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The evolution of high energy neutrino telescopes
Christian SpieringDESY
The evolution of high energy neutrino telescopes
…a long march which has notyet reachedits end.
under-ground
optical:- deep water- deep ice
- air showers- radio- acoustics
under-ground
optical:- deep water- deep ice
- air showers- radio- acoustics
This talk will essentially addressthe optical telescopes deep underwater and in ice. See the writtenversion for the high-energy frontierand the corrersponding techniques
Ann.Rev.Nucl.Sci 10 (1960) 63
Ann.Rev.Nucl.Sci 10 (1960) 1
Moisej Markov Bruno Pontecorvo
M.Markov,1960:
„We propose to install detectors deep in a lake or in the sea and to determine the direction of charged particles with the help of Cherenkov radiation“ Proc. 1960 ICHEP, Rochester, p. 578.
Central interest: cross sections, W-mass… one of the main motivations for Reines‘ South Africa detector, the Kolar Gold Field Detector (India) and the Baksan scintillation detector. Early sixties: does the neutrino cross section saturate beyond 1 GeV (i.e. one would never measure atm. neutrinos with energies higher than a few GeV). The question was relaxed in the mid seventies:
First measurement of atmospheric neutrinos
Beside several ideas like e.g.
H. Uberall and C. Cowan, 1965 CERN Conf. on Experimental Neutrino Physics, p. 231– Downward looking PM observing a
10 m thick water target, „possibly in ocean or a lake“
V. Bogatyrev, Yad.Fiz 13 (1971) 336– Three detectors each 107 tons of distilled
water a several km depth, widely spaced SN triangulation
in 1965 detection of nearly horizontal atmospheric neutrinos by F. Reines in a South African Gold mine.
DUMAND
1973 ICRC, Reines, Learned, Shapiro, Zatsepin, Miyake: a deep water detector to clarify puzzles in muon depth-intensity curves
Puzzles faded away, but there remained the awareness that such a detector could also work as neutrino detector
The name: DUMAND (Deep Underwater Muon And Neutrino Detector), proposed by Fred Reines
1975: First DUMAND Workshop in Washington State College DUMAND Steering Committee, chaied by F.Reines, J.
Learned, . A.Roberts
See also: A.Roberts: The birth of high-energy neutrino astronomy: a personal history of the DUMAND project,Rev. Mod. Phys. 64 (1992) 259.
Principle and capabilities
Angular resolution of 1° possible astrononomy
Energy resolution for muons is 50% at best, for 1 km track length
The DUMAND Workshops
An unbelievable source of basic ideas (including crazy ones which are sometimes the most exciting)
1976 Honolulu 1978 Scripps 1979 Khabarovsk/Baikal 1978 Honolulu Plus dedicated workshops on deployment, acoustic
detection, signal procressing and ocean engineering
Which physics?
UNDINE: UNderwater Detection of Interstellar Neutrino Emission
– i.e. Supernova too rarely to optimize an ocean detector for it ( IMB)
ATHENE: ATmospheric High-Energy Neutrino Experiment– Better with underground experiments
UNICORN: UNderwater Interstellar COsmic Ray Neutrinos– The high energy option
– preferred option, but: how large are the fluxes ? think as big as possible !
A. Roberts:
1978: 1.26 km³22,698 OMs
1980: 0.60 km³6,615 OMs
1982: 0.015 km³ 756 OMs
1988: 0.002 km³
216 OMs
DUMAND-II
Financial and technological reality !
DUMAND-II (The Octagon)
9 strings 216 OMs 100 diameter, 240 m height Depth of bottom: 4.8 km Lowest OM 100 m above
bottom
0
....
pnp
e
pp
e
or
Point sources, DUMAND-II (0.002 km³) expectations in the eighties !!!
Note: in 1989, the only proven TeV source was the Crab SNR!
With these assumptions, a km³ detector would have discovered 5-50 (worst scenario)
up to several ten thousand events (best scenario) per source
Diffuse sources, DUMAND-II (0.002 km³) expectations in the eighties
Technology boosts
Optical fibers with < 12 db attenuation over 40-km length and data rates of hundreds of MBaud (Nobel prize 2009!)
Appearance of 16“ Hamamatsu PMT
Appearance of 14“ „smart“ Philips PMT
JOMJapanese Optical Module
EOMEuropean Optical Module
1987: The SPS
1982-87: a series of 14 cruises, with two lost strings
1987: success !– depth-intensity curve– angular distributions– attenuation lenght (4722 m)
„Short Prototype String“
DUMAND after the SPS:
1989: HEPAP supports DUMAND-II 1990: DOE allocates funds for DUMAND-II Further financial cuts TRIAD (3 strings) 1993: shore cable laid December 1993: deployment of first string and
connection to junction box. Failure after several hours
1995: DUMAND project is terminated
Russia Very active during early DUMAND workshops
(Chudakov, Berezinsky, Bezrukov, Zhelesnykh, Petrukhin) Kicked out of DUMAND after Russian Afghanistan invasion
A. Roberts:
1980: Chudakov proposes exploration of Lake Baikal as possible site for a neutrino telescope
1981: start of site investigations at Lake Baikal (Domogatksy, Bezrukov)
Exploration of Atlantic, Black Sea, Indian Ocean, Pacific and Mediterranean sites (Zheleznyk, Petrukhin)
A. Roberts: „Communication among these groups is not very good“
The Lake BAIKAL experiment
G. Domogatsky
Bezrukov, Domogatsky, Berezinsky, Zatsepin
Largest fresh water reservoir in the world Deepest Lake (1.7 km) 1981: first site explorations & R&D Choosen site 3.6 km from shore, 1.3 km
depth
Ice as a natural deployment platform
… and its mis-interpretation:
A. Roberts:
Lake Baikal: the eighties
1984: first stationary string– Muon flux measurement
1986: second stationary string (Girlyanda 86)– Limits on GUT
magnetic monopoles All that with 15-cm
flat-window PMT FEU-49
Development of a Russian smart phototube (Quasar)
Towards NT-200 1988: Germany joins
1989/90: design of NT-200
1993 + 1994: NT-36 - 18 channels at 3 strings- first underwater array - first 2 neutrino candidates
1995: NT-72- 38 channels at 4 strings
1996: NT-96- 48 channels at 4 strings - clear neutrinos
1998: NT-200- 96 channels at 8 strings
4-string stage (1996)
J. Learned to C.Spiering:
„Congratulations for winningthe 3-string race!“(NT-36 vs TRIAD vs AMANDA)
NT-200
NT-200
3600 m
1366
m
2 PMTs in coincidenceto surpress background
NT200 results
Atmospheric neutrinos
WIMP search Diffuse neutrino fluxes
Skymap
GRB coincidences Magnetic monopoles
396 candidates
Amanda 4 years
Baikal 5 years
NT200+
NT200
3600 m
1366
m
140 m NT200+- upgrade 2005/06- 4 times better sensitivity than NT200 for PeV cascades- basic cell for km3 scale detector
construction 1993-1998
For searches of diffuse neutrino fluxes, the small NT200 could compete with the much larger Amanda by monitoring
a large volume below the detector. NT200+ fences this volume.
Gigaton Volume Detector, GVD
Sacrifice low energies (muon threshold ~ 10 TeV) Protoype strings being tested Modular clusters, stepwise installation > 2012 ~ 2000 optical modules (conventional PMs)
12 clusters of strings
NT1000: top view
R ~ 60 m
L~ 3
50
m
All other deep water/ice detector projects started around 1990 or later.
In the eighties /early nineties, shallow detectors have been proposed but never built.
On the other hand, deep underground detectors reached their full blossom:- solar neutrinos- supernova neutrinos- limits on proton decay- first hints to neutrino oscillations- sky maps
Shallow detector projects
Advantages: easy access, less challenging environment Disadvantages: huge background, not expandable
GRANDE– Shallow water, Lake, Arkansas, H. Sobel (Irvine)
LENA– Artificial water pool, Gran Sasso, M.Koshiba
SINGAO– Resistive Plate Chambers, Italy/UK
Swedish lakes– Early nineties, before Sweden joined Amanda
Underground Detectors
KGF
Baksan
FREJUS
Soudan
IMB
KamiokandeSuperkamiokande
MACRO
e.g. MACRO, 1356 upgoing muons
~ 1000 m²
Neutrino oscillations, proton decay
Deficit of solar neutrinos (see Kai Zuber‘s talk)
Deficit of atmospheric neutrinos as function of distance and energy
Stringent limits on proton life time
|m232| = (2.6±0.2) ·10-3 eV2
|m221| = (8.3±0.3) ·10-5 eV2
12 = 33.9º±1.6º23 = 45º±3º 13 < 9º
1990-2000: revisiting the expectations
Underground detectors, 1000 m², only for young Supernovae in our Galaxy (Berezinsky)
New estimates on neutrinos from Supernova remnants and other galactic sources based on observations with Whipple and HEGRA
For supernova remnants, microquasars, extragalactic sources: need detector of order 1 km³.
The Waxman-Bahcall bound
The Mannheim-Protheroe bound
GRB as sources of cosmic rays and neutrinos
bound
WB bound
MPR bound
Diffuse Fluxes 2002 This model was down-corrected by a factor of 20 in 2005.
The ice option
1988: Pomerantz workshop, NSF Science and Technology Center for the South Pole (A. Westphal, T.Miller, D. Lowder, B. Price)
E. Zeller (Kansas) suggests to F. Halzen radiodetection of neutrinos in Antarctic ice
1989: attempt of Westphal and Lowder to measure ice transparency in existing boreholes
Jan. 89, ICRC, Adelaide: Decide to propose Amanda (B. Price, D. Lowder, S. Barwick, B. Morse, F. Halzen, A. Watson)
1990: Morse et al. deploy PMTs in Greenland ice
F. Halzen
NatureSept 91
South Pole
1991/91 first small PMTs deployed Results consistent with 25 m absorption length
Heaters and pumpsto melt the holes
1 km
2 km
93/94
Catastrophal delay of light between
strings 20 m away!(µsec instead of 100 nsec)
40 m
Explanation remnant bubbles which are disapppearing withincreasing depth.
Amanda B4
1995: DESY and Stockholm build~ 100 modules, 86 deployed inthe season 95/96 at 1450-1950 m depth
The DESY crew
B4: first 2 neutrinos
DrillingHot water drillingHot water drilling
1 km
2 km
IceCube will work !
96/97 AMANDA - B10
120 m
AMANDA B10
NATURE 2001
Skyplot of thevery first 17Nu candidates in B10
B10 skyplot published in Nature 2001
1 km
2 km
120 m
3 long strings study deep and shallow ice for future IceCube
97/98
0.02 0.1 0.5
Scatteringcoefficient(1/m)vs. depth
1 km
2 km
AMANDA-II
99/00 200 m
Nearly horizontal
Ocean Water
AMANDA results
δ=90º
24h 0h
Max Significanceδ=54º, α=11.4h
3.38σ
No significant excess found
Diffuse fluxes Point sources Neutrinos from GRB WIMP searches Magnetic Monopoles Cosmic rays SN monitoring …. Skymap from 7years AMANDA: no significant excess
The one intriguing coincidence ….
Year2000 2001 2002 2003
May June July
Flux ofTeV photons
(arb. units)
0
1
2
3
WHIPPL
E
Arrival time of neutrinos from the direction of the AGN ES1959+650
05/06: 8
Remaining: 22 IceCube Strings 5 DeepCore Strings
complete in January 2011
04/05: 1
07/08: 18
06/07: 13
08/09: 19 strings
IceCube Observatory
Shadow of the MoonShadow of the Moon
Cosmic RaysCosmic Rays
Absolute pointing 1° Angular resolution 1°
0.5°
8 months IceCube 40 strings
Downward muons, max. 28° above horizon, median energy of primary parent ~ 30 TeV
Large-scale anisotropyof downgoing muons
IceCube (40 strings 2008)
anisotropies on theper-mille scale
(skymap in equatorialcoordinates)
90
-90
24h0
0 24h
90
-90
12 TeV
126 TeV
MILAGRO
Compare to Northern hemisphere
Tibet air shower array
Simulation(Lallement et al.Science 2005)
Compton-Getting effect ?
Heliosphere effect ? Nearby pulsar ? Interstellar magnetic
field ?
First observation on Southern hemi- sphere adds important piece of information.
First look above horizon (IceCube 2007, 22 strings)
PeV-EeV range
Southern hemisphere
Northern hemisphere
Point Sources: The Progress
factor
1000in 15 years !
Anotherfactor
1000 !
Diffuse Fluxes: The Progress
Baikal/
Mediterannean projects
NESTOR (since 1991) „Amanda-sized“ -- under construction (?)
ANTARES (since 1996)„Amanda sized“ -- data taking
NEMO: R&D for km3 project
Since 2003: km3 initiative KM3NeT
4100m
2400m
3400mANTARESNEMO NESTOR
NESTOR 1991:
first site studies 1992: first
muon count 1992-2001: many
ocean tests, build lab and infrastructure
2000: cable to site
2003: deploy first floor. Cable failure after a few weeks
Compare to 2000 declared plan: – deploy full tower
2003– deploy 6 more
towers 2005
ANTARES
Installation:Junction Box - Dec 2002Line 1 - March 2006Line 5-1 - Dec 2007Line 11-12 - May 2008
Antares results
NEMO R&D for KM3NeT- 4-floor tower in 2006- full tower end of 2009
KM3NeT
Recommendations KM3NeT
2001/02: High Energy Neutrino Astrophysics Panel– High physics interest– Need km³ scale– Need both hemispheres– No more than 1 Northern detector– Timely formation of Northern hemisphere deep water detector is encouraged
2008: ApPEC– The priority project for high energy neutrino astronomy is KM3NeT.– Encouraged by the significant technical progress of recent years, the support
for working towards KM3NeT is confirmed. – Resources for a Mediterranean detector should be pooled into a single
optimised design for a large research infrastructure, with installation starting in 2012.
– The sensitivity of KM3NeT must substantially exceed that of all existing neutrino detectors including IceCube.
KM3NeT
Mar
201
2
Design decision
Construction
2013
2017
2011
Data taking
2015
2 km Site Size Configuration Technology Deployment
…a long march which has notyet reachedits end.