistinctionisbecomingless

common,withwhoandwhoeverbeingusedinmostinstancesinmodernEnglish.Thetablebelowgivesaquickbreakdownofthesedifferentcasesandhowtheyareusedinasentence.Noticethatthepronounsyouanditarethesameforbothcases.

SubjectiveCase Examplesentence Objective

Case ExampleSentence

I “Ireadagreatbookrecently.” Me “Jefftoldmeabouta

greatbook.”

We “Wewentoutforicecream.” Us “Momtookusoutfor

icecream.”

You “Yousaidtheprojectwasfinished!” You “Itoldyouitwouldbe

finishednextweek!”

He “Heleftforpracticealready.” Him “I'mwaitingforhimto

returnfrompractice.”

She “Sheiswritingaplay.” Her “Theplaywaswrittenbyher.”

It “Itmightraintoday.” It “Iwantittostopsnowing.”

They “Theywon'tlikethis.” Them “Iaskedthemaweekago.”

Who “Whotoldyouaboutourplan?” Whom “Whomhaveyoutold

aboutourplan?”

Whoever “Whoeverbrokethisvaseisindeeptrouble!” Whom “Studywithwhomever

youlike.”(Tolearnmoreaboutgrammaticalcase,gotothesectiononPersonalPronouns-Case.)

Quiz


1.Whichofthefollowingcannotfunctionasobjectsinasentence?a)Nounphrasesb)Nounclausesc)Gerundsd)Adjectivephrases2.Identifythetypeofobject(inbold)inthefollowingsentence:“I’mgoingtoafootballgamewithmydadlater.”a)Directobjectb)Indirectobjectc)Objectofapreposition3.Wheredoesanindirectobjectusuallyappearinasentence?a)Directlybeforeitsverbb)Betweenitsverbandthedirectobjectc)Directlyafterthedirectobjectd)Anywhere4.Whichofthefollowingpronounsisintheobjectivecase?a)web)theyc)Id)me

SubjectComplementsDefinitionAsubjectcomplementistheinformationthatfollowsalinkingverbtodescribe,identify,orrenamethesubjectoftheclause.Whereasmostverbsdescribetheactionasubjectperforms,linkingverbsdescribesomethingaboutthesubject,whichiscompletedbythesubjectcomplement.Asubjectcomplementcaneitherbeapredicatenoun,apredicatepronoun,orapredicativeadjective.

PredicatenounsNounsthatfollowlinkingverbsareknownaspredicatenouns(orsometimespredicativenounsorpredicatenominatives).Theseservetorenameorre-identifythesubject.Ifthenounisaccompaniedbyanydirectmodifiers(suchasdeterminers,adjectives,orprepositionalphrases),theentirenounphraseactspredicatively.Forexample:•“Loveisavirtue.”(Thenounphraseavirtuefollowsthelinkingverbistorenamethesubjectlove.)•“Tommyseemslikearealbully.”(ThenounphrasearealbullyfollowsthelinkingverbseemstorenamethesubjectTommy.)•“Maybethisisablessingindisguise.”(Thenounphraseablessingindisguisefollowsthelinkingverbistorenamethesubjectthis.)

PredicativenounclausesNounclausesaredependentclausesthatareabletofunctiongrammaticallylikenounsinasentence.Theymostcommonlybeginwiththewordsthat,how,if,andthe“wh-”words—what,whatever,where,wherever,when,whenever,why,which,whichever,who,whom,whoever,whomever,whether,andwhatever.Becausetheybehavelikenouns,theycanperformalltherolesthatanormalnounwouldfillinasentence,includingasasubjectcomplement.Forexample:•“JapaniswhereIwanttogomost.”(WhereIwanttogomostisthepredicatenounofthelinkingverbis,renamingthesubjectJapan.)•“ThethingIwishformostisthatpeoplewouldalljustgetalong.”(Thatpeoplewouldalljustgetalongisthepredicatenounofthelinkingverbis,renamingthesubjectthethingIwishformost.)•“Politiciansarewhocreatethelaws.”(Whocreatethelawsisthepredicatenounofthelinkingverbare,renamingthesubjectpoliticians.)

PredicatepronounsWecanalsouseapredicatepronounafteralinkingverbtore-identifythesubject.Thisismostcommoninquestionsandresponsesinwhichtheidentityofthesubjectisnotknownorisbeingexplained.Forexample:

•Question:“Whoisit?”(Thepronounitfollowsthelinkingverbistorenamethesubjectwho.)•Answer:“It’sme!”(Thepronounme*followsthelinkingverbistorenamethesubjectIt.)Wealsocommonlyusepersonalpronounsinthepossessivecasepredicatively,asin:•“That’smine.”•“Thecomputerwashis.”•“Victoryisours!”Wecanalsousesubjective*personalpronounsindeclarativestatements,butthisislesscommonineverydayspeechandwriting,asittendstomakethesentencesoundmoreformalthanisusuallynecessary.Forinstance:•“ItwasIwhodidthis.”•“Herhusbandtookallthecredit,butitwasshewhodidallthework.”•“Itwastheywhoassuredusthattherewouldbenoproblems.”

*ThesubjectivecaseWhenpronounsthatarenotpossessiveareusedpredicatively,theconventionalruleistoputtheminthesubjectivecaseratherthantheobjectivecase.Pronounsintheobjectivecase(me,us,him,her,them,whom,andwhomever)shouldonlybeusedasdirectobjectsofverbsorprepositions,notassubjectcomplements.Forexample,“itwasIwhodidthis”ismorecorrectthan“itwasmewhodidthis.”InconversationalEnglish,however,thisdistinctionismuchlessfrequentlyobserved,andyouwilloftenhearpeopleusingphrasessuchas“it’sme”or“thatwasher”inresponsetoquestions.Butinwriting(especiallyformalorprofessionalwriting),alwaysusethesubjectivecaseforapersonalpronounifitisfunctioningasasubjectcomplementafteralinkingverb.Tolearnmoreaboutusingthesubjectiveandobjectivecasesofpronouns,seethesectiondealingwithCaseinthechapteronPersonalPronouns.

PredicativeAdjectives

Apredicativeadjectiveisanadjectiveusedafteralinkingverbtodescribeormodifythesubjectoftheclause.Forexample:•“Youlooknice.”•“Heisveryhandsome.”Here,nicedescribesthesubjectyou,whiletheadjectivephraseveryhandsomedescribesthesubjecthe.Notethatadjectivesappearingimmediatelybeforethenountheyaredescribingareknownasattributiveadjectives.Forexample:•“Theoldmanseemsnice.”Oldisanattributiveadjectivethatdescribesthesubject,man.Nicealsodescribesman,butitisapredicativeadjectivebecauseitfollowsthelinkingverbseems.

PrepositionalPhrasesPrepositionalphrasescaneitherfunctionsasadjectives(modifyingnounsorpronouns)oradverbs(modifyingverbs,adjectives,andadverbs).Whenaprepositionalphrasefollowsalinkingverb(especiallytheverbbe),itisfunctioninginthesamewayasapredicativeadjective,describingthesubject(whichmustbeanounorpronoun).Forexample:•“Thecatisintheshed.”(Theprepositionalphraseintheshedisdescribingthesubjectthecat.)•“Iamacrossthestreet.”(TheprepositionalphraseacrossthestreetisdescribingthesubjectI.)TolearnmoreabouthowPredicativeAdjectiveswork,gototheirsectioninthechapteronAdjectives.


1.Whichofthefollowingisusedtodescribethesubjectofaclause?a)Predicatenounsb)Predicatepronounsc)Predicativeadjectivesd)A&Be)B&Cf)Alloftheabove

2.Whichofthefollowingisusedtorenamethesubjectofaclause?a)Predicatenounsb)Predicatepronounsc)Predicativeadjectivesd)A&Be)B&Cf)Alloftheabove3.Whichofthefollowingsentencesusesapredicativeadjective?a)“Thissouptastesdelicious!”b)“Theprojectwasadisaster.”c)“Theyaregoingtosellourbeautifuloldhousetomorrow.”d)“Itwashewhosoldthecompanytooverseasinvestors.”4.Whatkindofverbsmustbeusedwithasubjectcomplement?a)Actionverbsb)Linkingverbsc)Stativeverbsd)Non-finiteverbs

ObjectComplementsDefinitionSometimesaverbisnotcompletewithonlyadirectobject,especiallywhenthatdirectobjectisaperson.Moreinformationabouttheobject’srelationshipwiththeverbisrequiredtoformacompletethought.Thisadditionalinformationisknownastheobjectcomplement.Anobjectcomplementisawordorgroupofwordsthatdescribes,renames,orcompletesthedirectobjectoftheverb;withoutone,weareleftaskingwhataboutthestateorconditionofthedirectobjectasaresultoftheverb.Anobjectcomplementcanbeanounornounphrase;anadjectiveoradjectivephrase;arelativeclause(alsoknownasanadjectiveclause);aninfinitiveorinfinitivephrase;oragerundorgerundphrase.(Intheexamplesusedinthissection,theobjectcomplementsareinboldwhile

theobjectstheymodifyorrenameareunderlined.)

NounsandnounphrasesWhenweusenounsasobjectcomplements,theyservetorenameorre-identifytheobjectoffactitiveverbs.Forexample:•“Thecommitteeelectedhimtreasurer.”•“Mrs.Fieldsnamedherlatehusbandtheexecutorofherestate.”•“ThecoachmadeTimothyteamcaptain.”•“Theschoolboardappointedhersuperintendent.”

AdjectivesandadjectivephrasesFactitiveverbsalsotakeadjectivesandadjectivephrasesastheirobjectcomplements.Butwhereasanounthatfunctionsasanobjectcomplementwillrenameadirectobject,anadjectiveservestodescribeormodifythedirectobject.Likeallobjectcomplements,adjectivesmustfollowthedirectobjecttheyaredescribing.Iftheycomebeforeit,theyaresimplyactingasattributiveadjectives,whicharenotnecessarytocompletethemeaningofthesentence.•“Allhewantedwastomakehishusbandhappy.”•“Theexcitementofthedaygotthekidswaytoohyper.”•“Wedecidedtopaintmyroombrightpink.”•“Thejuryjudgedthedefendantnotguilty.”•“Shedeemedhimworthyofherlove.”

RelativeclausesRelativeclausesaredependentclausesthatareintroducedbyrelativepronouns.Likeadjectives,relativeclausesservetodescribethenounthattheyfollow;forthisreason,theyareoftencalledadjectiveclauses.Forexample:•“Doyouknowsomeonewhocanworkthephotocopier?”•“Ihatethecolorthattheypaintedthisroom.”•“Ifoundanapartmentthatisbigenoughforbothofus.”

•“Heisafriendwhosegenerosityknowsnobounds.”

InfinitivesandinfinitivephrasesAninfinitiveorinfinitivephraseactsasanobjectcomplementbydescribingtheintendedordesiredactionofthedirectobject.Forexample:•“Idon’texpectyoutoapproveofmydecision.”•“She’sforcingmetoworkthroughtheweekend.”•“Weneedyoutomakeafewmorecopies.”•“Janet’sfatherwantshertogotoHarvard.”•“Iwouldlikethebosstoseethesereports.”•“Hepersuadedmetomarryhim.”•“Theytaughtmetoworkthephotocopier.”Weoftenalsouseinfinitivesasobjectcomplementsinreportedspeechtoexpresswhatsomeonesaidtooraskedofsomeoneelse.Forexample:•“Heaskedmetohelphim.”•“Shetoldmenottoanswerthephone.”

GerundsandgerundphrasesGerundsgenerallyfunctionasobjectcomplementsbydescribingwhatthedirectobjectisorwasdoing(asopposedtoinfinitives,whichdescribeanactthathasnotyetbeendone).Forexample:•“Wecameacrosshimlyingintheyard.”•“Mymothernoticedthebabywalkingbyhimself.”•“Ican’tbelievethebossescaughtyounapping.”•“Weheardtheirdogsbarkingatthewind.”


1.Whichofthefollowingdonotfunctionasobjectcomplements?a)Nounphrasesb)Adjectivephrases

c)Adverbialphrasesd)Infinitivephrases2.Whichofthefollowingkindsofverbsrequiresanobjectcomplement?a)Actionverbb)Factitiveverbc)Stativeverbd)Linkingverb3.Identifythetypeofobjectcomplement(inbold)inthefollowingsentence:“Theyfoundhimunfittoleadthecompany.”a)Nounphraseb)Adjectivephrasec)Relativeclaused)Infinitivephrase4.Whichofthefollowingsentencesusesagerundphraseasanobjectcomplement?a)“Theysawmewalkingonmyown.”b)“Hewantedmetotakehimtotheairport.”c)“Ineedanofficethathasatelephoneline.”d)“Theyappointedmesecretaryofthemeeting.”

AdjectiveComplementsDefinitionAnadjectivecomplement(alsocalledanadjectivephrasecomplement)isaphraseorclausethatprovidesinformationnecessarytocompleteanadjectivephrase’smeaning.Theyaremostoftenusedwithpredicativeadjectives*(adjectivesthatfollowlinkingverbstodescribethesubjectoftheclause).(*Note:Somegrammarguidesrefertopredicativeadjectivesasbeingsynonymouswithadjectivecomplements.Inthisguide,however,anadjectivecomplementreferstothatwhichcompletesthemeaningofanadjective,whileapredicativeadjective(akindofsubjectcomplement)completesthemeaningofasubject.)

TypesofAdjectiveComplementsAdjectivecomplementscanbeprepositionalphrases,infinitivephrases,ornounclauses.

PrepositionalPhrasesAprepositionalphraseiscomprisedofaprepositionimmediatelyfollowedbyanoun,pronoun,nounphrase,pronounphrase,ornounclause.Herearesomeexamplesofprepositionalphrasesactingasadjectivecomplements:•“Iamperfectlycontentonmyown.”(Onmyownisthecomplementoftheadjectivecontent.)•“Hefeltaloneintheworld.”(Intheworldisthecomplementoftheadjectivealone.)•“Theyseemalittleconcernedaboutthedirectionwe’retaking.”(Aboutthedirectionwe’retakingisthecomplementoftheadjectiveconcerned.)•“Sheisskilledatarchery.”(Atarcheryisthecomplementoftheadjectiveskilled.)•“Thebossesarepleasedwithyourprogress.”(Withyourprogressisthecomplementoftheadjectivepleased.)

InfinitivePhrases

Infinitivephrasesareformedfromfullinfinitiveverbs(to+thebaseformoftheverb)plusanyadditionalobjectsormodifiersoftheverb.(Becarefulnottoconfuseinfinitivephraseswithprepositionalphrasesbeginningwithto.)Forexample:•“I’mveryhappytoknowyou!”(Toknowyouisthecomplementoftheadjectivehappy.)•“We’rejustgladtobeofservice.”(Tobeofserviceisthecomplementoftheadjectiveglad.)•“Theyfeltrelievedtoreturnhome.”(Toreturnhomeisthecomplementoftheadjectiverelieved.)•“Thecrowdseemedimpatienttobegin.”(Tobeginisthecomplementoftheadjectiveimpatient.)

NounClausesAnounclauseisadependentclausethatisabletofunctiongrammaticallylikeanoun.Nounclausesbeginwiththewordsthat,how,if,andthe“wh-“words—what,whatever,where,wherever,when,whenever,why,which,whichever,who,whom,whoever,whomever,whether,andwhatever.•“Wewerealittlecuriouswhytheydecidedtoleave.”(Whytheydecidedtoleaveisthecomplementoftheadjectivecurious.)•“I’mthrilledthatyouarecomingtovisit!”(Thatyouarecomingtovisitisthecomplementoftheadjectivethrilled.)•“It’ssowonderfulwhathedidforthoseorphans.”(Whathedidforthoseorphansisthecomplementoftheadjectivewonderful.)•“They’resomewhatunsurewhetherthisistherightdecision.”(Whetherthisistherightdecisionisthecomplementoftheadjectiveunsure.)

Modifiersvs.ComplementsAdjectivecomplementsaresimilartobutdistinctfrommodifiersofadjectives.Bothfunctionadverbially,butwhileadjectivemodifiersdescribeorelaborateuponanadjective’smeaning,adjectivecomplementsworkwithadjectivestocompletetheirmeaning.Themeaningofthesentencewillnotchangeifthemodifieristakenout,whereassomeinformationwillbelostoralteredifthecomplementisremoved.

•“Iamperfectlycontentonmyown.”(Perfectlyisanadverbthatmodifiestheadjectivecontent,whileonmyownisaprepositionalphrasethatcomplementsit.)•“Theyseemalittleconcernedaboutthedirectionwe’retaking.”(Alittleisanadverbialphrasethatmodifiestheadjectiveconcerned,whileaboutthedirectionwe’retakingisaprepositionalphrasethatcomplementsit.)•“I’mveryhappytoknowyou!”(Veryisanadverbthatmodifiestheadjectivehappy,whileaboutthedirectionwe’retakingisaninfinitivephrasethatcomplementsit.)•“We’rejustgladtobeofservice.”(Justisanadverbthatmodifiestheadjectiveglad,whiletobeofserviceisaninfinitivephrasethatcomplementsit.)•“Wewerealittlecuriouswhytheydecidedtoleave.”(Alittleisanadverbialphrasethatmodifiestheadjectivecurious,whilewhytheydecidedtoleaveisanounclausethatcomplementsit.)•“They’resomewhatunsurewhetherthisistherightdecision.”(Somewhatisanadverbialphrasethatmodifiestheadjectiveunsure,whilewhetherthisistherightdecisionisanounclausethatcomplementsit.)


1.Whichofthefollowingcannotbeusedtoformanadjectivecomplement?a)prepositionalphrasesb)infinitivephrasesc)gerundphrasesd)nounclauses2.Adjectivecomplementsusuallyoccurwith:a)attributiveadjectivesb)predicativeadjectivesc)demonstrativeadjectivesd)interrogativeadjectives3.Identifytheadjectivecomplementinthefollowingsentence:“Theirhugecabinbythelakeissuretobringinlotsofvisitors.”a)hugecabin

b)bythelakec)inlotsofvisitorsd)tobringinlotsofvisitors

AdverbialComplementsDefinitionAdverbialcomplementsareadverbsorotheradverbialelementsinaclausethatarerequiredtocompletethemeaningoftheverb.Likeadverbialadjuncts,adverbialcomplementsmodifythemeaningoftheverbbyprovidingadditionalinformation.However,unlikeadjuncts,whichcanberemovedwithoutlosingmeaning,adverbialcomplementsmustbeincludedbecauseremovingthemwouldcausethesentencetobeincompleteorfundamentallyalteredinitsmeaning.Forexample:•“Pleasekeepstill.”•“IlovelivinginNewYork.”Iftheadverbstillinthefirstsentencewereremoved,itwouldread“Pleasekeep”andnolongermakeanysense.IftheadverbialprepositionalphraseinNewYorkwereremovedfromthesecondsentence,itwouldread“Iloveliving”—thiswouldstillmakelogicalsense,buttheoriginalmeaningwouldbecompletelylost.

IdentifyingadverbialcomplementsAdverbialcomplementsalwaysappearaftertheverbtheycomplement.Iftheverbisintransitive,thecomplementwillappeardirectlyaftertheverb;iftheverbistransitive,thecomplementwillappearaftertheverb’sdirectobject.Thebestwaytoidentifywhetheranadverbialelementisacomplementornotistoremoveitfromthesentence.Ifthesentencenolongermakessenseorhasaverydifferentmeaning,thentheadverbialelementisacomplement.

Example(withadverbial)

Example(withoutadverbial)

Doesthemeaningchange?

“TheteachersentTim “Theteachersent Yes—theadverbialisa

home.” Tim.” complement.

“Shetoldmethestoryquickly.”

“Shetoldmethestory.”

No—theadverbialisanadjunct.

“Pleaseputthebookontheshelf.”

“Pleaseputthebook.”

Yes—theadverbialisacomplement.

“Hewroteabookinhissparetime.” “Hewroteabook.” No—theadverbialisan

adjunct.


1.Wheredoesanadverbialcomplementofanintransitiveverbappearinasentence?a)Beforetheverbitcompletesb)Directlyaftertheverbitcompletesc)Afteranadverbialadjunctd)Afterthedirectobject2.Wheredoesanadverbialcomplementofantransitiveverbappearinasentence?a)Beforetheverbitcompletesb)Directlyaftertheverbitcompletesc)Afteranadverbialadjunctd)Afterthedirectobject3.Whencananadverbialcomplementberemovedfromthesentence?a)Whenitcompletesatransitiveverba)Whenitcompletesanintransitiveverbc)Whentheverbalsohasanadverbialadjunctd)Alwayse)Never

Modifiers

DefinitionModifiersare,quitesimply,anywordorgroupofwordsthatmodifies(describesorelaboratesupon)anotherelementinasentence.Modifierscaneitherbeadjectives,whichmodifynouns(orsometimespronouns),oradverbs,whichmodifyprettymucheverythingelse(usuallyverbs,adjectives,andotheradverbs).Whetheramodifierisanadjectiveoradverbdependsonwhatitmodifiesandhowitfunctionsinasentence.

AdjectivesAdjectiveshavetwobasicsyntacticcategories:attributiveandpredicative.Adjectivesthatappeardirectlybefore(orsometimesdirectlyafter)thenounorpronountheymodifyareknownasattributiveadjectives.Thesecanappearanywhereinasentence.Predicativeadjectives,ontheotherhand,alwaysappearafterthenountheymodify,connectedtoitbyalinkingverb.Theyareoneofthethreetypesofsubjectcomplements,andtheyarealwayspartofthepredicate—hencetheirname.Let’scomparetwoexamplestohighlightthisdifference:•“Theblackdogisbarking.”Inthissentence,blackisanattributiveadjective.Itispartofthenounphraseandisnotconnectedtothenoundogbyalinkingverb.Nowlet’slookatapredicativeadjective:•“Thedogwasblack.”Inthissentence,blackisapredicativeadjective.Itfollowsdog,thenounthatitmodifies,andisconnectedtoitbythelinkingverbwas.

OthercategoriesofadjectivesThereisahugevarietyofadjectivesinEnglish.Whilemanywordsareadjectivalinnature,suchascolors(red,black,yellow,etc.),therearealsoseveralcategoriesofadjectivesthatareformedfromothersources.Thetablebelowwillgiveabriefbreakdownofthesecategoriesofadjectives,alongwithsomeexamples.Gotoeachindividualsectiontolearnmore.

Categoryof Example Example

Adjective Definition adjectives sentence

ProperAdjectives

Formedfrompropernounstocreatedescriptivewords.

Italian,Shakespearean,Alaskan,MiddleEastern,Nordic

"HewritesinanalmostShakespeareanstyle."

CompoundAdjectives

Createdfromtwoormorewordsthatworkjointlytomodifythesamenoun;theyalwaysappearbeforethenountheymodifyandareusuallyjoinedwithahyphen(s).

top-right,last-minute,sugar-free,record-breaking,expensive-looking

“Iknowthisisalast-minutesuggestion,buthearmeout.”

DemonstrativeAdjectives(orDemonstrativeDeterminers)

Usedtospecifywhatwearereferringto,whetheritissingularorplural,andtogivemoreinformationaboutitsproximitytothespeaker.

this,that,these,those

“Thesecupsareverypretty.”

InterrogativeAdjectives

Usuallyusedtoaskquestionsaboutsomething.

what,which,whose

“Whosecomputeristhis?”

NominalAdjectives

Adjectivesthatperformthefunctionofanouninasentence.Theyareprecededbythewordtheandcanbefoundasthesubjectortheobjectofasentenceorclause.

thebest,thestrongest,theblue

“Hewantstheredcar,butIwanttheblue.”

Collective

Asubgroupofnominaladjectives,usedtorefer

therich,thepoor,the “Therich

Adjectives toagroupofpeoplebasedonasharedcharacteristic.

innocent,theFrench,theDutch

shouldhelpthepoor.”

AdjectivePhrasesandClausesInadditiontothesingle-wordadjectiveswelookedatabove,wecanalsouseadjectivephrasesandrelativeclauses(alsocalledadjectiveclauses)tomodifynouns.We’lllookatbothbrieflybelow,buttolearnmoreabouthowtheyareformedandused,gototheirsectionsinthechapteronAdjectives.

AdjectivePhrasesAnadjectivephraseisanadjectiveandanyadditionalinformationlinkedtoitthatworktogethertodescribeanounorpronouninasentence.Theadjectivearoundwhichanadjectivephraseisformedisknownastheheadwordofthephrase.Whentheheadwordisaparticiple,thephraseisknownasaparticiplephrase.Forexample:•“Youhaveabeautifulvoice.”•“Heisaverygoodswimmer.”•“Thehelicoptersarecontrolledremotely.”•“Iamperfectlycontentonmyown.”•“Peopleweariedbytraveloftenstopheretorest.”•“Theyfeltrelievedtoreturnhome.”

RelativeClauses(AdjectiveClauses)Relativeclauses(alsoknownasadjectiveoradjectivalclauses)aredependentclausesthatprovidedescriptiveinformationaboutanounornounphrase.Relativeclausesareintroducedbyeitherarelativepronounorarelativeadverb,andtheinformationtheyprovidecaneitherbeessentialornonessentialtothecompletenessofthesentence.•“There’sthewomanwhoalwayssitsnexttomeonthebus.”•“ThebookthatIwroteisbeingpublishedinJanuary.”

•“Theescapedgiraffe,whichhadbeenonthelooseforweeks,wasfinallycaptured.”•“ThehousewhereIwasbornisaveryspecialplace.”•“IlovecasualFridays,whenwegettowearjeanstowork.”

AdverbsAswelearnedabove,anadverbisawordthatmodifiesordescribesaverb,adjective,otheradverb,oranentireclause.Forexample:•“Youwritebeautifully.”(Theadverbbeautifullymodifiestheverbwrite.)•“Heownsthebrightredcar.”(Theadverbbrightmodifiestheadjectivered.)•“Sheranveryquicklytothebus.”(Theadverbverymodifiestheadverbquickly.)•“Shelookedexcited,asifshecouldjumpupanddanceatanymoment.”(TheadverbialclauseasifshecouldjumpupanddanceatanymomentmodifiestheindependentclauseShelookedexcited.)Therearemanydifferentcategoriesofadverbs,whichprovidespecifickindsofdescriptionsandwhichbehaveslightlydifferentlyinasentence.Thetablebelowprovidesaquickbreakdownofthedifferentcategoriesandhowtheyareusedtodescribesomethinginasentence.Gotothesectionforeachindividualcategorytoseemoreexamplesandlearnmoreabouthoweachoneisused.(Notethatmostoftheexamplesbelowaresingle-wordadverbs.However,adverbialphrases—andsometimesadverbialclauses—canalsobelongtoeachcategory.)

CategoryofAdverb Definition Example

adverbsExamplesentence

AdverbsofTime

Describewhenorforhowlongsomethinghappensoristhecase.

now,tomorrow,yesterday,still,yet,later

“Weareeatingnow.”

AdverbsofDescribehowfrequentlysomethinghappensoristhe

always,usually,sometimes, “Irarelyeat

Frequency case.AsubsetofAdverbsofTime.

often,rarely,daily,weekly,monthly

breakfastinbed.”

AdverbsofPlace

Describethedirection,distance,movement,orpositioninvolvedintheactionofaverb.

north,everywhere,here,there,forward,downward,up,uphill,behind

“Iabsolutelyhaterunninguphill.”

AdverbsofManner

Describehowsomethinghappensorhowsomeonedoessomething.Usuallyformedfromadjectives.

beautifully,wonderfully,slowly,deliberately,happily

“Hewalkedslowlytowardsthebar.”

AdverbsofDegree

Describetheintensity,degree,orextentoftheverb,adjective,oradverbtheyaremodifying.

undoubtedly,truly,very,quite,pretty,somewhat,fairly

“I'mfairlycertainthisiscorrect.”

AdverbsofPurpose

Describewhysomethinghappensoristhecase.Single-wordadverbsareusuallyconjunctiveadverbs.

therefore,thus,consequently,hence

“We’veneverseensuchhighnumbers.Wemustthereforeconcludethattheresultsarenotnormal.”

FocusingAdverbs

Usedtodrawattentiontoaparticularpartofaclause.

also,exclusively,just,mostly,notably,primarily

“Theyplayedmostlytechnomusicattheparty.”

Usedtomodifythemeaning

NegativeAdverbs

ofaverb,adjective,otheradverb,orentireclauseinanegativeway.Usedinmanyoftheothercategoriesabove.

no,not,hardly,barely,never,seldom

“HedoesnotworkonMondays.”

ConjunctiveAdverbs

Usedtoconnectindependentclausesanddescribetherelationshipbetweenthem.

comparatively,therefore,also,however,moreover,similarly

“Jenisterribleatmath;however,shestilllikesit.”

EvaluativeAdverbs

Usedbythespeakertocommentorgiveanopiniononsomething.Evaluativeadverbsmodifytheentireclause.

apparently,astonishingly,clearly,frankly,obviously,presumably

“Clearly,we'regoingtohavetoworkharder.”

ViewpointAdverbs

Usedtoindicatewhosepointofviewweareexpressing,ortospecifywhataspectofsomethingwearetalkingabout.(Manyviewpointadverbsareadverbialphrases.)

personally,inmypointofview,accordingtoyou,scientifically,biologically

“Personally,Idon’tbelieveit’strue.”

RelativeAdverbs

Usedtointroducerelativeclauses,whentheinformationrelatestoaplace,time,orthereasonanactiontookplace.

where,when,why

“Idon’tknowwhyhegotangry.”

AdverbialNouns

Nounsornounphrasesthatfunctiongrammaticallyasadverbstomodifyverbsandcertainadjectives,usuallyspecifyingtime,distance,weight,age,ormonetaryvalue.

tomorrow,anhour,anounce,fivedollars,25years

“Icanbarelyseeafootinfrontofmeinthisfog.”

AdverbialPhrasesAnadverbialphrase(alsoknownasanadverbphrase)isgroupofwordsthatfunctionsasanadverbinasentence.Thesecanbeadverbsmodifiedbyotheradverbs,adverbialprepositionalphrases,oradverbialinfinitivephrases.Forexample:•“Thekickerisrunningsomewhatslowlybacktothebench.Hemightbeinjured.”•“Heperformedverywellonhisexam.”•“WewereplayingFrisbeeatthepark.”•“Aftertheywokeup,theypackeduptheirthingsandwentonahike.”•“Patriciawenttothemountainstogoforahike.”•“I’msohappytobeyourfriend.”

AdverbialClausesAnadverbialclause,oradverbclause,isagroupofwordsthatcontainsasubjectandapredicateandisused,likearegularadverb,tomodifyadjectives,verbs,andadverbs.Adverbialclausesusesubordinatingconjunctionstoconnectthemtoindependentclauses;thewayanadverbialclausemodifiesanelementinasentencedependsonthekindofsubordinatingconjunctionused.Forexample:•“Iwillarrivewhendinnerisready.”(adverbialclauseoftime)•“Peterbringshissunglasseseverywherehegoes.”(adverbialclauseofplace)•“Iadmireyoubecauseyouareaninspirationtomanypeople.”(adverbialclauseoftimeorpurpose)•“They’llapproveyourrequestprovidedyoupaytheappropriateamountofmoney.”(adverbialclauseofcondition)•“Shelookedexcited,asifshecouldjumpupanddanceatanymoment.”(adverbialclauseofcomparisonormanner)•“Althoughshedoesn’thavemuchmoney,Wendyoftengoestraveling.”(adverbialclauseofcontrast)

CommonmodifiermistakesInsimplesentences,itisusuallyeasytounderstandwhatamodifierismodifying.However,whenwebeginaddingmoreinformationintolongersentences,wemustbecarefulthatwemakeitclearwhichelementsaremodifyingwhichpartsofthesentence.Ifweplaceamodifiertoofarawayfromthethingitdescribes,itcanbecomeamisplacedmodifier.Insomecases,amodifiermaybeinthecorrectpositionforitsintendedrecipient,buttooclosetoanotherelement,makingitlooklikeitisdescribingthewrongthing;thisisknownasasquintingmodifier.Wemustalsomakesurethatthethingbeingmodifiedisexplicitlystatedinthetext,otherwisewemightbeleftwithadanglingmodifier.

MisplacedmodifiersAmisplacedmodifiercanoccurwhenwedon’tplacethemodifiercloseenoughtothewordthatitmodifies,makingitsmeaningunclearorincorrect.Forexample:•“Burtonwasdrivingaroundthecountrysidewhilehisfriendsangsongsslowly.”Becauseofitsplacementintheabovesentence,wewouldpresumethattheadverbslowlyismodifyingsang.Ifitismeanttomodifydriving,theadverbshouldbeplaceddirectlybeforeoraftertheverbit’smodifyingtoeliminatethisconfusion,asin:•“Burtonwasslowlydrivingaroundthecountrysidewhilehisfriendsangsongs.”or•“Burtonwasdrivingslowlyaroundthecountrysidewhilehisfriendsangsongs.”Here’sanotherexample:•“Therustedwoman’sbicyclemadeahorriblescreechingnoise.”Nowthesentenceiscompletelyincorrect,because,duetoitsposition,rustedismodifyingwomaninsteadofbicycle.Thesentenceshouldread:•“Thewoman’srustedbicyclemadeahorriblescreechingnoise.”

WithparticiplephrasesThesetypesoferrorsoftenoccurwithparticiplephrases.Becausetheycanappearinthebeginning,middle,orendofasentence,itiscanbeeasytomisplacethenounornounphrasetheyaremodifying.Forinstance:•“Terrifiedafterwatchingascarymovie,myfatherhadtocomfortmylittlesister.”Intheabovesentence,theparticiplephraseterrifiedafterwatchingascarymovieissupposedtomodifymylittlesister.However,sincemyfatherappearsclosertotheparticiplephrase,itseemsitisthefatherwhoisterrified.Thesentenceshouldberewrittentocorrectthemisplacedmodifier.Forexample:•“Myfatherhadtocomfortmysister,terrifiedafterwatchingascarymovie.”or•“Terrifiedafterwatchingascarymovie,mysisterhadtobecomfortedbymyfather.”or•“Mysister,terrifiedafterwatchingascarymovie,hadtobecomfortedbymyfather.”

SquintingmodifiersOccasionallyweuseamodifierinthecorrecttechnicalposition,butitsmeaningcanbemisconstruedbecauseofanotherwordthatistooclosetoit.Thisusuallyhappenswithadverbials,astheycanappearbeforeorafterthewordstheymodify.Forexample:•“Thewayhesingssooftenannoysme.”Sooftenseemslikeitcouldbemodifyingeithersingsorannoys,becauseit’stechnicallyinthecorrectpositionforboth.Weshouldrewritethesentencetomakeitmoreclearwhatismeant:•“Thewayhesingssooftenisannoyingtome.”(modifiessings)or•“Thewayhesingsannoysmesooften.”(modifiesannoys)

Danglingmodifiers

Adanglingmodifieroccurswhenwedon’tclearlystatethenounthatissupposedtobemodifiedbythemodifyingphrase.Theseareespeciallycommonwithparticiplephrases.Forexample:•“Walkingdowntheroad,thebirdsweresinging.”Becausethesentencedoesnotstatewhowaswalkingdowntheroad,isseemsthatitwasthebirds,whichisprobablynottheintendedmeaning.Thesentenceneedstoincludeanothernounorpronounbeingdescribedbythephrasetocorrectthedanglingmodifier.Forexample:•“Walkingdowntheroad,I(orshe,he,Mary,thecouple,etc.)heardthebirdssinging.”


1.Whichofthefollowingarenotclassifiedasmodifiers?a)Particlesb)Adjectivesc)Prepositionsd)Adverbse)A&Cf)B&D2.Whatarethetwomainsyntacticcategoriesofadjectives?a)Attributiveandpredicativeb)CompoundandComparativec)DemonstrativeandInterrogatived)NominalandCollective3.Aparticiplephraseiswhatkindofmodifier?a)Adverbialphraseb)Adjectivephrasec)Adverbialclaused)Adjectiveclause4.Whatintroducesarelativeclause?a)Arelativepronounb)Arelativeadverb

c)Asubordinatingconjunctiond)A&Be)B&C5.Whatkindoferrorresultsfromamodifierthatisplacedtoofarawayfromtheword(s)itmodifies?a)Misplacedmodifierb)Squintingmodifierc)Danglingmodifier6.Whatkindoferrorresultsfromamodifierthatisplacedbetweentwowordsthatitmightmodify?a)Misplacedmodifierb)Squintingmodifierc)Danglingmodifier

AdjunctsDefinitionAdjunctsarepartsofasentencethatareusedtoelaborateonormodifyotherwordsorphrasesinasentence.Alongwithsubjects,verbs,objects,andcomplements,adjunctsareoneofthefivemaincomponentsofthestructureofclauses.Adistinguishingfeatureofadjunctsisthattheirremovalfromsentencesdoesnotalterthegrammaticalintegrityandmeaningofthesentence.Inotherwords,adjunctsexpandonthewordorphrasethattheyaremodifying,buttheirpresenceisnotneededforasentencetofunction.Nouns,adjectives,andadverbscanallbeadjuncts.However,adverbialadjunctsarethemostcomplex,sowewillexaminethoseingreaterdetail.

AdverbialadjunctsAdjunctsareusuallyadverbsoradverbialphrasesthathelpmodifyandenrichthecontextofverbsinthesentence.Forexample,considerthefollowingsentence:•“Shewalkedtotheparkslowly.”

Inthissentence,theadjunctistheadverbslowly,whichmodifiestheverbwalked.Withoutthisadjunct,thesentencecouldfunctiononitsownandstillbegrammaticallycorrect.Inthiscase,thesentencewouldread:•“Shewalkedtothepark.”Thereisnothingwrongwiththissentence.Thereaderjustdoesn’tknowatwhatspeedshewalkedtothepark.Herearesomeotherexamplesofsentenceswithadverbialadjunctsinthem:•“Thesoccerteamplayedthegameintherain.”•“Thebowlingballrolledquicklytowardthepins.”•“Themanwalksbytheriveroften.”Inallofthesesentences,theadjunctcanalsoberemovedwithoutthesentencelosingmeaningorgrammaticalcorrectness.

TypesofmodificationAdjunctscanbeusedtomodifywordsinthesentenceinavarietyofdifferentways.Typically,whenadjunctsareusedinasentence,theyexpandonthefrequency,place,time,degree,reason,ormannerofthewordorphrasetheyaremodifying.Hereareexamplesofadjunctsbeingusedtomodifyallofthesethings:

Frequency•“Everyday,theboyplayedbasketballwithhisfriend.”•“Thefarmerplowedhisfieldonceaweek.”

Place•“Thetouristswenttoseethesightsaroundthecity.”•“ThelakesarebeautifulinNorthCarolina.”

Time•“At5:00PM,thedogwenttoseeiftherewasfoodinhisbowl.”•“Thegamebeganrightafterschool.”

Degree•“Hejumpedashighashecould.”•“Astallashewas,hestillcouldnotreachthetopcabinet.”

Reason•“Theplantsgrewtallbecausetheyreceivedalotofsunshine.”•“Shewasgoodatmathbecauseshepracticedalot.”

Manner•“Thegazellerangracefullyoverthefield.”•“Theriverflowedswiftly.”

TypesofadjunctphrasesAswecanseeintheexamplesabove,bothwordsandphrasescanfunctionasadjuncts,andthereareseveraldifferenttypesofphrasesthatcanbeused.Prepositionalphrases,nounphrases,andadverbphrasescanallbeusedasadverbialadjuncts.Hereareexamplesofeachtypeofphrasebeingusedasanadverbialadjunct:

Prepositionalphrase•“Thegroupwentswimmingatthebeach.”

Adverbphrase•“Thesurferlookedcalm,althoughthewavelookedhuge.”

Nounphrase•“Thegrandfatherwillgivehisgrandsonhisbirthdaypresentnextmonth.”

PositionofadjunctsAdjunctscanoccurindifferentsectionsoftheclause;wheretheyarepositioneddependsonthestructureofthesentence.Sometimesitworksbettertoputthem

intotheinitialposition,sometimesthemiddle,andsometimesthefinal.Forexample,herearesomesentenceswithadjunctsindifferentpositions:•“Wearrivedatnoon.”(finalposition)•“Thesalmonquicklyswam.”(middleposition)•“Inthemiddleofthemeadow,therewasapatchofdaisies.”(initialposition)Sentencescanalsohavemorethanoneadjunctappearingindifferentpartsofaclause.Forexample:•“Attheplayground,thechildrenranquickly.”Inthissentence,bothattheplayground,andquicklyareadjuncts.Bothoftheseadjunctsmodifytheclausethechildrenran.

MisplacedmodifiersAnotherimportantnoteaboutadjunctsisthatiftheyareplacedtoofarawayfromthewordorphrasetheyaremodifying,ortooneartoanotherwordorphrase,therecansometimesbeconfusionaboutwhattheyaremodifying.Theseareknownasmisplacedmodifiers.Forexample,considerthissentence:•“Readingbooksfrequentlyimprovesintelligence.”Inthissentence,itisdifficulttotelliffrequentlyismodifyingreadingbooksorimprovingintelligence.Placingtheadjunctinabetterpositionwillimprovetheclarityofthesentence.Forexample:•“Frequentlyreadingbooksimprovesintelligence.”

NounAdjunctsandAdjectivalAdjunctsAdjunctscanalsobenounsoradjectives.Theseoccursocommonly,though,thattheyrarelyneedtobeidentified.Nevertheless,let’slookatwhatconstitutesnounadjunctsandadjectivaladjuncts.

NounAdjunctsNounadjunctsarenounsthatareusedtomodifyothernouns.Theresultingphraseiscalledacompoundnoun.Forexample:•“Theboyplayedwithhistoysoldier.”

Inthissentence,toyisthenounadjunct,anditmodifiesthewordsoldier,creatingthecompoundnountoysoldier.Themeaningofthesentencewouldchangeifweleftouttoy,butthesentencewouldremaingrammaticallycorrect.Nounadjunctscanalsocreatesingle-wordcompoundnouns,asinpoliceman,wherethewordpolicemodifiesthewordman.

AdjectivalAdjunctsAdjectivaladjunctsarejustadjectivesthatcomeimmediatelybeforethenountheydescribe.Theyaremorecommonlyreferredtoasattributiveadjectives.Theytoocanberemovedwithoutcompromisinggrammaticalcorrectness.Hereisanexampleofanadjectivaladjunct:•“Thewhitecatclimbedontothetable.”Inthissentence,whiteistheadjectivaladjunct,anditmodifiesthewordcat.Again,leavingitoutdoesnotaffectthegrammarofthesentence.However,ifwesaid,“Thecatthatiswhiteclimbedontothetable,”theadjectiveisnolongeranadjunctbecauseitisintegraltothegrammarofthesentence.


1.Whichofthefollowingwordsistheadverbialadjunctinthissentence?“Thetallmansmiledenthusiastically.”a)tallb)theb)enthusiasticallyd)smiled2.Whichofthefollowingwordsistheadverbialadjunctinthissentence?“Thetwopeopleagreedtomeetattheendoftheday.”a)agreedb)twopeoplec)tomeetd)attheendoftheday3.Whichofthefollowingadjunctscorrelatestoplace?a)inthemeadow

b)beforenoonc)beautifullyd)often4.Whichofthefollowingadjunctscorrelatestomanner?a)atthemallb)steadilyc)inthreedaysd)onceaweek5.Whichofthefollowingadjunctsisaprepositionalphrase?a)slowlyb)quicklyc)atthebeachd)beautifully6.Wheredonounandadjectivaladjunctsappearinasentence?a)Immediatelybeforethenountheydescribeb)Immediatelyafterthenountheydescribec)Beforeaprepositiond)Attheendofaclause

PhrasesDefinitionGrammaticalphrasesaregroupsoftwoormorewordsthatworktogethertoperformasinglegrammaticalfunctioninasentence.Unlikeclauses,phrasesdonotcontainbothasubjectandapredicate(althoughtheysometimesfunctionasoneortheother).

PhrasesfromthepartsofspeechMostofthepartsofspeechcanbemadeintophrasesbyaddinginformationthatisdirectlyassociatedwiththem.Below,we’lllookatabreakdownofeachtypeofphrasethatisformedfromapartofspeech,includingsomeexamplesofthevarioustypesofphrasesandhow

eachfunctionsinasentence.Tolearnmore,gotothesectionsthatdiscusseachtypeofphrase.

NounPhrasesAnounphraseconsistsofanounplusanydeterminersormodifiersdirectlyrelatedtoit.Nounphrasesalwayshavethegrammaticalfunctionofnounsinasentence.

Nounphraseexamples Howtheyappearinasentence

•abook—determinera+nounbook •“IfoundabookI'dliketoread.”

•hersweetlysmilingchild—determinerher+adverbsweetly+adjective(presentparticiple)smiling+nounchild

•“Shegazedlovinglyathersweetlysmilingchild.”

•theredcar—determinerthe+adjectivered+nouncar

•“Theredcarbelongstome.”

VerbPhrasesAverbphrasecaneitherbemadeupofanauxiliaryverbanditsmainverb,oraverbplusanymodifiers,objects,orcomplements.*Verbphrasesareusedtoformperfectorcontinuousverbtenses,toexpressmodality,oraspart(orall)ofthepredicate.

Verbphraseexamples Howtheyappearinasentence

•amrunning—auxiliaryverbam+presentparticiplerunning

•“Iamrunninglate.”(formsthepresentcontinuoustense)

•havecompleted—auxiliaryverbhave+pastparticiplecompleted

•“Theyhavecompletedworkonthebuilding.”(formsthepresentperfecttense)

•quicklyrantothebus—adverbquickly+verbran+prepositional •“Shequicklyrantothebus.”

phrasetothebus (formsthepredicate)

•playsthetrombone—verbplays+objectthetrombone

•“Mybrotherplaysthetrombone.”(formsthepredicate)

*NotesonverbphrasesTherearetwodifferentdefinitionsofwhatconstitutesaverbphrase.Intraditionalgrammar,averbphraseismadeupofanauxiliaryverbplusthemainverb(s)thatfollowit.Forexample:•“Wewererunninglate.”•“IhavebeenlearningArabic.”•“Theywillcallyoutomorrow.”Moremoderntheoriesofgrammar,however,defineverbphrasesasbeinganymainverb(orcombinationofmainandauxiliaryverbs)inaclauseplusitsconstituentparts—thatis,anymodifiersorobjectsthatcompleteitsmeaning.Theseverbphrasesare,accordingtothisdefinition,whatforms(oraddsto)thepredicateofasentence.Forexample:•“Mybrotherisrunninglateforschoolagain.”•“Ourteacherlookstired;shemusthavebeenuplatelastnight.”Thisguidetakesamoreall-inclusiveapproachforthetermverbphrase.Inasituationinwhichweareanalyzingeverythingthatbelongstoacertainverb,itwillbereferredtoasaverbphrase.Likewise,whenwe’redescribingtheuseofauxiliaryverbstocreatedifferentverbtensesormodalconstructions,theoverallverbthatisconstructedmayalsobecalledaverbphrase.

AdjectivePhrasesAnadjectivephraseismadeupofanadjectivealongwithanydeterminers,modifiers,oradjectivecomplementsthatmodifyorcompletetheadjective’smeaning.Theentirephrasefunctionsasanadjectiveinasentence,modifyinganoun.

Adjectivephraseexamples Howtheyappearinasentence

•myfavorite—determinermy+adjectivefavorite

•“Ibroughtmyfavoritejackettoschool.”

•wonderfullytalented—adverbwonderfully+adjectivetalented

•“Thesingerwaswonderfullytalented.”

•aloneintheworld—adjectivealone+adjectivecomplementintheworld

•“Shefeltaloneintheworld.”

AdverbialPhrasesAnadverbialphrasemayconsistofanadverbplusanydeterminersandsupplementalinformation,oranadverbplusanadverbofdegree,oranadverbialprepositionalphrase.(Prepositionalphrasesaresooftenadverbialthattheyarecommonlyincludedindefinitionsofadverbialphrases.)

Adverbialphraseexamples Howtheyappearinasentence

•onceaweek—adverbonce+nounphraseaweek

•“Mydadswimsonceaweek.”

•tooquickly—intensifiertoo+adverbquickly •“Don'truntooquickly!”

•downthestreet—adverbialprepositionalphrase

•“Wewalkeddownthestreet.”

PrepositionalPhrasesPrepositionalphrasesconsistofaprepositionanditsobject.Theymostcommonlyfunctionasadverbs,buttheycanalsobeadjectival.

Prepositionalphraseexamples Howtheyappearinasentence

•onthewall—prepositionon+objectthewall

•“Wehungthepaintingonthewall.”(adverbialprepositionalphrase)

•inthedriveway—prepositionin+objectthedriveway

•“Thecarinthedrivewayismydad’s.”(adjectivalprepositionalphrase)

GerundPhrasesAgerundphraseisformedwhenagerund(the“-ing”formofaverbusedasanoun)isaccompaniedbyanymodifiersand/orobjects.Theentirephrasefunctionsasanoun,meaningitcanbethesubjectofaclauseoranobjectofaverborpreposition.

Gerundphraseexamples Howtheyappearinasentence

•swimmingeveryday—gerundswimming+adverbialphraseeveryday

•“Swimmingeverydayisgoodforyourhealth.”

•readingbooksinthedark—gerundreading+objectbooks+adverbialprepositionalphraseinthedark

•“Iwouldn'trecommendreadingbooksinthedark.”

InfinitivePhrasesInfinitivephrasesarecomposedoftheinfinitiveofaverb(thebaseform+theparticleto)alongwithanyobjectsormodifiersassociatedwithit.Infinitivesandinfinitivephrasescanfunctionasnouns,adjectives,oradverbsinasentence.

Infinitivephraseexamples Howtheyappearinasentence

•tohelponeanother—infinitivetohelp+objectoneanother

•“Wemustalltrytohelponeanother.”(functionsasanoun,thedirectobjectoftry)

•tostopfortoday—infinitivetostop+adverbialprepositionalphrasefortoday

•“Thisisagoodplacetostopfortoday.”(functionsasanadjective,modifyingthenounplace)

•tosendmybrotheraletter—infinitivetosend+indirectobject

•“I'mgoingtothepostofficetosendmybrotheraletter.”(functionsasan

mybrother+directobjectaletter adverb,modifyingtheverbgoing)

ParticiplePhrasesLikegerundsandinfinitives,participlesareformedfromverbs,soparticiplephrasesarecreatedwhenparticiplesareaccompaniedbyanymodifiersorobjects.Pastandpresentparticiples(withoutmodifiersorobjects)canbeusedtocreatedifferentverbtenses,buttheycanalsofunctionasadjectives.Participlephrases,however,canonlyfunctionasadjectivesinasentence.

Participlephraseexamples Howtheyappearinasentence

•destroyedintheaccident—pastparticipledestroyed+adverbialprepositionalphraseintheaccident

•“Mycar,destroyedintheaccident,wastakenawaybythetowtruck.”

•breakingtherules—presentparticiplebreaking+objecttherules

•“Participantsbreakingtheruleswillberemovedfromthecompetition.”

PhraseswithinphrasesAsyoumighthavenoticedintheexamplesabove,therearemanyinstancesinwhichonetypeofphrasehasoneormoreotherphraseswithinit.Takethefollowingsentence,forexample:•“Thebrightorangecatlivesintheshedinthegarden.”Thereareactuallysevenphrasesinthissentence.Thetwoprimaryphrasesarethenounphrasethebrightorangecat(thesubject)andtheverbphraselivesintheshedinthegarden(thepredicate),andeachofthesephrasescontainsoneormoresmallerphrases.Let’slookatabreakdownbelow:

TheSubject ThePredicate

Containsthenounphrase:

Thebrightorangecat Containstheverb

phrase:livesintheshedinthegarden

Containstheadjectivephrase:

Thebrightorange(modifiesthenouncat)

Containstheadverbialprepositionalphrase:

intheshedinthegarden(modifiestheverblives)


theshedinthegarden(objectoftheprepositionin)

Containstheadjectivalprepositionalphrase:

inthegarden(modifiesthenounshed)


thegarden(objectofthesecondprepositionin)

Whenwearetryingtoexamineallthepartsofanindividualsentence,it’simportanttobeabletorecognizewhenonepartis(ormightbe)madeupofseveralothersmallerelements.

AbsolutePhrasesandAppositivePhrasesTherearetwoothertypesofphrasesthatwehavenotlookedatyet—absolutephrasesandappositivephrases.Thesearecreatedfromspecificpartsofspeechandhavespecificfunctionsinasentence.We’llbrieflylookatbothbelow.Youcancontinueontotheirindividualsectionstolearnmore.

AbsolutephrasesAnabsolutephraseorabsoluteconstructionisagrammaticallyindependentgroupofwordsthatmodifyoraddinformationtotheentiresentence.Itisusuallymadeupofanounorpronounandaparticiple,alongwithanymodifiersorobjectsoftheparticiple.Absolutephrasesusuallyappearatthebeginningorendofasentencetoadddescriptiveinformationorprovideafinalcommentonthesentenceasawhole.

Theycanalsoappearinthemiddleofthesentencetoemphasizetheadditionalinformation.Theyarealwayssetapartfromtherestofthesentencebycommasordashes.Forexample:•“Thestudentshavingleftearly,Idecidedtocatchuponsomegrading.”•“IhopetogetintoHarvardnextyear—Godwilling.”•“Theteacher,herstudentshavingleftearly,decidedtocatchuponsomegrading.”

AppositivePhrasesAnappositivephraseisanounphrasethatservestodescribeorrenameanothernounthatappearsdirectlybeforeitinasentence.Appositivephrasesareusually(butnotalways)non-restrictive,meaningtheyprovideinformationthatisnotessentialtothemeaningofthesentence,andareseparatedfromtherestofthesentencebyoneortwocommas.Forexample:•“Theoffice,anoldGeorgianbuilding,badlyneededrepairs.”•“JanetSmith,aformerstudentofmine,isjoiningthefacultynextspring.”•“Justmeetmeatmycar,theoldstationwagonparkedacrossthestreet.”

OtherappositivesNotethatanappositivecanalsobeapropernounthatnamesoridentifiesacommonnoun.Anappositivemadeupofapropernounthatcontainsmorethanonewordisnotconsideredanappositivephrase,butratherasinglenounconstruction.Forexample:•“MybrotherMichaellivesinNewYork.”•“America’sfirstpresident,GeorgeWashington,wasborninthecolonyofVirginia.”


1.Whichofthefollowingtypesofphrasescanfunctionasanouninasentence?a)Nounphrases

b)Infinitivephrasesc)Gerundphrasesd)Alloftheabovee)Noneoftheabove2.Whichofthefollowingcanbeaddedtoanadjectivetocreateanadjectivephrase?a)Anounb)Anadverbc)Adeterminerd)A&Be)B&C3.Identifythetypeofphrase(inbold)inthefollowingsentence:“Thebirdflyingaboveuslandedonthetree.”a)Participlephraseb)Infinitivephrasec)Gerundphrased)Verbphrase4.Whatdoesanabsolutephrasemodify?a)Anounb)Aclausec)Asentenced)Aphrase5.Whatdoesanappositivephrasemodify?a)Anounb)Aclausec)Asentenced)Aphrase

NounPhrasesDefinition

Nounphrasesaregroupsoftwoormorewordswithinasentencethatfunctiongrammaticallyasnouns.Theyconsistofanounandotherwordsthatmodifythenoun.Somegrammariansalsoconsiderasingle-wordnountobeanounphrase,whilemoretraditionalgrammarsholdthataphrasemustbemadeupoftwoormorewords.Inthisguide,wedefineaphraseasbeingmadeupofmorethanoneword.Nounphrasescanalsohavepronounsastheirstructuralbase,whichwewillexaminelaterinthissection.

IdentifyingnounphrasesNounphrasesallowgroupsofwordstofunctionasanouninthesentence.Inthisway,nounscanbeelaborateduponormodifiedtoaddfurtherdepthtothesentencewithoutlosingtheirstructuralrole.Thefollowingsentencecontainsabasic,single-wordnoun,withoutanymodifiers:•“Whalesswim.”Inthissentence,theword“whales”functionsaloneasthenoun.Becausetherearenomodifierstocreateanounphrase,thereaderreceivesnoadditionalinformationabout“whales.”Thefollowingsentencecontainsanounphrasewithmodifiers:•“Hebroughttheshovelwiththebluehandle.”Inthissentence,“theshovelwiththebluehandle”isanounphrase.Itcollectivelyactsasanounwhileprovidingmodifyingwordsfortheheadnoun,“shovel.”Themodifiersare“the”and“withthebluehandle.”Herearesomeotherexamplesofsentenceswithnounphrasesmarkedinitalics(theprimarynounsbeingmodifiedareunderlined):•“Thetallmountainwasverylarge.”•“Thehighwayatrushhourcanbefrantic.”•“Theorangesthatfellfromtheorangetreearedelicious.”Agoodwaytotestwhetherornotaphraseisanounphraseistoreplacethephrasewithapronounandseeifthesentenceisstillgrammaticallycorrect.Forexample,inallthreeexamplesprovidedabove,thenounphrasecanbesuccessfullyreplacedwithapronoun:•“Itwasverylarge.”

•“Itcanbefrantic.”•“Theyaredelicious.”

NounphrasesofvaryinglengthNounphrasescanbeasshortastwowords,ortheycanbelongerandhavemanywords;thenumberofwordsinaphrasedoesnotaffectitsstatusasanounphrase,solongasitfunctionsasanouninthesentence.Forexample,thefollowingsentencescontainoneveryshortnounphrase,andoneverylongnounphrase:•“Themansatdown.”•“Theforty-fiveyearoldmanwithbrownhairandablackshirtsatdown.”Despitetheirdifferenceinlength,bothphrasesinitalicsfunctionasnouns.

NounphraseswithinnounphrasesYoumayhavenoticedthatmanyofthesentencesabovecontainmultiplenounphrases.Itisverycommonforasmallernounphrasetooccurwithinalargerone,actingaspartofthemodifyinginformation.Forinstance,thesecondsentenceaboveactuallyhasthreenounphrases,twoofwhicharecontainedwithinthelongerone.Let’slookatthesentenceagain,thistimeunderliningeachnounbeingmodifiedandputtingthesmallerphrasesinbold.•“Theforty-fiveyearoldmanwithbrownhairandablackshirtsatdown.”Herearesomemoreexamplesofsentenceswithnounphrasesinsideofothernounphrases:•“Theypassedanorangebusdrivenbyajollyoldmanwearingalady’swigonthehighway.”•“Pleasehandmethebookwiththetorncover.”

ModifiersPositionofmodifiersSometimesthewordsthatmodifythenouncomebeforethenouninthephrase,andsometimestheycomeafter.Forexample,inthefollowingsentence,themodifierscomebeforethenoun:

•“Dogsoftenliketochasehigh-flyingFrisbees.”Inthisnextsentence,themodifierscomeafterthenoun:•“Truckswithredstripesandlargewheelscameridingintotown.”Thepositionofmodifiersinanounphrasedependsonwhattypeofmodifierisbeingusedtodescribethenoun.

TypesofmodifiersTherearemanydifferenttypesofmodifiersthatcanbeusedinnounphrasestomodifythenouninthephrase.Amongthesemodifiersareadjectives,articles,participles,possessivenouns,possessivepronouns,determiners,relativeclauses,infinitives,participlephrases,prepositionalphrases,andcompoundnouns*.Adjectives,articles,participles,possessivenouns,determiners,possessivepronouns,andcompoundnounstendtoappearbeforethenouninanounphrase.Relativeclauses,infinitives,participlephrases,prepositionalphrases,andcompoundphrasestendtoappearafterthenouninnounphrases.(*Modifiersareusuallyconsideredtobeadjectives,adverbs,orothergrammaticalelementsthatfunctionasoneortheother.Forthesakeofconcisenessinthissection,however,we’llbeincludingitemsthatarenotusuallyclassedasmodifiers—suchasarticlesanddeterminers—butstillservetogivemoremeaningtothenouninanounphrase.)Hereareexamplesofeachtypeofmodifierinasentencewithanounphrase:

AdjectivesAdjectivesmodifythenounbyexpressingacertainqualityofthenoun:•“Brightstarsshineinthesky.”•“Bigcitiesareloud.”

ArticlesArticlesmodifythenounbyrevealingifthenounisdefiniteorindefinite:•“Thedogwenttothepark.”•“Aboyateanapple.”

Determiners

Determinersarewordsthatrevealtheamountofanouninasentence:•“Therearefivebananas.”•“Severaliguanaswereonthetree.”

ParticiplesParticiplescanbeusedtodirectlymodifythenounbyshowingapastorpresentactionthatthenounisorwasinvolvedindoing:•“Thegallopinggazellejumpedhigh.•“Boiledwaterisveryhot.”

PossessiveNounsPossessivenounsmodifythenounbyexplainingthatthenounbelongstosomeone,something,orsomegroup:•“Themailman'struckwasparked.”•“Thewoman'spursewasblue.”

PossessiveDeterminersPossessivedeterminersalsoindicatepossession.However,theyindicatepossessionbyusingapronouninsteadofanoun:•“Hiswifebroughthimhisforgottenbriefcase.”•“Hershoewasuntied.”

CompoundNounsCompoundnounsarecreatedbymodifyingtheheadnounwithanounadjunct(awordthatworkstogetherwiththenountogiveitadifferentmeaning).(Therearedifferentkindsofadjuncts,whicharecoveredinanothersection).Compoundnounscaneitherbeoneword,twowords,ortwowordsjoinedbyahyphen.Ineverycase,thenounadjunctaddstoorchangesthemeaningoftheheadnoun.Thefollowingsentencesshowanexampleofeachtypeofcompoundnoun:•“Herantothedoghouse.”•“Thebusstationwasbusy.”

•“Hisex-wifecalledhimyesterday.”

RelativeClausesRelativeclauses(alsoknownasadjectiveclausesexpressaqualityofthenounjustlikeadjectivesdo.However,adjectiveclausescontainasubjectandaverb:•“Thecarthatdroveupthestreetturnedleft.”•“Thelightthatwasleftonwasverybright.”

InfinitivesInfinitivesmodifythenounbyprovidingaverbphrasethathelpselaborateonandprovideclarificationofthenoun:•“Hewasthepersontocontactifyouwantedpastries.”•“Shewastheonetoask.”

ParticiplePhrasesParticiplephrasesmodifythenounbyprovidingagroupofwordswithapresentorpastparticiplethatworkslikeanadjectivetomodifythenoun:•“Themanwavinghishandforataxiwasbeingignored.”•“ThegeeseflyingoverheadformedaVshape.”

PrepositionalPhrasesPrepositionalphrasesareusedinnounphrasestoprovideunique,distinguishing,orspecifyinginformationaboutthenounbeingmodified:•“Thetrainatthestationhadtwenty-sevencars.”•“Thesnowonthefieldwaswhite.”•“Acatwithwhitewhiskersjustwalkedby.”

NounPhraseswithPronounBasesAlthoughnounphrasesprimarilyhavenounsasthebasewordthatisbeingmodified,sometimesthesebasewordscanalsobepronouns.Forexample,thefollowingsentenceshavepronounbasewordsasopposedtonounbasewords:•“Hewhowalksbythebayatnightmayseethemoon.”

•“Someonenewslowlyapproachedthegroup.”

Nounsphrasesassubjects,objects,andcomplementsNounphrasescanbeusedinsentencesasasubject,object,orcomplement.Theindividualsentencewilldeterminehowthenounphraseisused.Herearesomeexamplesofnounphrasesbeingusedassubjects,objects,andcomplements.

SubjectThesubjectofasentenceisthenounornounphrasethatisdoingtheactionoftheverb:•“Thegreenbowlingballrolleddownthelane.”

ObjectObjectsarethenounornounphrasethatreceivestheactionoftheverb.Theyarethethingsthatsomethinghappensto,asopposedtothethingscausingtheaction:•“Herolledthegreenbowlingballdownthelane.”

ComplementComplementsarewordsorphrasesthatarenecessarytomakethesentence’ssubjectorpredicatecomplete.Subjectcomplementsarewordsthatfollowalinkingverbanddescribethesubjectofthesentence.Objectcomplementsarewordsthatmodifythedirectorindirectobjectoftheverb.Hereareexamplesofboth:

SubjectComplement•“Hewasamanwhoownedgreenbowlingballs.”(Thenounphrasefollowsthelinkingverbwasandmodifiesthesubjecthe.)

ObjectComplement•“Hepaintedthebowlingballagreenishcolor.”(Thenounphrasefollowsandmodifiesthedirectobjectbowlingball.)

•“Theclubelectedthemantheirpresident.”(Thenounphrasefollowsandmodifiesthedirectobjecttheman.)


1.Whichofthefollowingwordorwordsisthenounphraseinthissentence?“Thenewshoelaceswouldbedeliveredsoon.”a)deliveredsoonb)wouldc)Thenewshoelacesd)be2.Thefollowingsentencecontainswhichtypeofnounphrase?“Fullmoonsshinebrightly.”a)articleb)infinitivec)participled)adjective3.Howmanynounphrasesarethereinthefollowingsentence?“Theoldmanrodehisbicycle.”a)2b)1c)3d)04.Whichofthefollowingisnotanounphrase?a)Therockb)slowlyc)hishoused)themanwhosawthesign5.Whichofthefollowingisanounphrasewithanarticlemodifier?a)bluehatb)dogthatchasedcatsc)thecar

d)tallbuilding

AdjectivePhrasesDefinitionAnadjectivephraseisanadjectiveandanyadditionalinformationlinkedtoitthatworktogethertodescribeanounorpronouninasentence.Theadjectivearoundwhichanadjectivephraseisformedisknownastheheadwordofthephrase.Somegrammarguidesconsideranadjectivefunctioningbyitselftobeanadjectivephrase,but,inthisguide,whenwerefertoaphrase,wealwaysmeanagroupoftwoormorewords.Thereisalsoatendencytocombinethetermsadjectivephraseandadjectivalphraseintoasinglecategory,buttheyarenotquitethesame.We’lllookatthisdistinctionmorecloselylateroninthissection.

Attributivevs.PredicativeAdjectivephrasescaneitherbeattributiveorpredicative.Attributiveadjectivesoccurimmediatelybeforeorafterthenountheymodify,asin:•“Youhaveaverybeautifulvoice.”Predicativeadjectives,ontheotherhand,appearafteralinkingverbtodescribethesubjectoftheclause.Forexample:•“Yourvoiceisverybeautiful.”

FormingadjectivephrasesAnywordorwordsthatworkinconjunctionwithanadjectiveconstitutepartofanadjectivephrase.Theseareusuallymadeupofdeterminersoradverbs.Prepositionalphrases,infinitives,andnounclausescanalsobeusedasadjectivecomplementstocreateadjectivephrases.Asyouwillnoticeinsomeofexamplesbelow,wecanalsouseacombinationofdifferentelementstogethertocreatemorecomplexadjectivephrases.

DeterminersDeterminersareusedtointroduceanounornounphrase.Thereareseveralclassesofdeterminers:articles,demonstrativedeterminers,possessivedeterminers,interrogativedeterminers,distributivedeterminers,pre-determiners,quantifiers,andnumbers.Determinersareabletostandalonetointroduceanoun,butwhentheyfunctionwithanadjective,theycreateanadjectivephrase.Forexample:•“Iwouldlikealargesoda,please.”(Thearticleaformsanadjectivephrasewiththeheadwordlargetodescribethenounsoda.)•“Thisgreenpenbelongstome.”(Thedemonstrativedeterminerthisformsanadjectivephrasewiththeheadwordgreentodescribethenounpen.)•“I’velostmyfavoritebackpack.”(Thepossessivedeterminermyformsanadjectivephrasewiththeheadwordfavoritetodescribethenounbackpack.)•“Whoseblacklaptopisthis?”(Theinterrogativedeterminerwhoseformsanadjectivephrasewiththeheadwordblacktodescribethenounlaptop.)•“Thecampgivesoutwelcomepackstoeachnewarrival.”(Thedistributivedeterminereachformsanadjectivephrasewiththeheadwordnewtodescribethenounarrival.)•“She’ssuchasweetgirl.”(Thepre-determinersuchformsanadjectivephrasewiththearticleaandtheheadwordsweettodescribethenoungirl.)•“Manyvintagecarswereparkedoutsidethediner.”(Thequantifiermanyformsanadjectivephrasewiththeheadwordvintagetodescribethenouncars.)•“Theyownthreegiganticyachts.”(Thenumberthreeformsanadjectivephrasewiththeheadwordgigantictodescribethenounyachts.)

AdverbsAdverbsmodifyadjectives,verbs,andotheradverbs.Whenanadverbisusedtomodifyanadjective,thetwoworktogetherasanadjectivephrasetomodifyanounorpronoun.Ifadeterminerappearsbeforetheadverb,itisalsoconsideredpartoftheadjectivephrase.Adverbsoftenappeardirectlybeforetheadjectivetheymodify.Forexample:•“Heisaverygoodswimmer.”Verymodifiestheadjectivegood;togethertheymodifyswimmer.

•“Thebrightlylitroomhurtmyeyes.”Brightlymodifiesthepastparticiplelit(whichfunctionsasanadjective);togethertheymodifythenounroom.•“Sheiswonderfullytalented.”Wonderfullymodifiestheadjectivetalented;togethertheymodifythepronounshe.However,wecansometimesuseadverbsdirectlyafteranadjective.Thiscanservetoplaceemphasisontherelationshipbetweentheadjectiveandtheadverb.Forexample:•“Thehelicoptersarecontrolledremotely.”Inthissentence,remotelymodifiesthepastparticiplecontrolled(whichfunctionsasanadjective);togethertheymodifythenounhelicopters.Becauseremotelyappearsaftercontrolled,itputsextraemphasisonthewayinwhichthehelicoptersarecontrolled.Wecanseehowthisemphasisworksifwerewordthesentence:•“Thehelicoptersareremotelycontrolled.”Thesentencedoesn’tloseanyliteralmeaning,butthereisnowslightlylessemphasisontherelationshipbetweenremotelyandcontrolled.

AdjectiveComplementsAnadjectivecomplement(alsocalledanadjectivephrasecomplement)isaphraseorclausethatprovidesinformationnecessarytocompleteanadjectivephrase’smeaning.Theyaremostoftenusedwithpredicativeadjectives(adjectivesthatfollowlinkingverbstodescribethesubjectoftheclause)andcanbeprepositionalphrases,infinitivephrases,andnounclauses.Sometimestheseadjectivesaremodifiedbyadverbs,whichalsoformpartofthefulladjectivephrase.

PrepositionalPhrases•“Iamperfectlycontentonmyown.”(Onmyownisthecomplementoftheadjectivecontent,whichismodifiedbytheadverbperfectly.)•“Hefeltaloneintheworld.”(Intheworldisthecomplementoftheadjectivealone.)•“Theyseemalittleconcernedaboutthedirectionwe’retaking.”(Aboutthe

directionwe’retakingisthecomplementoftheadjectiveconcerned,whichismodifiedbyadverbialphrasealittle.)Prepositionalphrasescanalsobeusedwithadjectives(oftenpastparticiples)thatareattributivebutappearafterthenoun,asin:•“Peopleweariedbytraveloftenstopheretorest.”•“Iwillnotallowadogcoveredinmudintomycleanhouse.”

Infinitives•“I’mveryhappytoknowyou!”(Toknowyouisthecomplementoftheadjectivehappy,whichismodifiedbyadverbvery.)•“We’regladtobeofservice.”(Tobeofserviceisthecomplementoftheadjectiveglad.)•“Theyfeltrelievedtoreturnhome.”(Toreturnhomeisthecomplementoftheadjectiverelieved.)

NounClauses•“Wewerealittlecuriouswhytheydecidedtoleave.”(Whytheydecidedtoleaveisthecomplementoftheadjectivecurious,whichismodifiedbyadverbialphrasealittle.)•“I’mthrilledthatyouarecomingtovisit!”(Thatyouarecomingtovisitisthecomplementoftheadjectivethrilled.)•“It’ssowonderfulwhathedoesforcharity.”(Whathedoesforcharityisthecomplementoftheadjectivewonderful,whichismodifiedbytheadverbso.)•“They’resomewhatunsurewhetherthisistherightdecision.”(Whetherthisistherightdecisionisthecomplementoftheadjectiveunsure,whichismodifiedbytheadverbsomewhat.)

AdjectivePhrasesvs.AdjectivalPhrasesThetermsadjectivephraseandadjectivalphraseareoftentreatedassynonymousterms;however,whiletheyareverysimilar,theyareinfacttwodifferentthings.Atrueadjectivephrasecontainsanadjectiveasaheadword,whileanadjectival

phrasedoesnothaveto—itisanyphrasethatisfunctioningasanadjectiveinasentence,whetherornotitcontainsanadjectiveasaheadword.Therefore,anadjectivephrasecanbeconsideredaspecifickindofadjectivalphrase.Prepositionalphrases,forinstance,oftenfunctionindependentlyasadjectivesinasentence,inwhichcasetheyfollowthenountheyaredescribing.Forexample:•“Thecaronthelawnbelongstomybrother.”•“Passmethecupwiththehandle.”•“Hewroteabookaboutmoderneconomics.”Allthreeoftheseexamplesareadjectivalphrases—theydonothaveadjectivesasheadwords.Theprepositionalphraseinthethirdexampledoescontaintheadjectivemodern,butitismodifyingthenouneconomics(theobjectoftheprepositionabout),notthenounbook.Relativeclauses(alsoknownasadjectiveclauses)arealsokindsofadjectivalphrases.Theyareintroducedbyrelativepronounsandmodifyanouninasentence.Forexample:•“ThemanwhomImetinthebankwasonthesamebusasmetonight.”•“It’sthenicestthingthatIown.”•“Thesong,whichhewroteforhiswife,isbeautiful.”


1.Whichofthefollowingcanbeusedtoformanadjectivephrase?a)Determinersb)Adverbsc)Infinitivesd)Nounclausese)A&Bf)C&Dg)Alloftheabove2.TrueorFalse:Anadjectivephrasecanonlybeattributive.a)Trueb)False

3.Identifywhatisusedtocreatetheadjectivephrase(inbold)inthefollowingsentence:“Amandressedinfinesilkwalkedthroughthedoors.”a)Adverbb)Prepositionalphrasec)Infinitivephrased)Nounclause4.Whichofthefollowingdoesanadjectivephraserequirethatanadjectivalphrasedoesnot?a)Anounasaheadwordb)Anadjectiveasaheadwordc)Anountomodifyd)Anadjectivecomplement

AdverbialPhrasesDefinitionAnadverbialphrase(alsoknownasanadverbphrase)isgroupofwordsthatfunctionsasanadverbinasentence.Thatis,itmodifiesaverb,adjective,adverb,clause,orthesentenceasawhole.Adverbialphrasesoftenfeatureanadverb(knownastheheadword)beingmodifiedbyotherelements,butnotalways.Herearesomeexamplesofadverbialphrases:

veryquicklyinawhilejustabitsurprisinglywellatthefairgroundslightlycloseassoonaspossible

Herearesomeexamplesofadverbphrasesbeingusedinsentences:•“Sheliarodeherbikeveryhastilysoshecouldgethomesooner.”•“Thefarmersworkedlikeasingleunit.”

•“Thesurfatthebeachwascominginextremelyquickly.”•“Aftertheywokeup,theypackeduptheirthingsandthenwentonahike.”•“Hereadtherestaurant'smenuratherslowly.”Asyoucansee,differenttypesofwordgroupscanbeusedasadverbialphrases.

TypesofAdverbialPhrasesAdverbswithmitigatorsandintensifiersAdverbialphrasesarecommonlyformedwhenanadverb’sintensityisbeingmodifiedbyanotheradverb.Thesemodifyingadverbsareknownasmitigators,whichdecreasetheintensityofthemainadverb,andintensifiers,whichincreaseitsintensity.Forexample:•“Thekickerisrunningsomewhatslowlybacktothebench.Hemightbeinjured.”(mitigator)•“Sheperformedverywellonherexam.”(intensifier)

PrepositionalphrasesPrepositionalphrasesareoftenusedadverbially,thoughtheycanalsofunctionasadjectives.Ifthephraseismodifyinganadjective,verb,oradverb,itisanadverbialphrase.Ifitismodifyinganounorapronoun,itisanadjectivalphrase.We’lllookbrieflyatbothusessothedifferenceisclear.

Adverbialprepositionalphrases•“WewereplayingFrisbeeatthepark.”Inthissentence,theprepositionalphraseattheparkisanadverbialphrase,becauseitismodifyingtheverbplaying.•“Alloftheemployeeswerefilledwithexcitementbecausetheylearnedthattheymightgetaraise.”Theprepositionalphrasewithexcitementmodifiestheadjectivefilledinthissentence.Thereforeitisanadverbialphrase.

Adjectivalprepositionalphrase•“Thecatonthewindowsillwasorangeandhadsomewhitespots.”•“Allthepeopleontheboardwalkwerewearingsunglasses.”Intheseexamples,theprepositionalphrasesmodifythenounscatandpeople—theyarefunctioningasadjectivesandnotadverbs.

InfinitivephrasesWecanalsouseinfinitivesorinfinitivephrasesasadverbsinasentence.Infinitivephrasesaregroupsofwordsthatbeginwithaverbintheinfinitiveform(thebaseformoftheverbprecededbytheparticleto)andtypicallyincludeanobjectand/ormodifiers.Similartoprepositionalphrases,infinitivephrasescanactasadverbialphrasesiftheymodifyaverb,adverb,oradjective.However,infinitivescanalsoactasnounphrasesandadjectivalphrases.

Adverbialinfinitivephrases•“Themanbroughthisfishinggeartocatchfishintheriver.”Inthissentence,theinfinitivephrasetocatchfishintherivermodifiestheverbbrought,soitisfunctioningadverbially.•“Patriciawenttothemountainstogoforahike.”Here,theinfinitivephrasetogoforahikemodifiestheverbwent,soitisalsoanadverbialphrase.

Adjectivalinfinitivephrases•“Oneofthebestthingstodoifyougetlostistocallforhelp.”Inthissentence,theinfinitivephrasetodoifyougetlostmodifiesthenounthings.Sinceitismodifyinganoun,itisanadjectivalphrase.

Infinitivenounphrases•“Iliketogoonawalkacoupletimesaweek.”Here,theinfinitivephrasetogoonawalkacoupletimesaweekistheobjectof

theverblike,soitisactingasanoun.

PurposeofuseAdverbialphrasestypicallygivedescriptionsoftime,location,manner,orreason.Theyservetobroadenthemeaningofthesentenceandenhancethecontextoftheverb,adjective,oradverbthattheydescribe.

Time•“Theplayermadetheshotjustbeforethebuzzer.”Theadverbialphrasejustbeforethebuzzerisadescriptionofatimethatmodifiestheverbmade.Itletsyouknowexactlywhentheplayermadetheshot.•“Thesunsetataround7:30PM.”Here,theadverbialphraseataround7:30PMdescribesthetimethatthesunset.Becausethephraseusesthecompoundprepositionataround,ratherthansimplyat,itimpliesalevelofambiguityabouttheexacttimethatthesunset.Subtletieslikethishelptocreatedescriptionsthataremorenuancedandrichwithmeaning.

Locationordirection•“Stuartranfivemilesaroundthetrack.”Aroundthetrackisanadverbialphrasethatestablishesalocationanddirectionfortheverbran.•“Thelargewindturbinesstoodontopofthehill.”Inthissentence,theadverbialphraseontopofthehilltellswherethewindturbinesstood.

Manner•“Theleopardclimbedthetreequitegracefully.”Here,quitegracefullydescribesthemannerinwhichtheleopardclimbedthetree.•“Thefigureskaterleaptinabeautifularc.”Theadverbialphraseinabeautifularcdescribeshowthefigureskaterleapt.

Reasonorpurpose•“Thewomanwenttothestoretogetsomelettuce.”Inthissentence,theinfinitiveadverbialphrasetogetsomelettuceexplainsthereasonwhythewomanwenttothestore.•“Thehockeyteampreparedforthechampionshipmatch.”Theadverbialprepositionalphraseforthechampionshipmatchletsyouknowthepurposefortheteam’spreparation.


1.Whichofthefollowingisanadverbialphrase?a)quitelazyb)thegreatbighouseb)quiteenthusiasticallyd)meanderslowly2.Identifytheadverbialphraseinthefollowingsentence.“Sallythrewthefootballtoherfriend.”a)threwthefootballb)Sallythrewc)toherfriendd)noneoftheabove3.Whichofthefollowingpartsofspeechdoadverbialphrasesnevermodify?a)Nounsb)Verbsc)Adjectivesd)Adverbs4.Identifythetypeofadverbialphraseusedinthefollowingsentence.“Thegroupworkedlatetogetthejobdoneearly.”a)Intensifierb)Infinitivephrasec)Prepositionalphrase

d)Mitigatore)Noneoftheabove5.Whichofthefollowingdoadverbialphrasestypicallynotdescribe?a)Reasonorpurposeb)Timec)Locationordirectiond)Possession

ParticiplePhrasesDefinitionParticiplesarewordsformedfromverbsthatcanfunctionasadjectives,asgerunds,ortoformthecontinuousandperfecttensesofverbs.Pastparticiplesareoften(butnotalways)formedbyadding“-d”or“-ed”totheendoftheverb,whilepresentparticiplesarealwaysformedbyadding“-ing”totheend.Whentheyfunctionasadjectives,participlescanformparticiplephrases(sometimesknownasparticipleclauses)withanyinformationthatmodifiesorcomplementsthem.Becausetheyfunctionasadjectives,participlephrasesmodifynouns,nounphrases,orpronounsinasentence.

UsingparticiplephrasesWecanformphrasesusingpresent,past,perfect,andpassiveperfectparticiples—eachonechangesthewaythenounismodified.Wheretheyappearinasentencealsoimpactsthesentence’smeaning,aswellasthewayinwhichthey’repunctuated.

PresentparticiplephrasesIfweusethepresentparticipleinaphrase,wegivethephraseanactivemeaning.Inotherwords,thenounbeingmodifiedistheagentoftheactionexpressedbythepresentparticiple.Forexample:•“Singingintheshower,Iwasoblivioustothedoorbellringing.”(Iwassinging.)•“James,hidingunderthebed,wascompletelysilent.”(Jameswashiding.)

PastparticiplephrasesIfweusethepastparticipletoformanadjectivalphrase,thenounbeingmodifiediseithergivenapassiveroleintheaction,orelseisbeingdescribed.Forexample:•“Mycar,destroyedintheaccident,wastakenawaybythemechanics.”•“Mysister,exhaustedafteralongday’swork,fellasleeponthesofa.”Inthefirstexample,thenounphrasemycarisnottheagentoftheaction,butisbeingactedupon;ithasbeendestroyedbyanotherdriver,andsoithasapassiverole.Inthesecondexample,mysisterisalsonottheagentoftheverbexhaust.Instead,exhaustedisusedtodescribehowshefeels.

PerfectparticiplephrasesWhenwewanttoemphasizethatoneeventhappenedbeforeanother,wecanusethestructurehaving+pastparticiple—thisissometimesknownastheperfectparticiple.Perfectparticiplephrases,likethepresentparticiple,designatethatthenounbeingmodifiedistheagentoftheparticiple’saction.Forexample:•“Havingseenthemoviebefore,Iwouldn’twanttoseeitagain.”•“Havingdonesomuchexercisethismorning,weshouldeatabiglunch.”•“Shewasexhausted,havingstayedupallnight.”

PassiveperfectparticiplephrasesIfwewanttodescribeanounthatwaspassivelyacteduponinaneventthathappenedbeforeanotherone,wecanusewhatisknownasthepassiveperfectparticiple(sometimescalledtheperfectpassiveparticiple),whichisstructuredashaving+been+pastparticiple.Forexample:•“Havingbeendismissedfromclassearly,Thomasdecidedtoexploretheriverbyhishouse.”•“Theturkey,havingbeenburnttoacrisp,wasthrowninthegarbage.”•“Thebookisancient,havingbeenwrittennearly3,000yearsago.”Thisissimilartohowpastparticiplephrasesareused,buttheemphasisisplacedonthefirstactionhappeningfurtherinthepast.Andwhereaspastparticiplephrasescanbeusedtodescribeanounorpronoun,passiveperfectparticiplephrasesstresstheactionbeingdonetothenoun—theycannotbeusedtocreate

simpledescriptions.Forinstance:✔ “Mysister,exhaustedafteralongday’swork,fellasleeponthesofa.”(correct)✖ “Mysister,havingbeenexhaustedafteralongday’swork,fellasleeponthesofa.”(incorrect)

SentencePlacementWhereaparticiplephraseappearsinasentencechangesthewaywepunctuateit,asdoesitsimportancetothemeaningofthesentenceasawhole.

InitialpositionWhenaparticiplephraseoccursintheinitialposition,itisusuallyseparatedfromtherestofthesentencebyacomma.Forexample:•“Runningtothecar,theboywelcomedhisfatherhomeafterthreemonthsaway.”•“Singingintheshower,Iwasoblivioustothedoorbellringing.”•“Scared,mysistersleptwiththelighton.”

MiddlepositionWhenthephraseoccursinthemiddleposition,andisnotessentialtothemeaningofthesentence,itshouldbesetapartfromtherestofthesentencebytwocommas.Forexample:•“Mysister,exhausted,hasfallenasleeponthesofa.”•“James,hidingunderthebed,wascompletelysilent.”•“Theturkey,havingbeenburnttoacrisp,wasthrowninthegarbage.”Ifwetooktheparticiplephrasesout,eachoftheexamplesabovewouldstillmeanthesamething,justwithlessdescriptivedetail.However,ifaparticiplephraseoccursinthemiddlepositionandisessentialtothemeaningofthesentence,itshouldnotbesetapartbycommas.Forexample:•“Thestudentsfinishedwiththeirworkmayhaveabreak.”•“Jacketsleftbehindwillbedonated.”•“Participantsbreakingtheruleswillberemovedfromthecompetition.”

Ifwetooktheparticiplephrasesoutoftheseexamples,wewouldbeleftwithcompletelydifferentmeanings,aseachphrasedescribesanessentialaspectaboutthenountosetitapartfromothers.Tomakeitclearthatthisdescriptionisintegraltothesentence’smeaning,wedonotusecommastosetitapart.

FinalpositionIftheparticiplephraseoccursinthefinalpositionimmediatelyafterthenounthatitmodifies,itdoesn’tneedacomma.Forexample:•“WelookedforhoursandfinallyfoundJameshidingunderthebed.”•“Thecathadnointerestinthepoordogwaggingitstail.”•“IwasinsuchahurryIdidn’tnoticemyjacketleftonthetable.”However,whenitoccursinfinalpositionbutnotimmediatelyafterthenounthatitmodifies,itdoesneedacomma.Forexample:•“Itwasobvioushereallyenjoyedthemeal,havinghelpedhimselftomoredessert.”•“Mysistercriedasshepackedupherbelongings,saddenedattheideaofmovingoutofherchildhoodhome.”•“Mostofthepuzzlepieceshavedisappeared,misplacedaftersomanyyears.”

CommonmistakesWhenweuseparticiplephrasesasadjectives,it’simportantthatthenounmodifiedisclearlystatedandthatthephraseappearsasclosetoitaspossible.Otherwise,weruntheriskoferrorsknownasmisplacedmodifiersanddanglingmodifiers.

MisplacedmodifiersAmisplacedmodifiercanoccurwhenthereismorethanonenouninthesentence.Ifwedon’tplacetheparticiplephrasecloseenoughtothenounthatitmodifies,itmayseemthatitmodifiesanothernoun.Forexample:•“Terrifiedafterwatchingascarymovie,myfatherhadtocomfortmylittlesister.”Intheabovesentence,theparticiplephraseterrifiedafterwatchingascarymovieissupposedtomodifymylittlesister.However,sincemyfatherappearsclosertotheparticipialphrase,itseemsitisthefatherwhoisterrified.The

sentenceshouldberewrittentocorrectthemisplacedmodifier.Forexample:•“Myfatherhadtocomfortmysister,terrifiedafterwatchingascarymovie.”or;•“Terrifiedafterwatchingascarymovie,mysisterhadtobecomfortedbymyfather.”or;•“Mysister,terrifiedafterwatchingascarymovie,hadtobecomfortedbymyfather.”

DanglingmodifiersAdanglingmodifieroccurswhenwedon’tclearlystatethenounthatissupposedtobemodifiedbytheparticiple.Forexample:•“Walkingdowntheroad,thebirdsweresinging.”Becausethesentencedoesnotstatewhowaswalkingdowntheroad,isseemsthatitwasthebirds,whichisprobablynottheintendedmeaning.Thesentenceneedstoincludeanothernounorpronounbeingdescribedbythephrasetocorrectthedanglingmodifier.Forexample:•“Walkingdowntheroad,I(orshe,he,Mary,thecouple,etc.)heardthebirdssinging.”


1.Participlephraseshavethefunctionof__________inasentence.a)verbsb)adjectivesc)adverbsd)nouns2.Wherecanaparticiplephraseappearinasentence?a)Atthebeginningb)Inthemiddlec)Attheendd)A&Be)B&C

f)Alloftheabove3.Whichofthefollowingsentencesispunctuatedcorrectly?a)“Anthony,tiredoffailinghisexams,startedstudyingeverynightafterschool.”b)“Anthonytiredoffailinghisexamsstartedstudyingeverynightafterschool.”c)“Anthony,tiredoffailinghisexamsstartedstudyingeverynightafterschool.”d)“Anthonytiredoffailinghisexams,startedstudyingeverynightafterschool.”4.Identifywhatkindofparticiplephraseisusedinthefollowingsentence:“Havingworkedallherlife,Susannewasreadytoenjoyherretirement.”a)Presentparticiplephraseb)Pastparticiplephrasec)Perfectparticiplephrased)Passiveperfectparticiplephrase5.Whenshouldaparticiplephraseappearinginthemiddleofasentencebesetapartbycommas?a)Whenitidentifiesanounasanactiveagentb)Whenitisessentialtothemeaningofthesentencec)Whenitisnotessentialtothemeaningofthesentenced)Alwayse)Never6.Whatkindofparticiplephraseindicatesanounthatisactedupon(nottheagentoftheparticiple’saction)?a)Presentparticiplephraseb)Pastparticiplephrasec)Perfectparticiplephrased)Passiveperfectparticiplephrasee)A&Cf)B&D

AbsolutePhrasesDefinitionAnabsolutephrase(sometimesknownasanabsoluteconstruction)isagrammaticallyindependentgroupofwordsthatservestomodifyoraddinformationtoanentiresentence.Anabsolutephraseisusuallymadeupofanounorpronounandaparticiple,alongwithanymodifyinginformation.Becauseoftheiruniqueconstruction,absolutephrasesaremorecommonlyfoundindescriptivewriting,suchasprose,thaninspeechorevenineverydaywriting.

UsingabsolutephrasesWegenerallyuseabsolutephrasesatthebeginningofasentencetointroduceadditionalinformation,orattheendofasentencetoprovideafinalcommentonthesentenceasawhole.Becauseabsolutephrasesareconsideredparenthetical(meaningtheyarenotanintegralpartofthesentence),wealwayssetthemapartbycommasordashes.Forexample:•“Thestudentshavingleftearly,Idecidedtocatchuponsomegrading.”•“Thetestfinished,Jasonheavedasighofrelief.”•“IhopetogetintoHarvardnextyear—Godwilling.”•“Shewalkedoutthedoor,herheadturningforalastlookathome.”Itisalsopossibletouseanabsolutephraseinthemiddleofasentencetohighlightorputextraemphasisontheextrainformation.Forinstance:•“Theteacher,herstudentshavingleftearly,decidedtocatchuponsomegrading.”•“Ihope—Godwilling—togetintoHarvardnextyear.”

OmittingtheparticipleWhenaparticipleoftheverbbe(beingorhavingbeen)ispartofanabsolutephrase,itisverycommontoomititaltogether.Forinstance:•“Allthingsbeingequal,I’dratherfinishthisnextweek.”

•“Allthingsequal,I’dratherfinishthisnextweek.”•“Istartedgettingnervous,havingbeenaloneforsolong.”•“Istartedgettingnervous,aloneforsolong.”

However,theparticipleofbeshouldnotbeomittedwhendoingsomightleadtoaconfusingconstruction.Forinstance:

✔ “Thatbeingthecase,weshouldresolvetheissuequickly.”(correct)✖ “Thatthecase,weshouldresolvetheissuequickly.”(incorrect)


1.Whichofthefollowingisusuallyfoundinanabsolutephrase?a)Agerundb)Aninfinitivec)Aparticipled)Afiniteverb2.Whereisanabsolutephraseusuallylocatedinasentence?a)Atthebeginningb)Inthemiddlec)Attheendd)A&Be)A&Cf)Alloftheabove3.Whichofthefollowingisnotusedtoseparateanabsolutephrasefromtherestofthesentence?a)Asemicolonb)Acommac)Adashd)Parentheses4.Whencanaparticiplebeomitted?a)Whentheparticipleisofanauxiliaryverbb)Whentheparticipleisoftheverbbe

c)Whentheparticipledoesnothaveasubjectd)Alwayse)Never

AppositivesDefinitionAnappositiveisanounthatservestodescribeorrenameanothernoun(orpronoun)thatappearsdirectlybeforeitinasentence.Whenanappositiveismadeupofanounphrase,itisknownasanappositivephrase.

PropernounsasappositivesAppositivesthataremadeupofonenounormorewithoutanydeterminersormodifiersarealmostalwayspropernouns,whichservetonamecommonnounsthatappearsbeforethem.Forexample:•“Ourcat,Scruffles,hatesbeinglefthomealone.”(ThepropernounScrufflesprovidesanameforthecommonnouncat.)•“YourfriendJackisheretoseeyou.”(ThepropernounJackprovidesanameforthecommonnounfriend.)•“America’sfirstpresident,GeorgeWashington,wasborninthecolonyofVirginia.”

AppellationsAppellationsareadditionalwordsaddedtoaperson’sname,whichgenerallybecomecapitalizedaspartofthepropernoun.Appellationsarenotconsideredappositivesintheirownright,buttheycanbeusedasappositivesinconjunctionwiththepropernoun.Forexample:•“Theheir,PrinceWilliam,isadoredbymany.”(ThepropernounWilliamwiththeappellationPrinceprovidesanameforthecommonnounheir.)•“ItalywasinvadedbytheconquerorAttilatheHunin452.”(ThepropernounAttilawiththeappellationtheHunprovidesanameforthecommonnounconqueror.)

AppositivephrasesItisalsoverycommontousenounphrases(whichconsistofanounaccompaniedbyanydeterminersandmodifiers)asappositivestoprovidemoredescriptiveidentifyinginformationaboutanoun;theseappositivephrasescanmodifybothcommonandpropernouns.Theyusuallybeginwiththearticlesthe,a,andan.Forexample:•“Theoffice,anoldGeorgianbuilding,badlyneededrepairs.”(Intheappositivephrase,theheadnounbuildingismodifiedbythearticleanandtheadjectivesoldandGeorgian.)•“JanetSmith,aformerstudentofmine,isjoiningthefacultynextspring.”(Intheappositivephrase,theheadnounstudentismodifiedbythearticlea,theadjectiveformer,andtheprepositionalphraseofmine.)•“Justmeetmeatmycar,theoldstationwagonparkedacrossthestreet.”(Intheappositivephrase,theheadcompoundnounstationwagonismodifiedbythearticlethe,theadjectiveold,andtheparticiplephraseparkedacrossthestreet.)Whileitismostcommontousethearticlesthe,a,andan,wecanalsouseindefinitepronouns(suchasoneorsome)tobeginanappositivephrase,asin:•“Myfather,oneofthetoughestlawyersinthestate,alwayswantedmetofollowinhisfootsteps.”•“Thescientists,someofthemostrespectedintheirfields,collaboratedonapaperonthedangersofclimatechange.”

IntroductoryappositivephrasesAppositivesmostcommonlyappeardirectlyafterthenountheyidentify,aswehaveseeninalloftheexamplessofar.However,wecanalsoplaceanappositivebeforeanounwhenitservestointroduceasentence.Inthiscase,itdoesnotneedtobeimmediatelyadjacenttothenoun.Thisaddsemphasistotheinformationtheappositiveprovides.Notethatwecanonlyuseappositivephrases(asopposedtopropernounsfunctioningasappositives)atthebeginningofsentences.Forexample:•“Theonlyonefromherclasstograduatewithhonors,Ms.Thomsonnowrunsoneofthelargestbusinessesintheworld.”•“Atrueclassic,thisbookinspiredagenerationofyoungreaders.”

•“Astaunchconservative,theNewYorksenatorhaspromisedtoreinvigorateindustryinherstate.”

Restrictivevs.non-restrictiveappositivesRestrictiveappositivesAppositivesthatarenecessaryforthesentence’smeaningareknownasrestrictiveappositives.Theseareoftenpropernouns,andtheyareintegratedintothesentencewithoutcommas.Forexample:•“ThepopularrestaurantJoe’sPlacegetsthousandsofdinersaday.”Withouttheinformationtheappositiveprovides,thesentencewouldbeconfusingandthereaderwouldnotknowwhichrestaurantthesentenceisreferringto.Othertimes,thesentencewouldstillmakelogicalsense,buttheimpliedmeaningchangesslightly.Consider,forexample,thesetwosentences:•“MybrotherlivesinNewYork.”•“MybrotherMichaellivesinNewYork.”Bothsentencesmakesense.However,inthefirstexample,itisimpliedthatthespeakeronlyhasonebrother,andhelivesinNewYork.Inthesecondexample,itsoundslikethespeakerhasspecifiedhisbrother’snamebecausehehasmorethanonebrother.Wecanalsouseappositivephrasesrestrictivelywhenwearemakingacomparisonbetweentwodescriptionsofthesameperson.Forexample:•“JeremyJonestheprofessorhasgainedmuchmorepraisethanJeremyJonesthenovelisteverdid.”

Non-restrictiveappositivesAppositivesthatarenotessentialtothemeaningofthesentenceareknownasnon-restrictiveappositives.Wesetnon-restrictiveappositivesapartfromtherestofthesentencewithcommas.Forexample:•“NeilArmstrong,thefirstpersontowalkonthemoon,wasapilotintheKoreanWar.”•“Myhometown,Denver,hasafantasticzoo.”

•“Abrilliantandeagerstudent,hegraduatedfromcollegeattheageof19.”Ineachoftheabovesentences,therewouldbenopotentialmisunderstandingorlossinmeaningiftheappositiveswereleftout.


1.Whattypesofnounsareusedasappositiveswithoutanymodifiers?a)Commonnounsb)Propernounsc)Compoundnounsd)Abstractnouns2.Whichofthefollowingareusedtomakeappositivephrases?a)Nounphrasesb)Nounclausesc)Adjectivephrasesd)Relativeclauses3.Identifytheappositiveinthefollowingsentence:“Becauseoftherecession,myson,asoftwareengineer,hadtomovehomewhenhelosthisjob.”a)Becauseoftherecessionb)mysonc)asoftwareengineerd)hadtomovehome4.Identifytheappositiveinthefollowingsentence:“AskyoursisterMaryifshe’dliketocometoamovieonSaturday.”a)sisterb)Maryc)shed)amovie5.Appositivephrasesaremostcommonly________________.a)Restrictiveb)Non-restrictive

ClausesDefinitionClausesaregroupsofwordsthatcontainbothasubjectandapredicate.Therearetwomaintypesofclauses:independentclauses,whichcanfunctionindependentlyassentences,anddependentclauses,whichdependonanindependentclausetoformasentence.We’llbrieflycoverthevarioustypesofclausesbelow.Tolearnmoreabouthowclausesareformedandused,continueontoeachindividualsection.

IndependentClausesAnindependentclause(alsoknownasamainclause)isaclausethatformsacomplete,independentthought.Itdoesnotrequireanythingelsetobeconsideredcomplete,andsoitcanstandaloneasasentence.Asingleindependentclauseisknownasasimplesentence.Itcontainsasubjectandapredicate,eachofwhichcanhavemodifiers.Forexample:•“Irefuse.”•“Theyliketostayinfancyhotels.”•“Thegirlintheredjacketranquicklytowardsthebus.”•“TheBeatleswereagreatband.”•“Iwishitweren’tMonday.”Ineachoftheabovecases,theindependentclauseremainsabletostandaloneasasimplesentence.Sometimesweformasentencewithtwo(andoccasionallymore)independentclauses,whichisknownasacompoundsentence.Wejointheindependentclausestogetherwithacommaandaconjunctionorasemicolonwithoutaconjunction.Forexample:•“Shewantedtoplaytennis,buthewantedtoplaybasketball.”•“MybrotherlivesinDetroit;IwishIlivedthere.”

DependentClauses

Adependentclause(alsocalledasubordinateclause)isaclausethatreliesontheinformationfromanindependentclausetoformacomplete,logicalthought.Assuch,itcannotstandonitsowntoformasentence.Dependentclausesareusuallymarkedbydependentwords,suchassubordinatingconjunctions,relativepronouns,orrelativeadverbs,whichlinkthemtoindependentclausesinasentence.Forexample:•“WheneverItravel,Iliketostayinfancyhotels.”•“Westruckupagreatconversationwithapersonwhomwemetontheplane.”•“Shefounditstrangethattheyliketoeatsushi.”Ineachoftheexamplesabove,thegroupsofwordsinboldareclauses,becausetheyeachhaveasubject(I,we,andthey)andapredicate(travel,metontheplane,andliketoeatsushi).However,wecanalsoseethattheyaredependentclausesbecauseoftheirdependentwords—whenever,whomandthat.Becauseofthis,theycannotstandaloneasasentence;theydependontheinformationfromtheindependentclauses(initalics)tobelogicallycomplete.

CategoriesofDependentClausesBecausedependentclausesmustbeapartoforattachedtoanindependentclause,theyserveavarietyofgrammaticalfunctionsdependingonwhattypeofdependentclauseweareusing.Therearethreeprimarycategoriesofdependentclauses:nounclauses,relativeclauses,andadverbialclauses.We’lllookatafewexamplesofeach.Tolearnmoreaboutthem,continueontothesectionDependentClauses,ortotheindividualsectionsforeachtypeofclause.

NounClausesNounclausesaredependentclausesthatfunctionasnouns.Becauseofthis,nounclausescanperformalltherolesthatanormalnouncouldplayinasentence,suchasthesubjectortheobjectofaverb.Forexample:•“Whereverwedecidetogoisfinewithme.”(subjectofthesentence)•“IwanttoseewhatisavailablebeforeImakeapurchase.”(directobjectoftheverbsee)

RelativeClausesRelativeclauses,alsocalledadjectiveclauses,providedescriptiveinformationaboutanoun.Theseclausescaneitherbeessentialtothesentence(restrictiveclauses)ornon-essential(non-restrictiveclauses).Theyareintroducedbyeitherarelativepronounorarelativeadverb.Herearesomeexamples:•“Theman,whomI’dheardsomuchabout,gaveanelectrifyingspeechtothecrowd.”(non-restrictiveclause)•“ThebookthatIwroteisbeingpublishedinJanuary.”(restrictiveclause)•“Anystudentwhosedeskisnotcleanwillhavedetentionafterclass.”(restrictiveclause)•“IlovecasualFridays,whenwegettowearjeanstowork.”(non-restrictiveclause)

AdverbialClausesAnadverbialoradverbclauseisused,likearegularadverb,tomodifyadjectives,verbs,adverbs,andsometimesentireclauses.Adverbialclausesusesubordinatingconjunctionstoconnecttoanindependentclause.Forexample:•“Iwenttotheparkbeforemyparentswokeup.”(modifiestheverbwent)•“Animalsarecutewhilethey’reyoung.”(modifiestheadjectivecute)•“IworkbetterwhenIhavetotalprivacy.”(modifiestheadverbbetter)•“IhavelovedyousincethedayImetyou.”(modifiestheentireclauseIhavelovedyou)

OmittedsubjectsinimperativesentencesEveryclauseinEnglishmusthavebothasubjectandapredicate.However,whenweformimperativesentencestoissuecommandsorrequests,thesubjectisalwaysimpliedbecausethesentenceisdirectedatsomeonespecific(eitherthereaderorthepersonbeingspokento).Inthiscase,weneverincludethesubject.Forexample:•“Doyourhomework!”

•“Pleaseopenthewindow.”•“Letmeknowwhenthedocumentsarrive.”Wesometimesincludeaperson’snametospecifywhoisbeingaddressed,butthisisnotthesameasthesubjectofthesentence.Itisknownasanounofaddress(alsoknownasavocative),whichisconsideredparentheticalandsetapartbycommas.Forinstance:•“John,doyourhomework!”•“Pleaseopenthewindow,Mary.”•“Letmeknowwhenthedocumentsarrive,sir.”


1.Whatkindsofclausescanfunctionassentencesontheirown?a)Independentclausesb)Dependentclauses2.Whichofthefollowingcannotbeusedtolinkadependentclausetoanindependentclause?a)Relativepronounsb)Relativeadverbsc)Subordinatingconjunctionsd)Coordinatingconjunctions3.Howcantwoindependentclausesbejoinedtoformacompoundsentence?a)Acommafollowedbyasubordinatingconjunctionb)Asemicolonfollowedbyacoordinatingconjunctionc)Acommafollowedbyacoordinatingconjunctiond)Asemicolone)A&Bf)C&D4.Inwhichofthefollowingwayscanadependentclausefunctiongrammaticallyinasentence?a)Asanounb)Asanadjective

c)Asanadverbd)Alloftheabovee)B&Cf)Noneoftheabove5.Inwhattypesofsentencesisthesubjectnotincluded?a)Interrogativesentences(questions)b)Imperativesentences(commandsorrequests)c)Declarativesentences(statements)d)Noneoftheabove

IndependentClausesDefinitionAnindependentclause(alsoknownasamainclause)isaclausethatformsacomplete,independentthought.Likeallclauses,anindependentclausecontainsasubjectandapredicate(whichconsistsofaverbandanyrelatedinformation).

FormingsentencesAnindependentclausedoesnotrequireanythingelsetobeconsideredcomplete,andsoitcanstandaloneasasentence.Thisisknownasasimplesentence.Forexample:•“Irefuse.”•“Thewindblows.”•“Dogsbark.”•“Beessting.”•“Catsmeow.”Intheaboveexamples,thesubjectbeginsthesentencesandthepredicateendsthem.Thepredicate(ineachofthesecasesmadeupofjustaverb)containsallthenecessaryinformationaboutthesubjecttobeconsideredlogical,soeachisconsideredanindependentclause.Thepredicateofanindependentclausecanalsocontainadditionalinformationthatmodifiestheverb.Forexample:

•“Iliketostayinfancyhotels.”(prepositionalphraseusedasanadverb)•“Shewantedtoplaybasketball.”(infinitivephraseusedasthedirectobjectoftheverb)Ineachoftheabovecases,theindependentclauseremainsabletostandaloneasasimplesentence,despitetheadditionofqualifyinginformation.

FormingsentenceswithdependentclausesAdependentclause,ontheotherhand,reliesontheinformationfromanindependentclausetoformacomplete,logicalthought.Dependentclauses(alsoknownassubordinateclauses)areusuallymarkedbydependentwords,suchasasubordinatingconjunctionsorrelativepronouns.Herearesomeexamplesofdependentclauses:•“wheneverItravel”(subordinatingconjunction)•“whomwemetontheplane”(relativepronoun)Wecanseethattheclausesabovedonotexpressacompleteidea—theyrequireindependentclausestobelogicallycomplete:•“WheneverItravel,Iliketostayinfancyhotels.”•“Westruckupagreatconversationwithapersonwhomwemetontheplane.”Anindependentclausethatcontainsorisconnectedtoatleastonedependentclause,asweseeintheabovetwoexamples,formswhatisknownasacomplexsentence.

FormingsentenceswithmultipleindependentclausesAsentenceformedbytwoindependentclausesisknownasacompoundsentence.Forexample:•“Shewantedtoplaytennis,buthewantedtoplaybasketball.”Ifatleastoneofthoseindependentclausescontainsadependentclause,thenthesentenceisconsideredacompound-complexsentence,asin:•“BecauseIlovetoread,Iliketovisitthelibrary,andIenjoygoingtobookstores,too.”


1.Whichofthefollowingistrueofbothindependentanddependentclauses?a)Abletostandaloneasasimplesentenceb)Containsasubjectc)Containsapredicated)A&Be)B&Cf)Alloftheabove2.Whichofthefollowingistrueonlyofanindependentclause?a)Abletostandaloneasasimplesentenceb)Containsasubjectc)Containsapredicated)A&Be)B&Cf)Alloftheabove3.Whatisasentencecalledthatisformedfromanindependentclauseandatleastonedependentclause?a)compoundsentenceb)dependentsentencec)complexsentenced)compound-complexsentence4.Isthefollowinganindependentoradependentclause?(Capitalizationandpunctuationhavebeenintentionallyleftout.)“hewaswalkinghome”a)independentclauseb)dependentclause5.Isthefollowinganindependentoradependentclause?(Capitalizationandpunctuationhavebeenintentionallyleftout.)“whileIwaitedforthebus”a)independentclause

b)dependentclause

DependentClausesDefinitionAdependentclause(alsocalledasubordinateclause)isaclausethatreliesontheinformationfromanindependentclausetoformacomplete,logicalthought.Assuch,itcannotstandonitsowntoformasentence.Therearethreetypesofdependentclause:nounclauses,relativeclauses(alsocalledadjectiveclauses),andadverbialclauses.

FormingDependentClausesAclause,whetheritisdependentorindependent,alwaysconsistsoftwoparts—asubjectandapredicate(thoughthesubjectcanbeimpliedincertainsituations).Thepredicateconsistsofaverborverbphrase(averbandanyobjectsormodifiersrelatingtoit),whilethesubjectconsistsofanoun,apronoun,oraphrasecontainingeither.Dependentclausesareusuallymarkedbydependentwords,suchassubordinatingconjunctionsorrelativepronouns.Herearesomeexamplesofdependentclauses:•“wheneverItravel”•“whomwemetontheplane”•“thattheyliketoeatsushi”Wecanseethateachoftheexamplesaboveisaclause,becausetheyeachhaveasubject(I,we,andthey)andapredicate(travel,metontheplane,andliketoeatsushi).However,wecanalsoseethattheyaredependent,astheydonotexpressacompleteidea—theyrequireindependentclausestobelogicallycomplete:•“WheneverItravel,Iliketostayinfancyhotels.”•“Westruckupagreatconversationwithapersonwhomwemetontheplane.”•“Shefounditstrangethattheyliketoeatsushi.”

FunctionsofDependentClauses

Becausedependentclausesmustbeapartoforattachedtoanindependentclause,theyserveavarietyofgrammaticalfunctions.Thesevarydependingonwhattypeofdependentclauseweareusing.

NounClausesNounclausesaredependentclausesthatfunctionasnouns.Becauseofthis,nounclausescanperformalltherolesthatanormalnounwouldplayinasentence:theycanactasthesubject,adirectorindirectobject,apredicatenoun,theobjectofapreposition,oranadjectivecomplement.Let’slookatanexampleofeach.

TheSubject•“Whereverwedecidetogoisfinewithme.”(Whereverwedecidetogoisthesubjectofthelinkingverbis.)

DirectObject•“IwanttoseewhatisavailablebeforeImakeapurchase.”(whatisavailableisthedirectobjectoftheverbsee.)

IndirectObject•“I’llsendwhoeverisresponsibleastronglywordedletter.”(Whoeverisresponsibleistheindirectobjectoftheverbsend,andastronglywordedletteristhedirectobject.)

PredicateNoun•“ThethingIwishformostisthatpeoplewouldalljustgetalong.”(Thatpeoplewouldalljustgetalongisthepredicatenounofthelinkingverbis,renamingthesubjectthethingIwishformost.)

Objectofapreposition•“TheisthemantowhomIowemylife.”(WhomIowemylifeistheobjectoftheprepositionto,actingasanadjectivetodescribethenounman.)

Adjectivecomplement

•“I’mthrilledthatyouarecomingtovisit!”(Thatyouarecomingtovisitisthecomplementoftheadjectivethrilled.)

RelativeClausesRelativeclausesarealsocalledadjectiveclausesbecausetheyprovidedescriptiveinformationaboutanounornounphrase.Theseclausescaneitherbeessentialtothesentence(restrictiveclauses)ornon-essential(non-restrictiveclauses).Relativeclausesareintroducedbyeitherarelativepronounorarelativeadverb.Herearesomeexamples:•“Theman,whomI’dheardsomuchabout,gaveanelectrifyingspeechtothecrowd.”(WhomI’dheardsomuchaboutisanon-restrictiveclausemodifyingthewordman.)•“Theescapedgiraffe,whichhadbeenonthelooseforweeks,wasfinallycaptured.”(Whichhadbeenonthelooseforweeksisanon-restrictiveclausemodifyingthewordgiraffe.)•“ThebookthatIwroteisbeingpublishedinJanuary.”(ThatIwroteisarestrictiveclausemodifyingthewordbook.)•“Anystudentwhosedeskisnotcleanwillhavedetentionafterclass.”(Whosedeskisnotcleanisarestrictiveclausemodifyingthewordstudent.)•“ThehousewhereIwasbornisaveryspecialplace.”(WhereIwasbornisarestrictiveclausemodifyingthewordhouse.)•“IlovecasualFridays,whenwegettowearjeanstowork.”(Whenwegettowearjeanstoworkisanon-restrictiveclausemodifyingthewordFridays.)

AdverbialClausesAnadverbialoradverbclauseisused,likearegularadverb,tomodifyadjectives,verbs,andadverbs.Adverbialclausesusesubordinatingconjunctionstoconnecttoanindependentclause.Forexample:•“Iwenttotheparkbeforemyparentswokeup.”(Beforemyparentswokeupisanadverbialclausethatmodifiestheverbwent.)•“Shewaitedontheshoreuntiltheshipdeparted.”(Untiltheshipdepartedisanadverbialclausethatmodifiestheverbwaited.)

•“Animalsarecutewhilethey’reyoung.”(Whilethey’reyoungisanadverbialclausethatmodifiestheadjectivecute.)•“IworkbetterwhenIhavetotalprivacy.”(WhenIhavetotalprivacyisanadverbialclausethatmodifiestheadverbbetter.)


1.Whichofthefollowingistrueofbothindependentanddependentclauses?a)Unabletostandaloneassimplesentencesb)Containasubjectc)Containapredicated)A&Be)B&Cf)Alloftheabove2.Whichofthefollowingistrueonlyofdependentclauses?a)Unabletostandaloneassimplesentencesb)Containasubjectc)Containapredicated)A&Be)B&Cf)Alloftheabove3.Whichtypeofdependentclauseisabletofunctionasthesubjectofasentence?a)relativeclauseb)nounclausec)adverbialclaused)Alloftheabovee)Noneoftheabove4.Whichtypeofdependentclauseisabletofunctionasaverbinasentence?a)relativeclauseb)nounclausec)adverbialclaused)Alloftheabove

e)Noneoftheabove5.Identifythetypeofdependentclause(inbold)inthefollowingsentence:“Iliketowakeupbeforethesunrises.”a)relativeclauseb)nounclausec)adverbialclaused)Alloftheabovee)Noneoftheabove

NounClausesDefinitionAnounclauseisatypeofdependentclausethatisabletofunctiongrammaticallylikeanouninasentence.Assuch,itservestonameaperson,place,orthing.Becauseofthis,nounclausescanperformalltherolesthatanormalnounwouldfillinasentence:theycanactasthesubject,adirectorindirectobject,apredicatenoun,anadjectivecomplement,ortheobjectofapreposition.

FormingNounClausesNounclausesmostcommonlybeginwiththewordsthat,how,if,andthe“wh-”words—what,whatever,where,wherever,when,whenever,why,which,whichever,who,whom,whoever,whomever,whether,andwhatever.Likeallclauses,anounclausecontainsasubject(sometimesrepresentedbyoneofthewordsabove)andapredicate(averbandanyadditionalinformationattachedtoit).Belowwe’lllookatsomeexamplesofvariousnounclausesperformingthedifferentfunctionsofanoun:

SubjectsThesubjectperforms,occupies,orcontrolstheactionoftheverb.•“Whereverwedecidetogoisfinewithme.”(Whereverwedecidetogoisthesubjectofthelinkingverbis.)

•“Whichoptionisbestremainstobeseen.”(Whichoptionisbestisthesubjectoftheverbremains.)•“Whoeverwantstogoshouldsignupwiththeirsupervisor.”(Whoeverwantstogoisthesubjectofthephrasalverbsignup.)•“Thatyouactsofrivolouslywithmoneyshowsyouaren’treadytoleadthiscompany.”(Thatyouactsofrivolouslywithmoneyisthesubjectoftheverbshows.)

ObjectsRememberthatintransitiveverbsdonottakedirectandindirectobjects,soyouwillonlyfindnounclausesusedastheobjectsoftransitiveverbs.

DirectobjectsAdirectobjectisapersonorthingthatdirectlyreceivestheactionoftheverb•“Iwillenjoywhateverwedecidetodo.”(Whateverwedecidetodoisthedirectobjectoftheverbenjoy.)•“We’vedecidedtogowhereverthewindtakesus.”(Whereverthewindtakesusisthedirectobjectoftheverbgo.)•“IwanttoseewhatisavailablebeforeImakeapurchase.”(whatisavailableisthedirectobjectoftheverbsee.)•“Atthispoint,we’lltakewhateverwecanget.”(Whateverwecangetisthedirectobjectoftheverbtake.)

IndirectobjectsAnindirectobjectisaperson(orsometimesthing)thatreceivesthedirectobjectviatheactionoftheverb.Forexample:•“I’llsendwhoeverisresponsibleastronglywordedletter.”(Whoeverisresponsibleistheindirectobjectoftheverbsend,andastronglywordedletteristhedirectobject.)•“Justpaywhomeveryouhire$100,asweagreed.”(Whomeveryouhireistheindirectobjectoftheverbpay,and$100isthedirectobject.)•“Iwillgivewhateveryouproposemyfullsupport.”(Whateveryouproposeistheindirectobjectoftheverbgive,andmyfullsupportisthedirectobject.)

PredicatenounsPredicatenounsareasubsetofalargercategoryknownassubjectcomplements(includingpredicatepronounsandpredicativeadjectives),whichrenameorre-identifythesubjectafteralinkingverb(usuallyaformoftheverbbe).Forexample:•“JapaniswhereIwanttogomost.”(WhereIwanttogomostisthepredicatenounofthelinkingverbis,renamingthesubjectJapan.)•“ThethingIwishformostisthatpeoplewouldalljustgetalong.”(Thatpeoplewouldalljustgetalongisthepredicatenounofthelinkingverbis,renamingthesubjectthethingIwishformost.)•“Politiciansarewhocreatethelaws.”(Whocreatethelawsisthepredicatenounofthelinkingverbare,renamingthesubjectpoliticians.)

ObjectsofprepositionsAprepositionisfollowedbyitsobjecttocreateaprepositionalphrase,whichcanfunctionasanadverboranadjectiveinasentence.Forexample:•“TheisthemantowhomIowemylife.”(WhomIowemylifeistheobjectoftheprepositionto,actingasanadjectivetodescribethenounman.)•“IranintoafewpeoplefromwhereIusedtolive.”(WhereIusedtoliveistheobjectoftheprepositionfrom,actingasanadjectivetodescribethenounpeople.)•“Theywereangrybecauseofwhattheyfoundout.”(Whattheyfoundoutistheobjectofthecompoundprepositionbecauseof,actingasanadverbtodescribetheadjectiveangry.)•“Shecanstudywithwhomevershelikes.”(Whomevershelikesistheobjectoftheprepositionwith,actingasanadverbtomodifytheverbstudy.)

AdjectivecomplementsAnadjectivecomplementisaclauseorphrasethatcompletesthemeaningofapredicativeadjective.Forexample:•“Wewerecuriouswhytheydecidedtoleave.”(Whytheydecidedtoleaveisthecomplementoftheadjectivecurious.)•“I’mthrilledthatyouarecomingtovisit!”(Thatyouarecomingtovisitisthe

complementoftheadjectivethrilled.)•“It’ssowonderfulwhathedidforthoseorphans.”(Whathedidforthoseorphansisthecomplementoftheadjectivewonderful.)•“They’reunsurewhetherthisistherightdecision.”(Whetherthisistherightdecisionisthecomplementoftheadjectiveunsure.)

MultiplenounclausesBecauseoftheirvariousroles,asentencecanhavemultiplenounclausesfunctioningindifferentways.Takethefollowingsentence,forexample:•“WhatIdecidewilldeterminewhogetsthepromotion.”Here,thenounclausewhatIdecideisactingasthesubjectofthesentence,whiletheclausewhogetsthepromotionisactingasthedirectobjectoftheverbdetermine.Here’sanotherexample:•“Whattheywanttoknowiswhyyouthinkthisisacceptable.”Whattheywanttoknowisanounclauseactingasthesubject,andwhyyouthinkthisisacceptableisapredicatenounthatrenamesthesubject.

ReplacinganounclausewithapronounAnounclausecanalwaysbereplacedbyasinglepronoun(suchasyou,he,she,it,they,there,etc.),thesamewayanormalnounwould.Ifyouareuncertainwhetherapartofasentenceisfunctioningasanounclause,tryreplacingitwithapronoun;ifthesentenceisstillgrammaticallycomplete,thenthepartyoureplacedisanounclause.(Theonlyexceptiontothisruleiswhenanounclauseisusedasanadjectivecomplement,sinceapronouncannotfunctionthisway.)Let’stryreplacingsomeoftheexamplesweusedabovewithpronouns:•“Whoeverwantstogoshouldsignupwiththeirsupervisor.”•“Theyshouldsignupwiththeirsupervisor.”•“IwanttoseewhatisavailablebeforeImakeapurchase.”•“IwanttoseeitbeforeImakeapurchase.”•“Justpaywhomeveryouhire$100,asweagreed.”•“Justpayher$100,asweagreed.”

•“ThethingIwishformostisthatpeoplewouldalljustgetalong.”•“ThethingIwishformostisthis.”•“Shecanstudywithwhomevershelikes.”•“Shecanstudywithyou.”•“Whattheywanttoknowiswhyyouthinkthisisacceptable.”•“Thatisit.”Ineachoftheseexamples,thenewsentenceisstillgrammaticallycomplete(evenifitseemstobelackinginformation),provingthatanounclausewasusedineachcase.


1.Whichofthefollowingisnotafunctionofanounclause?a)Actingasthesubjectofasentenceb)Actingastheobjectofaverbc)Modifyinganadjective,adverb,orverbd)Followingalinkingverbtorenamethesubjecte)Actingastheobjectofapreposition2.Whichofthefollowingcanbeusedtobeginanounclause?a)youb)therec)itd)that3.Identifythefunctionofthenounphraseinthefollowingsentence:“IwishthatIweretaller.”a)Thesubjectb)Directobjectoftheverbc)Indirectobjectoftheverbd)Predicatenoun4.Identifythenounclauseinthefollowingsentence:“Theboss,whoisawayonvacation,shouldknowwhatwasdiscussed.”a)Thebossb)whoisawayonvacation

c)shouldknowwhatd)whatwasdiscussed

RelativeClausesDefinitionRelativeclauses(alsoknownasadjectiveclausesoradjectivalclauses)aredependentclausesthatprovidedescriptiveinformationaboutanounornounphrase.Relativeclausesareintroducedbyeitherarelativepronounorarelativeadverb,andtheinformationtheyprovidecaneitherbeessentialornonessentialtothecompletenessofthesentence.

RelativePronounsandRelativeAdverbsRelativepronounsareusedtohelpclarifywhoorwhatasentenceistalkingabout,orelsegiveextrainformationaboutthepersonorthing.Likeotherpronouns,theyhavethegrammaticalfunctionofnouns,andcanbeeitherthesubjectorobjectoftherelativeclause.Therearefivecommonrelativepronouns:who,whom,which,whose,andthat.Herearesomeexamplesofrelativeclausesintroducedbyrelativepronouns:•“There’sthewomanwhositsnexttomeonthebus.”•“Theman,whomI’dheardsomuchabout,gaveanelectrifyingspeechtothecrowd.”*•“Theescapedgiraffe,whichhadbeenonthelooseforweeks,wasfinallycaptured.”•“ThebookthatIwroteisbeingpublishedinJanuary.”•“Anystudentwhosedeskisnotcleanwillhavedetentionafterclass.”Relativeadverbs,ontheotherhand,areusedwhentheinformationrelatestoaplace,time,orthereasonanactiontookplace;likemanyotheradverbs,theymodifyaverbinthesentence.Therelativeadverbsarewhere,when,andwhy.Forexample:•“ThehousewhereIwasbornisaveryspecialplace.”(Wheremodifiestheverbborn.)

•“IlovecasualFridays,whenwegettowearjeanstowork.”(Whenmodifiestheverbwear.)•“Idon’tknowwhyhegotsoangry.”(Whymodifiestheverbget.)(*UsageNote:WhomisbecomingincreasinglyrareinmodernEnglishoutsideofformalwritingorspeech.Althoughitistechnicallycorrecttousewhomwhenitfunctionsastheobjectofaclauseandwhowhenitfunctionsasthesubject,itismuchmorecommontousewhoinbothcases.)

RestrictiveandNon-restrictiveClausesClausesthatprovideessentialinformationareknownasrestrictiveclauses(sometimesalsocalleddefiningclauses),whilethosethatprovidenonessentialinformationareknownasnon-restrictiveclauses(sometimescallednon-definingclauses).Becausenon-restrictiveclausesarenotintegral,theyareseparatedfromtherestofthesentencebycommas.

RestrictiverelativeclausesRestrictiverelativeclausesidentifyaparticularnoun,givingusinformationaboutitthatweneedtoknowinordertounderstandthespeaker’smeaning.Becausethistypeofclauseisintegraltothesentence,itisnotseparatedbyanypunctuation.Forexample:•“Isawtheguywhodeliversmymailintownyesterday.”•“I’llalwaysremembertheriverwherewelearnedtoswim.”•“YesterdaywasthedaywhenImetmyhusband.”•“Isatonthechairthathasawobblyleg.”•“Doyouknowthereasonwhytheskyisblue?”•“She’sthepersonwhosedaughtergoestoHarvard.”Therestrictiverelativeclauseineachofthesentencesaboveisinbold.Ifweremovetherelativeclause,weareleftwithquestionsaboutwhoorwhatthespeakerisreferringto:•“Isawtheguyintownyesterday.”(Whatguy?)•“I’llalwaysremembertheriver.”(Whatriver?)

•“Yesterdaywastheday.”(Whatday?)•“Isatonthechair.”(Whatchair?)•“Doyouknowthereason?”(Thereasonforwhat?)•“She’stheperson.”(Whatperson?)Whenyouremovearestrictiverelativeclause,thenounsarenolongeridentifiableandthesentencesbecomelogicallyincomplete.Itisworthnotingthattherelativepronounwhichisnotusedtointroducerestrictiverelativeclauses.However,theauthenticityofthisruleisoftencontested,andmodernwritersveryoftenusewhichandthatinterchangeablywithrestrictiveclauses.Ifyouhaveanydoubts,though,especiallyinformalorprofessionalwriting,thenitisbettertoreservewhichfornon-restrictiveclauses.

Non-restrictiverelativeclausesNon-restrictiverelativeclausesgiveusadditionalinformationaboutanounthathasalreadybeenidentified,butthisinformationisnotessentialforthesentencetomakesense.Becauseofthis,non-restrictiverelativeclausesaresetapartfromtherestofthesentencebycommas.Forexample:•“Paris,whereIspentsixmonthsstudying,isthemostbeautifulcityintheworld.”•“Thewomandownthestreet,whosechildrenarethesameageasours,invitedusoverfordinnernextweek.”•“IlovecasualFridays,whenwegettowearjeanstowork.”•“Samantha,whomI’veaskedtobemybridesmaid,isgettingmarriednextyear.”•“Thesenator,whoisupforre-electionnextmonth,hasmadealotofpromisestohisconstituency.”•“Themovie,whichismyfavoritecomedyofalltime,isbeingshownonTVtomorrownight.”Intheexamplesabove,therelativeclausesmerelygiveextrainformationaboutthenouns;theydonotdefinethem.Thesentenceswouldstillmakesenseeveniftherelativeclauseswereremoved,whichishowweknowthatwearedealingwithnon-restrictiverelativeclauses.Forexample:•“Parisisthemostbeautifulcityintheworld.”

•“Thewomandownthestreetinvitedusoverfordinner.”•“IlovecasualFridays.”•“Samanthaisgettingmarriednextyear.”•“Thesenatorhasmadealotofpromisestohisconstituency.”•“ThemovieisbeingshownonTVtomorrownight.”Notethatnon-restrictiveclausescannotbeintroducedbytherelativepronounthatortherelativeadverbwhy—thesecanonlyintroducerestrictiveclauses.


1.Whichofthefollowingdorelativeclausesdescribe?a)verbsb)nounsc)adjectivesd)adverbs2.Whichofthefollowingisusedtointroducearelativeclausethatisclarifyingwhoorwhatthesentenceistalkingabout?a)relativepronounb)relativeadverbc)relativeadjectived)relativedeterminer3.Whatpunctuationmarksareusedtoseparatenon-restrictiveclausesfromtherestofthesentence?a)semicolonsb)periodsc)parenthesesd)commas4.Choosethemostcorrectrelativepronounorrelativeadverbtocompletethefollowingsentence:“Thecompany,_____wasacknowledgedforitsoutstandingenvironmentalefforts,morethandoubleditsprofitsoverthepastyear.”a)who

b)whomc)whichd)that

AdverbialClausesDefinitionAnadverbialclause,oradverbclause,isagroupofwordsbehavingasanadverb.Likeallclauses,italwayscontainsasubjectandapredicate,anditisused,likearegularadverb,tomodifyadjectives,verbs,andadverbs.Forexample:•“Iwenttotheparktoday.”(Todayisanadverbthatmodifiestheverbwent.)•“Iwenttotheparkbeforemyparentswokeup.”(Beforemyparentswokeupisanadverbialclausethatalsomodifiestheverbwent.)Anadverbialclauseisatypeofdependentclause,orsubordinateclause,thatusesasubordinatingconjunctiontoconnecttothemainclause.Inthepreviousexample,beforeactsasasubordinatingconjunction,connectingtheadverbialclausebeforemyparentswokeuptothemainclauseIwenttothepark.

FunctionSubordinatingconjunctionshavedifferentfunctionsdependingontheideasbeingmodified.Wecanthereforeidentifythefunctionofanadverbialclausebylookingatthetypeofsubordinatingconjunctionconnectingittothemainclause.Thetablebelowhighlightsthevariousfunctionsofsomeofthemostcommonsubordinatingconjunctions:

IdeaBeingModified SubordinatingConjunction

Time when,whenever,while,before,after,since,until,once

Place where,wherever,everywhere,anywhere

Reasonorpurpose because,as,since,so

Condition if,unless,whetherornot,intheevent,provided

Comparisonormanner

like,as,as…as,asif,theway,than

Contrast though,although,eventhough,whereas,evenif

AdverbialclausesoftimeAnadverbialclauseoftimedescribeswhenorforhowlongsomethinghasoccurredorwilloccur.Possiblesubordinatingconjunctionsincludewhen,whenever,while,before,after,since,until,andonce.Forexample:•“Iwillarrivewhendinnerisready.”•“Hesaidhe’llgowheneveryoudecideit’stimetoleave.”•“Animalsarecutewhilethey’reyoung.”•“Beforeyouleave,letmegiveyouakiss.”•“Teachersgradepapersafterthestudentsgohomefortheday.”•“IhavelovedyousincethedayImetyou.”•“Shewaitedontheshoreuntiltheshipdeparted.”•“Thebullystoppedpickingfightsonceherealizeditwaswrong.”(*Becarefulwiththesubordinatingconjunctionsince,becauseitisalsousedwithadverbialclausesofreasonorpurpose,aswewillseebelow.)

AdverbialclausesofplaceAnadverbialclauseofplacedescribeswheresomethinghasoccurredorwilloccur.Themostcommonsubordinatingconjunctionsarewhere,wherever,everywhere,andanywhere.Forexample:•“GrandmaandGrandpawanttogowheretheirchildrenlive.”•“IcangowhereverIwanttogo.”•“Peterbringshissunglasseseverywherehegoes.”•“Birdscreatenestsanywheretheydeemsuitable.”

AdverbialclausesofreasonorpurposeAnadverbialclauseofreasonorpurposedescribeswhysomethinghasoccurredorwilloccur.Commonsubordinatingconjunctionsarebecause,as,since,and

so.Forexample:•“Iadmireyoubecauseyouareaninspirationtomanypeople.”•“Asitisraining,weprobablyshouldn’tgototheparktoday.”•“I’mgoingoutsidetoplaysincemyhomeworkisfinished.”*•“Hewenttohisroomsohecouldbealone.”(*Becarefulwiththesubordinatingconjunctionsince,becauseitisalsousedwithadverbialclausesoftime,aswesawabove.)

AdverbialclausesofconditionAdverbialclausesofconditiondescribetheconditionsnecessaryforspecificactionsoreventstohappen.Thistypeofclauseusuallyemploysthesubordinatingconjunctionsif,unless,whetherornot,intheevent,andprovided.Forexample:•“Ifitsnowstonight,I’mnotgoingtoworktomorrow.”•“Katecan’tattendtheschooldanceunlessherparentsallowit.”•“He’salwaysdoingcrazystuntswhetherornotthey’reconsideredsafe.”•“Intheeventofahurricane,youmuststayinside.”•“They’llapproveyourrequestprovidedyoupaytheappropriateamountofmoney.”

AdverbialclausesofcomparisonormannerAnadverbialclauseofcomparisonormannerdescribeshoworinwhatmannersomethingoccurredorwilloccur,towhatdegreesomethingoccurredorwilloccur,orhowsomethingcomparestosomethingelse.Someofthemostoftenusedsubordinatingconjunctionsarelike,as,as…as,asif,theway,andthan.Forexample:•“Hesingslikehewantstobearockstar.”•“Theteary-eyedfriendsembracedaslong-lostsiblingswould.”•“Thefreshlypickedflowerisasbeautifulasitissoft.”•“Shelookedexcited,asifshecouldjumpupanddanceatanymoment.”•“Laurenwalksconfidently,thewayamodelstrutsonarunway.”•“TimismorenervousthanRhonda(is).”*(*IncolloquialEnglish,thefinalverbinanadverbialclauseofcomparisonmaybeomitted.Inthiscase,thesentencewouldbecomeTimismorenervousthan

Rhonda,inwhichthepredicateverbisisimplied.Wealsoseeverbomissioninadverbialclausescontainingthesubordinatingconjunctionsbefore,after,andas…as.)

AdverbialclausesofcontrastAnadverbialclauseofcontrastdescribessomethingthatdiffersfromorcontrastswithanideaexpressedinthemainclause.Commonlyusedsubordinatingconjunctionsincludethough,although,eventhough,whereas,andevenif.Forexample:•“Thoughthesunisout,thewindisverychilly.”•“Althoughshedoesn’thavemuchmoney,Wendyoftengoestraveling.”•“IdothisjobeventhoughIhateit.”•“Babieslookattheworldwithinnocence,whereasadultslookatitwithexperience.”•“Mattwillgotocollege,evenifitmeanstakingoutstudentloans.”

Adverbialclausesvs.adverbialphrasesAnadverbialphraseiscomposedoftwoormorewordsfunctioningadverbially.Unlikeanadverbialclause,itdoesnothaveasubjectandapredicate.Forexample:•“TrytofinishyoursummerreadinglistbeforeschoolstartsonMonday.”(adverbialclause)•“TrytofinishyoursummerreadinglistbeforeMonday.”(adverbialphrase)Additionally,adverbialphrasesoftenuseprepositionsinsteadofsubordinatingconjunctions:•“I’llsendthelettersinaminute.”•“Heathercanplaytenniswithsuchease.”


1.Whichofthefollowingisnotasubordinatingconjunction?a)whereverb)after

c)untild)with2.Whichsentencecontainsanadverbialclauseofplace?a)“Mygoalistotraveleverywheremysisterhasvisited.”b)“WhenIamalone,Iwriteinmydiary.”c)“Georgepromisedhe’dcome,evenifhehadtowalktheentiredistance.”d)“Thissoupisashealthyasitisdelicious.”3.Whichsentencecontainsanadverbialclauseofcondition?a)“Wheneveranexpensivebillcomesinthemail,Icomplaintomyroommate.”b)“Alexwillprobablybecomefamous,providedshebuildsupherportfolio.”c)“Themansmiledandsaidhe’dgowhereverthewindtookhim.”d)“Althoughthey’rejusttoddlers,thetwinsseemveryintelligent.”4.Whichsentencecontainsanadverbialphrase,asopposedtoanadverbialclause?a)“Don’tbelievehimifhesayshe’stellingthetruth.”b)“Sarahwillstartherpresentationinanhour.”c)“She’smuchtallerthanheis.”d)“Myuncletellsjokeslikehe’sacomedian.”

SentencesDefinitionInthischapter,wewilllookatwhatcomprisesasentence.Wewillexploretheelementsusedtoconstructsentences,andwhatpartsofspeechareusedtoexpandandelaborateonthem.Wewillfocusfornowonformingsimplesentences(sentencesthatcontainonlyasingleindependentclause).Inthesubsectionsofthischapter,wewillexplorethedifferentkindsofsentencesaccordingtostructure,purpose,andlength.

TheConstructionofaSentenceClauses

InEnglish,aclausealmostalwaysconsistsoftwoparts—asubjectandapredicate.(Thisruleisonlybrokenwhenmakingimperativesentencesandnon-finiteclauses.)IntraditionalEnglishgrammar,apredicateismadeupofaverborverbphrase(averbandanyobjectsormodifiersrelatingtoit),whilethesubjectconsistsofanoun,pronoun,oraphrasecontainingeither.Asentence,whethershortorlong,mustexpressacompleteidea;andacompletesentencemustconsistofatleastoneindependentclause—thatis,asubjectandpredicatethatmakeacompletethought.Independentclausesaresocalledbecausetheymakesensewhentheystandontheirown.Theyarealsosometimesreferredtoas“mainclauses.”Forexample:•“Irefuse.”•“Thewindblows.”•“Dogsbark.”•“Beessting.”•“Catsmeow.”Intheaboveexamples,thesubjectbeginsthesentencesandthepredicateendsthem.Thepredicate(ineachthesecasesmadeupofjustaverb)containsallthenecessaryinformationaboutthesubjecttobeconsideredlogical,soeachisconsideredanindependentclause.Adependentclause,ontheotherhand,reliesontheinformationfromanindependentclausetoformacomplete,logicalthought.Dependentclauses(alsoknownassubordinateclauses)areusuallymarkedbydependentwords,suchasasubordinatingconjunctionsorrelativepronouns.Herearesomeexamplesofdependentclauses:•“whenever(subordinatingconjunction)Itravel”•“whom(relativepronoun)wemetontheplane”Wecanseethattheclausesabovedonotexpressacompleteidea—theyrequireindependentclausestobelogicallycomplete:•“WheneverItravel,Iliketostayinfancyhotels.”•“Westruckupagreatconversationwithapersonwhomwemetontheplane.”Formoreinformationonindependentanddependentclauses,seethechapteronClauses.

AdditionalInformationVerbphrasesaddadditionalinformationtoasentence.Becauseverbphrasescanbemadeupofmorethanoneverb,aswellastheinformationrelatingtothoseverbs,wecanaddquiteabitofinformationintoasinglesentence.ThisadditionalinformationisusedtoanswerthequestionsWhy?,What?,Whatkind?,When?,Where?,How?,Howmuch?,andWho/Whom?Forinstance,let’slookagainattheveryfirstexamplefromabove:•“Irefuse.”Nowlet’saddmoreinformationtocreateaverbphrase:•“Irefusetoeat.”Addingtheinfinitivephrase(“to”+thesimpleformofaverb)explainsWhat?abouttheactionofthemainverb,“refuse.”Itisconsideredtheobjectoftheverb;togethertheyformaverbphrase,whichconstitutesthepredicate.Wecancontinuetoexpandthepredicatetoincludemoreinformation:•“Irefusetoeatthatawfulfood.”Themodifiers“that”and“awful,”togetherwiththenoun“food,”arethedirectobjectoftheverb“eat,”againansweringthequestionWhat?Alltogether,theyformtheobjectof“refuse,”providinguswithmoredetailedinformationaboutexactlywhat“I”isrefusing.Let’slookatsomeexampleswhereadditionalinformationanswersvariousquestionsaboutotherwisebasicsentences:•“Thewindblowsinthenorth.”(Identifyingwherethewindblows.)•“Thetrainleavesatnight.”(Identifyingwhenthetrainleaves.)•“Electricitycostsalot.”(Herewestatehowmuchitcosts.)•“Beesstingpeople.”(Herewestate“who”theysting.)•“Dogsbarkwhentheyarehungry,happy,orangry.”(Herewestatewhyorwhentheybark.)•“Catsmeowbecausetheywantattention.”(Herewestatewhytheymeow.)Wecanmakesentencesevenlongerbyaddingmoreinformation:•“Electricitycostsalotduringthedayinmostcountries.”Herewehaveaddedtheanswertothreequestions:

•Howmuch?–“alot”•When?–“duringtheday”•Where?–“inmostcountries”

FurtherelaborationJustlikethepredicate,thesubjectcanbemodifiedandexpandedtoprovidemoreinformationinasentence.Adjectivesarethemoststraightforwardmeansofdoingso.Forexample:•“Goodfriendsareloyalpeople.”Here,theadjective“good”describesthesubject“friends”(anoun);theadjective“loyal”describes“people,”whichtogetherformtheobjectoftheverb“are.”Intheabovesentencewehaveusedadjectivestodescribethenouns.Theyanswerthequestions:•Whatkindoffriends?“Goodfriends.”•Whatkindofpeople?“Loyalpeople.”Thesearecallednounphrases.Asubjectcanbecomprisedofanounphrase(orphrases).Averbphrasecanalsoincludenounphrases,asin“areloyalpeople”intheexampleabove.Wecangiveevenmoredetailsbyaddingadjectives,adverbs,andprepositionalphrases.Remember,anadjectivedescribesanounwhereasadverbsdescribeverbs,adjectives,orotheradverbs.Prepositionalphrases,ontheotherhand,canactaseitheradjectivesoradverbs.Let’slookatanexample:•“Solar-poweredelectricityrarelycostsmuchduringtheday.”Hereweusetheadjective“solar-powered”todescribethesubjectnoun“electricity.”Itanswersthequestion,“Whatkindofelectricity?”Weused“rarely,”whichisanadverboffrequency,todescribetheverb“cost;”likewise,theprepositionalphrase“duringtheday”isusedadverbiallytodescribetheverb“costs”andanswerthequestionWhen?Although“much”canbeusedasanadverb,itishereusedasanindefinitepronountobethedirectobjectoftheverb“cost.”Becarefulwith“much,”becauseitcanfunctionasadeterminer(adjectivebeforeanoun),adverb,orpronoun,dependingonthesentence.

Let’slookatanotherexample:•“ColdwindfromtheAtlanticOceanblowsinatnight.”Theadjective“cold”andtheprepositionalphrase“fromtheAtlanticOcean”bothmodifythesubject“wind.”

CompoundsubjectsAsentencecanalsohavemultiplesubjectsthatrelatetothesameverb;theseareknownascompoundsubjects.Forexample:•“JamesandDanielcollaboratedontheprojecttogether.”“James”and“Daniel,”joinedbytheconjunction“and,”arebothrelatedtotheverb“collaborate.”Eachsubjectinacompoundsubjectcanbemodifiedandexpandedinthesamewaysthatwe’veseenalready:•“MybrotherJamesandhiscolleaguesfromIndiacollaboratedontheprojecttogether.”“James”isnowmodifiedby“mybrother,”whilethesecondsubject“colleagues”ismodifiedby“his”and“fromIndia.”

CompoundpredicatesLikewise,asinglesubjectcantakemultiplepredicatesthatarejoinedbyaconjunction,suchas“and”or“or.”Thesearecalledcompoundpredicates.Forexample:•“Janetruns,swims,andcycles.”Aswithcompoundsubjects,wecanexpandeachofthecompoundpredicateverbsindividually:•“Janetrunsinthemorning,swimsintheevening,andcyclestoandfromwork.”

RestructuringthesentenceWhenformingsimplesentencesinEnglish,theadditionalinformationincludedwiththesubjectandthepredicatecanoftenbereordered.Informationmodifyingthepredicatecanevenappearbeforethesubject,andviceversa.Ithelpsifwebreakdowneachelementinthesentenceintowhatquestionitisanswering.Takealookatthesentencesbelowforanillustrationofhowsuch

reconstructionsmightwork:

Who? How? Where? When? When(atwhattime)?

Hegoes bybus tothemovies everySaturday at8o'clock.Nowlet’sreordertheinformationinthepredicate(everythingaftertheverb“goes”):

Who? Where? When(atwhattime)? How? When?

Hegoes tothemovies at8o'clock bybus everySaturday.Asyoucansee,thesentencestillmakeslogicalsense,soundsfine,andretainsalloftheinformationithadbefore.Nowlet’srestructureittohavepartofthepredicatecomeatthebeginningofthesentence:

When(atwhattime)? When? Who? Where? How?

At8o'clock everySaturday hegoes tothemovies bybus.Itisalsopossibletohavethesubjectcomeattheendofthesentence,especiallywhenwebeginasentencewith“thereis/are,”asinthepopularEnglishproverb:•“Thereismorethanonewaytoskinacat.”

TypesofsentencesSofarwhatwehavebeendiscussingareknownassimplesentences,whicharemadeupofasingleindependentclauseandnodependentclauses.Evenaswehaveaddedalotofinformationintothesentencesabove,eachonehasremainedanindependentclausebecauseeachonehasasubject(orcompoundsubject)andapredicate.However,therearemanydifferenttypesofsentences,dependingonhowweorderthetext,ifweusemultipleclauses,ifwe’reaskingaquestion,etc.Inthechaptersectionsbelow,we’llbeginlookingatthevariouskindsofsentenceswecanmakeandhowtheyareformed.

ClassificationsofSentencesByStructureInadditiontosimplesentences,whichwelearnedaboutabove,sentencesclassifiedbystructureinclude:•Compoundsentences•Complexsentences•Compound-complexsentences

ByPurposeThepurposeofasentencealsodeterminesitsclassification.Thesentencesclassifiedbypurposeare:•Declarativesentences•Interrogativesentences•Exclamatorysentences•Imperativesentences•Negativesentences•Negativeinterrogativesentences

ByLengthSimilartosentencesclassifiedbystructure,sentencescanalsobeclassifiedbylength:•Major/regularsentences•Minorsentences•Wordsentences(alsocalledsentencewords)


1.Whatmustasentencecontaininordertobecomplete?(Choosetheanswerthatismostcorrect.)a)Asubjectb)Anounc)Averb

d)Apredicatee)A&Cf)A&Dg)B&D2.Whichofthefollowingisnotanindependentclause?a)Theywilldiscussit.b)EverytimemycousinfromCairovisits.c)Icanimagine.d)Heseesherwalking.3.Whatcanaprepositionalphrasemodifyinasentence?a)Thesubject.b)Thepredicate.c)Eitherasubjectorapredicate.d)Neitherasubjectnorapredicate.4.Wherecanapredicateappearinasentence?(Choosetheanswerthatismostcorrect.)a)Beforethesubjectb)Afterthesubjectc)Beforeandafterthesubjecte)Alloftheabove

CompoundSentencesDefinitionCompoundsentencesareoneofthefourmainsentencestructures.Theyaremadeupofatleasttwoindependentclausesexpressingcloselyrelatedideasofequalorsimilarimportancethatarejoinedusingacommaandaconjunctionorjustasemicolon.Byusingcompoundsentences,wecanaddvarietytoourwritingandspeechandavoidtherepetitivesoundofmultiplesimplesentences.

DeterminingwhentoformacompoundsentenceAsmentioned,compoundsentencesareformedbyjoiningtwoindependentclausesthatarecloselyrelatedandofequalorsimilarvalue.Todetermineiftwoclausescanbejoinedinacompoundsentence,wecanaskourselvesthreesimplequestions:Q1.Doeseachclausecontainasubjectandaverb?Q2.Caneachclausestandalonetoexpressacompletethought?Q3.Arethetwoclausescloselyrelatedandofequalorsimilarimportance?Iftheanswertoeachofthethreequestionsaboveis“yes,”thenwecanformacompoundsentence.Let’sapplythethreequestionstoanexample:•“Ilikerunning.MysisterisgoingtostudyinSweden.”Q1.Doeseachclausecontainasubjectandaverb?Yes,markedinbold.Q2.Caneachclausestandalonetoexpressacompletethought?Yes.Q3.Arethetwoclausescloselyrelatedandofequalorsimilarimportance?No,theyhavenothingtodowithoneanother.Becausetheanswertoquestionthreeis“no,”thetwoclausesabovecannotbejoinedasacompoundsentence.Let’stryanotherexample:•“Shewantedtoplaytennis.Hewantedtoplaybasketball.”Q1.Doeseachclausecontainasubjectandaverb?Yes,markedinbold.Q2.Caneachclausestandalonetoexpressacompletethought?Yes.Q3.Arethetwoclausescloselyrelatedandofequalorsimilarimportance?Yes.Sincetheanswertoeachofthethreequestionsis“yes,”wecanforma

compoundsentence.Thiscanbedoneinseveralways.Forexample:•“Shewantedtoplaytennis,buthewantedtoplaybasketball.”OR•“Shewantedtoplaytennis;hewantedtoplaybasketball.”OR•“Shewantedtoplaytennis;however,hewantedtoplaybasketball.”

HowtoformacompoundsentenceOncewe’vedeterminedthattwoideascanbejoinedtoformacompoundsentence,wehavetodecidehowtojointhem.Wehaveseveraloptions—wecanuseacoordinatingconjunction,acorrelativeconjunction,aconjunctiveadverb,orasemicolon.

FormingacompoundsentenceusingacoordinatingconjunctionTherearesevencoordinatingconjunctionsinEnglish,whichcanberememberedusingtheacronymFANBOYS:ForAndNorButOrYetSoWhenwejointwoclausesinacompoundsentencewithacoordinatingconjunction,wemustchoosetheonethatbestfitstherelationshipthatexistsbetweenthetwoclauses.Forexample:•“Thefamilymovedintothenewhouse,andtheneighborswelcomedthemwarmly.”(additionalinformation)•“Shewantedtoplaytennis,buthewantedtoplaybasketball.”(contrastinginformation)•“Wecangotothemoviestonight,orwecanjusthangoutathome.”(alternativechoiceoroption)

Punctuationnote:Whenweuseacoordinatingconjunctiontoformacompoundsentence,itisprecededbyacomma,asintheexamplesabove.

FormingacompoundsentenceusingacorrelativeconjunctionCorrelativeconjunctions,orpairedconjunctions,aresetsofconjunctionsthatarealwaysusedtogether.Sincetheycomeinpairs,witheachconjunctionprecedinganindependentclause,theycanjoinamaximumoftwoindependentclausestogether.Someofthemostcommoncorrelativeconjunctionsare:•either…or•justas…so•neither…nor•not…but•notonly…butalso•whether…orAgain,theconjunctionthatwechoosehastodowiththerelationshipbetweenthetwoclauses.Forexample:•“Neitherdoesheneedtogo,nordoeshewanttogo.”(negatesbothclauses)•“JustasbaseballislovedinAmerica,socricketislovedinEngland.”(indicatesthattheclausesaresimilar)•“EitherIwillpickyouup,oryou’llgetaridehomewithyourfather.”(indicatestwopossiblechoicesoroutcomes)Punctuationnote:Whenweusecorrelativeconjunctions,acommaprecedestheconjunctionthatintroducesthesecondindependentclause,asintheexamples.

FormingacompoundsentencewithaconjunctiveadverbAnothercommonwaytoformacompoundsentenceistouseaconjunctiveadverb.Somecommonconjunctiveadverbsare:•accordingly•asaresult•comparatively

•infact•moreover•nevertheless•nonetheless•ontheotherhand•otherwiseWhilecoordinatingconjunctionscanbeusedtojoinwords,phrases,orindependentclauses,conjunctiveadverbscanonlybeusedtojoinindependentclauses.Conjunctiveadverbsareusedtoindicateaspecificrelationshipbetweenthetwoindependentclauses.Forexample:•“Jenhadn’tenjoyedtheplay;asaresult,shedidn’trecommendit.”(consequence)•“Iabsolutelylovesinging;ontheotherhand,mysisterhatesit.”(contrast)•“Beingadoctorisanexhaustingjob;moreover,youdon’tearngoodmoneyuntilyou’vebeenpracticingformanyyears.”(addingstrongerinformation)(Punctuationnote:Whenweuseaconjunctiveadverbtoformacompoundsentence,itisprecededbyasemicolonandfollowedbyacomma,asintheexamplesabove.)

FormingacompoundsentencewithasemicolonIfthetwoindependentclausesareverycloselyrelatedandthereaderhasenoughinformationtounderstandtherelationshipbetweenthemfromthecontextalone,wecanjointheclausesusingasemicolonwithoutaconjunction.Forexample:•“Shewantedtoplaytennis;hewantedtoplaybasketball.”•“Imadethecake;mysisterdecoratedit.”•“Wedon’teatmeat;we’revegetarians.”

CommonErrorsThemostcommonerrorsthatoccurwithcompoundsentencesarecommasplicesandrun-onsentences.

Commasplices

Acommaspliceoccurswhenwejointwoindependentclauseswithacomma.(Acommaisnotstrongenoughtoseparatetwoindependentclausesonitsown.)Forexample:✖ “Shewantedtoplaytennis,hewantedtoplaybasketball.”(incorrect)Luckily,themistakeiseasytocorrectusinganyofthemethodsforformingcompoundsentencesthatwedescribedabove.Forexample:✔ “Shewantedtoplaytennis;hewantedtoplaybasketball.”✔ “Shewantedtoplaytennis,buthewantedtoplaybasketball.”✔ “Shewantedtoplaytennis;however,hewantedtoplaybasketball.”

Run-onsentencesRun-onsentencescanoccurwhenwejointwoindependentclauseswithoutthecorrectpunctuationorconjunction.Forexample:✖ “Imadethecakehowevermysisterdecoratedit.”(incorrect—missingtheproperpunctuation)Again,wecancorrectthemistakebyusinganyofthemethodsdescribedinthisarticle:✔ “Imadethecake;however,mysisterdecoratedit.”✔ “Imadethecake;mysisterdecoratedit.”✔ “Imadethecake,andmysisterdecoratedit.”


1.Compoundsentencesaremadeupoftwo(ormore)________.a)wordsb)phrasesc)dependentclausesd)independentclauses2.Thetwoclausesinacompoundsentencecanbejoinedusing________.a)acoordinatingconjunctionb)acorrelativeconjunctionc)aconjunctiveadverbd)asemicolon

e)A,B&Cf)alloftheabove3.Whichofthefollowingsentencesispunctuatedincorrectly?a)“Iloveswimmingmybrotherenjoyshockey.”b)“Iloveswimming,butmybrotherenjoyshockey.”c)“Iloveswimming;however,mybrotherenjoyshockey.”d)“Iloveswimming;mybrotherenjoyshockey.”4.Completethefollowingcompoundsentencewiththecorrectconjunction:“He’sagreatrockclimber;________,he’saterribleskier.”a)andb)butc)howeverd)asaresult5.Completethefollowingcompoundsentencewiththecorrectconjunction:“Idon’tmindwhatwedotonight.Wecangobowling,________wecanseeamovie.”a)andb)orc)ontheotherhandd)likewise

ComplexSentencesDefinitionComplexsentencesareoneofthefourmainsentencestructures.Theyaremadeupofoneindependentclause(ormainclause)andoneormoredependentclauses(orsubordinateclauses).Thedependentclauseisintroducedandlinkedtotheindependentclausebyasubordinatingconjunction.Weusecomplexsentencestoindicateaspecificrelationshipbetweentwoideas,andtoclarifywhichofthetwoismoreimportant.Considerthefollowingexample:•“Iwenttothesupermarket.Wewereoutofmilk.”

Althoughthereadercanprobablyguessthattherelationshipbetweenthetwoideasaboveisoneofcauseandeffect,thatrelationshipcouldbespecifiedbycombiningthetwoideasintoacomplexsentenceinstead,asin:•“Iwenttothesupermarketbecausewewereoutofmilk.”Byaddingthesubordinatingconjunction“because,”wehavetransformedthepreviouslyindependentclause“wewereoutofmilk”intoadependentclause.Itcannolongerstandalone,butisdependentontheclausethatitisnowlinkedto.Therelationshipbetweenthetwoideasisnowperfectlyclear,andtheimportanceoftheindependentclause“Iwenttothesupermarket”ishighlighted.

UsingcomplexsentencesSubordinatingConjunctionsAsmentioned,complexsentencesareusefulbecausetheycanindicateaveryspecificrelationshipbetweentwoideas.Dependingonwhatrelationshipwewouldliketoindicate,wechooseaspecificsubordinatingconjunction.Forexample:•“He’sgoingtopasshistestevenifhedoesn’tstudy.”(aspecificoutcomedespiteahypotheticalaction)•“Iwatchedamoviewhilemyfriendwasshopping.”(concurrentevents)•“Iwillgoaslongasyougowithme.”(anoutcomewilloccurunderacertaincondition)Intheexamplesabove,thesubordinatingconjunctionsevenif,while,andaslongasintroducethedependentclausesandspecifytheirrelationshiptotheindependentclauses.Someofthemostcommonsubordinatingconjunctionsare:

afteralthoughasassoonasbecauseevenifincaseinorderthat

providingsincethoughwhenwhere

GotothechapteronConjunctionstolearnmoreabouthowsubordinatingconjunctionsareusedincomplexsentences.

StructureandpunctuationTheorderoftheindependentanddependentclauseinacomplexsentenceisflexible.Wecanstructurecomplexsentenceswiththeindependentclausefirst,asin:•“He’sgoingtopasshistestevenifhedoesn’tstudy.”•“Iwatchedamoviewhilemyfriendwasshopping.”•“Iwillgoaslongasyougowithme.”Thesamesentencescanbestructuredwiththedependentclausefirstaswell.Thisresultsinnochangeofmeaning.Forexample:•“Evenifhedoesn’tstudy,he’sgoingtopasshistest.”•“Whilemyfriendwasshopping,Iwatchedamovie.”•“Aslongasyougowithme,Iwillgo.”Althoughthereareexceptions,notethatwhenthedependentclauseisplacedfirst,wegenerallyfollowitwithacomma,asintheexamplesabove.However,iftheindependentclauseintroducesthesentence,weusuallydonotneedacomma.

UsageNoteWhileit’sacommonlyquotedbeliefthatasentenceshouldnotbeginwiththewordbecause,thisisnotanactualgrammaticalrule.Sentencescanbeginwithbecause(andanyothersubordinatingconjunction)aslongasthesentenceisnotafragment.Forexample✖ “Becausewewereearly.”(incorrect)✔ “Becausewewereearly,wedecidedtohaveacoffee.”(correct)Asthefirstsentenceisadependentclausewithoutanindependentclauseto

completeit,itisconsideredafragmentandmustbecorrected.However,thesecondsentenceisacompletesentencebecausethedependentclauseisfollowedbytheindependentclause“wedecidedtohaveacoffee.”


1.Complexsentencesareusuallymadeupof________.a)twoindependentclausesb)twodependentclausesc)anindependentclauseandadependentclause2.Thetwoclausesinacomplexsentencearejoinedusinga________.a)coordinatingconjunctionb)subordinatingconjunctionc)conjunctiveadverbd)correlativeconjunction3.Whichofthefollowingstatementsaboutcomplexsentencesiscorrect?a)Weneverseparatethetwoclauseswithacomma.b)Wealwaysseparatethetwoclauseswithacomma.c)Weseparatethetwoclauseswithacommaifthesentencebeginswiththeindependentclause.d)Weseparatethetwoclauseswithacommaifthesentencebeginswiththedependentclause.4.Whichofthefollowingsentencesispunctuatedcorrectly?a)“EventhoughIrecognizedher,Ididn’tsayhello.”b)“Eventhough,Irecognizedher,Ididn’tsayhello.”c)“Ididn’tsayhelloeventhough,Irecognizedher.”d)“Ididn’tsay,helloeventhoughIrecognizedher.”5.Whichofthefollowingsentencesispunctuatedcorrectly?a)“Ididn’tstopatthestorebecauseIdidn’tthinktherewasanythingweneeded.”b)“Ididn’tstopatthestore,becauseIdidn’tthinktherewasanythingweneeded.”

c)“Ididn’tstopatthestorebecause,Ididn’tthinktherewasanythingweneeded.”d)“Ididn’tstop,atthestorebecauseIdidn’tthinktherewasanythingweneeded.”

Compound-ComplexSentencesDefinitionCompound-complexsentencesareoneofthefourmainsentencestructures.Theyaremadeupoftwoindependentclauses(alsoknownasmainclauses)andoneormoredependentclauses(orsubordinateclauses).

Complexvs.CompoundSentencesAcompound-complexsentencehastosatisfytheconditionsweestablishedforbothcomplexsentencesandcompoundsentences.First,let’srecapbothbrieflysoweunderstandbothsetsofconditionsthatmustbemet.(Moredetailedexplanationsareincludedintheirindividualchaptersections.)Afterweunderstandthebasicsofhowthesetwoareformed,wewilllookathowtheyfittogethertoformcompound-complexsentences.

ComplexSentencesForasentencetobeconsideredcompound-complex,atleastoneoftheindependentclausesmustbeacomplexsentence(ifitweretostandonitsown).Thatis,itismadeupofadependentclausethatisintroducedandlinkedtotheindependentclausebyasubordinatingconjunction.Weusecomplexsentencestoindicateaspecificrelationshipbetweentwoideas,andtoclarifywhichofthetwoismoreimportant.Considerthefollowingexample:•“Iwenttothepartynextdoor.Ihadschoolthenextmorning.”Thereisaninherentcontrastofinformationbetweenthesetwoclauses.Leftseparated,theclauses’relationshipisimplied,itbutcomesacrossratherawkwardly.However,bycombiningthetwoideasintoacomplexsentencewithasubordinatingconjunction,thiscontrastismademoreexplicitandthesentenceasawholereadsmuchmorefluidly:

•“IwenttothepartynextdooreventhoughIhadschoolthenextmorning.”Byaddingthesubordinatingconjunctioneventhough,thepreviouslyindependentclause“Ihadschoolthenextmorning”istransformedintoadependentclause.Itcannolongerstandalone,butisdependentontheclausethatitisnowlinkedto.Therelationshipbetweenthetwoideasisnowperfectlyclear,andtheimportanceoftheindependentclause“Iwenttothepartynextdoor”ishighlighted.

CompoundSentencesCompoundsentencesareformedbyjoiningtwoindependentclausesthatarecloselyrelatedandofequalorsimilarimportance.Todetermineiftwoclausescanbejoinedinacompoundsentence,wecanaskourselvesthreesimplequestions:Q1.Doeseachclausecontainasubjectandaverb?Q2.Caneachclausestandalonetoexpressacompletethought?Q3.Arethetwoclausescloselyrelatedandofequalorsimilarimportance?Iftheanswertoeachofthethreequestionsaboveis“yes,”thenwecanformacompoundsentence.Let’sapplythethreequestionstoanexample:•“TheywantedtogotoVenice.IwantedtoseeMadrid.”Q1.Doeseachclausecontainasubjectandaverb?Yes,markedinbold.Q2.Caneachclausestandalonetoexpressacompletethought?Yes.Q3.Arethetwoclausescloselyrelatedandofequalorsimilarimportance?Yes.Sincetheanswertoallthreequestionsis“yes,”wecanformacompoundsentence.Thiscanbedoneinseveralways.Forexample:•“TheywantedtogotoVenice,butIwantedtoseeMadrid.”(coordinatingconjunction)OR•“JustastheywantedtogotoVenice,soIwantedtoseeMadrid.”(correlativeconjunction)OR•“TheywantedtogotoVenice;however,IwantedtoseeMadrid.”(conjunctiveadverb)OR•“TheywantedtogotoVenice;IwantedtoseeMadrid.”(semicolon)

Formingacompound-complexsentenceInacompound-complexsentence,wejointhecomplexindependentclausetotheotherindependentclauseinthesamewayasfornormalcompoundsentences:withcoordinatingconjunctions,correlativeconjunctions,conjunctiveadverbs,orsemicolons.Take,forexample,thesetwoseparatesentences:•“BecauseIlovetoread,Iliketovisitthelibrary.Ienjoygoingtobookstores,too.”Thefirstsentenceisacomplexsentence(thedependentclauseisitalicized);thesecondoneisastandardindependentclause.Nowlet’smakethemintoacomplex-compoundsentence:•“BecauseIlovetoread,Iliketovisitthelibrary,andIenjoygoingtobookstores,too.”(coordinatingconjunction)•“BecauseIlovetoread,notonlydoIliketovisitthelibrary,butIalsoenjoygoingtobookstores,too.”(correlativeconjunction)•“BecauseIlovetoread,Iliketovisitthelibrary;additionally,Ienjoygoingtobookstores.”(conjunctiveadverb)•“BecauseIlovetoread,Iliketovisitthelibrary;Ienjoygoingtobookstores,too.”(semicolon)Ineachoftheexamplesabove,thedependentclauseisitalicized,theindependentclausesareunderlined,andthemeansusedtojointhetwoindependentclausesareinbold.

MultipledependentclausesComplex-compoundsentencescanalsohavemorethanonedependentclause.Forexample:•“AlthoughIpromisedI’dstudywithEthan,I’drathergotothemovieswithJim;nevertheless,Imadeapromise,evenifitisn’tasmuchfun.”•“Igotintogymnasticsbecauseofmybrother,butIgotintoarcherybecauseofmysister.”

Moreexamples

Let’slookatafewmoreexamplesofcomplex-compoundsentences.•“Iwantedtogotoabaseballgame,butmyfather,whoisahugeballetfan,wantedtoseeTheNutcrackerinstead.”•“Wewenttogetsomedinnerafterclasswasover;however,thefoodcourtwasalreadyclosed.”•“IwillgotothepartyaslongasTerryisthere;Iwon’tstaylong,though.”•“Eventhoughheneverstudied,healwayspassedhistestsinhighschool,butIdon’tthinkhe’llbeabletopullthatoffincollegewhenhehasamuchharderworkload.”•“Thebankwilllendusthemoneyprovidingwehavesomethingforcollateral,soIaskedmyparentstohelp,althoughI’mnotsuretheywillagreeto.”•“Inevergraduatedfromcollege;nevertheless,Ifoundagreatjobbecausemyunclehasaconnectionintheautoindustry.”


1.Acomplex-compoundsentencerequiresatleastoneofwhichofthefollowing?a)independentclauseb)dependentclausec)coordinatingconjunctiond)semicolon2.Whichofthefollowingcanbeusedtojointhetwoindependentclausesinacomplex-compoundsentence?a)coordinatingconjunctionb)correlativeconjunctionc)conjunctiveadverbd)semicolone)Alloftheabovef)Noneoftheabove3.Whichofthefollowingcanbeusedtojoinadependentclausetoanindependentclauseinacomplex-compoundsentence?a)coordinatingconjunction

b)subordinatingconjunctionc)conjunctiveadverbd)semicolone)Alloftheabovef)Noneoftheabove4.Identifythedependentclauseorclausesinthefollowingsentence:“I’mgoingtoseeShawnaatthemalllater;youcancomewithme,thoughIknowyoutwodon’tgetalong.”a)I’mgoingtoseeShawnaatthemalllaterb)youcancomewithmec)thoughIknowyoutwodon’tgetalongd)A&Be)B&Cf)A&C5.Identifythedependentclauseorclausesinthefollowingsentence:“AlthoughI’vesavedupforafewyears,I’veneverbeenabletoaffordbuyingahouse,butweshouldbeabletogetamortgagesoon,providingmyjobremainssecure.”a)AlthoughI’vesavedupforafewyearsb)I’veneverbeenabletoaffordbuyingahousec)weshouldbeabletogetamortgagesoond)providingmyjobremainssecured)A&Ce)B&Cf)A&Dg)B&D

DeclarativeSentencesDefinitionAdeclarativesentencemakesastatementorargumentaboutwhatis,was,orwillbethecase.Thatis,ittalksaboutthatwhichisassertedtobetrue.Declarativesentencesusuallyendinaperiod(alsoknownasafullstop)andarethemostubiquitoustypeofsentenceinEnglish.(Iftheyareexpressingastrong

emotionorareforcefulinnature,theycanalsoendinanexclamationpoint(“!”),inwhichcasetheyaresometimesreferredtoasexclamatorysentences.)Theystandincontrasttointerrogativesentences,whichaskaquestionandendwithaquestionmark(“?”),andimperativesentences,whichareusedtogiveorders,commands,andgeneralinstructions.

DifferentsentencestructuresAllfouroftypesofsentencestructures—simple,compound,complex,andcompound-complexsentences—canbemadeintodeclarativesentences.Forexample:

SimpleSentences“I’mwalkingtothelibrary.”“Shewenttotheparkyesterday.”“Ihopetoseeyousoon.”

CompoundSentences“Shewantedtoplaybasketball,buthewantedtoplaytennis.”“EitherIwillpickyouuptonight,oryoucangetaridehomewithyourfather.”“I’vealwayswantedtotryridingajet-ski;however,I’mtooworriedaboutmysafety.”“I’mgoingtothepartylater;myfriendistheDJforit.”

ComplexSentences“EventhoughI’mnotafanofHitchcock,I’llgowithyoutoseeTheBirds.”“I’dbewillingtolendyouthemoneyprovidingyoucanoffercollateral.”“IwaitedinlineforthreehoursbecauseI’msuchabigfanofhis.”

Compound-ComplexSentences“WewenttoVenice,eventhoughtheyknewIwantedtogotoMadrid;nevertheless,wehadagreattime.”

“I’vebeensavingupforafewyears,soweshouldbeabletogetamortgagesoon,providingmyjobremainssecure.”“I’mgoingtoseeShawnaatthemalllater;youcancomewithme,thoughIknowyoutwodon’tgetalong.”

DifferentVerbTensesDeclarativesentencescanbeformedinanytense,solongasthesentenceisastatementofwhatisthecase.Forexample:

PresentTense“IalwaysrunonFridays.”(presentsimpletense)“Iamdrivingtoworknow.”(presentcontinuoustense)“Shehasworkedinthisfirmfor10years.”(presentperfecttense)“HehasbeenlivinginNewYorkallhislife.”(presentperfectcontinuoustense)

PastTense“Ienjoyedthatsoup.”(pastsimpletense)“Hewaswalkingthedogatthetime.”(pastcontinuoustense)“Theyhadbeenintheoliveoilbusinessforgenerations.”(pastperfecttense)“Wehadbeenlookingforanewstyleforourmusic.”(pastperfectcontinuoustense)

FutureTense“Iwillworkfromhometomorrow.”(futuresimpletense)“Hewillbeworkinglatetonight,forsure.”(futurecontinuoustense)“Herflightwillhavearrivedbythen.”(futureperfecttense)“WewillhavebeenlivingtogetherforfiveyearsthisTuesday.”(futureperfectcontinuoustense)

VariationsNotalldeclarativesentencesarestraightforwardstatementsofpositivefact—

thereareafewvariationsthatexpressslightlydifferentinformation,whilestillremainingdeclarativeinnature.

NegativedeclarativesentencesNegativedeclarativesentences(orsimplynegativesentences)aredeclarativesentenceswhoseinformationismadenegativebythewordnotornever.Allofthedifferentsentencestructuresandverbtensesthatwelookedatabovecanbemadenegative.Forexample:•“Iwon’tbegoingtothepartybecauseIhaveanexamtomorrow.”(complexsentence–futurecontinuoustense–madenegativebynot(contractedwithwill))•“Ididnoteatyoursandwich.”(simplesentence¬–pasttense–madenegativebynot)•“Jimisagoodguy,butyoucanneverrelyonhim.”(compoundsentence¬–presentsimpletense–secondindependentclausemadenegativebynever)

DeclarativecommandsandrequestsWegenerallyuseimperativesentencestoissuecommandsorinstructions,andinterrogativesentencestoaskquestionsormakerequests.Forexample:•“Cleanyourroom.”(imperativesentence)•“Wouldyoubuymeavideogamewhileyou’reatthemall?”(interrogativesentence)However,wecansometimesusedeclarativesentencestomakestatementsthathavethesoundofacommandorrequest,andyetarenotexactlyeitherone.Forinstance:•“Youshouldcleanyourroom.”•“Youcouldbuymeavideogamewhileyou’reatthemall.”Bothofthesesentencesarenowinthedeclarativeform,yetbothfunctioninamiddlegroundbetweenacommandandarequest.Notethattheforcefulnessoftheimperativesentenceislostwhenitismadedeclarative,justasthetactandpolitenessislostfromtheinterrogativesentence.

StatementsofuncertaintyWeoftenusedeclarativesentencesasanindirectwayofaskingaquestionabout

somethingthatwe’renotcertainabout,expressingwhatwewishtoknowasadeclarative,factualstatement.Forexample:•“Iwasthinkingwecouldseethemovietogether,ifyou’refree.”•"Theywanttoknowwhyyoudidthis.”Becausethesekindsofstatementsaresocloseinnatureandmeaningtointerrogativesentences,manypeopleenduperroneouslyputtingaquestionmarkattheendofthem.However,wemusttakecarenottomakethismistakeandonlyuseaperiodwithsuchsentences.

IndirectquestionsIndirectquestionsareverysimilartostatementsofuncertainty,exceptthattheyusewhatisknownasreportedspeech(sometimescalledindirectspeech)torelayaninterrogativesentencefromanotherpersontothelistenerasadeclarativesentence.Forexample:•“Danaskedifyouarecomingtothestudysessionthisevening.”•“Shewaswonderingifyouwanttogetsomecoffeelater.”•“Theytoldmetoaskwhereyou’regoinglater.”

DeclarativequestionsDeclarativequestionsareabitofauniquebridgebetweendeclarativesentencesandinterrogativesentences.Theyaredeclarative,yettheyendwithaquestionmark;theyareusedprimarilyinspoken,informalEnglishandgenerallyhave“yes”or“no”aspossibleresponses.Forexample:•“You’refiringme?”•“Hewantstodrivetothecityatthishour?•“She’smovingtoRussia?”Thesecouldtechnicallybeconsideredinterrogativesentencesbecausetheyaskaquestionandendwithaquestionmark,but,becausetheactualformofthesentencedoesnotchange,theyarestillverylikeadeclarativesentence.InspokenEnglish,theonlywaytheyaremarkedasquestionsisbythespeaker’sintonation.1.Whichofthefollowingmarksofpunctuationisusedwithdeclarativesentences?

a)questionmarkb)exclamationpointc)periodd)interrobang2.Declarativesentencesareusedtoexpresswhichofthefollowing?a)Thatwhichis,was,orwillbethecaseb)Aninquiryorrequestc)Excitementorintenseemotiond)Orders,commands,andgeneralinstructions3.Inwhichofthefollowingverbtensescandeclarativesentencesbeused?a)Presenttenseb)Pasttensec)Futuretensed)Alloftheabovee)Noneoftheabove4.Whichofthefollowingsentencestructurescanbedeclarative?a)Simplesentencesb)Compoundsentencesc)Complexsentencesd)Complex-compoundsentencese)A&Bf)A,B,&Cg)Alloftheabove5.Whichofthefollowingisadeclarativesentence?a)“Wouldyouliketoseeamoviewithmelater?”b)“Pleasegowashyourhands.”c)“Iwaswonderingifyou’refreeafterclass.”d)“I’msoexcitedtoseethisplay!”

InterrogativeSentencesDefinition

Aninterrogativesentenceissimplyasentencethatasksaquestion—thatis,weuseitwhenweinterrogatesomeoneforinformation.Interrogativesentencesalwaysendwithquestionmarks.

ForminginterrogativesentencesWhenwemakesentencesintoquestions,wealmostalwaysuseauxiliaryverbsthatareinvertedwiththesubject.Thisisknownassubject-verbinversion.Forexample:•“Areyousleepy?”•“Willshebecomingtothepartylater?”•“Havetheyfinishedtheirprojectyet?”•“Doyoulikecountryorclassicalmusicbetter?”Wecanalsousequestionwords(who,what,where,when,why,andhow)toaskmorenuancedquestions,butwestilluseauxiliaryverbsandsubject-verbinversion.Forinstance:•“Whatdoesthebossthinkabouttheproposal?”•“Whenwillwearrive?”•“Whoiscomingtotheplay?”Inthislastquestion,thesubjectisunknown,soitisrepresentedbythewordwho(whichdoesnotinvertwithanauxiliaryverb).Usingtheseconstructions,wecancreateseveraldifferentkindsofinterrogativesentences.Therearefourmaintypesofinterrogativesentences:yes/noquestions,alternativequestions,“Wh-”questions,andtagquestions.

Yes/NoquestionsYes/Noquestionsaresimplyquestionsthatcanbeansweredwitheither"yes"or"no."Theseareexclusivelyformedwithauxiliaryverbsthatareinvertedwiththesubject—thatis,theydonotusequestionwords.Forexample:•“Areyouregisteredtovote?”•“MayIborrowyourpen?”•“DoyouspeakFrench?”

•“Ifyoumissthedeadlineforentry,willyoustillbeabletocompete?”•“Isthereenoughfoodforeveryone?”

AlternativequestionsAlternativequestions,alsoknownaschoicequestions,arequestionsthatprovideachoiceamongtwoormoreanswers.Thesechoicesmightbeexplicitlystatedinthequestion(identifiedbythecoordinatingconjunctionor),ortheymightbeimpliedbythecontext.Weusuallyuseinvertedauxiliaryverbsontheirownforthesequestions,buttheycanalsobeformedusingcertainquestionwords.Forexample:•“Doyoupreferapplejuiceororangejuice?”•“Whowon—NewYorkorBoston?”•“Doyouliveinthecity,orthesuburbs?”•“Doyouwantcake,pie,oricecream?”•“Howwouldyoulikeyoursteakcooked?”(Theimpliedchoiceswouldberare,medium,orwelldone.)

“Wh-”questions“Wh-”questions(orquestionwordquestions)arequestionsthatseekinformationbyposingaquestionwitha"wh-"questionword(who,what,where,when,why,andhow).Thesequestionsseekanopen-endedanswerthatcanbeshortorlong,simpleorcomplex—thereisnoexpectationabouthowthepersonmightrespond.Herearesomeexamples:•“Whoisyourfavoriteauthor?”•“WhatisthecapitalofEngland?”•“Whenwillyoubefinishedwiththisproject?”•“Whereareyougoingforyoursummervacation?”•“Whyhaven’tyourespondedtoKaren’sinvitationyet?”•“Howdidyougethere?”

Tagquestions

Tagquestionsareformedbyaddingaquestionasa“tag”ontotheendofadeclarativesentence.This“tag”isusuallymadeofatleastanauxiliaryverbinvertedwithasubject,thoughitissometimesjustasingleword.Itisconsideredparenthetical,sowesetitapartfromtherestofthesentencewithacomma.Tagquestionsareoftenrhetorical,usedtoconfirmananswerthatthespeakeralreadyknowsorbelievestobethecase.Forexample:•“You’renotgoingtotheparty,areyou?”•“Thisisn'tyourhat,isit?”•“Thatwasthemostdeliciousmeal,wasn’tit?”•“Youcan’ttalkduringthemovie,OK?”•“We’regoingtothegame,right?”

OtherinterrogativesentencesSomeinterrogativesentencesconsistofadeclarativestatementposedtosomeoneasaquestion,suchas:•“Youwon?”•“Itendedjustlikethat?”Somequestionscanevenbeasingleword.Theseareoften“questionwords,”(e.g.What?,Why?,When?,etc.),buttheycanconsistofotherwordsaswell.Forexample:•SpeakerA:“Sir,youneedtomoveyourcar.”•SpeakerB:“Me?”•SpeakerA:“Youdidn’teatallofyourvegetables.”•SpeakerB:“So?”•SpeakerA:“Well?”•SpeakerB:“Holdon,I’mthinking!”

IndirectquestionsSomedeclarativesentencesexpressuncertainty,butarenottrulyinterrogative.Theseareknownasindirectquestions.Forexample:•"Iwaswonderingifyouwouldliketogotothepartywithme."Thisdoesnotposeanactualquestion,soitisnotaninterrogativesentence.

Ininformalwriting,itisverycommontoseethesetypesofsentencesendwithaquestionmark.However,thisshouldn’tbedone,especiallyinformalorprofessionalwriting—thequestionmarkshouldeitherbeleftout,orthesentenceshouldberewritten.Forexample,tochangethesentenceabovefromdeclarativetointerrogative,wecouldsay,“Wouldyouliketogotothepartywithme?”


1.Choosethesentencethatisinterrogative.(Allendingpunctuationhasbeenremoved.)a)“Ican'trememberwhendinnerwillbeserved”b)“Whenwilldinnerbeserved”c)“Iwonderwhendinnerwillbeserved”d)“Whendinnerisserved,pleaseletmeknow”2.Choosethesentencethatisnotinterrogative.(Allendingpunctuationhasbeenremoved.)a)“Canyoutellmewherethebathroomis”b)“Whereisthebathroominthisplace”c)“WherethebathroomisI’llneverknow”d)“Thisisn’tthewaytothebathroom,isit”3.Choosethesentencethatisnotinterrogative.(Questionmarkshavebeenaddedtoeverysentence.)a)“Idon'tneedsurgery,doI?”b)“HowImanagedtowinisamysterytoyou,isn’tit?”c)“Wherewereyou,Mr.Smith,onthenightinquestion?”d)“Iwonderhowyouplaysowell?”4.ChoosethequestionthatisnotaYes/Noquestion.a)“Didyouknowthatmydogwasmissing?”b)“Haveyouseenhimlately?”c)“Wheredoyouthinkhewent?”d)“Willyouhelpmelookforhim?”

NegativeInterrogativeSentences

DefinitionAstheirnameimplies,negativeinterrogativesentences(sometimescalledinterro-negativesentences)areinterrogativesentencesthataremadenegative.Inadditiontoaskingliteralquestions,negativeinterrogativesentencesareoftenusedtoimplythatthespeakerisexpectingacertainanswerorforemphaticeffect.

ConstructingnegativeinterrogativesentencesAswithallnegativesentences,wegenerallyformthenegativeinterrogativebyaddingthewordnot.Whereitappearsinthesentencedependsonthetypeofinterrogativesentencewe’reusing.

Yes/NoquestionsQuestionsthathaveeither“yes”or“no”forananswerareformedusingauxiliaryverbsatthebeginningofthesentence,asin:•“Doyouhaveadollar?”•“Areyouawareoftheconsequencesofyouractions?”•“Haveyouseenmywallet?”Tomakethemnegative,weaddthewordnotafterthesubjectofthesentence.Ifnotiscontractedwiththeauxiliaryverb,however,thenthecontractioncomesbeforethesubject.Negativeinterrogative“yes/no”questionsusuallyimplythatthespeakerexpectstheanswertobe(orbelievestheanswershouldbe)“yes.”Forexample:•“Don’tyouhaveadollar?”•“Areyounotawareoftheconsequencesofyouractions?”•“Haven’tyouseenmywallet?”

WithquestionwordsWecanalsousethenegativewithinterrogativesentencesthatareformedwith

certainquestionwords(who,what,where,andwhy).Thesekindsofquestionsaresometimescalled“Wh-”questions,becauseofthecommonbeginningofeachofthequestionwords.Tomakethesesentencesnegative,weaddnoteitherimmediatelyafterthesubjectofthesentence,orcontractitwiththelinkingorauxiliaryverb.Unlikethenegativeformof“yes/no”questions,thenegativeformofquestionwordsentencescaneitherbeliteralorbeusedforemphasis.

LiteralquestionsThenegativeinterrogativeisoftenusedliterallyforsentenceswithquestionwords.Forexample:•“Itseemslikejustabouteveryoneissignedupforthetrip.Whoisn’tcoming?”•“Whyhaven’tweleftyet?”•“Yourkeysmustbesomewhere.Wherehavewenotlooked?”Ineachofthesesentences,thespeakerisaskingaquestionthatrequiresaliteralresponse.

EmphaticresponsesWecanalsousethenegativeinterrogativewiththesequestionwordsforemphasis,usuallyinresponsetoanotherquestion.Inthiscase,notisalmostexclusivelycontractedwiththeauxiliaryverb,asin:•PersonA:“Who’scomingtothepartytomorrownight?”•PersonB:“Whoisn’tcoming?”(Itseemslikeeveryonewillbecoming.)•PersonA:“WheredidyoutravelwhileyouwereinEuropethissummer?”•PersonB:“Ohman,wheredidn’tIgo?”(ThespeakerwenttoalotofplacesinEurope.)Thistypeofquestionisnotonlyusedinresponsetootherquestionsthough—itcanstandonitsownasarhetoricalquestion.Forexample:•PersonA:“Myunclealsosaidwecouldusehiscabinfortheweekifwewanted.He’llalsopayforourfoodwhilewe’reupthere.”•PersonB:“Wow,whywouldn’twegothereforspringbreak?”(Theredoesn’tappeartobeanyreasonnottogothere.)

•PersonA:“Theyjustoutlawedskateboardinginpublicinthistown.”•PersonB:“Sheesh,whatisn’tillegalhereanymore?”(Itseemslikeeverythingisagainstthelawnow.)


1.Whatcannegativeinterrogativesentencesbeusedfor?a)Toaskliteralquestionsb)Toimplythatthespeakersexpectsacertainanswerc)Foremphaticeffectd)A&Be)B&Cf)Alloftheabove2.Negativeinterrogativesentencesimplythatthespeakerexpectsacertainanswerwithwhattypeofquestion?a)Tagquestionsb)Alternativequestionsc)Yes/Noquestionsd)“Wh-”questions3.Whatisthemostlikelypurposeofthefollowingnegativeinterrogativesentence?“Whywasn’tIinformedofthismeetingearlier?”a)Asaliteralquestionb)Asanemphaticresponsec)Asarhetoricalquestionwherethespeakerexpectsacertainanswerd)Alloftheabovee)Noneoftheabove4.Whichofthefollowingiscontractedwiththewordnotinnegativeinterrogativesentences?a)Mainverbb)Auxiliaryverbc)Subjectd)Directobject

ImperativeSentencesDefinitionWeuseimperativesentencestogiveorders,commands,andgeneralinstructions.SuchsentencesaresaidtobeintheImperativeMood,oneoftheIrrealisMoodsinEnglish.

VerbswithoutsubjectsWhenwemakeanimperativesentence,weusetheinfinitiveformoftheverb(without“to”),andweomitthesubjectoftheverb.Wecanalsointensifythesentencebyaddinganexclamationmarkattheend.Forexample:•“Standup.”•“Sitdown!”•“Turnoffthelightbeforeyouleave.”•“Gotobed!”Asyoucansee,therearenosubjectsinthesentencesabove.Forexample,itwouldbeincorrecttosay,“Openyouthewindow”—itshouldsimplybe,“Openthewindow.”Itwouldalsogenerallybeincorrecttosay“Youopenthewindow,”unlessitisdoneforemphasis(asinaretort).Forexample:•A:“Daniel,couldyoupleaseopenthewindow?”•B:“Youopenthewindow!”

Subjectsvs.NounsofAddressNotethatthisisnotthesameasusinganounofaddress(alsoknownasavocative),whichisanounornounphraseusedtoaddresssomeonedirectlyinasentence.Nounsofaddressactasparentheticalelementswithinasentence,grammaticallyunrelatedtotherestofthecontent.Theyaresetapartwithoneortwocommas,dependingontheirpositioninasentence.Forexample:•“John,pleaseturnoutthatlight.”•“Standup,Janet.”•“Bequiet,sir!”

•“Youthere,payattention!”John,Janet,sir,andyoutherearenotthesubjectsoftheirsentences’verbs;theyarenounsofaddress.

NegativeImperativesWecanalsomakeimperativestatementsnegativebyputting“donot”or“don’t”beforetheinfinitiveverb:•“Don’truninthehallways!”•“Donotleaveyourdirtydishesinthesink.”Theimperativeformisalsousedforgeneralinstructions,asmightbeseenonproductinstructions,formalannouncements,notices,orinprohibitions.Iftheseareinthenegative,“donot”isusuallynotcontracted.Forexample:•“Washallwoolengarmentsinlukewarmwater.”•“Donotsmokeintheairport.”•“Donotleaveyourluggageunattended.”

UsageNote:Imperativesvs.“No”+GerundThereisanotherformofprohibitionthatcanbefoundinpublicnotices,whichis“no”plusagerund(averbputintothe“-ing”formandusedasanoun).Thisisusedforgeneralprohibitions,asin“norunning,”“nosmoking,”“noparking,”etc.Whilesimilartothenegativeimperativesabove,andevenhavingtheexactsamemeaningsometimes(“donotsmokeintheairport”meansthesameas“nosmokingintheairport”),thisformationisnottrulyimperativefromagrammaticalpointofview;itisconsideredanounphrasemadeupofadeterminer(“no”)andagerund.

Using“Do”Wecanalsousetheauxiliaryverb“do”beforethemainverbofanimperativesentence.Thisaddsanemphasistothetoneofthecommand,instruction,orrequest.Forinstance:•“Oh,doshutup!”•“Dotakecareofyourself,Mary!”

•“Pleasedoenjoyyourstay.”This“emphaticdo”canalsobemadenegative,whichchangesthewayanegativeimperativesentenceisconstructed.Takeforinstancethisnegativeimperative:•“Don’ttalktomelikethat.”Ifwewanttoaddemphasisto“don’t,”wesimplyaddthesubjectbackintothesentencebeforetheverb:•“Don’tyoutalktomelikethat!”


1.Whencanaverbsubjectbeincludedinanimperativesentence?a)Alwaysb)Whenitcomesbeforetheverb.c)Whenitcomesaftertheverb.d)Whenitisusedforemphasis.e)Never.2.Whatverbtensedoweusetoformimperativesentences?a)Presentparticipleb)Infinitivec)Gerundd)Pastparticiple3.Whichofthefollowingisnotintheimperativemood?a)Notalkingduringclass,Jeff.b)Don’trunwithscissors.c)Jane,pleasesitdown.d)Talkingisnotallowed.e)A&Bf)C&Dg)A&Dh)B&C4.Whichauxiliaryverbcanbeusedtoconstructanimperativesentence?

a)Dob)Bec)Cand)Must

ConditionalSentencesDefinitionConditionalsentencesareintheconditionalmood(asub-categoryofthesubjunctivemood),whichisusedforhypotheticalscenariosthataredependentonacertainconditionorconditions.Theyareusuallyconstructedusingiftoidentifytheconditionsthatmustbemet.Therearefour“degrees”ofconditionals,allofwhichvaryinstructureandmeaning.

ZeroConditionalAzeroconditionalsentenceusesthepresentsimpletensetotalkaboutwhatisalwaysorgenerallytrue.Itisclassifiedasaconditionalbecauseitcreatesahypotheticalsituationtodescribewhatwouldbetrueeachtimesomethinghappens.Thegeneralstructureforthezeroconditionalis:“If+subject+presenttenseofpredicateverb,subject+presenttenseofmainverb.”Forexample:•“Ifyouthrowaballintheair,itcomesbackdown.”(Alwaystrue:Aballcomesbackdowneverytimeyouthrowitintheair.)•“Ifwegetupearly,wealwaysgojogging.”(Generallytrue:Wejogeverytimewegetupearly.)

FirstConditionalThefirstconditionalisverysimilarinstructuretothezeroconditional.Westilluseifplusthepresentsimpletocreatethecondition,exceptthatwenowusethefuturesimpletense(will+bareinfinitive)todescribeaprobableresultofthecondition.Thus,thestructureis:“If+presentsimpletense,will+infinitive.”

Forexample:•“IfIseehim,Iwilltellhim.”•“IfIwinthelottery,Iwillbuyanewhouse.”Wecanalsocreatenegativefirstconditionalsbyusingthenegativeofthepresentsimpleintheifclause,andthenegativeofwillinthefuturesimpleclause.Forexample:•“IfIdonotgo,Iwillnotseehim.”•“IfIdon’tseehim,Iwon’thavetosaygoodbye.”•“Ifhedoesn’tarrivesoon,wewon’thavetimetocatchthe9:30train.”Wecanalsoreorderthesentencetohavethefuturetenseclauseatthebeginningofthesentence,andtheifconditionalclauseattheend.Additionally,wecanusemodalauxiliaryverbsotherthanwill(suchasmust,can,could,may,might,orshould)tocreatedifferentshadesofcertaintyinthefuturesimpletense.Let’stakealookatsomeexamples:•“Iwillgoifhecallsme.”(Willexpressesacertainty.)•“Imustgoifhecallsme.”(Mustexpressesapersonalobligationforthespeaker.)•“Icangoifhecallsme.”(Canexpresseseitherpermissionfromathirdpartyorthefactthatspeakerisfreefromothercommitments.)•“Imightgoifhecallsme.”(Mightexpressesa50%possibility.)•“Imaygoifhecallsme.”(Mayissimilartomight,butitismoreformalandthepossibilityisslightlyless.)•“Ishouldgoifhecallsme.”(Thespeakerfeelsamildobligation.)•“Youshouldgoifhecallsyou.”(Thespeakerisrecommendingthatyougoorisgivingyouapersonalopinion.)•“Ican’tgoifhecallsme.”(Thespeakerisnotableordoesnothavepermission.)•“Ishouldn’tgoifhecallsme.”(Thespeakerfeelsamildobligationnotto.)•“Imight/maynotgoifhecallsme.”(WeveryrarelycontractmightnotinmodernEnglish,andwealmostnevercontractmaynot.)

Interrogativesentences(questions)Toformaquestioninthefirstconditional,weinvertthesubjectwiththemodalauxiliaryverb.•“IfIhecallsme,shouldIgo?”•“CouldIleaveearlyifJakecoversmyshift?”•“IfIfinishmyhomeworkontime,mayIgototheparty?”•“IfIcomewithyou,willyoubuymelunch?”

SecondConditionalWeusethesecondconditionaltospeakaboutahypotheticalsituationoroutcomeresultingfromthecondition.Unlikethefirstconditional,weusethesecondconditionaltotalkaboutthingsthatcannotorareunlikelytohappen.Tocreatethesecondconditional,weusethepastsimpletenseaftertheifclause,followedbywould+thebareinfinitivefortheresultofthecondition.Inadditiontowould(whichweusetodescribesomethingwewoulddefinitelydo),wecanalsousecouldforwhatwewouldbeabletodo,aswellasmightforwhatitispossible(butunlikely)wewoulddo.Forexample:•“IfIwenttoLondon,IwouldvisitTrafalgarSquare.”•“IfIwonthelottery,Icouldbuyanewhouse.”•“Ifyouhadaphone,youcouldcallmeeveryday.”•“IfIwas/were*older,Imightstayupallnightlong.”(*NotethatinmoreformalEnglish,itisstandardtousewereinconditionalsentencesusingthepasttenseofbe,irrespectiveofithavingasingularorpluralsubject.However,ineverydaywritingandspeech,itiscommontousewasforsingularsubjects.)Wecanalsoputthesecondconditionalinthenegativetodescribesomethingthatwouldnotbethecaseifsomethingelsewerealsonotthecase.Toformthenegative,weusethenegativeofthepastsimpleintheifclause,andmakewouldnegativeintheclausedescribingtheresultofthecondition.Forexample:•“Ifourfatherdidn’tworksohard,wewouldn’tbeabletoaffordthishouse.”

•“IfIdidn’tliveinLondon,IcouldneverspeakEnglishsowell.”

Interrogativesentences(questions)Toformquestionsinthesecondconditional,weinvertwould/could/mightwiththesubject.Forexample:•“Ifyouhadamilliondollars,wouldyoubuyanexpensiveboat?”•“WouldyoutraveltoSouthAmericaifyouspokeSpanish?”Wecanalsoputaquestionwordbeforewouldinthisform:•“Whatwouldyoudoifyourfamilywasn’tsowealthy?”•“Wheremightyougoifyouwonthelottery?”•“Ifyoucouldhavedinnerwithafamousperson,whowouldyouchoose?”

ThirdConditionalThirdconditionalsareusedtoestablishahypotheticalsituationinthepast,followedbyahypotheticaloutcomethatdidnotreallyhappen—typically,theoutcomeistheoppositeofwhatactuallyhappened.Toformthethirdconditional,weusethepastperfecttensefortheifconditionalclause,andwouldhave+thepastparticipleoftheverbforthehypotheticaloutcome.(Aswiththesecondconditional,wecanalsousecouldormightinsteadofwould.Additionally,wecanuseshouldhave+thepastparticipletodescribeanoutcomethatoughttohavehappened.)Forexample:•“IfIhadbeenmoreprepared,Iwouldhavepassedthattest.”Inreality,thespeakerwasnotprepared,andsotheydidnotpassthetest.Bycreatingaconditioninthepastusingthepastperfecttense,theycanarticulatehowtheymighthaveachievedadifferentoutcomeiftheyweremoreprepared.Herearesomeotherexamples:•Truth:“Shewasnotthereandcouldn’thelpyou.”•Conditional:“Ifshehadbeenthere,shecouldhavehelpedyou.”•Truth:“IwaslateforworkyesterdaybecauseIoverslept.”•Conditional:“IfIhadn’toverslept,Iwouldn’thavebeenlateforwork.”

•Truth:“Youknewyouhadatesttoday.”•Conditional:“Ifyouknewyouhadatesttoday,youshouldhavestudiedharder.”

Interrogativesentences(questions)Toformaquestioninthethirdconditional,weinvertwould/could/might/shouldwiththesubjectandaddaquestionwordbeforeit(ifnecessary).Forexample:•“Wouldyouhavecometothepartyifyouhadknownaboutit?”•“Whatmightyouhavedoneifyouhadknownthetruth?”•“Wherecouldyouhavegoneifyouhadn’tcomehere?”

TheMixedConditionalAverycommonlyused“fifth”conditionaliswhat’sknownasthemixedconditional,whichisacrossbetweenthethirdconditionalandthesecond.Therearetwowaystoformamixedconditional,dependingonthemeaningwewishtoachieve.Ifitisbeingusedtodescribehowanunrealsituationinthepastmighthaveaffectedanunrealoutcomeinthepresent,weusethepastperfecttenseintheifconditionalclauseandwould/could+thebareinfinitiveoftheverbfortheresultofthecondition.Forexample:•“IfIhadstudiedmore(theconditionisinthepast),Iwouldbeadoctor(theresultoftheconditionisinthepresent).”•“IfIhadbeenborninItaly,IwouldbeItalian.”•“Ifhehadn’tlosthisjob,hewouldn’tbeunemployed.”Ifthemixedconditionalisbeingusedtodescribehowanunrealconditioninthepresentmighthaveaffectedanunrealoutcomeinthepast,weusethepastsimpletenseintheifconditionalclauseandwouldhave/couldhave+thepastparticipleoftheverbfortheresultofthecondition.Forexample:•“IfIwasn’t/weren’tsoshy(conditioninthepresent),Iwouldhaveaskedheronadate(unrealoutcomeinthepast).”

•“Ifshewas/wereabetterdriver,she’dhavegottenherlicensebynow.”•“Ifweworkedalittleharder,wecouldhavefinishedthisprojectalready.”


1.Whatverbtenseisusedintheifclauseforthesecondconditional?a)Pastsimpletenseb)Pastperfecttensec)Futuresimpletensed)Futureperfecttense2.Whichofthefollowingcorrectlycompletesthissentenceusingthethirdconditional?“IfIhadbeenearlier,___________________”a)Iwouldmissthetrain.b)Imissedthetrain.c)Iwouldnothavemissedthetrain.d)Iwouldnotbemissingthetrain.3.Whichtwoconditionalscanformamixedconditional?a)Zeroandfirstconditionalb)Firstandsecondconditionalc)Secondandthirdconditionald)Firstandthirdconditional4.Whichofthefollowingmodalverbsismostcommonlyusedtocreateconditionalsentences?a)canb)willc)dod)be5.Whichoftheconditionalsdoesnotdescribeanunrealsituation?a)Thirdconditionalb)Secondconditionalc)Firstconditional

d)Zeroconditional6.Whatkindofconditionalisthefollowingsentenceanexampleof?“IwouldhavestudiedmarinebiologyifIweren’tafraidofwater.”a)Mixedconditionalb)Thirdconditionalc)Secondconditionald)Firstconditional

MajorandMinorSentences(RegularandIrregularSentences)DefinitionAmajorsentence(alsocalledaregularsentence)isanycompletesentencethatismadeupoforcontainsanindependentclause—thatis,ithasbothasubjectandapredicate(averbandanyofitsconstituentparts).Aminorsentence(alsocalledanirregularsentence),ontheotherhand,isanysentencethatdoesnothaveatleastoneindependentclause—thatis,itdoesnothavebothasubjectandacompletepredicate—andyetisusedinwritingorspeechasacompletesentencethatstandsonitsown.AlloftheothersectionsinthechapteronSentencesdealwithmajorsentences,sowewillfocusonminorsentencesinthissection.

MinorSentencesMinorsentencescanbemadeupofsinglewords,sentencefragments,interjections,orsetexpressions(suchasidiomsandproverbs.We’llexamineseveralexamplesofeachbelowtoseehowtheyareusedineverydayEnglish.

Single-wordsentencesInconversationalEnglish,weveryoftenusesinglewordstogetacrossrequiredinformationinresponsetoanotherperson.Theseareknownassentencewords,one-wordsentences,orjustwordsentences.Forexample:•PersonA:“Whereisyourmeetingagain?”

•PersonB:“Denver.”•PersonA:“Ithinkit’sbestthatwedon’tgetinvolved.”•PersonB:“Agreed.”•PersonA:“Whendoyouneedthesereportsfinished?”•PersonB:“Tomorrow.”Eventhoughthesecondspeaker’sresponseisonlymadeupofasinglewordineachoftheseexamples,itcontainsalltherelevantinformationthatisnecessaryinthecontextoftheconversation.

SentencefragmentsWealsocommonlyusesentencefragments(phrases,incompleteclauses,ordependentclauses)asstandalonesentences.Again,thesearetypicallyusedinconversationalEnglishwhenwearerespondingtosomeoneelse.Forexample:•PersonA:“Areyougoingtohavelunchsoon?”•PersonB:“Inaboutanhour.”(prepositionalphrase)•PersonA:“Doyouwanttocometoamoviewithmelater?”•PersonB:“Soundsgood!”(incompleteclause)•PersonA:“Whendidyourealizethatyouwantedtopursuepolitics?”•PersonB:“WhenIwasincollege.”(dependentclause)

InterjectionsSinglewordsandshortphrasesarealsocommonlyusedasinterjections(alsoknownasexclamations)toconveyastrongemotion,suchassurprise,alarm,excitement,dismay,etc.Thesearedividedintoprimaryandsecondaryinterjections.

PrimaryinterjectionsPrimaryinterjectionsaresinglewordsderivedfromsounds,ratherthanfromexistingwordclasses.Theystillhavewidelyrecognizedmeaning,however.Somecommonprimaryinterjectionsare:

argh(anexpressionoffrustration)brr(anexpressionofbeingcold)eww(anexpressionofdisgust)grr(anexpressionofanger)

ooh(anexpressionofamazement)phew(anexpressionofrelief)

Primaryinterjectionsareoftenlinkedtoamajorsentencewithacomma,buttheycanalsostandontheirownasminorsentences,inwhichcasetheyaregenerallypunctuatedwithanexclamationpoint.Forexample:•“Ooh!That’sabeautifuldress.”•“Brr!It’sfreezinginhere!”•“Eww!Ihatecoconuts!”

SecondaryInterjectionsSecondaryinterjectionsaresinglewordsorshortphrasesthatdobelongtootherexistingwordclasses.Somecommonsecondaryinterjectionsare:•blessyou•congratulations•goodgrief•hell•hey•hi•ohmy•ohmyGod•ohwell•shoot•well•what•wowSecondaryinterjectionsarealsooftenpunctuatedwithexclamationpoints.Forexample:•“OhmyGod!Wewonthelottery!”•“Wow!Whatagreatachievement!”•“Congratulations!Thatwasanimpressivevictory.”However,wecanalsohaveweakersecondaryinterjectionsthatarepunctuatedwithperiods,orinterrogativeonesthatusequestionmarks.Forexample:•“Wellshoot.Ireallythoughtweweregoingtowin.”•“Goodgrief.Ididn’tseethatcoming.”

•“Well?Arewegoingtowatchamovie?”•“What?Youdon’tlikecoconuts?”

Idioms,Proverbs,andSetExpressionsEnglishhasalargenumberofexpressionsthathaveaset,establishedunderstanding,eveniftheytechnicallyarenotgrammaticallycompleteordonotmakeliteralsense.Manyoftheseareidioms(expressionsthathaveanon-literalmeaning)orproverbs(shortsayingsthatcarryabasictruthorprecept),thoughthereareotherexpressionswithsetmeaningsthatareinfrequentandwidespreaduse,aswell.Therearethousandsofsuchphrases,sowewillonlycoverafewherethatareconsideredminorsentences.Tolearnmore,checkoutTheFreeDictionary’sCompleteGuidetoIdioms,Proverbs,andPhrasalVerbs.

IdiomsIdiomsarephraseswhosemeaningcannotbegleanedfromtheliteralwordsthey’recomposedof,oftenhavingauniquegrammaticalstructure.Becauseofthis,theyarefrequentlyusedinwaysthatgoagainsttraditionalgrammarrules,andtheyareoftenusedassentencesuntothemselvesinconversation.Forexample:•“Hi,Bill,howareyou?”•“Hey,Jeff!Longtimenosee!”•“Bemorecarefulnexttime,ortheremightnotbea‘nexttime.’Catchmydrift?”•“Howcanyouevictusfromourhouselikethis?”•“Ordersareorders.”•“Whenwillyouhavethatreportreadyforme?”•“Anyminutenow!”Idiomsaresofrequentlyusedandunderstoodineverydayspeechandwritingthattheyareoftentruncatedorabbreviated,withthefullphraselefttobeimplicitlyunderstoodbythelistenerorreader.Forinstance:•“Iwentthroughallthetroubleofgettingherthisjob,andshestillmanagedtoscrewitup.”

•“Well,youcanleadahorsetowater.”(Shortfor“Youcanleadahorsetowater,butyoucan’tmakeitdrink.”)•“Itookthemtothebestrestaurantintown,buttheysaidtheywouldratherhavehadcheeseburgers.”•“Whatdoyouexpect?Pearlsbeforeswine.”(Shortfor“cast(one’s)pearlsbeforeswine.”)

ProverbsProverbsaresimilartoidiomsinthattheircodifiedmeaningiswidelyunderstoodduetofrequentandwidespreaduse.Proverbsareself-containedsentencesthatexpressatruthbasedoncommonsenseorsharedexperience.Manyofthemhavebecomepareddownintominorsentencesovertime.Forexample:•“Youshouldtryandformbetterhabitsinyourday-to-dayroutine.Earlytobed,earlytorise!)”(Shortfor“Earlytobedandearlytorise,makesamanhealthy,wealthy,andwise.”)•“I’mnotsurewhypeopleareshockedthathe’ssuspectedofstealing.Iftheshoefits.”(Shortfor“Iftheshoefits,wearit.”)•“Sure,bringyourfriends.Themorethemerrier!”

OthersetexpressionsThereareothercommonexpressionsthatstandontheirownasminorsentencesthatarenotnecessarilyidiomaticorproverbialbutneverthelesshaveaparticularmeaningthatisinherentlyunderstood.(Manyoftheseareformsof(orsimilarto)theinterjectionsthatwelookedatabove.)Expressionsofgreetingandfarewellareaprimeexampleofsetexpressionsthatfunctionasorformminorsentences.Forexample:•“Hello!Howareyou?”•“Goodafternoon!It’sapleasuretoseeyou.”•“I’mafraidImustdepart.Goodday,gentlemen.”•“Goodbye.Ihopewemeetagain.”Expressionsofwellwishesoperatethesameway:•“Ihearyouhaveabigexamcomingup.Goodluck!”

•“Thisisabigtripyou’reundertaking.Godspeed!”Somesetexpressionshavebeenadaptedfromotherlanguages,asin:•“Bonvoyage!Enjoyyourtripabroad!”(FromFrench,expressinggoodwishestoadepartingtraveler.)•“Ihopeyouenjoythemeal.Bonappétit,everyone!”(FromFrench,asalutationtosomeoneabouttoeat.)•“Gesundheit!”(FromGerman,meaning“health,”usedinEnglishasaverbalresponsetosomeonewhohassneezed.)


1.Whichofthefollowingwouldnotcompriseaminorsentence?a)Awordb)Aphrasec)Adependentclaused)Anindependentclause2.Whichofthefollowingcanbeusedtopunctuateasecondaryinterjection?a)Aperiodb)Anexclamationpointc)Aquestionmarkd)A&Ce)B&Cf)Alloftheabove3.Identifytheminorsentenceinthefollowingexample:“I’llgiveSamanthaaliftbacktotheoffice.Soundgood?”a)I’llgiveSamanthaaliftbacktotheoffice.b)Soundgood?c)NeitherAnorBd)BothA&B4.Whenaresingle-wordsentencesmostcommonlyusedinEnglish?a)Conversationsb)Formalwriting

c)Informalwritingd)Professionalwriting5.Identifywhatkindofminorsentenceishighlightedinthefollowingexample:SpeakerA:“Ireallyneedthatloanyoupromisedme.”SpeakerB:“Allingoodtime.”a)One-wordsentenceb)Interjectionc)Idiomd)Proverb

QuizanswersPage.Article:Question-Answer

14.Nouns:1-f,2-b,3-d,4-c,5-b16.CommonandProperNouns:1-b,2-b,3-b18.NounsofAddress:1-e,2-b,3-d,4-a,5-b21.ConcreteandAbstractNouns:1-b,2-a,3-b,4-a,5-a,6-b24.CountableNouns:1-f,2-b,3-b,4-d,5-c28.UncountableNouns:1-c,2-a,3-d,4-b,5-d31.CollectiveNouns:1-d,2-c,3-a,4-b,5-c35.CompoundNouns:1-a,2-b,3-c,4-c,5-d39.Nominalization(CreatingNouns):1-b,2-c,3-a,4-c42.Pronouns:1-c,2-a,3-d,4-a,5-c44.PersonalPronouns-Number:1-e,2-d,3-a,4-c46.PersonalPronouns-Person(Firstperson,Secondperson,Thirdperson):1-b,2-d,3-a,4-d47.PersonalPronouns-Gender:1-c,2-d,3-b,4-e,5-c50.PersonalPronouns-Case:1-a,2-b,3-e,4-c,5-a51.PersonalPronouns-ReflexivePronouns:1-c,2-a,3-d,4-b52.IntensivePronouns:1-c,2-a,3-f,4-d56.IndefinitePronouns:1-c,2-c,3-a,4-d59.DemonstrativePronouns:1-c,2-d,3-a,4-c62.InterrogativePronouns:1-b,2-d,3-f,4-a68.RelativePronouns:1-b,2-a,3-d,4-a,5-a,6-d69.ReciprocalPronouns:1-d,2-b,3-a,4-d72.DummyPronouns:1-b,2-b,3-d,4-a,5-c78.Verbs:1-b,2-c,3-a,4-f,5-b,6-c82.FiniteandNon-finiteVerbs:1-c,2-d,3-a,4-e,5-b85.TransitiveandIntransitiveVerbs:1-c,2-d,3-c,4-a,5-b88.RegularandIrregularVerbs:1-b,2-d,3-a,4-b,5-d,6-c93.AuxiliaryVerbs:1-c,2-d,3-a,4-c,5-c100.PrimaryAuxiliaryVerbs:1-b,2-c,3-c,4-d,5-a104.ModalAuxiliaryVerbs:1-a,2-d,3-a,4-c,5-b,6-b107.ModalAuxiliaryVerbs-Will:1-c,2-b,3-a110.ModalAuxiliaryVerbs-Would:1-b,2-d,3-c,4-a112.ModalAuxiliaryVerbs-Shall:1-a,2-d,3-c115.ModalAuxiliaryVerbs-Should:1-a,2-d,3-b,4-a

118.ModalAuxiliaryVerbs-Can:1-d,2-c,3-a121.ModalAuxiliaryVerbs-Could:1-b,2-c,3-b123.ModalAuxiliaryVerbs-May:1-c,2-c,3-b,4-d125.ModalAuxiliaryVerbs-Might:1-c,2-c,3-a,4-d127.ModalAuxiliaryVerbs-Must:1-a,2-c,3-c,4-d130.SubstitutingModalVerbs:1-f,2-d,3-c,4-d134.Semi-ModalAuxiliaryVerbs:1-b,2-f,3-a,4-c,5-b138.Infinitives:1-f,2-b,3-b,4-a,5-c145.Participles:1-e,2-b,3-c,4-d,5-a147.ActionVerbs:1-b,2-d,3-a,4-c152.StativeVerbs:1-c,2-b,3-c,4-d,5-b157.LinkingVerbs:1-c,2-b,3-a,4-d,5-b,6-a162.LightVerbs:1-b,2-e,3-b,4-a,5-a165.PhrasalVerbs:1-c,2-a,3-d,4-c,5-b177.ConditionalVerbs:1-g,2-c,2-e,3-a,4-b,5-d179.CausativeVerbs:1-b,2-d,3-a,4-b,5-a181.FactitiveVerbs:1-c,2-d,3-a,4-b,5-c183.ReflexiveVerbs:1-b,2-d,3-d,4-a187.Adjectives:1-c,2-b,3-a,4-d,5-c191.AttributiveAdjectives:1-a,2-a,3-c,4-a,5-b194.PredicativeAdjectives:1-b,2-c,3-e,4-a197.ProperAdjectives:1-b,2-c,3-a,4-d,5-a199.CollectiveAdjectives:1-a,2-c,3-a,4-b,5-a202.DemonstrativeAdjectives:1-b,2-c,3-d,4-a,5-b204.InterrogativeAdjectives:1-b,2-c,3-e,4-b,5-a207.NominalAdjectives:1-d,2-c,3-a,4-c,5-d210.CompoundAdjectives:1-c,2-b,3-a,4-b214.OrderofAdjectives:1-b,2-a,3-c,4-d,5-a217.DegreesofComparison:1-c,2-a,3-b,4-f222.ComparativeAdjectives:1-a,2-d,3-b,4-c,5-d225.SuperlativeAdjectives:1-c,2-b,3-d,4-a229.Adverbs:1-c,2-c,3-a,4-b,5-d233.AdverbsofTime:1-c,2-d,3-a,4-b,5-a237.AdverbsofPlace:1-d,2-b,3-c,4-d,5-a,6-c239.AdverbsofManner:1-b,2-d,3-d,4-a,5-c242.AdverbsofDegree:1-c,2-a,3-d,4-b,5-b244.Mitigators:1-a,2-d,3-b,4-b,5-c247.Intensifiers:1-b,2-d,3-a,4-c,5-f250.AdverbsofFrequency:1-f,2-b,3-a,4-c,5-d,6-c

253.AdverbsofPurpose:1-b,2-c,3-d,4-e257.FocusingAdverbs:1-a,2-c,3-b,4-d,5-a262.NegativeAdverbs:1-d,2-b,3-a,4-a,5-c266.ConjunctiveAdverbs:1-d,2-e,3-a,4-b,5-b269.EvaluativeAdverbs:1-e,2-b,3-d,4-b,5-c272.ViewpointAdverbs:1-a,2-d,3-c,4-d,5-b274.RelativeAdverbs:1-d,2-b,3-a,4-c,5-d,6-a276.AdverbialNouns:1-c,2-d,3-b,4-d280.RegularandIrregularAdverbs:1-c,2-a,3-d,4-b,5-c,6-b283.DegreesofComparison:1-c,2-a,3-b,4-f287.ComparativeAdverbs:1-c,2-b,3-d,4-b,5-b291.SuperlativeAdverbs:1-c,2-c,3-b,4-d,5-b295.OrderofAdverbs:1-b,2-a,3-c,4-e,5-a298.Prepositions:1-b,2-e,3-a,4-b301.PrepositionalPhrases:1-d,2-b,3-b,4-a,5-d306.CategoriesofPrepositions:1-d,2-b,3-b,4-d316.PrepositionswithNouns:1-c,2-b,3-a,4-c325.PrepositionswithVerbs:1-e,2-b,3-a,4-c331.PrepositionswithAdjectives:1-d,2-a,3-a,4-d333.PrepositionsinIdioms:1-d,2-d,3-b,4-b,5-a339.IdiomsthatStartwithPrepositions:1-c,2-a,3-a,4-d346.IdiomsthatEndwithPrepositions:1-d,2-d,3-b,4-a348.Conjunctions:1-d,2-e,3-b,4-c351.CoordinatingConjunctions:1-e,2-c,3-a,4-d,5-a356.CorrelativeConjunctions:1-b,2-d,3-a,4-c,5-d360.SubordinatingConjunctions:1-c,2-a,3-c,4-d,5-e362.Particles:1-c,2-d,3-b,4-a365.Articles:1-a,2-b,3-a,4-d,5-f373.Determiners:1-b,2-c,3-d,4-a,5-b375.PossessiveDeterminers:1-a,2-b,3-d,4-d,5-a,6-c378.Gerunds:1-c,2-a,3-b,4-d,5-c381.GerundsasObjectsofVerbs:1-b,2-c,3-d,4-b384.Interjections:1-c,2-c,3-a,4-c,5-b389.Inflection(Accidence):1-b,2-c,3-e,4-a,5-c397.Conjugation:1-c,2-a,3-e,4-d,5-b,5-e404.Tense:1-b,2-d,3-c,4-a,5-c406.PresentTense:1-g,2-a,3-c,4-f408.PresentSimpleTense:1-c,2-d,3-a,4-c411.PresentContinuousTense(Progressive):1-c,2-d,3-g,4-a,5-d,6-b

415.PresentPerfectTense:1-c,2-f,3-b,4-a418.PresentPerfectContinuousTense:1-b,2-a,3-c,4-d421.PastTense:1-a,2-d,3-c,4-c,5-d424.PastSimpleTense:1-b,2-d,3-a,4-c,5-c426.PastContinuousTense:1-c,2-a,3-c,4-b429.PastPerfectTense:1-c,2-b,3-a,4-c,5-d432.PastPerfectContinuousTense:1-c,2-e,3-b,4-c,5-b434.FutureTense(Approximation):1-d,2-d,3-c,4-b437.FutureSimpleTense:1-c,2-a,3-d,4-b,5-b440.FutureContinuousTense:1-d,2-b,3-c,4-a,5-c443.FuturePerfectTense:1-c,2-d,3-a,4-b,5-c445.FuturePerfectContinuousTense:1-c,2-e,3-a,4-b,5-d448.Aspect:1-b,2-a,3-d,4-c,5-d451.PerfectiveandImperfectiveAspect:1-a,2-d,3-c,4-d,5-c452.AspectsofthePresentTense:1-c,2-b,3-a,4-c,5-a,6-d454.AspectsofthePastTense:1-a,2-b,3-a,4-b,5-b456.AspectsoftheFutureTense:1-c,2-b,3-a,4-b,5-d458.Mood:1-a,2-e,3-e,4-b,5-h461.IndicativeMood:1-e,2-c,3-b,4-c463.SubjunctiveMood:1-d,2-b,3-c,4-a,5-b465.SubjunctiveMood-ExpressingWishes:1-c,2-d,3-a,4-b,5-b467.Voice:1-b,2-a,3-d,4-d469.ActiveVoice:1-c,2-d,3-f,4-b471.PassiveVoice:1-a,2-a,3-b,4-e,5-d473.MiddleVoice:1-d,2-c,3-d,4-a477.Speech:1-a,2-d,3-b,4-d,5-c,6-b481.ReportedSpeech(IndirectSpeech):1-b,2-c,3-b,4-a,5-d,6-c486.GrammaticalPerson:1-b,2-e,3-g,4-c,5-a491.Declension:1-d,2-b,3-e,4-a,5-c495.Plurals:1-b,2-d,3-a,4-b,5-c497.GenderinNouns:1-b,2-d,3-e,4-a503.RegularandIrregularInflection:1-c,2-a,3-c,4-d,5-c,6-g507.Syntax:1-a,2-e,3-b,4-c,5-c513.TheSubject:1-c,2-a,3-b,4-a,5-c,6-d519.ThePredicate:1-b,2-a,3-d,4-b,5-a,6-c,7-b523.Complements:1-a,2-c,3-b,4-d,5-c526.Objects:1-d,2-c,3-b,4-d528.SubjectComplements:1-c,2-d,3-a,4-b530.ObjectComplements:1-c,2-b,3-b,4-a

532.AdjectiveComplements:1-c,2-b,3-d533.AdverbialComplements:1-b,2-d,3-e539.Modifiers:1-e,2-a,3-b,4-d,5-a,6-b543.Adjuncts:1-b,2-d,3-a,4-b,5-c,6-a548.Phrases:1-d,2-e,3-a,4-c,5-a552.NounPhrases:1-c,2-d,3-a,4-b,5-c555.AdjectivePhrases:1-g,2-b,3-b,4-b558.AdverbialPhrases:1-b,2-c,3-a,4-b,5-d561.ParticiplePhrases:1-b,2-f,3-a,4-c,5-c,6-f563.AbsolutePhrases:1-c,2-e,3-a,4-b565.Appositives:1-b,2-a,3-c,4-b,5-b568.Clauses:1-a,2-d,3-f,4-d,5-b569.IndependentClauses:1-e,2-a,3-c,4-a,5-b572.DependentClauses:1-e,2-a,3-b,4-e,5-c575.NounClauses:1-c,2-d,3-b,4-d577.RelativeClauses:1-b,2-a,3-d,4-c579.AdverbialClauses:1-d,2-a,3-b,4-b584.Sentences:1-f,2-b,3-c,4-e587.CompoundSentences:1-d,2-f,3-a,4-c,5-b589.ComplexSentences:1-c,2-b,3-d,4-a,5-a591.Compound-ComplexSentences:1-b,2-e,3-b,4-c,5-f595.DeclarativeSentences:1-c,2-a,3-d,4-g,5-c597.InterrogativeSentences:1-b,2-c,3-d,4-c599.NegativeInterrogativeSentences:1-f,2-c,3-a,4-b601.ImperativeSentences:1-d,2-b,3-g,4-a605.ConditionalSentences:1-a,2-c,3-c,4-b,5-d,6-a608.MajorandMinorSentences(RegularandIrregularSentences):1-d,2-f,3-b,4-a,5-c

IndexAabsoluteconstruction·562absolutephrases·562abstractcountablenouns·20abstractnouns·19abstractuncountablenouns·20accidence·385actionverbs·146actionverbsthattakegerunds·380activevoice·467adjectivaladjuncts·542adjectivalclauses·575adjectivalphrases·553adjectivalprepositionalphrases·299adjectiveclauses·575adjectivecomplements·326,531adjectivephrasecomplements·531adjectivephrases·553adjectivephrasesvs.adjectivalphrases·555adjectivephrases,forming·553adjectives·184adjectives,attributive·188adjectives,collective·198adjectives,comparative·218adjectives,compound·207adjectives,cumulative·214adjectives,demonstrative·200adjectives,distributive·367adjectives,gradable·221,241adjectives,indefinite·56adjectives,interrogative·202adjectives,irregular·219,500adjectives,long·219adjectives,nominal·205adjectives,non-gradable·241

adjectives,non-restrictive·189adjectives,orderof·211adjectives,phrasal·207adjectives,possessive·374adjectives,postnominal·189adjectives,postpositive·189adjectives,predicate·192adjectives,predicative·192adjectives,prenominal·189adjectives,prepositive·189adjectives,proper·194adjectives,regular·500adjectives,restrictive·189adjectives,short·218adjectives,superlative·223adjectives,ungradable·222adjunctphrases·541adjuncts·540adverbclauses·577adverbphrases·556adverbialadjuncts·540adverbialclauses·577adverbialclausesofcomparisonormanner·579adverbialclausesofcondition·579adverbialclausesofcontrast·579adverbialclausesofplace·578adverbialclausesofpurpose·253adverbialclausesofreasonorpurpose·578adverbialclausesoftime·578adverbialcomplements·533adverbialnouns·275adverbialobjectives·275adverbialphrases·556adverbialphrasesofpurpose·252adverbialprepositionalphrases·299adverbials·226adverbials,negative·258adverbs·226adverbsofdefinitefrequency·248

adverbsofdegree·240adverbsofdirection·234adverbsofduration·231adverbsoffrequency·247adverbsofindefinitefrequency·249adverbsoflocation·235adverbsofmanner·237adverbsofmovementanddirection·235adverbsofmovementandlocation·235adverbsofplace·234adverbsofpurpose·251adverbsofpurpose,non-conjunctive·252adverbsofreason·251adverbsoftime·230adverbs,commenting·267adverbs,comparative·283adverbs,conjunctive·263,586adverbs,connecting·263adverbs,creating·237adverbs,evaluative·267adverbs,focusing·254adverbs,frequency·247adverbs,gradable·287adverbs,grading·240adverbs,irregular·277,501adverbs,linking·263adverbs,negative·258adverbs,non-grading·240adverbs,orderof·292adverbs,regular·277,501adverbs,relative·272adverbs,royalorderof·292adverbs,superlative·288adverbs,ungradable·287adverbs,viewpoint·270agreement,subject-verb·24,354,509alternativequestions·596ambitransitiveverbs·83AmericanEnglish·24,33,87,114,220,232,235,285,290,309,351,364,

474,475animals,collectivenounsand·30antecedents·40,44,51anticipatoryit·72apostrophes,possessive·375appellations·15appositivephrases·564appositives·564appositives,non-restrictive·565appositives,restrictive·565articles·363articles,definite·363articles,indefinite·363as…as·222aspect·446attributiveadjectives·188attributivevs.predicativeadjectives·188auxiliaryverbs·89,94auxiliaryverbs,semi-modal·130

Bbe·94,485beginningasentencewithacoordinatingconjunction·351brands·15BritishEnglish·33,114,220,235,285,290,309,351,364,474,475

Ccan·116can/could·128can/could/may/might·128can/may/shall·129case·48case,genitive·49case,objective·48,525,528case,possessive·49causativeverbs·178,181choicequestions·596clauses·566clauses,adjectival·575

clauses,adjective·575clauses,adverb·577clauses,adverbial·577clauses,dependent·570clauses,independent·568clauses,main·568clauses,non-defining·576clauses,non-restrictive·576clauses,noun·572clauses,participle·559clauses,relative·575clauses,restrictive·576clauses,restrictiverelative·576clauses,subordinate·570closedcompoundnouns·33collectiveadjectives·198collectivenouns·29collectivenounsandanimals·30collectivenouns,plural-only·30commasplices·586commas·474,589commentingadverbs·267commonnouns·15comparativeadjectives·218comparativeadverbs·283comparativeadverbs,forming·284comparativeadverbs,irregular·285complements·520complements,adjective·326,531complements,adjectivephrase·531complements,adverbial·533complements,object·180,190,529complements,subject·49,527completecontrast·265complexsentences·588complexvs.compoundsentences·590compoundadjectives·207compoundmodifiers·207compoundnouns·31

compoundnouns,hyphenated·33compoundnouns,open·33compoundnouns,solid·33compoundnouns,spaced·33compoundpredicates·515,582compoundsentences·584compoundsubjects·582compound-complexsentences·590concretecountablenouns·19concretenouns·18concreteuncountablenouns·20conditionalsentences·602conditionalverbs·175conjugation·389,397conjunction,beginningasentencewithacoordinating·351conjunctions·347conjunctions,coordinating·349,585conjunctions,correlative·585conjunctions,correlative·352conjunctions,paired·352conjunctions,subordinating·356conjunctiveadverbs·263,586conjunctiveadverbsofpurpose·251connectingadverbs·263consonantsoundsvs.vowelsounds·363continuousaspect·452,453,455conversion·38coordinatingconjunctions·349,585copularverbs·153copulas·153correlativeconjunctions·352,585could·119countnouns·21countablenouns·21cumulativeadjectives·214

Ddanglingmodifiers·143,539declarativequestions·594

declarativesentences·592declarativesentences,negative·594declension·487definitearticles·363degreesofstrength·240delexicalverbs·158demonstrativeadjectives·200demonstrativedeterminers·200demonstrativepronouns·57dependentclauses·570dependentprepositions·317determiners·366determiners,demonstrative·200determiners,distributive·367determiners,interrogative·202determiners,possessive·374determiners,pre-·368diathesis·466directobjects·180,524directquestions·60directspeech·474distributiveadjectives·367distributivedeterminers·367ditransitiveverbs·84,524do·94doublenegatives·261dummypronouns·70dynamicverbs·146

Eeach·368eachother·68either·368ellipticalsentences·253emphaticmood·458emptysubjects·72emptyverbs·158enough·242ergativeverbs·83

evaluativeadverbs·267every·368exclamations·382exclamatorysentences·592existentialthere·70expletivepronouns·70

Ffactitiveverbs·180familialroles·16FANBOYS·349,585farthest·224feminine·495fewervs.less·27finiteverbs·79,516firstconditional·177,602firstperson·45,482flection·385focusingadverbs·254fragments,sentence·606freeindirectdiscourse·476freeindirectspeech·476frequencyadverbs·247furthest·224futurecontinuoustense·438,455futureindicative·459futureperfectcontinuoustense·443,456futureperfectprogressivetense·443futureperfecttense·441,455futureprogressivetense·438futuresimpletense·435,455futuretenses·433

Ggender·46,495genderneutral·43,46genericyou·55genericyouandthey·55genitivecase·49

gerundphrases·376,545gerunds·80,376gerundsvs.infinitives·380goodvs.well·157,193gradableadjectives·221,241gradableadverbs·287gradingadverbs·240grammaticalnumber·44grammaticalperson·45,482

Hhave·94helpingverbs·89here·236hierarchyofgrammaticalstructure·505hyphenatedcompoundnouns·33

Iidioms·166,607idiomsthatendwithprepositions·340idiomsthatstartwithprepositions·334idioms,prepositional·332,334,340imperativemood·457imperativesentences·600imperfectiveaspect·449impersonalpronouns·55impersonalyou·55impliedobjects·182indefiniteadjectives·56indefinitearticles·363indefinitepronouns·53indefiniteyou·55independentclauses·568indicativemood·459indirectobjects·310,524indirectquestions·60,594,597indirectspeech·478infinitivemood·458infinitivephrases·546

infinitives·79,134infinitivesofpurpose·252inflection·385inflection,irregular·498inflection,regular·498intensifiers·245,369intensivepronouns·51interjections·382,606interjections,primary·382interjections,secondary·383interrogativeadjectives·202interrogativeadjectivesvs.interrogativepronouns·204interrogativedeterminers·202interrogativepronouns·60interrogativesentences·595interro-negativesentences·598intransitiveverbs·82,309inversion·91,98,260inversion,subject-auxiliary·91inversion,subject-verb·595irrealismoods·456irregularadjectives·219,500irregularadverbs·277,501irregularcomparativeadverbs·285irregularinflection·498irregularplurals·492,499irregularsentences·605irregularsuperlativeadverbs·290irregularverbs·86,503it·70it,anticipatory·72

Jjobtitles·16

Llessvs.fewer·27lightverbs·158linkingadverbs·263

linkingverbs·153,181linkingverbsvs.actionverbs·156longadjectives·219

Mmainclauses·568majorsentences·605marginalmodalverbs·130masculine·495massnouns·25may·121may/might·129middlevoice·472might·123minorsentences·605misplacedmodifiers·143,538mitigators·243mixedconditional·604modalauxiliaryverbs·101modalverbs·101modalverbs,marginal·130modifiers·534modifiersvs.complements·532modifiers,compound·207modifiers,dangling·143,539modifiers,misplaced·143,538modifiers,squinting·539monotransitiveverbs·84,524mood·456mood,emphatic·458mood,imperative·457mood,indicative·459mood,infinitive·458mood,realis·456,459moods,irrealis·456must·126must/shall/should/will·129

N

names·15negativeadverbials·258negativeadverbs·258negativedeclarativesentences·594negativeinterrogativesentences·598negativephrases·93negativesentences·594negativesentences,forming·93neither·57,368nominaladjectives·205nominalization·35nominativesofaddress·16non-conjunctiveadverbsofpurpose·252non-continuousverbs·148non-countnouns·25non-definingclauses·576none·57non-finiteverbs·79,516non-gradableadjectives·241non-gradingadverbs·240non-progressiveverbs·148non-restrictiveadjectives·189non-restrictiveappositives·565non-restrictiveclauses·576non-restrictiverelativeclauses·576nounadjuncts·542nounclauses·572nounphrases·188,548nouns·11nounsofaddress·16nounsofdirectaddress·16nouns,closedcompound·33nouns,collective·29nouns,common·15nouns,compound·31nouns,concrete·18nouns,concretecountable·19nouns,concreteuncountable·20nouns,count·21

nouns,countable·21nouns,mass·25nouns,non-count·25nouns,predicate·527nouns,predicative·527nouns,proper·15nouns,synonymous·311nouns,uncountable·25number·44

Oobjectcomplements·180,190,529objectivecase·48,525,528objects·524objectsofprepositions·525objectsofverbs·524oneanother·68opencompoundnouns·33orderofadjectives·211orderofadverbs·292origin·306Oxfordcomma·351

Ppairedconjunctions·352parallelstructure·354participleclauses·559participlephrases·559participlephrases,passiveperfect·560participles·80,139particlephrasalverbs·163particle-prepositionalphrasalverbs·163particles·361partsofspeech·10passiveperfectparticiplephrases·560passivevoice·470pastcontinuoustense·425,453pastindicative·459pastparticiplephrases·559

pastparticiples·80,140pastperfectcontinuoustense·430,454pastperfectprogressivetense·430pastperfecttense·427,454pastprogressivetense·425pastsimpletense·422,453pasttense·419perfectaspect·452,454perfectparticiplephrases·559perfectsimpleaspect·455perfectiveaspect·449person·45personalpronouns·43phrasaladjectives·207phrasalverbs·162,166,361phrasalverbs,preposition·163phrases·543phrases,adjectival·553phrases,adjectivalprepositional·299phrases,adjective·553phrases,adjunct·541phrases,adverb·556phrases,adverbial·556phrases,adverbialprepositional·299phrases,appositive·564phrases,infinitive·546phrases,negative·93phrases,noun·188,548phrases,participle·559phrases,prepositional·298,525phrases,verb·544plural-onlycollectivenouns·30plurals·44,492plurals,irregular·492,499plurals,regular·499positivedegree·215,281possession·374possessiveadjectives·374possessiveapostrophes·375

possessivecase·49possessivedeterminers·374postnominaladjectives·189postpositiveadjectives·189pre-determiners·368predicate·514predicateadjectives·192predicatenominatives·527predicatenouns·527predicatepronouns·527predicate,partsofthe·516predicate,simple·515predicates,compound·515,582predicativeadjectives·192predicativenouns·527prenominaladjectives·189prepositionphrasalverbs·163prepositionalidioms·332,334,340prepositionalphrases·298,525prepositionalverbs·317prepositionalverbsvs.phrasalverbs·318prepositions·295,307prepositionsofagency·306prepositionsofconnection·306prepositionsofdirectionormovement·305prepositionsofinstrumentordevice·306prepositionsofplace·304prepositionsofreasonorpurpose·306prepositionsoftime·303prepositions,dependent·317prepositions,objectsof·525prepositiveadjectives·189presentcontinuoustense·409,452presentindicative·459presentparticiplephrases·559presentparticiples·80,139,409presentperfectcontinuoustense·416,452presentperfectprogressivetense·416presentperfecttense·412,452

presentsimpletense·406,452presenttense·404primaryinterjections·382pronouns·40pronouns,demonstrative·57pronouns,dummy·70pronouns,expletive·70pronouns,impersonal·55pronouns,indefinite·53pronouns,intensive·51pronouns,interrogative·60pronouns,personal·43pronouns,predicate·527pronouns,reciprocal·68pronouns,reflexive·43,69,182pronouns,relative·63properadjectives·194propernouns·15proverbs·608

Qquantifiers·369questionmark·595questionwordquestions·596questionwords·596,598questions,reported·61quotationmarks·474quotedspeech·474

Rrealismood·456,459reciprocalpronouns·68reflexivepronouns·43,69,182reflexiveverbs·182regularadjectives·500regularadverbs·277,501regularinflection·498regularplurals·499regularsentences·605

regularverbs·86,502relativeadverbs·272relativeclauses·575relativeclauses,non-restrictive·576relativepronouns·63reportedquestions·61reportedspeech·478reportingverbs·474,478restrictiveadjectives·189restrictiveappositives·565restrictiveclauses·576restrictiverelativeclauses·576restrictivevs.non-restrictiveattributiveadjectives·189rhetorical·597royalorderofadverbs·292run-onsentences·586

Ssecondconditional·177,603secondperson·45,482secondaryinterjections·383semanticallyweakverbs·158semicolon·263,586semi-modalauxiliaryverbs·130semi-modalverbs·130senseverbs·149,155,192sentencefragments·606sentences·580sentences,complex·588sentences,compound·584sentences,compound-complex·590sentences,conditional·602sentences,declarative·592sentences,elliptical·253sentences,exclamatory·592sentences,imperative·600sentences,interrogative·595sentences,interro-negative·598sentences,irregular·605

sentences,major·605sentences,minor·605sentences,negative·594sentences,negativeinterrogative·598sentences,regular·605sentences,run-on·586sentences,simple·568sentences,single-word·606serialcomma·351shall·110shortadjectives·218should·112silentspeech·477simpleaspect·453,455simplepasttense·422simplepredicate·515simplepresenttense·406simplesentences·568single-wordsentences·606singular·44singularthey·47solidcompoundnouns·33spacedcompoundnouns·33speech·474speech,direct·474speech,freeindirect·476speech,indirect·478speech,quoted·474speech,reported·478speech,silent·477squintingmodifiers·539stateverbs·148stativeverbs·148stativeverbsthattakegerunds·379subjectcomplements·49,527subject,renamingthe·154subject-auxiliaryinversion·91subjectivecase·48,528subjects·508

subjects,compound·582subjects,empty·72subject-verbagreement·24,509subject-verbagreement·354subject-verbinversion·595subjunctivemood·461subordinateclauses·570subordinatingconjunctions·356such·57suffixes·35superlativeadjectives·223superlativeadverbs·288superlativeadverbs,irregular·290suprafix·38synonymousnouns·311syntax·505

Ttagquestions·596tense·397that·57there·70,236there,existential·70these·57these/those·201they,generic·55they,singular·47thinverbs·158thirdconditional·177,604thirdperson·45,482this·57this/that·200those·57tobe·148toward·235towards·235transitiveverbs·82,309tritransitiveverbs·85

U

uncountablenouns·25ungradableadjectives·222ungradableadverbs·287

Vverbphrases·544verbtenses·90verbs·73verbsfollowedbybothgerundsandinfinitives·381verbsofcognition·151verbsofemotion·150verbsofpossessionandattribution·150verbsofprogression·156verbsofstatesorqualities·151verbsofthesenses·155verbs,action·146verbs,ambitransitive·83verbs,auxiliary·89,94verbs,causative·178,181verbs,conditional·175verbs,copular·153verbs,delexical·158verbs,ditransitive·84,524verbs,dynamic·146verbs,empty·158verbs,ergative·83verbs,factitive·180verbs,finite·79,516verbs,helping·89verbs,intransitive·82,309verbs,irregular·86,503verbs,light·158verbs,linking·153,181verbs,modal·101verbs,modalauxiliary·101verbs,monotransitive·84,524verbs,non-continuous·148verbs,non-finite·79,516verbs,non-progressive·148

verbs,phrasal·162,166,361verbs,prepositional·317verbs,reflexive·182verbs,regular·86,502verbs,reporting·474,478verbs,semanticallyweak·158verbs,semi-modal·130verbs,sense·149,155,192verbs,state·148verbs,stative·148verbs,thin·158verbs,transitive·82,309verbs,tritransitive·85viewpointadverbs·270vocatives·16voice·466voice,active·467voice,middle·472voice,passive·470vowelsoundsvs.consonantsounds·363

Wweakcontrast·265wh-questions·596whatvs.which·203whom·60,525,576whosevs.who’s·204will·105will/can/could/would·129will/shall·128would·107

Yyes/noquestions·596,598yon/yonder·201you,generic·55you,impersonal·55you,indefinite·55

Z

zeroconditional·176,602zeroderivation·38

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