The Essential Secrets of Songwriting eBook SoS

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All original music samples within this book are the exclusive copyrighted property of PantomimeMusic Publications, except where otherwise noted within the text.

Copyright © 2005 by Pantomime Music Publications

P.O. Box 31177, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada B3K 5Y1All rights reserved. Printed in Canada. This book is protected by Copyright. Permission must beobtained in writing from Pantomime Music Publications for the use of any original text or musicalmaterials contained within this publication. Permission must be obtained from the publisher priorto any reproduction, storage in a retrieval system, or transmission in any form or by any means,electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or likewise.

THIS IS NOT A FREE EBOOK.

This book, "The Essential Secrets of Songwriting", is sold only through PantomimeMusic Publications. If you purchased or received it elsewhere, you should be awarethat you are in possession of stolen property; it has been given away illegally and theauthor has not received payment.

ISBN 0-9738946-0-1

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A MESSAGE FROM GARY EWER… 8

PREFACE 9

The Desire to be Creative – It’s Human… It’s You 10When Good Songs Go Bad 12Listen! 13

CHAPTER 1- INTRODUCTION TO WRITING MUSIC 16

What’s Good Music? 17What Makes Good Form? 21What Makes a Good Melody? 22What Makes Good Harmony? 25What Makes a Good Lyric? 27What Makes a Good Hook? 28

Is There a Composer in Me? 29The Good, the Bad and the Ugly 29What Do You Need to be a Songwriter? 30

Let’s Get Started! 32Make a Demo Recording – Yes, already! 32

Chapter 1 SUMMARY 35

CHAPTER 2- YOUR MUSIC FROM THE INSIDE 36

Learn From the Greats 37The Success of Great Writers 37

Form 39How Important is Form? 39Good Form Means Good Design 40Good Form Can’t be Accidental 41Song Components Defined 43

Getting to Know Your Song 45

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CHAPTER 3- DESIGNING A SONG 49

The Blueprint 50The Contrast Principle of Composition 50Macro Forms 52Energy – the Forgotten Formal Element 60Micro Forms 63

Micro Versus Macro 69


CHAPTER 4- HARMONY 71

The Chord Muddle 72Chord Progressions – A Mystery No Longer 72

I. Chord Basics 76The Basic Triads of Any Major Key 78

II. How One Chord Moves to Another Chord 79The V-I Progression 79Why Some Progressions Work and Others Don’t 79Making Good Two-Chord Progressions 82When Progressions Sound Muddled 85

What About Minor Keys? 88

III. Integrating Balance When Building a Longer Progression 92Building Progressions 93Incorporating Balance 95Harmonic Rhythm 97

IV. Expanding Your Chord Vocabulary 99i. Adding a 7th to a V-Chord 100ii. Modal Mixtures 104iii. Secondary Dominant Chords 106iv. Suspensions 110v. Inversions 112

Key Changes 115

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Don’t Go Changin’… Without a Reason 115i. Half-step-upward modulation 116ii. Miscellaneous Modulation (more than a whole tone) 118


CHAPTER 5-MELODY AND LYRIC 122

Melodic Energy 123How “Yesterday” Works 124Don’t Write Counterintuitively 126What is Falsetto and Tessitura? 127

Writing Good Melodies 128Getting Notes in the Right Place 128Verse-Chorus Text Design 130Song Sample 131Shaping a Melody 134

Creating a Melody by Layering Ideas 136Let’s Write a Song 136

Other Ways to Compose 143The Text-First Method 143The Rhythm/Beat-First Method 143

More About Lyrics 144Too Many Words 145A Good Lyric Isn’t Necessarily Deep 147

Balancing Lyrics and Melody 148The Balance of “Hotel California” 149Dealing with Unremarkable Lyrics 150

The Bridge 153


CHAPTER 6- THE HOOK 158

A Good Hook 159Hook and Motif 160Musical Lubricant 161

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The Hook as a Basis for Your Song 164The Myth of the Hook 165

Recognizing a Hook 167


CHAPTER 7- INSPIRATION 170

The Role of Inspiration 171Misunderstanding Inspiration 171The Steps to Honing Your Songwriting Craft 173


CHAPTER 8- THE WORLD BEYOND COMPOSING – NOWWHAT? 178

The Most Important Principle of All 179

And now… what? 180

Getting Your Song Ready… A Brief Tutorial 180Copyright 180Publishing 184Mechanical Rights 185Performing Rights Organizations 185

In Conclusion 185

Index 200

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A Message From Gary Ewer…

I want to thank you for purchasing this ebook, The EssentialSecrets of Songwriting. It is the culmination of years ofthinking, researching and writing. My career as a musicianhas been a rewarding mélange of job descriptions. I am acomposer, arranger, orchestrator, trumpet player, conductorand adjudicator, as well as, of course, a teacher. I believethat such a diverse job description has given me a uniqueperspective for understanding and communicating musicalconcepts. Through the process of writing this book, my CD

and song file collection has grown somewhat, as I have sought to study and comparepopular music from the 1950s through to the music of today.

I need to remind you (kindly, I hope!) that this book is not a free ebook. I am askingthat you please not give it away, or transfer it in any way to another person’scomputer. If you would like to make a hard copy of portions of it to aid your ownpersonal study, please do so. But the book cannot be given or sold to anyone

else, in any format.

If you would like to write me to comment on this book, or to ask a question, pleasewrite me directly at [email protected]. I will do my best to reply, thoughduring the school year my teaching duties may keep me from being as prompt as Iwould like. I can at least guarantee that I read every email that comes to me, and willeventually reply.

Thank you for purchasing this book. Best wishes to you in all your musical endeavors!

If you acquired this ebook through channels other than via the website

secretsofsongwriting.com, Pantomime Music Publications would be very

grateful for any information you might be able to provide regarding the

transaction. Please write [email protected].

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Preface

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“Music is a magical gift we mustnourish and cultivate… especiallynow as scientific evidence provesthat an education in the artsmakes better math and sciencestudents, enhances spatialintelligence in newborns, and let'snot forget that the arts are acompelling solution to teenviolence, certainly not the cause ofit!”

— Michael Greene, RecordingAcademy President and CEO at the42nd Annual Grammy Awards,February 2000.

The Desire to be Creative – It’sHuman… It’s You

Because you are a human being reading this book, one fact can be

stated right away – YOU CAN WRITE MUSIC, no matter who you are.

This is something we’ve known about

the human race for some time now: the

ability to be creative is already there,

ready to be tapped, shaped, honed and

used. You can be a songwriter.

You want to be able not

only to write songs, but also

to do it well. There are lots

of songwriters out there,

but the vast majority,

probably at least 99%, are

not achieving any significant

commercial success. That

shouldn’t really surprise us;

in the arts, most people are

working at an amateur level.

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I am a great supporter of amateur involvement in music, but it is

frustrating to me when I see very talented people who are stuck in the

amateur world. There are some really fine musicians out there, trying

to make it, trying to unlock the secrets of how to move forward in the

music business. And they are being

thwarted by circumstances within and

without of their sphere of influence. I

wonder if I just described you?

Amateur songwriters tend to look at the

entire business of songwriting as a

single-dimensional activity. It’s as if

they say, “I want to be able to write

commercially successful songs that I

can sell to professional singers,” as if

it’s all just one big process. The songwriting business is actually a

multidimensional world, involving two major areas: creating and

marketing. The marketing end of the business will not happen unless

you have created a good song. Creating a good song is where the

process comes to a grinding halt for most people. THIS BOOK IS

GOING TO HELP YOU.

The songwritingbusiness is amultidimensionalworld, involving twomajor areas: creatingand marketing. The

marketing end of

the business will

not happen unless

you have created agood song.

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WHEN GOOD SONGS GO BAD

It often surprises people when they discover how incredibly simple

most of the biggest songs of the past fifty years are. If you think that

songs are complicated art forms, you are about to discover one of the

most important principles of songwriting,

and why many writers’ songs might not be

working yet. It’s a principle that applies to so

much in our life – not just music: KEEP IT

SIMPLE. The biggest and best hits in the

songwriting business are songs with simple

melodies using a simple form, songs that are

easy for people to remember. Most songs in

the popular music realm use no more than five chords, often fewer.

And their melodies usually encompass only seven or eight notes, if

that!

This book is called “The Essential Secrets of Songwriting”, and that

word, “Secrets”, makes it sound like you’ll learn things that no one has

known before. But in fact, they are only secrets to those many people

who haven’t noticed what the pros have been doing. So few have

really known why the songs of the world’s best seem to work so well.

So what are the secrets? You’ll learn that form is one of the most

overlooked and essential components of a good song. You’ll learn how

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Victimless Crime?

You’ll sometimes hear people calling the illegal downloading of music a“victimless crime.” But is it? Always remember that getting the songwritten takes time, requiring many steps to finally get it pressed on to aCD for the awaiting pubic. Illegally acquiring the music means you areassigning that entire process a value of $0. We know it’s illegal, but it’salso disrespectful to the songwriter. Acquiring music legally is now arelatively easy process, and most songs are available for download at acost of $0.99 per song from online services such as MSN Music Store orApple’s iTunes Store, to name only two.

to create a verse that begs for a chorus. You’ll learn how to

contour a melody so that it makes sense. You’ll learn how to make

chord progressions work so that they don’t just sound like muddle.

And you’ll learn how to snag your audience with a hook that will

keep people humming your songs all day.

LISTEN!

If you aren’t listening to music on a daily basis, then start! Trying to

write songs without listening to the pros’ songs is like trying to draw a

picture of something you’ve never seen. If you’re really serious about

songwriting – start listening now! This book will refer to dozens of

songs and albums, all listed at the back. Most of the music can be

purchased in CD stores, on websites, or through Apple’s iTunes Store.

Listen all the time, and not just to one style of music. Let yourself

become influenced by different styles – pop, rock, jazz, country, blues,

or classical. Open your mind – let it grow!

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By listening to many genres, not just one, you will be subtly developing

your own personal writing style in a way will differentiate you from all

others. I know of people who deliberately try to limit how much music

they listen to, because they don’t want to be unduly influenced by

another songwriter. Big mistake!

Have you ever had that nagging fear that everything you write is

something that sounds familiar? And you wonder if you are simply

plagiarizing music already written by

someone else? The good news is that

you probably aren’t. But that fear is

more common in songwriters who

limit their listening experience to only

one or two favourite performers.

If you are a pop songwriter, listen to classical music. Listen to blues, or

country, or bluegrass. Even if you don’t like a particular style of music,

keep in mind that there are great songs in every genre. Great songs

are great because they work, and we need to learn why they work.

The more you listen, the more material you’ll have at your disposal.

And your musical brain will begin fusing ideas together in a way it

hasn’t really done before. The world’s best songwriters are able to

speak intelligently about many different styles and writers from many

genres.

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The best songs are a mixture of creativity and predictability.

Creativity ensures that you are writing things that no one has heard

before. Predictability ensures that you are using conventional elements

that make your song hum-able and memorable. Coming up with the

perfect balance and blend is what the successful songwriters do. It’s

what this book will help you do.

This book is for you, whether you are already a songwriter who wants

to make your songs better, or if all you have are fragments of ideas

that you want to learn how to fuse into great songs. You’re about to

discover that how you put those fragments together is what makes a

great song. And you are going to love the process!

Don’t fixate on “talent”. Fixate on writing good songs. If you get into asystem of writing good music, talent becomes a side issue. Not thatit’s not important… it’s just not worth worrying about. Think of it thisway… who’s the more “talented” artist, Monet or Rembrandt? Whoknows? And frankly, who cares?!

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NOTE:Any songs mentioned in this text are listed by chapter ofappearance at the end in the Index of Song Samples. The indexincludes

• copyright information• authorship• the performer typically associated with a given song• the format of the recording referenced• the recording label• the recording title, and• the musical concept the song demonstrates (if applicable)

Chapter 1-Introduction toWriting Music

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“One good thing aboutmusic, when it hits you,you feel no pain.”

Bob Marley

“There's only two waysto sum up music: eitherit's good or it's bad. Ifit's good you don't messabout it; you just enjoyit.”

Louis Armstrong

What’s Good Music?

In his autobiography, Mark

Twain sa id, “Wagner’s music is

better than it sounds.” It ’s a

funny way of saying that it ’s

possible to place as much or

more importance on the

structure of music than on the

sound that that structure

produces. And even though

Twain was trying to be funny,

you will meet people who feel

an apprec iation for the

architecture of certa in music

whi le not actua lly enjoying the

end result of that architecture –

the sound of it.

For the serious songwriter, this

cannot be acceptable.

Enjoyment must be the

overriding characteristic on

which we judge our music. In

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“Great music is that whichpenetrates the ear withfacility and leaves thememory with difficulty.Magical music never leavesthe memory.”

Sir Thomas Beecham

Without form, musictends to end up a

shapeless, directionless

blob.

other words, if you write music that shows a high level of

intell igence in its construction, but that construction does

not result in something pleasing to l is ten to, who cares

about the construction? And while admit ting that beauty is

in the eye (or in this case, the

ear) of the beholder, this book

adheres to the premise that

the sonic beauty of the final

product is the ult imate aim in

songwrit ing.

So what is good music? It is

impossible for one person to

say that this piece of music is

good while another is bad, if

by good and bad we mean

whether or not we l ike the

piece. One person may like

country music, while another

finds it revolt ing. One may

like a melody because it is

reminiscent of a melody

heard in childhood, while for

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“Music is forever; musicshould grow and maturewith you, following youright on up until youdie.”

Paul Simon

another the same melody makes no real impact. For most

l is teners, the quality of a piece of music depends in large

part upon context. In pop music, we are more l ikely to

enjoy a p iece i f a musician or group we happen to l ike

performs it. The song “Wild Honey Pie” is of dubious

qua lity, and were it not for the fact that the Beat les sang

it, we’d l ikely not even know of it.

If writing good music happened by simply sticking to a formula, we’d

all be writing hit songs, and doing it daily. It is the mixture of many

different components, all working together in a way that can be best

described as “magic.” There are aspects of musica l

composition, however, that

are usual ly considered a

prerequis ite for good music ,

and it is those aspects that

this book wil l concentrate on.

When creating music, there is

so much to talk about. But

any discussion without

mentioning the five basic

aspects of songwriting is

just a waste of t ime.

Essential ly, they are what

this enti re book is a l l about.

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Form adds just theright balance ofpredictability andinnovation.

Form gives hints tothe listener of whatmight happen in asong, and keeps itfrom simply being anaimless random walkthrough the woods.

Predictability doesnot necessarily meanboredom.

The Five Basic Aspects of Song-writing:

• Form

• Melody

• Harmony/Rhythm

• Lyric

• Hook

Form is that aspect of music

that we talk about when

discussing the structure of music. For

example, verse-chorus-verse-chorus,

etc., is a type of form. Form helps to

lend an aspect of predictability of

design that is somewhat necessary in

most styles of music. All other aspects

of music (melody, harmony, lyric, etc.)

require some attention to form. Without

form, music tends to end up a

shapeless, directionless blob. Melody

needs to be fairly predictable while also

being inventive and spontaneous. The harmony within a song also

needs to be structured, while allowing for something impulsive and

creative. Lyrics should be an artistic attempt to draw the listener into

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a topic. And the hook is that vitally important, repetitious element that

reels your audience in and keeps them there.

What Makes Good Form?

Notwithstanding the various important aspects of musical composition

just listed, we can come up with a rather large list of songs that seems

to violate the importance of one or more of those features. But

essentially all songs, to be successful, need a perceivable,

somewhat simplistic form. For example, who could listen to “Wild

Honey Pie” by the Beatles and praise its creative melody or profound

lyrics? Mind you, “Wild Honey Pie” was not a hit, and the Beatles did

not pretend that it was anything more than… whatever it is. But there

are songs that did become huge hits for groups, where the lyric was

weak and the melody uninspiring. I’m not intending to alienate Elvis

Presley fans when I say that “All Shook Up” is not an amazing lyric.1

The melody of the verse is extremely simplistic, most of it

encompassing the interval of a perfect 4th.

But “All Shook Up” was a huge monster

hit. Why? Partly because of the person

who sang it, but also because of that

simplicity of form that I just mentioned.

Sometimes what we look for in a song is

1 “A well a bless my soul/What's wrong with me?/I'm itching like a man on a fuzzy tree/My friendssay I'm actin' wild as a bug/I'm in love/I'm all shook up/Mm mm oh, oh, yeah, yeah!”

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Constructing and using arhythmic motif is liketrying to decide whatcolour brick to use foryour house. Makingcertain that you areconsistent with your

choice of brick ensuresthat your house has that

pleasant feel ofpredictability.

something that does not require us to think too hard, but rather

entertains us on a shallower level. Never underestimate simplicity!

Who can say what it is we’re really looking for in a piece of music?

Some say it’s the rhythm and energy, others say it’s the lyric. Dick

Clark would say, “If it’s got a good beat and you can dance to it, all

the better.”

What Makes a Good Melody?

A good melody takes us on a journey. That is true

whether we’re talking rock & roll, country, jazz,

classical, bluegrass… a good melody has a design

that makes us feel

like we’ve been

taken somewhere.

Consider Paul McCartney’s masterful

melody for “Yesterday”. It has a

shape: it starts fairly low, and rises

through the line, “All my troubles

seemed so far away”, then descends

toward the end of the line, “Oh, I

believe in yesterday.” This arch shape

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follows the natural flow and meaning of the text. The energy builds,

then dissipates.

Most songs start in a very understated way, gathering power as they

go, finishing at a much higher energy level. The majority of songs do

this “power grab” in stages, starting at a relatively low energy level,

then building toward the chorus, subsiding again in the next verse,

building toward the next chorus, etc. Here’s a sample (but by no

means definitive) plan:

“Bridge Over Troubled Water”, by Simon & Garfunkel, is a good

example of a melody that starts peacefully, and builds with only a

slight ebbing of energy at the end of each verse. What makes the

energy level rise is a mixture of things: instrumentation – in this case,

starting with a simple piano accompaniment, then finishing with string

orchestra, drums, electric bass, etc. – an upper harmony line, and

dynamics (general volume level).

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‘”The whole problem canbe stated quite simply byasking, ‘Is there ameaning to music?’ Myanswer would be, ‘Yes.’And ‘Can you state in somany words what themeaning is?’ My answerto that would be, ‘No.’”

Aaron Copland

It is impossible to consider melody without thinking about rhythm. One

of the features that makes “Yesterday” such a great melody is the fact

that there is a repeating rhythm– a rhythmic motif – that helps to glue

the song together. In the verse, each line begins with a rhythmic idea

consisting of two short notes followed by a long one. You encounter

this on the words “Yesterday”, “far away”, “here to stay”, etc. This

repeating rhythm helps to move the song along.

Choosing the brick for your house

Constructing and using a rhythmic motif is like trying to decide what

colour brick to use for your house. Making certain that you are

consistent with your choice of brick

ensures that your house has that

pleasant feel of predictability. Using

dark red large bricks on one side, light

coloured small bricks on another, and

wood paneling on the front would make

the house look disheveled and messy.

Motifs, whether rhythmic or melodic,

are the repetitious elements that make

music feel organized. A hook is a type

of motif we’ll read about later.

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Plotting the basic energy

of most songs is likelooking at a graph of thestock market:

You can expect to seesome dips, but you wantthe general trend to beupward.

How that energy ebbs andflows is a very importantconsideration forcomposers.

What Makes Good Harmony?

As with melody and rhythm, it’s a bit tricky to separate harmony from

the other important components of composition. But to speak

generally, a good chord sequence, like a good melody, makes us feel

like we’ve been taken on a bit of a journey. And though that journey

may take us places we haven’t seen before, we like to know a bit

about where we’re going before we

leave the house. Introductions to

songs will set us up for the kind of

harmonic sequences we’re going to

encounter in the song. If the song

starts with a single chord vamped

(repeated) over and over again with

a simple rhythm, we know that the

piece will likely not venture too far

afield in its use of chords. Good

harmony, like almost every other

aspect of music, will make us feel like

we’re taking a walk around the

neighbourhood, where we might see something out of the ordinary,

but most of what we encounter is pleasantly predictable.

I could stop here, then, and say that good composition is the result of

a carefully planned mixture of predictability and novelty; while that’s

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true, we need even more than that. Keep in mind that the people you

are writing for are unpredictable in what they like and dislike. By being

careful in your approach, you can create songs that appeal to many

people, and increase your audience base.

If you already read music, consider purchasing a good musicnotation program. Finale® and Sibelius® are the big ones. Theirfull versions are quite expensive, but worth it. They also have lessexpensive options (see below). Here’s a list of the “also-rans” thatyou can check out. This is a “buyer beware” list… check out theirdemos thoroughly to make sure it does what you need. A goodnotation program should be able to:

Play your music back to you using realistic instrumentsounds;

Allow you to enter notes with a MIDI keyboard; Allow you to transpose your music into other keys easily; Print your music.

A quick search on Google will allow you to research thesepossibilities:

Finale® (full version, as well as less expensive, or freeversions: Finale Allegro®, Finale PrintMusic®, FinaleSongWriter®, Finale NotePad®, and Finale NotePad Plus®

Sibelius® (full version, as well as less expensive alternativegeared to guitarists: Sibelius G7®)

Noteworthy Composer® MidiNotate® MusicWrite 2000 Professional® Turandot®

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What Makes a Good Lyric?

A good lyric is usually one that says what it needs to in the most

succinct way. In most songs, you don’t get a lot of time to say what’s

on your mind. And once

you’ve woven it into a

beautiful melody with a killer

chord progression, a good

lyric can make your

audience laugh or cry –

sometimes both at the same

time. The importance of a

weighty lyric, though, depends on the purpose of the song. There are

individuals and groups that produce songs with deep, insightful lyrics

that can profoundly impress an audience. There are other composers

writing songs where the main purpose is to get the listener dancing,

and the lyric about is as deep as a mud puddle. Often you will

encounter writers of lyrics whose ability as a wordsmith is astounding,

but whose use of melody and chords is quite simplistic by comparison.

Leonard Cohen might be a good example of this. An analysis of

Cohen’s poetry will be a satisfying, pleasantly time-consuming venture,

but his melodies and chords can be dealt with in minutes, maybe less.

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A great hook is like the10-cent ice cream coneat the local fast foodjoint: It’s what keeps‘em coming back!

What Makes a Good Hook?

The composer Beethoven probably can lay claim to the most well-

known hook in the music world. His “da-da-da-DA” hook that

introduces his 5th Symphony is a four-note motif that listeners get to

hear more than two hundred more times through the first movement,

and serves as a compositional element through the rest of the work. A

songwriter creating a motif is the same as an architect deciding on a

particular pattern of brick on a wall.

It’s not terribly interesting on its

own, but once repeated as a

regular feature, it can becomes a

strong building component of a

song. If that motif is easily

remembered and pulls listeners

back to a song, you’ve got a hook!

Some great hooks? The persistent

rhythmic/melodic hook that

introduces “You Can Call Me Al”, by

Paul Simon, is a really good one. It’s like an engine that drives the

song along. “Beat It,” by Michael Jackson also uses a great hook to

introduce the song. In both cases, the hook was what people sang

over and over to themselves after song was done, and that’s what you

want a hook to do! Not all songs use hooks, but for those that do, it is

by definition their most easily remembered feature.

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Is There a Composer in Me?

Yes, there most certainly is. Will you write songs, and make

millions of dollars, and retire on the French Riviera? I don’t know. That

depends on many factors, the main one of which is finding out who

your efforts are marketable to. Let’s focus first on getting your songs

to be good.

The Good, the Bad and the Ugly

As was stated earlier, humans are creative animals. We have an innate

ability to make something beautiful out of stuff in our minds. Some are

better at it than others, and this book will help you determine where

you are in the scale of the good, the bad, and the ugly. What I want to

do is to provide you with the principles necessary for good

composition. I cannot cause creativity to miraculously appear within

you, but it’s likely that the creativity is already there. What you

now need guidelines to manage the creativity that is lurking in the

depths of your mind. The journey to being a successful composer is an

interesting one, and can pay dividends at its conclusion.

There’s no one right way to compose. And in fact, if yourely on the same way of thinking all the time, you run thedanger of simply writing the same song over and overagain! Being creative means not just trying to come upwith a unique tune. It also means coming up with aunique way of composing. Be creative. Try starting with ahook. Or a chord. Or a rhythm. The best songwriters outthere are the ones who are innovative from the verybeginning of the process.

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What Do You Need to be a Songwriter?

You need to be able to write your music down in some way, even if

that means just to write down the chords and lyrics. The point of this

book is that I want you to be able to look at and listen to what you’ve

written, and to be able to come back to it later, making adjustments

and edits. Does this mean you must be able to read music? It is not

absolutely essential, but I strongly recommend it, for many reasons.

Learning to read and write music on a musical staff is easy to learn,

and gives you a level of literacy that will eventually pay off for you. I

produce a two-CD-ROM course called “Gary Ewer’s Easy Music

Theory”. The first six lessons of that course will give you the basics

you need, and can be done in mere days.2

If you don’t read music, this book is still a help to you, because I want

to talk about how to structure your music to be a seller! And

whether you write it down, tape yourself singing it, or find some other

way of making sure you

don’t forget it, your music

will benefit from the basic

advice you’ll find here.

2 You can purchase “Gary Ewer’s Easy Music Theory” online by visitingwww.EasyMusicTheory.com on the web.

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Being able to read music and write it onto a musical staff isnot what this book is about, and it’s not essential to beinga good songwriter. What is essential is being able to hearthe musical ideas in your head and to know what that isthat you’re hearing. I am a strong believer that musictheory can help your songwriting in many, many ways. Thebasics are easy to learn.

You never know when a great idea will hit you. That’s what itmeans to be human. You’ll discover that right in the middle oftying your shoe, something musical can pop into your head.You need to keep a notepad, or a small digital voice recorder inyour pocket with you. Ideas often come to you when you’remind is occupied with something else. Be prepared! Digitalrecorders are becoming a dime a dozen, and you don’t need anexpensive one. Just something to get your thoughts down soyou can work on them at a more convenient time. Here aresome manufacturers of digital recorders. Be sure to compareprices… you don’t need anything fancy:

- Beat Sounds- Olympus- Panasonic- Samsung- Sony

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Let’s Get Started!

Make a Demo Recording – Yes, already!

Why, you may be asking, am I making a demo already? Don’t I

want to read this book first?

The truth is that many songwriters don’t even really know what their

own music sounds like. They spend a lot of time bent over their guitar,

strumming away at musical ideas, and putting songs together. But the

end result is that you only ever

get to hear the song from your

own very personal viewpoint.

And the audience for your songs

at this stage may only be very

well-meaning friends and family,

who may not feel free to give

you an honest adjudication. You need to be able to listen to your

music from a more objective position – from the speakers of a tape

machine. Hearing yourself in this way is dramatically different from

singing to yourself. For singers and songwriters who aren’t used to

hearing themselves, it can be a brutal experience. We are often our

own worse critics.

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Maybe all you’ve got are a few fragments of ideas for songs, and the

song hasn’t come together for you yet. Just keep reading. By the time

you’ve finished this book, you’ll have the information, know-how and

confidence to put those fragments together in a killer song!

If you are ready to record a demo, let’s do it! The closer you can get it

to what you’d ideally like to hear on the radio, the better. If you can,

use some good players – not just you on the guitar or piano. If you

have a band that you regularly play with, use them on the recording.

The point is, you want to be able to hear your song, the way you’ve

conceptualized it, and make it even better than you thought it could

be. Use whatever instruments are appropriate – guitar, bass, drums,

synth, even horns if it’s possible and appropriate to the song.

It’s been said that when the Bee Gees did demos of their songs, they

took so much care in the project that the demos could have gone to

press as finished products. You may not have the technical equipment

to do that level of recording, but get it to sound as good as you can.

At this point, do not rent time at a local studio. No need to spend that

kind of money yet. The great thing is that making high quality sound

recordings is much easier and less expensive now than it was even

just ten years ago. The quality of your microphone will be the biggest

factor in the quality of your recording. So if you can, borrow a good

microphone.

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“Too many pieces of musicfinish too long after theend.”- Igor Stravinsky

Another piece of advice: Try to do your recording as a live

performance, if possible. There should be no need to go back and do

overdubs unless they are really necessary for the song to work. The

point here is to get the song into a shape and format that allows you

to hear it the same way an audience will hear it. There’s an energy

that comes from doing it live that gives you the truest sense of what

the song is all about.

Once you’ve got something on tape, move on to Chapter 2.

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Chapter 1 SUMMARY

Notes:

• The five basic aspects of songwriting are Form, Melody, Harmony/Rhythm, Lyric

and Hook.

• Form adds just the right balance of predictability and innovation.

• A good melody and good harmony take us on a journey, and contribute importantdesign elements.

• A good lyric impacts on the emotions of the audience; less is more.

• It’s a good idea to carry a recording device with you to record melodic and lyricfragments that come to you during your day.

• Learning to read and write music on a five-line musical staff is a good idea.This ability will help you communicate your musical ideas to others, as well as increasethe likelihood that you will be able to expand on your ideas.

• Make a demo recording of a song you’ve written. Listening to your song comingthrough headphones or speakers gives you important distance that can allow you to bemore objective about your musical efforts.

36

Chapter 2- YourMusic From theInside

37

One of the biggest oversights by budding songwriters today is the lack ofability to learn from great songwriters’ successes. Study the greats,learn what makes their music work, and then do it in your own way.

Learn From the Greats

Your demo recording should feel like your baby! You need to feel a

real love for the music you do. It may not be what you want yet, but

be patient…. now we start the process of making it better. And we do

that by following the Golden Rule of being a songwriter: LEARN

FROM THE GREATS. In the automobile industry, a car model can

become very popular, and when that happens, you’ll see other car

companies jump on that popularity. They try to duplicate that car by

creating a different one that offers the same popular features. The

music industry is no different.

The Success of Great Writers

There are great songs out there, so great that they have changed the

way we think about music. Certainly that is true of albums. Michael

Jackson’s 1984 Thriller album was monumental in its effect on other

songwriters and performers. Songs from that album, like “Thriller”,

“Billie Jean”, and “Beat It”, stunned the musical world with their

energy and innovation. Many of today’s musicians look back at that

38

album as a defining work of art, music that influenced who they are as

writers and performers. In other words, people write differently

because of the music on the Thriller album.

There are great songwriters out there, from every genre and every

era, and what you need to do now is to learn from their success.

Keep in mind that the thing that really sells Michael Jackson’s music is

Jackson’s performance itself. Take “Billie Jean” and give it to Bob

Dylan, and… well, I can’t really picture it. Neither can I picture Michael

Jackson singing “Like a Rolling Stone”.

Performance is an enormously important aspect of what we’re talking

about when we try to come up with successful songs. That being said,

it takes a good song to be a good song; you can’t generally take

garbage and make a treasure out of

it. In order for “Billie Jean” to have

been a hit, it needed to be the good

song that it is. The same is true for

any great song. Whether you’re

talking about “Red Sails in the

Sunset” from 1935, or “Livin' La Vida

Loca” from 1999, there had to be

elements of good composition there in order for the performers to

make good performances.

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We looked very briefly at those elements earlier when we examined

form, melody, harmony/rhythm, lyrics and hook. We’ll be looking at all

those elements beginning in Chapter 3. Before we do, lets look at one

feature that probably gets ignored more than any other: form.

FormHow Important is Form?

Over my career, I have examined literally

hundreds of songs and other compositions,

mostly written by my own students. And I make

the following statement based on all that

research: Bad form is the reason for most of the bad music out there.

If you think your music is bad, or at least needs some serious

improvement, you may need to look no further than its basic structure.

Form is what we’re talking about when we think about how music gets

from beginning to end. If you decide that a verse should repeat again

at the end of a song – that’s a formal element. If you decide that it

should start with guitar, and add strings halfway through – that’s a

formal element. If you start with a sax solo – that’s a formal element.

Almost any decision you make with regard to your music once you’ve

created the melody and basic harmony is really a decision regarding

the form of the music. The formal decisions you make when

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Form is what we talk aboutwhen we wonder how

many verses to write,whether we need a bridge

or not, should there be anintro, an outro, or someother element.

Form is the basic design ofyour song. Always give

some thought to how you

plan to get your audience

from the beginning to the

end in an interesting

way.

Form may very likely be themost important, leastmentioned feature of goodsongwriting.

composing will be the most important reasons why your music

succeeds or fails.

Good Form Means Good Design

Form is like a landscape – if your backyard is basically flat with only a

tree in the middle, you’ve pretty much seen everything there is to see

with one look, and it’s a bit boring. But you can’t just start planting

trees and flowers everywhere with no thought for the basic layout –

the form – of your

backyard. But here is

the crucial point: most

lousy-looking

backyards are not lousy

because of the plants that are

there. They’re lousy because of

how those plants have been

placed. Landscape designers

are experts at telling you

not just what plants you

should have, but far more

importantly, where they

should go. In other words, if

you think your music needs help, you may be surprised to know that

all the elements of good composition are probably already there! What

is probably lacking is form and direction.

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Bad formal design is the biggest reason why songsdon’t work! All the elements to good songs can bethere, but if they’re poorly organized, your song will beboring and lackluster.

If you have composed a song without much

consideration for form, your song probably hasformal problems.

Listen, listen, listen…

You should be listening to that demo you made as many times as

possible. The more you listen, hopefully the more you’ll hear things

you’d like to change. You may be aware that the song isn’t working

yet, but you may not know why it isn’t working. It’s likely that the

more you listen, the more you will become aware that it’s formal

elements that need fixing, more than almost anything else about the

song.

Good Form Can’t be Accidental

The concept of form can seem a bit vague. It can be hard to figure out

if your music has formal problems. If you have composed a song

without much consideration for form, your song probably has

formal problems.

The more you examine the topic of form, as we will in the next

chapter, the more you will understand that form has many levels.

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If you were thinking of building a house, the thought of doingthat without a blueprint would be preposterous. There are nogood builders out there, scuffing their foot at a roped-off piece ofland, saying, “Here’s where I think a kitchen should go…” Peoplewho want a building constructed always hire a person to design itfirst. We may not use the word “architecture” to describecomposing, but your songs will be better if you can plan themout.

Try this: Take a song, whether written by you, or by a songwriteryou like, and draw a diagram of the song. Use a line to show thegeneral shape and direction of the overall energy. Make note ofwhere the verses, choruses, bridge, etc., occur. You may findthat you understand much more about that song once you see itwritten out in this way. Here’s a sample:

Many people write music, believing that their song needs some verses,

a chorus that repeats several times, and possibly a bridge in the

middle. Yes, some famous songs use that form, but some flops use it

too. So there must be more. And there is. To assume that the verse –

chorus – verse – chorus – bridge – chorus form will result in a great

tune is like saying that your living room is fantastic because it has a

sofa and two chairs, a coffee table and a couple of end tables. So

what? Everyone’s living room has that. You need to examine your

music from the macro to the micro level with regard to form.

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Song Components DefinedLet’s label and define the various parts that will likely define the form

of your song:

Intro: This is the first thing that happens in the song. Up to the first

entry of the vocals is generally considered the intro. This is where you

set the stage for what is to come. The intro will usually set up the

essential harmonic language, the rhythms and the basic beat. A good

intro pulls the listener into the song, and makes them want to hear

more.

Verse: Usually the beginning of the poem. A verse will often be a

narrative or other form of story, whether straightforward or in the

abstract. The music tends to pull back dynamically after the intro,

allowing the text to come forward without being upstaged by another

aspect of the song.

Chorus: More often than not, choruses will use a different melody

than the verse. Check out “Penny Lane” by The Beatles, “You’re the

Inspiration” by Chicago, or “It’s the End of the World as We Know It

(And I Feel Fine)” by R.E.M. as examples. By and large, the text for a

chorus tends to be more like a commentary, more reflective and less

narrative than the text for a verse. Chorus texts will usually offer a

“summing up” of how the things being sung about in the verse make

the singer feel.

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When trying to decide what form your song should take, try not toobsess. If, for example, you can’t decide if your song needs abridge, try writing one and then put the song away for a day. Bringit out again once your head is cleared, and the answer may beobvious.

Bridge: Especially popular in verse-chorus formats. A bridge will

provide a new melody, with text that is usually commentary in format,

designed to expand on the text of the chorus. It helps the song by

allowing the songwriter to avoid being too repetitious. It helps build

energy. The bridge is usually a time where overall energy increases,

and sets things up beautifully for a final verse or chorus.

Outro: The end of the piece. An outro can simply be the final verse

repeated until faded, or can be original music. Chicago’s “25 or 6 to 4”

is a good example of an outro with original music. The Classical term

for the outro is “coda”.

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Getting to Know Your Song

Now that we’ve defined the basic elements of a song, we’re

going to look at each aspect in detail. If you recorded a demo as

suggested at the end of the previous chapter, try answering the

following questions:

1. What is the basic overall design of your song (i.e., intro, verse, chorus,

etc.)?

2. Which chords does your song use consistently? (Don’t include chords that

are used only once in the entire song.)

2.1. How many key changes does your song go through? (“None” or

“one” is normal)

2.2. If one or more key changes, which verse(s) or chorus(es) feature

the key change?

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3. What do you like about the melody?

4. How many verses exhibit a unique text (i.e., how many verses of poetry

does your song set?

5. Does your song have a “hook”? (A hook is a short, repetitious feature that

you believe listeners will fixate on, an aspect that reels your listener in

and keeps them interested in your song. Describe it):

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It may seem counter-intuitive to say so, but creativity can be

learned and practiced. If you want to write better songs,write lots of songs! Many of the songs you’ll write will “sit onthe shelf”, but what you will have learned will help you in thenext one you write.

This means that you should try not to become fixated on asong that might not be working for you. Know when it’s time toleave it and begin the next song. It can take many tries at asong before you get it sounding the way you want, and frankly,it may be time better spent to move on. With experience, you’llknow when it’s time to start anew.

If you can all of the questions above, you’ve a good grasp of the basic

innards of your song. Now we can begin to see if you’ve got the most

out of it.

If you couldn’t answer some of the questions, the next few chapters

will help you understand the music you’ve written, and will get you

moving in the right direction to fix it. Now let’s look at each question,

and see how your song can be improved.

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Chapter 2 SUMMARY

KEY NOTES AND QUOTES FROM CHAPTER 2:

• The Golden Rule of being a songwriter is: Learn from the greats.

• It takes a good song to be a good song; you can’t take garbage and

make a treasure out of it.

• Bad form is the reason for most of all the bad music out there.

• Good form means good design.

• If you have composed a song without much consideration for form, your songprobably has formal problems.

• The basic design elements of a song: intro, verse, chorus, bridge, outro.

• When you write a song, fill out a “survey” about that song. Just writing downyour observations will go a long way to solving nagging problems with it.

Creativity can be learned and practiced.

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Chapter 3- Designinga Song

50

The Blueprint

Designing your song is every bit as important as an architect coming

up with a blueprint. Though no piece of music will kill you if it falls

down around your ears, both musicians and architects know that

design is not something to be left to casual thought. Fortunately, we

can learn from the experience of songwriters who have come before

us. Through the years, and through millions of songs, basic templates

have emerged that can serve as models for us today.

The Contrast Principle of

Composition

Music historians will tell you that one of the

most persistent features of composition from

at least the sixteenth century to present day is the

basic principle of contrast. Whether you’re talking about early

Baroque concerti, or 21st century pop songs, contrasting elements

within a song has been standard practice for centuries. Contrast is the

component that helps to build interest within a song. It’s the main

formal principle in the writing of music:

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Don’t be afraid to change the design of your song as you work onit. But keep in mind that blindly throwing song elements together islike planting trees anywhere. Planning is vital.

Form Principle #1

SONGS WITHOUT CONTRAST RISK BEING BORING.

Where Boredom Comes From

If your songs somehow feel boring, and you can’t figure out why, it is

usually related to the absence of enough contrast. It’s like staring

at a flat field with nothing to distinguish one part of it from another.

Contrast sets things apart. Contrasting elements within a song brings

out beauty, in much the same way that landscapers create contours on

flat land to create beauty.

So how do you contour music? We’ve already looked at some basic

components that songwriters have incorporated into songwriting.

Verse, chorus, bridge, solo, intro, outro… these are all elements that

can ensure that your song can rise and fall with the emotions of the

text. Let’s look at some basic designs. We call them “macro” designs,

because they refer to the overall design of the song.

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Musicians usually refer to various sections of a song (verse,chorus, bridge, etc) by letter name. Unique melodic materialgets a unique letter, and sections that use material similar toanother section use the same letter. For example, a verseand chorus that uses the same melody would be labeled AA.If the chorus material differs slightly, the labeling would beAA’. The form of “The Star Spangled Banner” is: AABC. Theform of “Twinkle Twinkle Little Star” is: ABA

M

Macro Forms

i. Verse-chorus-bridge designs (ABABCB, or ABABCAB)This basic structure is a tried and true one, one that has stood the test

of time. Though verse-chorus designs are basic structures that are not

innovative in and of themselves, the contrast they provide counters

any risk of boredom. Often it is the smaller elements within a song,

and not the innovation of the macro structure itself, that makes music

work. The macro structure is best designed to be solid and predictable.

Some songs, like the Beatles’ “Lady Madonna”, start with a chorus,

then move to a verse. Their song “Hey Jude” doesn’t even really have

a chorus. It’s more a series of verses and bridges, with a prolonged

outro at the end. The macro design of verse-chorus-bridge in various

combinations is safe.

A bridge is a component of a song whose purpose is to help sustain

and build energy for that final chorus. Usually, there are a

minimum of two choruses prior to a bridge. The text of a bridge

is usually more emotional and passionate than the chorus, and a

53

perfect example is “Fall to Pieces,” by Avril Lavigne and Raine Maida.

Here is a sketch of how the various components of that song are

timed:

0’00” Intro 0’16” Verse 1 0’54” Chorus 1’18” Verse

Low-key guitar andlight keyboard;

Low energy levelthat builds frommiddle to Chorus;

Energetic drivethat dissipatesslightly atconclusion;

Same energy as2nd half of Verse 1;

1’40” Chorus 2’04” Bridge 2’28” Chorus 3’12” OutroRepeat of firstchorus

Slight ebbing ofenergy for fourbars, then theenergy rises tohighest point thusfar.

Low energy similarto beginning for 4bars, thendramatic increaseof energy to matchprevious choruses.Several repeats ofchorus

Modification ofmelodic andharmonic material,along withdissipation ofenergy.

This is a typical design that many songwriters

follow. The fact that it is done so often does

not diminish its effectiveness. Lavigne’s

expertise regarding the use of her voice, and

the expert control over the energy levels of

the various components of the form, makes

this song work so well, and is why it has

become such a big hit for her.

ii. Simple verse design (AAA…)

A simple verse design is one that uses the same music for the both the

verse and the chorus. The most common genre that uses this design is

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the 12-bar blues. A 12-bar blues uses a melody based on a

somewhat standard chord progression:

Bars 1-4 5-8 9-12

G / G / G / G7 C7 / C7 / G / G / D7 / C / G /D7

The progression and melody is repeated for both the verse and chorus.

In the standard blues form, a melody is featured in the first two bars

of each four bar section. The last two bars of each section often

features an “answering figure” by a solo instrument. The song “Hound

Dog”, by Jerry Leiber & Mike Stoller, and made famous by Elvis

Presley, is an example of the blues. Much of early rock and roll was

designed using blues patterns.

There are other non-blues songs that use the

same melody in both verse and chorus: “Born in

the U.S.A.”, by Bruce Springsteen, for example.

Many bluegrass songs do, inserting an

instrumental interlude between chorus and the

next verse. The interlude helps to break up the

possible monotony of having the same melody repeat so many times.

If you choose a simple verse design for your song, you will want to

consider solos and modifying of instrumentation at certain key

structural points in the song to help propel the song forward.

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If you have chosen averse-without-chorusstructure, your lyricshould be a goodstand-alone story orwork of poetry.

iii. Verse-without-chorus design (AAA…)One of the trickiest design structures to apply is one that uses only a

series of verses, with no real chorus or bridge. Such music is the

analogical equivalent of flat landscape. You can see it all with one look.

If you have chosen such a design, you

need another element that stands out,

one that ensures that the listener

hasn’t “seen it all” in one look. Usually

verse–without-chorus structures need

a strong lyric. If you have chosen a

verse-without-chorus structure, your

lyric should be a strong stand-alone work of poetry, or at least tell an

interesting story. Johnny Cash’s “I Walk the Line”, Jimmy Webb’s “By

the Time I Get to Phoenix,” (recorded by Glen Campbell) and the

traditional “The House of the Rising Sun” are good examples. As with

the simple verse design, it’s a tricky form to use, because boredom can

set in due to the lack of variety that a distinct chorus offers. Also, since

chorus texts typically offer a resolution of emotional questions raised in

a chorus (see Chapter 5), the text for this form must be carefully

considered.

In the verse–without-chorus design energy becomes an issue because

of repetition, requiring a strong lyric or careful instrumental

manipulation to make it work. So be careful when using it. People will

judge your lyrics critically. Sometimes this form, coupled with a strong

56

lyric, can come across as cerebral. And with only a few exceptions,

cerebral music tends to shrink an audience, because (sadly, I feel)

most people would rather hear a simple song about the primal instinct

of love, than a complicated emotional journey that uses metaphors

and analogies.

The early music from super group Genesis

featured many songs with verse-without-chorus

designs. Anyone familiar with their music would

tell you that the songs from 1971’s Foxtrot album

are far more than simple songs. They are true

compositions, with extraordinary plays-on-words,

imagery and poetry. But a commercial success

they were not. Genesis was not a commercial

success until their compositional style changed

to something less complicated, something that the average listener

could get into. So analyzing the text of their song cycle “Supper’s

Ready” (from Foxtrot, 1972) could take you weeks, while getting a

handle on “Invisible Touch” (from their 1986 album of the same name)

is a much more straightforward verse-chorus-bridge design. And

“Invisible Touch” as a song probably made Genesis more money than

all of their early albums put together.

But money may not be (and perhaps should not be) the measure of

success here. What is successful is if you have provided the right

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vehicle for your text. The verse–without-chorus design is good for

strong text. If your text isn’t strong, try incorporating a key change

somewhere. (See “Changing Key”, Chapter 4.) The verse–without-

chorus design also benefits from instrumental solos and interesting

underscoring.

iv. Verse-refrain design (AAA…)A refrain is similar to a chorus, except that in the pop music world,

refrains tend to be shorter than choruses. Usually a refrain is a line or

two. The line “For the times, they are a-changin’” is

a good example of a refrain. Dylan writes many

verses for his song, each verse ending with that line.

The refrain has the effect of “bringing it all

together.” Refrains make it sound like all those

words in the verse had a reason for being there, and tend to give an

extra sense of meaning and significance to the verse. Some other

songs that use the verse-refrain format: “Bridge Over Troubled Water”

(Simon & Garfunkel), “Let it Be” (The Beatles) and “Suzanne” (Leonard

Cohen).

Refrains usually don’t stand well by themselves. They act to bring a

close to a verse. In a sense, they are the end to the verse, while

choruses usually are stand-alone self-contained units. If your lyric has

a particular theme, a theme that would benefit by reminding your

audience of “what it’s all about” (“like a bridge over troubled water/ I

will ease your mind”) then the verse-refrain form might be suitable.

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A through-composed design means that song elementschange throughout the song, with no structural elementsreturning. Such a form is difficult to make work, becauseaudiences like when they hear things repeat. Be carefulusing the through-composed design.

v. Through-composed design.The through-composed format for songs is a format where each verse

is a different, exhibiting no melodic similarities to the previous verse.

Avoid this unless you know what you are doing. Through-composed

music is the equivalent of going for a walk, not knowing where you are

going, or (more importantly) if you will ever get home. It is possible,

but other design features need to be very, very strong. There needs to

be a strong lyric, or fascinating innovative features that crop up along

the way. Genesis uses a type of through-composition in their song “I

Know What I Like (In Your Wardrobe)” from Selling England by the

Pound. But they pull it all together by using a chorus that repeats

identically each time. Between the choruses there are two verses that

bear no resemblance to each other.

Curiously, many would-be composers use through-composed forms,

most often to their song’s detriment. Listeners feel most comfortable

when they hear something repeat. If you feel the need to write your

59

Using an ad hoc design does not mean letting your song meander.Aimless wandering will sound disorganized and unsettled. The maindifference between the through-composed design and ad hoc isthat ad hoc uses repeating elements that the audience willrecognize. Through-composed doesn’t. Progressive rock composersfrom the 70s were the greatest proponents of the ad hoc design,so you should be listening to Emerson, Lake & Palmer, Pink Floyd,early Genesis (up to 1977), Yes, and King Crimson for examples.

music so that each verse has a different melody, try taking the first

verse and repeating it at the end if at all possible.

vi. Ad hoc design.Some songs have a design that defy categorization. Songs using an ad

hoc design tend to come across as true compositions, if one can make

the differentiation between that and simple songwriting. Like through-

composed music, ad hoc designs are frequently used to fit the

structure of a given poem, or set of poems. Using an ad hoc design

means that you should give much thought to your poetry, and ensure

that the structure you come up with is the one that really brings the

meaning of the poem forward.

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Though it’s not possible to describe standard ad hoc designs (by

definition, standard and ad hoc are mutually exclusive terms), there

are some basic principles that are necessary to consider. The main one

is to ensure that the musical structure is governed by the

concept of contrast. The listener needs to feel the highs and lows of

the music: energetic sections contrasted with more serene areas,

governed by the overall sentiment of the text.

Because the contrasts offered in ad hoc designs do not come by way

of the predictability of verse and chorus designs, finding examples

often means looking for more obscure songs that are primarily text-

driven. Much of the music from the Progressive Rock era of the ‘70s

would fall into this formal category.

Energy – the Forgotten Formal Element

All songs contain a certain amount of energy. Energy is the force that

causes us to move our body as we listen. Songs with driving energy

want us to get up and dance. Songs with subdued energy come across

as sounding reflective and thoughtful. Every song is unique in how it

handles overall energy. The general mass of energy contained by a

song will often ebb and flow as the song progresses, and it is vital that

composers control it carefully. The usual course of events is to have

the energy increase as a song progresses. The increasing energy

entices the listener to keep listening.

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Form Principle #2

IN GENERAL, THE ENERGY OF THE END OF A SONG SHOULD

EQUAL OR EXCEED THE ENERGY AT THE BEGINNING.

Though this principle seems obvious, violation of this basic tenet is the

cause of many failing songs feeling listless and unexciting.

Energy will normally increase in fits and starts throughout a song. To

demonstrate a common approach, study the following chart. It’s an

“energy graph” of the song “Real Love” by the Beatles. If we were to

assign numeric values to represent the energy of the song, we’d come

up with something like this:

Intro 1stVrs 1stChr 2ndVrs 2ndChr Brdge 3rdVrs 3rdChr

5 4 7 5 7 8 4 7

Plotting the energy as a line, it would look like this:

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There is a common exception to Form Principle #2: manysongs build energy as they go, and then relinquish thatenergy at the very last line or two of the song. Thisimmediate dissipation of energy is a strong formalelement, because it allows the song to end at the sameenergy level as the beginning, offering symmetry. Andthe writer has followed the principle of increasing theenergy levels as the song progresses.

In general, you want the energy of your song to be at least

maintained, or, more likely, increased over the length of the song. The

energy increase will come from one or a combination of the following

factors:

• increasing volume;

• increasing instrumentation;

• raising the general pitch of the voice and accompanying

instruments;

• increasing harmonic rhythm (see Chapter 4)

• increasing the basic beat (i.e., making the basic beat busier)

Song designs are all about incorporating contrast into music by using

formal elements. To speak of form means to speak of harmony,

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A micro form is a component of the larger song form.Introduction, verse, chorus, bridge… they are all microforms within a song. In general, forms work or don’t workbecause of the energy levels of the micro forms. Fixingenergy problems will usually fix a form.

rhythm, melody, and other components of composition, so it’s time

now to look at those closely.

Micro Forms

Examining micro forms means looking at the individual components of

a song, as entities within the song. We’ve already defined these parts

before, but let’s now look at each one as a contributor to the macro

form. We’ll see that energy is the main quality we must consider.

IntroductionAs we know, an introduction sets up the rest of the song by:

1. setting the mood;

2. indicating the kind of harmonic language to be expected;

3. indicating the tempo and beat;

4. establishing a beginning energy level.

Decades ago, songwriters would often play through one or more

verses of a song as an instrumental introduction before the vocals

would finally start. Nowadays, whether pop, rock, country, jazz or

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other genre, introductions are shorter, and follow some basic

guidelines:

1. It’s not very common for an introduction to upstage a verse.

The introduction’s main purpose is to set the mood, and often

this is achieved with no attempt at a recognizable melody.

2. Don’t try to use chords or rhythms in your introduction that

don’t seem to have much to do with your song. A person

should be able to feel the basic mood and aura of your song

from the introduction. Think of it as the lobby of a nice

restaurant. The lobby should indicate the kind of décor and

food to be expected once you enter the main part of the

restaurant.

3. Generally, the energy of an introduction should be maintained,

or build slightly, then dissipate as it connects to the verse.

4. The music of the introduction can be used as a connecting

element between the chorus and the start of verse 2, possibly

between the second chorus and the bridge. This gives the song

a nice feeling of cohesion.

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An introduction should be shorter than verses. Consult the following

table as a guideline:

4 bar verse = 2-4 bar intro


8 bar verse = 4 bar intro


Verse

In order to keep an audience listening to your song, you need to keep

them thinking that something bigger and better is going to happen in

the next few seconds. In order for verses to work well as micro forms,

they need to build energy. The beginning of a verse should be it’s

lowest energy point.

The length of a verse in measures (bars) should be a factor of four.

Eight or sixteen measures is most common. Four is rare, and twelve is

common only in twelve-bar blues.

Once a verse has passed its midpoint, the energy should build, using

the adding of instruments, increasing loudness, intensifying the drum

kit, or raising the general range of the voice. An increasing of tempo is

rarely if ever used. Without this intensification the song risks becoming

boring or directionless.

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A musical composition requires that you get your

audience more interested in what is going to

happen, rather than what is now happening. Even as awonderful moment may be occurring in a song, listenersare subconsciously waiting for the next “moment”. That’swhat building energy throughout a song is all about, and itis what form is all about. It’s about subtly indicating thatsomething good is going to happen. That constant sense

of anticipation is crucial. Whether in the text, theinstrumentation, the dynamic, or some other aspect…sensing that something great is going to happen is

what sells songs.

A two-verse song should mean that the second verse will either

duplicate the energy of the first verse, or intensify that energy slightly

with the addition of an instrument. It doesn’t take much… adding a

tambourine, or other percussion instrument is common in some styles.

In others, having the drummer move from hi-hat cymbal to ride cymbal

is all that is necessary.

A three-verse song will usually mean that a bridge will be used

between the second chorus and the third verse (see “Bridge” on p.61).

The third verse will either maintain and increase the energy levels of

verse 2, or will begin as a lower energy version of verse 1 before

building to the final chorus.

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Chorus

The chorus will take the energy presented by the previous verse and

either maintain it or, more likely, build on it. Like the verse, a chorus

should be four (rare), eight, twelve (blues) or sixteen bars long. In

especially the eight or sixteen-bar chorus, the second half of a chorus

should feature an intensifying of the musical arrangement.

The end of a chorus should dissipate the energy it has built, in order to

set up for the next verse. Dissipating of energy comes from dropping

instruments from the arrangement, diminishing the activity of the drum

kit, and lowering the dynamic (loudness) of the music.

Bridge

A bridge needs to build energy. Sometimes the bridge can be

instrumental. An instrumental solo is a great way to build energy while

providing variety of sound possibilities. Depending on the genre, the

solo should be played by an instrument that can successfully intensify

energy. Saxophone and guitar are popular favourites in pop, rock, jazz

and country music.

The end of a bridge should be its most intense part if the bridge is to

connect to a final chorus. The bridge should dissipate its energy at its

last few beats if it is to connect to an additional verse.

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The energy levels of a song need to always be closely examined.Always check the connecting moments between the differentcomponents to ensure that you have complete control over thebasic energy of the song. Surprise moments can be what keepsaudiences interested in subsequent listenings, so don’t be afraidto allow impulse to have an important role in your song. Butthat spontaneity should be completely under your control.

Outro

An outro is whatever you do to end the song after its final chorus. A

very common outro is the repeat and fade. A repeat and fade is a way

for writers to give the impression that the song’s energy cannot be

dissipated without compromising the text. To give the impression that

the emotion of the text is eternal, a writer will usually suggest a repeat

and fade. There are other common and interesting ways to end songs,

including repeating a line of the chorus with only vocal harmonies

(without instrumental accompaniment), or to compose new music

entirely.

A long fade tends to add a degree of profundity to the music, so you

should be careful that the text and mood of the song warrants a long

fade. A short fade can sound dismissive. These are decisions that are

generally made at the production stage, because a repeat and fade

cannot be easily accomplished in a live performance, and can sound

corny if you try!

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Micro Versus Macro

I had mentioned that problems with a song will often mean that there

are problems with the form of a song. You now know that there are

several components to a song, and that the problems songwriters

encounter will require you to examine either the macro or micro level.

If each component of a song seems to work on its own, but you feel

there is an unbalance somewhere, this is usually an indication that the

energy of the song is not consistent, and you will need to look at how

the individual components connect.

We’ve looked at the form of the song, and it’s now time to examine the

other important components of a composition, beginning with

harmony.

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Chapter 3 SUMMARY

In this chapter you have learned:

FORM PRINCIPLE#1: SONGS WITHOUT CONTRAST RISK BEING BORING.

FORM PRINCIPLE #2: IN GENERAL, THE ENERGY OF THE END OF A SONG SHOULD EQUAL OR

EXCEED THE ENERGY AT THE BEGINNING.


• Planning the form of a song is vital to the overall strength of the song.

• Musicians usually refer to various sections of a song (verse, chorus, bridge,etc) by letter name. Unique melodic material gets a unique letter, andsections that use material similar to another section use the same letter.

• There are various formal designs possible for songs:o Verse-chorus-bridge designs

o Simple verse design

o Verse-without-chorus design

o Verse-refrain design

o Through-composed design

o Ad hoc design

• All songs contain energy, and that energy will often ebb and flow as thesong progresses; it must be carefully controlled.

• The common exception to Form Principle #2 is that many songs will buildenergy as they go, but relinquish it at the last line or so of the song

• Macro forms are large-scale forms that apply to an entire song. Micro formsare the smaller components that go together to make a macro form.

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Chapter 4- Harmony

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The Chord Muddle

For many budding songwriters, their biggest setback is

simply not knowing how chords go together. It’s almost as if

they think, “There are thousands of chords to choose from… which

ones do I choose for my song?” This chapter is going to hopefully go a

long way to clarifying what I call the chord muddle.

Chord Progressions – A Mystery No Longer

You will see more eyes glaze

over when it comes to

discussions of chord

progressions than with almost

any other aspect of songwriting.

Everyone understands what

good lyrics are (ignoring taste

and writing ability for the moment!) and everyone has a basic

understanding of beat and rhythm. But start discussing chord

progressions, and that’s when the muddle begins. There are all sorts of

theoretical reasons why progressions work the way they do, but I want

to simplify things here. My desire to simplify is not actually to dumb

anything down; I want to make sure you understand the basic principle

at work here: If it sounds good, use it. Some composers are so fixated

on “am-I-allowed-to” that they place “does-it-sound-good” second in

importance, which is for any songwriter an error in judgment.

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Music theory tells us whychords work the way they do.It was never meant to tell uswhat chords to choose! Youneed to trust your ear.

You can let theory tell youwhat your choices are, but youmust trust your ear and

your own musicality todetermine what chords tofinally use.

To repeat: Theory tells us whychords work, but notnecessarily which ones to use.

Creativity has always beenup to you!

The neat thing is that the theory behind why chords work the way they

do is quite simple. And if you find that a chord progression works,

you’ll also find that music theory will support that progression. What

we’re looking for are ways to simplify the process of finding the right

chords for your song.

I like to use the analogy of going for a walk to describe chord

progressions. The key that your song is in defines the chords you’ll

use, just like the city you

take your walk in will

define what buildings

you’ll see. That key

chord, which we’ll be referring to

as the tonic chord, is like your

house. The other chords represent

a short walk you take around your

neighbourhood. Eventually you’ll

return home again. It’s not

complicated. But I have heard

chord progressions that make me

picture someone going for a walk,

where they meander aimlessly

through the town. And if they get

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back home again, it feels a like a surprise, and the whole walk was just

unpleasant. That’s the chord muddle!

There are some great walks you can take around your neighbourhood

that may involve visiting places you’ve not been before, but the walk

should not be random. Any surprises on your walk should make sense

on some level. You can’t set out from your house in Toronto, turn the

corner, and find yourself in New York! There are ways to get to New

York, but not randomly.

So what makes a good chord progression? Why do chords work the

way they do? Why do some progressions excite us and pull us forward,

while others sound lame and just sit there? Learning how to make

chord progressions work requires us to learn certain things in a certain

order. There are real reasons why some progressions work and others

don’t. It’s not guesswork! This chapter has four sections, each one

building on the knowledge of the previous section:

I. Chord Basics;

II. How One Chord Moves to Another Chord;

III. Integrating Balance When Building a Longer Progression;

IV. Expanding Chord Vocabulary.

In working through each section, we’ll uncover four basic principles of

chord progressions. These aren’t rules; at best, they are guiding

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Don’t forget… you can hear all of the written musical samplesin this book by visiting www.secretsofsongwriting.com

principles. And like anything in the arts, you will be able to list many

songs that violate the principles. These principles are meant to merely

suggest reasons for why songs we know and love work, and hopefully

provide an analysis that you can apply, if you wish, to your own music.

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Some basic theory:The root of a chord is the notethat gives a chord its name. Sothe root of an e-minor chord isE.A triad is a 3-note chord thatconsists of a root (called note1), a 3rd, and a 5th.

I. Chord Basics

Let’s use the C-major scale to begin with. (We’ll use examples

on a musical staff, but if your reading skills are weak, don’t worry –

you will still be able to understand this section by the note names used

and the chord symbols.)

Every note of a scale can be identified by its note name (C, D, E…). We

can also refer to those notes by number (1,2,3…).

Sample 1

Using each note of a scale as a

root, we can create a chord. A

chord is the simultaneous

sounding of three or more notes.

The basic chords that you know

and love (i.e., chords that consist

of a simple letter name with no

numbers afterward) are known as

triads. A triad is a three-note

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“Countrymusic is threechords andthe truth.”

- HarlanHoward

chord that consists of a root, a third, and a fifth, formed by

what we sometimes call “stacking thirds”. Every time you strum

a chord on a guitar, even though six strings are making six notes, each

one of those six strings is producing

one of the three possible notes I just

mentioned – a root, third or fifth. There

are other more complicated chords out

there that involve more than three

separate pitches, but we’re talking here

about basic triads. Since there are

seven notes in a major scale, there are

seven basic triads that can be formed

on top of the notes of that major scale. And when you create those

triads without extra modifications, you will discover:

The chord based on the 1st note will always be major.

2nd note ………………… minor.

3rd note ………………… Minor.

4th note ………………… Major.

5th note ………………… Major.

6th note ………………… Minor.

7th note ………………… Diminished.

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The Basic Triads of Any Major Key

Here, then, are those triads:

Sample 2

Those are the basic chords that you will use if you write a piece in C

major. No more guess work! We haven’t talked yet about how these

chords can move from one to another. But these will be the basic

triads that you will more often than not use in your song. It will be fun

learning how to modify those chords for various purposes, and how

include other interesting ones in that mix; those seven chords will be

our starting point.

How We Refer to Chords

One tradition in the music world is to refer to chords using Roman

numerals. Notice that we used upper-case numerals for chords that are

major, and lower-case numerals for minor and diminished. So the

chord based on the first note is called a I-chord (upper case I, because

it is a C major chord), the chord on the second note is called a ii-chord

(lower case ii, because it is a D minor chord), and so on.

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From Woody Guthrie(not necessarily true,but funny):

“If you playmore thantwo chords,you'reshowing off.”

II. How One Chord Moves toAnother Chord

The V-I Progression

If you know pop music, you’ll know that two of those chords, the I-

chord (C major, in this key) and the V-chord (G major) are the most

commonly used chords in most songs. The songs that have been

written on that simple two-chord progression could fill books! How and

why the V-chord moves so easily to the I-chord is based on some basic

principles of how chords like to move. Read on!

Why Some Progressions Work and Others Don’t

How chords progress is what it’s all about, but this is where all the

muddle begins for so many songwriters! In the last section, I showed

all the chords that naturally occur in C

major:

C major (I)

D minor (ii)

E minor (iii)

F major (IV)

G major (V)

A minor (vi)

B diminished (viio)

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But just because they all naturally exist in C major doesn’t mean that

you can begin flipping from one chord to another. That will likely just

result in a muddled progression. There are ways that chords like to

move, and you’ll go a long way to clearing up the muddle if you realize

this: a chord that moves up by four notes or down by five notes to

reach the next chord makes a very strong progression.

The main reason why this is true is because when a chord moves in

that manner, it means that one of the notes will be in common.

Let’s use an illustration from the key of C major that we’ve been using

as our example. The G major chord moving to the C major chord is

called a V-I progression, and it’s one of the strongest progressions we

have. Both chords have the note G in common:

Sample 3

Because both the C major chord and the G major chord have the note

G in common, it makes a strong progression. The listeners’ ears latch

on to that common tone, whether they are consciously aware of it or

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Harmony Principle #1:

TWO CHORDS THAT HAVE A NOTE IN COMMON WILL FORM A

STRONG PROGRESSION; AND IF THAT FIRST CHORD MOVES UP

BY FOUR NOTES OR DOWN BY FIVE NOTES TO REACH THE NEXT

CHORD, THE PROGRESSION BECOMES EVEN STRONGER.

not. So now, let me state the Chord Progression Principle #1 that

will go a very long way to clearing up the chord muddle:

This principle was not invented by theorists. It wasn’t really invented

by anyone. It comes from years – centuries, actually – of observation

and study of existing music. Now you know part of the reason why that

V-I progression is so strong, and why practically every song ever

written uses it, and why it is the most common progression we know.

It’s because:

1. The V-chord and the I-chord have a note in common;

2. The root of the V-chord is four notes away from the root of

the I-chord.

And there’s a third reason it is so strong: it’s not just that V likes to go

to I, it’s also that the I-chord is the tonic chord of the key you’ve

chosen. So the V-I progression is the strongest progression we can

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use. In our “going-for-a-walk” analogy, it’s like stepping from your

front doorstep into your house.

Making Good Two-Chord Progressions

It may sound like the only progressions you’re allowed to have are

ones that feature a common tone, whose roots are four notes away

from each other. That’s not true – if it were true, music would be far

too predictable, and not a little boring. Those are the progressions that

are considered very strong. But there are lots of other types of

progressions. Using our walk analogy, we’d say… your stroll around the

city may take you to some spectacular landmarks, but other parts of

your walk may be great in an understated way. Walking past a nice

flowerbed, for example. The other progressions are considered less

strong than the ones we’ve looked at, but less strong does not mean

undesirable. In fact, over an entire song, the best songs are ones that

feature a combination of strong progressions, and more fragile ones.

Another analogy that you might find helpful is to imagine an architect

designing a building. Some walls are load bearing walls, while others

are non-load bearing. A building made up of just non-load bearing

walls will fall down! But those walls are necessary to the design and

beauty of the overall building.

Check out the list of chord progressions on page 84.

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HOW TO USE THE CHART ON THE NEXT PAGE

The chart shows several possible two-chord progressions, starting oneach chord of the C major scale. The first ones listed on each line areconsidered the strongest progressions, and each progression on the linebecomes gradually more “fragile”.

You can use this chart as a guide when constructing progressions thatare longer. Keep in mind that “fragile” does not mean

“undesirable”. If you like a progression, use it. But it’s a good idea tobalance the use of a few progressions from the fragile end of

the chart with some from the stronger end.

EXAMPLE:

Consider the progression C – Am – Dm – G – C. The C to Am is in themiddle of the first line, so it’s of medium strength. The progression thengoes to Dm. Am to Dm is considered very strong. So is Dm to G. Theprogression ends with G going to C, which is also very strong. So thisprogression rates as a very strong progression, one that will bepleasant to the ear. Try playing it on your guitar or piano, and you’llprobably like it. The thing is… strong can also equate to predictable.So… this is where true composition comes into play. Some of theprogressions from the fragile end of the chart can be the ones that adduniqueness to your music. Think carefully about your choices! Don’t justuse all strong ones.

“A jazz musician is a juggler who usesharmonies instead of oranges.” -Benny Green

“There are more love songs thananything else. If songs could makeyou do something we'd all love oneanother.” – Frank Zappa

84

CHART OF TWO-CHORD PROGRESSIONS

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The concept of strong progressions being formed bychords whose roots are four notes was actuallydeveloped hundreds of years ago, and the principle stillholds true today.

Too many chord pairs from the fragile end of thechart will make your music feel confusing and muddled.Too many from the strong end makes your musicseem predictable and possibly boring. Mix & match!

When Progressions Sound Muddled

Think about the music you’ve written where the chords seem somehow

unsettled to you. I’d place bets that the reason the progression is

unsatisfying is because too many chord-pairs come from the fragile

end of the chart. And when you use too many strong progressions,

your music can start to sound a little predictable.

People who live in glass houses…

Don’t be afraid of the progressions at the fragile end of the chart.

Those aren’t bad. But too much use will cause your progressions to

sound like they have lost focus, and your listeners may lose track of

what key they’re in. Nonetheless, “fragile” doesn’t mean “bad”. You do

have glass in your house, right? But an entire house of glass is not

desirable. Perhaps the expression should be, “People who live in glass

houses shouldn’t write music!”

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Balancing strong and weakprogressions in your song is abit like balancing amounts ofcement and glass whenconstructing a building. Allcement gives you no windows,and all windows gives you nostrength or solidity.

The best buildings, of course,use both.

Fragile is Not All Bad

Is there a pattern we can follow for when to use strong progressions

and when to use fragile ones? Many great songs use so-called fragile

progressions within a verse whose lyric conveys sadness, or emotional

trauma; i.e., the classic “hurting song”. If you decide to use fragile

progressions for this reason, it’s often best to ensure that the chorus

uses progressions from the strong end of the chart.

The song “Without

You”, (Evans and

Ham, recorded by

Harry Nilsson and more recently

by Mariah Carrie), is a great

example of this. The song

makes good use of both strong

and fragile progressions, but the

majority of the fragile ones

occur in the verse, while the chorus uses mainly strong ones. This

combination really works well. The fragile progressions make us feel

the unsettled nature of his anxiety and emotion (“No I can’t forget this

evening / or your face as you were leaving…”), while the strong

progressions in the chorus suit the more straight-ahead nature of the

chorus lyric (“I can’t live, if living is without you...”)

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Harmony Principle #2

A VERSE WILL USUALLY TOLERATE MORE FRAGILE

PROGRESSIONS THAN A CHORUS; A CHORUS USUALLY

REQUIRES MORE STRONG PROGRESSIONS.

Sample 4

Songs that feature fragile progressions in the verse and strong ones in

the chorus are so numerous that we can state a second principle of

chord progressions:

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Though not a rule, ensuring that the chorus has more strong

progressions will allow it to act as “closure” to a verse. Think of it this

way: A verse usually recounts events or imagery intended to stir up

emotions and draw the listener into the song. Progressions from the

fragile end of the chart will allow a certain vagueness to exist in the

tonality. This has the effect of making the music feel unsettled (in a

good way), creating a need for something more straightforward,

something less complicated. Enter the chorus: it brings closure to the

verse. As we’ll see in Chapter 6, while verses will often tell the

audience what’s happening, a chorus will tell them how the songwriter

feels about what’s happening. For stability, a verse with numerous

fragile progressions will need a chorus with strong progressions. And it

makes for a nicely structured song.

What About Minor Keys?

We haven’t yet talked about music in a minor key yet, because most of

the pop music out there has tended to be in major keys. But music in

minor keys can be beautiful, and you should consider it. To discover

the chords of minor keys, we just need to employ the same process we

used to come up with chords for a major key:

Sample 5

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In pop music, the V-chord is actually not all that common.The most common chords in minor key music are: i, iv andVI. Also, it is very common for minor key music to slide intothe relative major key, and back again. For example, a songin A minor will often move into C major, for variety.

The chords that we build on each note of a minor scale will be a

different quality from their major key counterparts. In the case of a

minor key:

The chord based on the 1st note will always be minor.

2nd note ………………… diminished.

3rd note ………………… major.

4thnote ………………… minor.

5th note ………………… major3.

6th note ………………… major.

7th note ………………… major.

3 In minor keys, the V-chord is naturally a minor chord. But as we discovered earlier, the mostcommon function of the V-chord is to move easily to the tonic. This is true in minor keys as well.A centuries-old tradition has been established that states that a V-chord, whether in a major keyor minor key, sounds more solid if it is major. By being major, it moves to the I-chord moreeasily. In major keys, the V-chord is naturally a major chord, so no adjustment needs to be made.In minor keys, however, the V-chord is minor, so we often raise the 3rd to make it major.

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Don’t be afraid to try composing in the minor key.Some writers purposely stay away from minor keysbecause they think the music will be too dreary. Butyou will find that the basic back beat of the music, thelyric and the melody will do as much or more to controlthe mood of the music you write.

Just as with major key music, the principle of strong and fragile

progressions applies to minor key music. Minor key music can be

powerfully evocative. Many songwriters use a mixture of minor and

major modes within the same piece of music.

Consider this progression:

Sample 6

Am – F – G – Am

These four chords come from the key of C major, but they also come

from A minor. If the third chord had been an E major chord instead of

G major, the progression would be solidly in A minor. The F major and

G major chords sound briefly as if they are going to pull the music into

C major, but the phrase then ends on A minor. This ambiguity of mode

is a well-used tool by many songwriters.

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Here are some other progressions in the minor mode:

Sample 7

Am – Dm – E – Am

Am – F – Dm – Bdim – C – F – E – Am

Am – Dm – E – F – C – Dm – E – Am

Am – G – C – F – Dm – E – Am – G

Songs about love have got to be about the most common songs outthere. But why love? People find it irresistible to allow themselves to bepulled into a song that describes strong emotions they’ve felt before.They like to know that others have felt that same sentiment. And theylike to know that there’s a song out there that perhaps describes thatfeeling. And we never tire of it! Love has been a topic of song ever sincethere have been songs. If you are looking for great song material,choosing love, particularly of the “unrequited” variety, will be a popularchoice.

Successful songs are ones that allow the audience to put themselves inthe singer’s world, whatever the topic may be. Love is the most popular,but you may want to describe other issues that have been on your mind.Some other popular choices for song material: the environment,consumerism and consumer greed, visions of a better world, andabhorring violence against our fellow humans.

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III. Integrating Balance WhenBuilding a Longer Progression

In Douglas Adams’ book, The Restaurant at the End of the Universe4,

he writes, “There is a theory which states that if ever anyone discovers

exactly what the Universe is for and why it is here, it will instantly

disappear and be replaced by something even

more bizarre and inexplicable.” It reminds me

of how so many musicians try to comprehend

the mystery of chord progressions. They

search for the elusive “rule” that governs all

progressions, as if there is some overall

directive, some law that guides their creation.

Adams might tell such writers that if they

ever discover the “ultimate answer” as to how chord progressions

work, all chords will instantly disappear and be replaced by a bowl of

petunias and a whale.

The Chart of Two-Chord Progressions is a useful tool for determining

how strong your chord sequences are. We’ve seen that longer

progressions can be understood as two-chord progressions attached

one to another. And we’ve also seen that some progressions feel

4 4 The Restaurant at the End of the Universe, ©1980 by Douglas Adams. Published by

arrangement with Crown Publishers, Inc.

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tonally solid while others are less so, and that it is optimum to use a

mixture of both in your song.

But that still doesn’t really answer the question… How do we construct

a longer progression? How do we know if it’s a good one?

Most songs are designed to reinforce the I-chord as the key chord –

the tonic chord, as we call it. So it’s not just a matter of trying to have

strong progressions. It’s having progressions that, either separately or

jointly, point toward that tonic chord as having special significance. In

our “going-for-a-walk” analogy, it’s like saying that we see everywhere

we go in relation to where our house is. And we know that no matter

where our walk takes us, it usually takes us back to our house.

Building Progressions

The strongest progression we have is the V-I progression. It’s what

Chord Progression Principle #1 is all about. The possibilities available

to us to build on that simple two-chord progression are endless, but try

this as one strong option: If we take that V-I progression, and put a

chord in front of it that is four notes down from the V-chord, we have

this three chord progression: ii – V – I. You can write lots of songs that

use those three chords. The progression is strong because each chord

moves up four notes to reach the root of the next chord, and each

chord shares a common tone with the chord before it.

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A circle-of-fifths progression works well and feels so solid, mainlybecause it adheres to Chord Progression Principle #1: each chordshares a common tone with the next one in the sequence, andthe root of each chord rises by four notes.

The circle-of-fifths progression is strong, so that means itwill be predictable. Be aware of that as you use it.

The Circle-of Fifths Progression

Now, to add a chord in front of that progression try going down four

notes below the ii-chord. That gives us the vi-chord. The progression is

now four chords long: vi – ii – V – I. In C major, we’re talking about

these chords: Am – Dm – G – C. A progression that uses chords whose

roots rise by a 4th (or descend by a 5th) in this way is called a circle of

fifths progression. It’s a very solid one to consider. You can keep

extending it backward: four notes below the vi-chord is the iii-chord.

Of course, the circle-of-fifths sequence is only one possibility. And if all

you did was use that progression, your music would be quite repetitive.

But many songwriters use it as a starting point. Consider this one:

Sample 8

Em – Am – Dm – G – Em – F – G – C

It works really well because it features chord changes from the strong

end of the Two-Chord Progression Chart. It’s mainly a circle-of-fifths

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progression. When it gets to the G major chord in the middle, we

expect to hear a C major chord following, because it follows the

pattern of four-notes-up. But the G major chord progresses to an E

minor, and now we expect the sequence to start over. This time,

however, it proceeds to an F major chord, then to G major, with a final

cadence on C major. By jumping to the F major chord, we successfully

leap out of the circle-of-fifths sequence and bring the progression to a

close.

Not all progressions use the circle-of-fifths, of course. But it is a good

one to use as a starting point because it uses so many strong two-

chord progressions.

Incorporating Balance

Though we now know how progressions work, we haven’t dealt with

another important issue – that of how chord progressions are

inextricably linked to phrases. If you can get your phrases to make

sense, to feel balanced, your chords will have a fighting chance.

Consider the following two progressions:

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Sample 9

Play through them both on a guitar or piano. Neither one feels wrong,

but the first one is an example of a progression that works really well.

It’s not just that it uses a mixture of strong and fragile progressions.

It’s got to do with balanced phrases. It’s a four-bar phrase, subdivided

into two smaller ones. The first two bars of the progression wander

away from C, and the third and fourth bars wander back. It feels

balanced; there is a symmetry. The first and third bars are similar in

that they both use two chords. The second and fourth bars are similar

by the fact that they use one chord lasting the entire bar.

Now consider the second progression. There’s nothing wrong with the

progression, but something feels a tiny bit unsatisfying about it. It’s bar

3 that is the problem. Putting two chords in bar 3 would make it a

better progression, because it would allow that bar to better balance

with bar 1. Does this mean that the progression is “wrong”? We should

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HARMONY Principle #3

THERE SHOULD BE A PERCEIVABLE AND SOMEWHAT

PREDICTABLE PATTERN TO THE PLANNING OF CHORD

CHANGES.

not be thinking of these progressions as being “right” or “wrong”, but

in this case, we can certainly say that Progression 1 is “better” than

Progression 2 because of the balance and symmetry issue.

Harmonic Rhythm

Balance is a bit of an abstract concept. It would be ludicrous to say

that balance, or any other concept, for that matter, is a constant value.

Nothing in the arts works that way. Nonetheless, music in the pop song

world usually works by providing certain perceivable and predictable

patterns to the listener. The patterns I am talking about here are not

necessarily rhythmic patterns, as we usually mean when we use that

term. I am speaking of the frequency and pacing of the chord changes.

This is known as the harmonic rhythm of the song. It leads us to our

third principle of chord progressions:

In Progression 1 from page 96, the first bar consisted of two chords,

each lasting two beats. The next bar contained one chord, lasting for

the entire bar. The third and fourth bars repeat that pattern. That

pattern of two chords in one bar and one in the next is an important

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feature of the song, serving as a pervasive pattern for the song as a

whole. The pattern can be anything you like. In Bob Seger’s song,

“Like a Rock”, each chord lasts two entire bars. That’s its harmonic

rhythm.

Slow harmonic rhythm, combined with a relaxed instrumental

treatment, gives a pensive, meditative quality to the music. But slow

harmonic rhythm combined with an energetic driving pulse gives the

music a gritty, determined air. Some songs use a combination. James

Taylor’s “Your Smiling Face” changes chords on every beat for two

bars, then switches to chords that last for two beats. This is the basic

pattern for much of the song.

Changing the harmonic rhythm within a song should not be done

haphazardly. Songs that move from a slower to a fast harmonic

rhythm generally gain energy. So do that if it’s the effect you are

going for. That gained energy is sometimes difficult to dissipate within

a section, so increasing the frequency of your chord changes is best

achieved by introducing the effect in a new, higher energy section such

as a chorus or a bridge.

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IV. Expanding Your ChordVocabulary

So far, the chords we’ve talked about have been triads that occur

naturally within a certain major or minor key. Our ingenuity and

imagination could allow us to write possibly thousands of songs or

more using just those chords. But now it’s time to let your imagination

soar! The possibilities are almost endless regarding how to manipulate

chords to come up with something distinctive for your song. There are

numerous books of chords in print that can list the many thousands of

possibilities. But some chords are real winners, ones you’ll want to be

sure to consider for your songs. We’re going to briefly describe some

simple but very effective modifications to the chords we’ve already

studied, as well as consider other gems for increasing your chord

vocabulary. Of all the possible variations on chords we could study,

these will be the most common, and most useful:

I. Adding a 7th to a chord

II. Modal Mixtures

III. Secondary Dominants

IV. Suspensions

V. Inversions

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Woody Guthrie

I. Adding a 7th to a V-Chord

The most common modification to the V-chord you will encounter is

the addition of a 7th. This means counting seven notes up from the

root of the chord, and adding that note to the existing three notes. The

resulting chord, G7, has four notes: G, B, D, and F.

Sample 10

You’ll notice that the F causes the chord to want to move even

more so to the C major chord. That’s called strengthening the

dominant function.

Simplicity can be a good thing. And

in chord progressions, the truth is

that you do not need a huge

arsenal of chords. Woody Guthrie’s

song, “This Land is Your Land” is a

good example of a song that can be

performed using only the tonic,

subdominant and dominant chords:

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Sample 11

F C

This land is your land, this land is my land

G7 C

From California to the New York Island

F C

From the redwood forest to the gulf stream waters

G7 C

This land was made for you and me.

Much of the music from the 50s and early 60s could be covered by

using the I, IV and V chords from any key. As the 60s progressed into

the 70s, songwriters used other

chords with increasing frequency.

Adding chords to their

vocabulary had the same effect as

adding words to verbal vocabulary;

chiefly, more chords allowed writers

to be even more precise and descriptive.

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Every time you modify a chord, or replace one with another, you makesubtle changes to the atmosphere of the song. The final choices reallydepend on your own taste, and the style of the song. Chord choices arenot meant to complicate music – they are meant to add meaning andclarification to the moods portrayed in the text. Simplicity trumpscomplication in the chord game.

Increasing your chord vocabulary will allow you to subtly shade your

musical ideas with colors that are perhaps a bit more understated and

clever. The ii-chord can take the place of the IV-chord in a progression,

because two of the notes of the IV-chord also show up in the ii-chord:

Sample 12

The vi-chord can sometimes serve as an interesting substitute for a I-

chord, because two of the notes of the I-chord also show up in the vi-

chord:

Sample 13

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This Land… Revisited

Now let’s go back to This Land is Your Land, and apply some of the

new chords we’ve looked at. This time, when you play it, you’ll notice

that the new chord choices add flavour, and start to create a certain

mood:

Sample 14

C7 F C Am

This land is your land, this land is my land

Dm G7 C C7

From California to the New York Island

F C Am

From the redwood forest to the gulf stream waters

Dm G7 C

This land was made for you and me.

Adding 7ths to Other Chords

Remember the 7th that we added to the V-chord? You can actually add

a 7th to almost any chord. Adding a 7th to a ii-chord or a vi-chord can

sound really nice. Some chords work well by adding a major 7th, while

others sound better when you add a minor 7th. This is determined by

the key you’re in. You will find that I, IV and V all sound great if you

add a major 7th, while ii, iii and viio sound best with a minor 7th. Try

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experimenting to see what you like. You should note that in blues

progressions, adding a minor 7th to a I, and to a IV creates that famous

blues effect.

II. Modal Mixtures

From earlier in this chapter, we discovered why some chords work so

well when in a certain key, while other chords seem to be a bit

strange. However, it is possible to “borrow” chords from one mode and

use them in another. By this usage of the word “mode”, we mean

whether a song is in a major key or a minor one. Chords that

come from the opposite mode are called, appropriately enough,

borrowed chords, or modal mixtures. The IV-chord offers probably the

most common opportunity for this situation. Try playing the following

progression on your guitar or piano:

Sample 15

The F minor chord in bar 4 is a borrowed chord. It’s a great sound, and

creates really interesting possibilities. It produces an air of melancholy,

and provides a lovely descending inner line that moves from the note

A, through Ab, to G.

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Every time you introduce a newchord in your song, the effect issimilar to viewing a newlandmark while taking a walk.Landmarks are good, but toomany can result in fatigue.

Be careful not to inundate

your audience with too many

chords, especially unusual

ones.

Good songs show a balancebetween predictability andinnovation, with more emphasison the former than the latter.

Any chord that actually belongs in the opposite mode to the one you

are writing in is called a modal mixture, or borrowed chord. The minor

iv-chord is probably the most commonly used borrowed chord. Be

careful not to use them

too much, because they

are very distinctive. But

it’s that distinctive flavour that

can add that bit of variety you

may be looking for. There are

lots of songs out there using

borrowed chords, such as Paul

Kelly’s “Personally”, made

famous by Karla Bonoff. He

uses a minor iv-chord toward

the end of each verse (on the

words, I’ve got something to

deliver / That the mailman can’t deliver…) The well-known duet

“Islands in the Stream” by Kenny Rogers and Dolly Parton (written by

the Bee Gees), uses a modal mixture iv-chord toward the end of the

first verse, on the words, “All this love we feel needs no conversation.”

It’s a great chord to spice up an otherwise ordinary progression.

Check out these progressions that use other modal mixtures:

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Sample 16

III. Secondary Dominant Chords

We know that a ii-chord from a major key naturally occurs as a minor

chord. In A major, the ii-chord is B-D-F#. Consider this progression:

Sample 17

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If the B minor chord is followed by a chord whose root is four notes

up, or five down (as in this example), it provides an interesting

modification if, instead of playing this B minor chord, you change it to

B major:

Sample 18

It’s not a borrowed chord, because there is no major ii-chord in either

major or minor keys. We know that ii-chords are either minor (in major

keys) or diminished (in minor keys). So if it isn’t a borrowed chord,

what is it? It’s a particular type of chord called a secondary dominant.

In a manner of speaking, it is pretending to be a dominant chord, in

this way: It is major, and the presence of that D# in the B major chord

strengthens its desire to want to move to the E major chord – four

notes up. Because of these characteristics, it holds two of the main

qualities of being a dominant chord. So we call it a secondary

dominant. Essentially, when you change a minor chord into a major

chord, you are often creating a secondary dominant.

How to Add Secondary Dominants to Your Music

Try adding some secondary dominant chords to your song. You’ll

notice that it has a particularly distinctive colour, and so you will need

to ensure that it fits in with the style of your song. The topic of

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secondary dominants could be the topic of complete chapters within a

theory text, and we’ve only touched the topic here. But you can

create secondary dominants easily by taking a minor chord

and raising the 3rd to make it major. This will work if your minor

chord proceeds to a chord whose root is four notes up, or five notes

down. Go back to that five-chord progression at the beginning of this

section, and make that F# minor chord major, and you will get this:

Sample 19

“Crocodile Rock” by Elton John makes use of a secondary dominant

chord in the second part of the verse:

Sample 20

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Another song from more recent times is “One Flight Down”, written by

Jesse Harris, recorded by Norah Jones on her Grammy winning album,

“Come Away With Me”. The third chord of the song is a chord based on

the 6th note of the key of the song (Db major). Normally the chord

based on the 6th note is minor, but in this case Harris makes it major:

Sample 21

Secondary Dominants That Don’t Act “Dominant”

It is possible to create secondary dominant chords that don’t rise by

four notes to the next chord. In other words, they don’t pretend to be

the dominant chord of the one that follows. Here’s a progression in E

major that demonstrates this:

Sample 22

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The F# major chord in bar 2 would normally want to move on to a B

chord (a V-chord), if it followed the theory just described concerning

secondary dominant chords. But this F# major chord progresses to a

IV-chord (A major), and so acts simply as an interesting colour for a ii-

chord.

IV. Suspensions

A suspension is a particular type of chord that makes use of a non-

chord-tone. To show how it works, take a look at this diagram from

page 80:

Sample 23

It’s the diagram we used to show the

common tone between a V-chord and a

I-chord. The G major chord uses three

pitches: G, B and D. If we take the

middle tone (called the 3rd, because it is

3 letter names above the root), and raise it

by a half tone, we will create a beautiful

chord called a suspension:

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That chord, Gsus4, is a G major chord in which the 3rd has been raised

(suspended) a half tone to C. Except for that pitch, the Gsus4 is

identical to a standard G major chord. Generally, this kind of chord

needs to be “resolved” by allowing the C to descend down to where it

usually is for a G major chord – to B.

Suspended chords are quite versatile, because you can technically

“suspend” any tone in a chord. It will take some experimentation on

your part to know which tones sound the best when suspended, and

which chords to do it to. Trust your ears. Usually, V-chords in any key

will sound good with the 3rd suspended – the so-called “sus4” chords.

The same type of suspension works well on I-chords as well. There are

other types, though, and probably the most common type after the

sus4 is the sus9 chord (also called sus2). In a sus9 chord, an upper

root of the chord is replaced with a note that is a tone higher. It then

resolves to a standard triad. Here are sus4 and sus9 from the key of D

major:

Sample 24

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Suspensions are just one of an entire category of chords that use non-

chord-tones. Any time you “dress up” a chord with a note that doesn’t

normally belong to it, you’ve used a non-chord-tone. The sus4 really

requires a resolution, because the suspended tone causes such tension

within the chord. The sus9 is less demanding – composers often use

the sus9 simply as a composite sound without resolving it to a triad.

Trust your ears – you’ll know if the chord needs resolution.

v. Inversions

So far we’ve only used chords that appear in root position. A root

position triad means that the root of the chord is the lowest sounding

note. But it is possible to invert chords – to allow a non-root note

already in the chord to be the lowest pitch. Inversions are used in

popular music styles for one or both of two main reasons:

1. for variety in chord choice;

2. to smooth out a bass line.

When a triad is played with the 3rd of the chord as the lowest sounding

note, that triad is said to be in first inversion. A triad with the 5th of the

chord as the lowest sounding note is said to be in second inversion.

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Guitarists know these chords as slash chords, because they are

indicated using a slash to separate the chord name from the bass note:

Sample 25

When and How to Use Inversions

So when and how should inversions be used? An inversion has the

effect of decreasing the tonal stability of a chord. A root position chord

is considered to be solid, while placing the 3rd at the bottom (first

inversion) removes a bit of that stability. Placing the 5th at the bottom

removes a lot of that stability. So inverted triads will usually not be

good chords with which to end phrases or sections of songs. They’re

great chords for getting from one stable chord to another. Used in this

manner, they are known as passing chords. The song “Layla”, co-

written by Eric Clapton, demonstrates a first inversion chord being

used as a passing chord in the instrumental ending of the song:

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Sample 26

The progression could have easily been played by extending that C

major chord in the first bar to last for two full bars before moving on to

the F major chord; that’s a strong progression. But by using the C/E as

a passing chord, Clapton provides a bit of variety while still keeping the

notes of the chord. He merely places a different chord tone at the

bottom. That inverted chord in bar 2 of the example has the effect of

pulling the listener along into bar 3.

A variation on the so-called “slash chord” is the pedal tone. A pedal

tone is a pitch (usually in the bass) that is held through several chord

changes. More often than not, the pedal tone will either be the tonic

note (key note) or the dominant note (the root note of the V-chord),

but try different tones to see if you like the effect. Here are some

samples:

Sample 27

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It’s important to keep track of where your bass notes are, andwhere they’re moving when you use inversions. Inversionsshould exist for a reason – they shouldn’t simply be usedrandomly. When using any chord, inversion or not, avoid

having the bass jump by six semitones (a diminished

4th.)

Key Changes

Don’t Go Changin’… Without a Reason

A key change, known in learned circles as a “modulation”, should occur

for a specific reason, not haphazardly. Key changes can be very useful

in verse-chorus designs. A well-placed key change can inject spice, and

offer variety to a song that is in danger of becoming stale. Songs with

many repeating features are good candidates for a key change. The

song “One Tin Soldier”, by The Original Caste, uses a key change

before the last verse. This was a great decision because it is basically a

verse-chorus song, in danger of being too repetitious. The key change

adds a feeling of anticipation to the song, and helps propel it forward.

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There are two common types of modulations:

I. Half-step-upward modulation

This type of modulation is very common. The songwriter raises the key

by one semitone (half step), or, less frequently, by a whole tone. A

half step modulation is usually prepared by ending the verse or chorus,

then playing a chord that is the dominant chord of the new key, then

continue with the next verse or chorus in the new key. Observe the

following chord progression. In this example, imagine that the first

four chords bring the chorus to a close. The next chord is the

modulating chord, and then the chorus is repeated, this time in the

new key:

Sample 28

Chords: C F G C // Ab // Db Gb Ab Db

This kind of modulation is exciting, but must be used carefully and

conservatively. Used too often, it can become corny and trite.

The half step upward modulation can also be done through what is

called an “abrupt modulation”. This means that the chorus comes to a

close, and the music suddenly all bumps up one semitone. This is what

Chorus ModulatingChord

Chorus: new key

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happens in “One Tin Soldier”, and it is particularly exciting. But again,

keep in mind that if you decide to modulate up a semitone, it can

become trite if used more than once. Listeners tend to have a curious

reaction of feeling manipulated somehow if the songwriter uses it too

much. Consider it a one-use effect.

This type of modulation happens usually at the ends of choruses, or,

less commonly, before a verse moves into a chorus. Even less

common, but worth a look, is the modulation that happens in the

middle of a verse or chorus. This is useful if your verse or chorus have

repetitious elements, and you want to inject some variety toward the

end of a piece of music. The Carpenters song, “Goodbye to Love”

employs this kind of key change. Toward the end of the last verse, we

get two lines of text that are set to the very same notes:

“What lies in the future is a mystery to us all / No one can predict the

wheel of fortune as it falls.5”

Then, before the next line comes in (set again to the same notes), they

abruptly raise the key (by a whole tone), and then deliver the ultimate

line,

“There may come a time when I will see that I’ve been wrong.”

5 Goodbye to Love, © 1972 by Almo Music Corp./Hammer and Nails Music, Inc.

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This was a great decision. The change of key, along with the

introduction of those trademark harmonies at that moment, gives a

shot of energy to that part of the piece.

II. Miscellaneous Modulation (more than a whole

tone)

Other key changes (i.e., larger than a whole tone) can occur in songs.

They are more rare, because vocal range becomes a factor: if your

song takes you close to your upper range limit, then modulating up a

fourth will take you beyond. So why would you consider modulating

upward by more than a tone? The most common occurrence of this

type of key change would be during duets. One singer can handle a

song in a certain key, and then when it is time for the second singer to

take over, the key changes to accommodate that singer’s range. A

song that shows this kind of key change is “Islands in the Stream”, by

Kenny Rodgers and Dolly Parton. The key changes when Dolly takes

over the lyric. Also, “Put Your Hand in the Hand”, as recorded by the

early 70s band Ocean does the same type of modulation, to put the

song in the right range for the singer.

Here are some basic bits of advice for doing key changes:

1. Upward modulations work far better, and with far more

predictable results, than downward modulations. A downward

modulation is difficult to do, because the new dominant chord

is a diminished 4th away from the original key, a very awkward

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interval indeed. It also saps energy from the music in a massive

way, and so it’s not terribly useful. Most songs should feature

an increase, or at least a maintaining, of basic energy. Avoid

downward modulations.

2. Modulations of more than a tone sometimes have unpredictable

results. So sing through that part of the song using the

modulation several times, being sure you know what the effect

is. Its immediate consequence is usually a dramatic change in

overall energy.

3. An upward modulation should be accompanied by an

intensifying of lyric, singing style, dynamic (i.e., loudness) or

instrumentation. Upward modulations combined with a

lessening of instrumentation or dynamic level are usually

counterintuitive. At a minimum, maintain the levels of loudness

and instrumentation, and you will probably find that increasing

overall energy makes a modulation work better.

4. Modulations work better toward the end of a piece than they

do toward the beginning. If your song has one modulation,

make it occur at least two-thirds of the way along.

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Chapter 4 SUMMARY


Harmony Principle #1:

TWO CHORDS THAT HAVE A NOTE IN COMMON WILL FORM A STRONG PROGRESSION; AND IF

THAT FIRST CHORD MOVES UP BY FOUR NOTES OR DOWN BY FIVE NOTES TO REACH THE NEXT

CHORD, THE PROGRESSION BECOMES EVEN STRONGER.

Harmony Principle #2A VERSE WILL USUALLY TOLERATE MORE FRAGILE PROGRESSIONS THAN A CHORUS; A CHORUS

USUALLY REQUIRES MORE STRONG PROGRESSIONS.

Harmony Principle #3

THERE SHOULD BE A PERCEIVABLE AND SOMEWHAT PREDICTABLE PATTERN TO THE PLANNING

OF CHORD CHANGES.


• Songwriters often refer to chords within a key by a Roman numeral. Buildinga chord on each note of a major scale gives us seven chords that belong tothat key:

o The first chord (also called the tonic chord) is major. (I)

o The second chord is minor. (ii)o The third chord is minor. (iii)

o The fourth chord is major. (IV)

o The fifth chord is major. (V)

o The sixth chord is minor. (vi)

o The seventh chord is diminished. (viio)

• Building a chord on each note of a minor scale gives us seven chords thatbelong to that key:

o The first chord is minor. (i)

o The second chord is diminished. (iio)

o The third chord is major. (III)

o The fourth chord is minor. (iv)

o The fifth chord is major. (V)

o The sixth chord is major. (VI)

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o The seventh chord is major. (VII)

• Taking a walk is a good analogy for how chord progressions work. The tonicchord is our house; the V-chord (dominant chord) is our front doorstep. Otherchords take us further from our house. The V-I progression is the

strongest one we can use. It’s like going from our doorstep into ourhouse.

• Two-chord progressions are strong if they adhere to Principle #1.

Longer progressions should be a mixture of strong and fragile progressions.

• Too many chord pairs from the fragile end of the chart will make your musicfeel confusing and muddled. Too many from the strong end makes yourmusic seem predictable and possibly boring.

• Balancing strong and weak progressions in your song is a bit likebalancing amounts of cement and glass when constructing a building. Allcement gives you no windows, and all windows gives you no strength orsolidity. The best buildings use both.

• The circle-of-fifths progression works so well because it is comprised ofchord progressions from the strong end of the Two-chord-Progression Chart.

• The harmonic rhythm of a song should be a relatively regular pattern.

• Songs that move from a slower to a fast harmonic rhythm generally gainenergy.

• Increasing your chord vocabulary will allow you to subtly shade your musicalideas with colors that are perhaps a bit more understated and clever.

• Simplicity trumps complication in the chord game.

• Every time you introduce a new chord in your song, the effect is similar toviewing a new landmark while taking a walk. Landmarks are good, but too

many can result in fatigue.

• An inverted chord means that the bass note is a note from the triad otherthan the root.

• When using any chord, inversion or not, avoid having the bass jump by

six semitones (a diminished 4th.)

• Key changes are a good way of energizing a song, but can be trite if used toooften.

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Chapter 5-Melodyand Lyric

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Melodic Energy

The structure of melodies changes with the times, but… not by that

much. If you go back enough in time, of course, the differences will be

obvious. But songs that were hits in the ‘60s and ‘70s are finding

themselves getting a makeover and being reissued by today’s leading

performers. Joni Mitchell’s “Big Yellow Taxi” has been covered by

several in the past decade, including Amy Grant and Counting

Crows. Paul McCartney’s “Yesterday” has the

distinction of being the most rerecorded song

in history. It’s been done over 2500 times. And

it’s the mark of a great song when so many

performers hear it and come up with their own

way to present it.

There are great original songs being written

today, by really fine songwriters: Chris Martin

from Coldplay, Dave Matthews, Gwen Stefani and others. And even

though the style of today’s music differs quite

noticeably from the music of yesteryear, there are

striking similarities that ensure that we can learn

lessons for tomorrow with the music of any era.

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These chapter deals with melody and lyric together, because it makes

no sense to talk about one without discussing the other. The two are,

and must be, allies in the quest for that great song. It’s a problem for

many beginner songwriters – when the text and the melody don’t

seem to have much to do with each other.

How “Yesterday” Works

I mentioned in Chapter 2 that a good melody takes us on a journey,

and used Paul McCartney’s “Yesterday” as an example. It follows that

“journey” notion well. It consists of four phrases, where each phrase,

melodically, is structured to match the emotional content of the text.

The song uses vocal range as its main source of energy:

Vocal Range and Vocal Energy

McCartney’s ability to write melodies is extraordinary, especially with

regard to how melodic shape, lyric and vocal range work together.

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When you write songs, you will notice that in general, the higher the

voice, the more dynamic and energetic the music. Singers being

required to sing in their upper register will need to use a lot more

physically demanding technique to produce and sustain those notes.

It’s an energy that can be heard, and becomes part of the

interpretation of a performance.

In “Yesterday”, the voice enters in the singer’s lowest range.

Combining that fact with the nostalgic nature of the word,

“Yesterday…” causes the audience to feel that nostalgia and remorse.

Immediately, the melody rises to its highest notes, promoting the

strongest feeling of sorrow and angst

on the words “All my troubles

seemed so far away”. The fact that

this part of the melody gives the

singer his highest notes makes us

feel his torment. The melody eases

downward on “Now it looks as though they’re here to stay”, giving us

back the feeling of remorse. The vocal line fully relaxes on “Oh I

believe in yesterday.” McCartney manipulates his audience in the best

way possible.

The highest notes of “Yesterday” occur later in the song, on the line,

“Now I long for yesterday.” By setting that line to the highest notes of

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Melody/Lyric Principle #1:

THE SHAPE OF A MELODY MUST BE PLANNED WITH

VOCAL RANGE, HARMONY AND TEXT IN MIND.

the song, McCartney tells us what this song is all about… longing for

yesterday.

This integrating of melody, text and vocal range give us our first

principle of writing melodies:

Don’t Write Counterintuitively

To write counterintuitively means to write in such a way that two or

more features of a song seem to be at

cross-purposes. If you are setting a text

that has to do with a tender kiss at the

beach, where the singer is meant to

portray the quiet solitude of that

moment, it simply confuses the listener

to have that text set to a voice very high in its range, screaming out

how peaceful the world seems. Make sure that vocal range and text

are strongly allied. Nonetheless…

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Singers that use falsetto are able to sing in a very high range,often without unduly raising the vocal energy of theirperformance. The falsetto voice is a little unpredictable, so ifyou are writing music for another singer, be certain to get theentire story on that singer’s range, and whether or not theyhave a useable falsetto.

Some falsetto singers can vary the kind of falsetto they produce– everything from a sweet velvety sound (Smoky Robinson) tosomething more aggressive (Robert Plant of Led Zeppelin).

What is Falsetto and Tessitura?

…there are ways for a human voice to sound very high, and still sound

lyrical and sweet, not aggressive or tense. When singers (usually male)

raise the pitch of their voice to its high limit, they can extend it

considerably beyond this threshold by creating a “break” in their voice,

and continue into a higher range. This type of voice is called “falsetto”,

and it’s fairly easy for men to sing in. The general range of a song is

called its tessitura. The normal range for most men extends upward to

a little past “middle C” on the piano. Some singers, if required, can

switch into falsetto to continue singing higher in pitch, if the tessitura

of the song is high. Falsetto is tricky to use because there is a

somewhat noticeable break (called the passaggio) between the normal

voice and falsetto. However, many male singers work at making that

break less conspicuous, and thus do a good job of using their falsetto

range. Some singers are famous for the beauty of their falsetto voice:

Smoky Robinson, Frankie Valli of the Four Seasons, Prince, Barry Gibb

of the Bee Gees, and Chris Martin of Coldplay, to name a few.

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Writing Good Melodies

Imagine that you’ve rented an apartment or bought a house. You’re

looking around you, and trying to visualize where you’re going to put

all the furniture. It may seem like a blur of ideas at this point, but

there are some things you know for certain. For example, you won’t be

putting your bookshelves in the

bathroom. Your clothes hamper

won’t likely be in the living

room, and your bed won’t be in

the dining room. Once the basic

structure of a building is known,

there are at least some

decisions that are easy to make.

Getting Notes in the Right Place

How does this analogy work for writing melodies? For many

songwriters, the process of composition begins by vamping a two or

three chord pattern. It’s like laying down a shell, a structure, within

which the melody is eventually going to reside. Hand-in-hand with the

chord pattern is an underlying rhythmic motif that will form the

backbone of your song. In our analogy of the new house, try thinking

of the chords as being like the overall shape and structure of the walls

around you, and the underlying rhythm is the colour of the walls.

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Composing by layering various elements means coming up withthose elements together. Most songwriters layer their songs to atleast an extent. They’ll develop the chord patterns, melody, textand other components more or less simultaneously, bits at a time.In other circumstances, writers will develop the text as a stand-alone entity first, working out the other aspects later in a separateprocess.

There is no one way to write, and you may find that many songsyou write will happen in different ways.

Where the walls are placed will determine a lot with regard to where

things go. The neat thing is that this is a house that you get to build,

and if you don’t like the rooms, you can invent new ones!

There are as many ways to write as there are composers. Some

songwriters like to work with others, bouncing ideas off band mates.

For these people, the songwriting process usually begins with one

person bringing the shell for a song to a band rehearsal, and the other

members all contribute ideas as the song grows and modifies. Group

compositional efforts are relatively common in popular music.

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A) A VERSE CAN USE TEXT THAT IS NARRATIVE AND

INCONCLUSIVE, WITH PREDOMINANTLY FRAGILE

CHORD PROGRESSIONS;

B) A CHORUS CAN USE TEXT THAT IS REFLECTIVE

AND DRAWS CONCLUSIONS, AND USE STRONGER

CHORD PROGRESSIONS.

For most songwriters of middle-of-the-road songs, writing melodies is

borne out of laying down a chord and rhythm layer first. Melodies

essentially begin as improvisations that gradually focus in on creating a

more solidly identifiable tune. This is composition by layering. In the

analogy we used of trying to place furniture in your new house, it’s like

actually coming up with the entire house first.

Verse-Chorus Text Design

When we looked at verse-chorus chord progression issues, we

discovered that verses can tolerate more fragile progressions, while

choruses usually need stronger ones. This has to do with the nature of

the kind of text we use in verses and choruses. When you construct

your melody and begin applying text, you need to remember these

basic principles:

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THE PRESENCE OF THE KEYNOTE (TONIC NOTE)

WILL STRENGTHEN THE UNDERLYING STRUCTURE

OF A MELODY. CHORUSES CAN AND SHOULD

FEATURE THE TONIC NOTE IN ITS MELODY MORE

THAN VERSES.

Song Sample

Because writing music is an art form, generalizations can be dangerous

to make. No doubt we can all think of songs that do not follow some or

any principles. But if you look at the music of the great songwriters

from any era, you’ll see those two principles being followed much of

the time. Let’s look at a song that follows Principles #2 and 3 closely:

Backstreet Boys: “Never Gone” (from the Album Never Gone)

Verse:F Dm

The things we did, the things we saidF/C Bb

Keep coming back to me and make me smile againF Dm

You showed me how to face the truthF/C Bb

Everything that's good in me I owe to you Am BbThough the distance that's between usF CNow may seem to be too far

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Am BbIt will never separate usF CDeep inside I know you are

Chorus: F Dm

Never gone, never far F/C Bb

In my heart is where you are F Dm

Always close, every day F/C Bb

Every step along the wayDm C Am BbEven though for now we've gotta say goodbyeDm C Am BbI know you will be forever in my life (yeah)

FNever gone…

This song begins with a beautifully

evocative piano solo, setting up the

mood perfectly in short order. The text

of the verse is melancholy, and tells a

story of two lovers parting on good

terms. The pulse is gentle. The second

part of verse 1 introduces a simple and

understated drum beat, allowing the

song to gain energy that culminates in the chorus.

The first part of the verse uses mainly fragile progressions (F – Dm –

F/C Bb), in keeping with the nature of the text, demonstrating Principle

#2. The text is simple, telling the listener what’s going on in the

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Principles #2 and #3 go hand-in-hand because they both dealwith how to make a melody stronger in some cases, weaker inothers. It’s an important feature of any song. You want versesto feel inconclusive; it makes your audience keep listening tofind out how it all turns out in the end.

You make verses feel inconclusive primarily by:1. using predominantly fragile progressions;2. using a text that tells a story or describes feelings

without being too conclusive;3. constructing your melody to focus on notes other than

the tonic note, particularly at the beginning and middlesections. Ease your way to the tonic as the verse meetsup with the chorus.

You make choruses feel conclusive and strong primarily by:1. using more strong progressions;2. using text that expresses conclusive statements about

emotions and decisions;3. constructing your melody to focus on the tonic note,

particularly at the beginning and end of the chorus.

singer’s life. In the second part of the verse, the singer begins to show

courage and strength (“Though the distance that’s between us… It will

never separate us…”). In keeping with this show of strength, the music

begins to feature stronger progressions (Am – Bb – F – C).

Curiously, the chorus reverts to the chords of the first part of the

verse. So why does the chorus feel so strong? It is because the tonic

note is featured so much in the melody of the chorus,

demonstrating Principle #3. In the verse, the tonic note is only rarely

presented, always on weak beats, and always as a passing note. In the

chorus, the tonic note is presented no less than twelve times in the

first eight bars. The first part of the chorus features the tonic note as

the most important note. This constant reiteration of the tonic note is

the secret to how the melody is so strong.

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THE LATTER HALF OF VERSES WILL OFTEN BE

PITCHED HIGHER THAN THE FIRST HALF; CHORUS

NOTES ARE OFTEN HIGHER THAN VERSE NOTES.

Shaping a Melody

There is another reason why the chorus of “Never Gone” feels so

strong. It is because of the higher tessitura of the chorus notes.

Melodies need shape. They need to be contoured in such a way that

they have internal energy that propels them forward, even without a

chord sequence to help. There’s much that can be said about this

shaping of melodies, all based on this basic principle:

Generally speaking, chorus text will lend itself well to higher range than

verse text. This is because chorus text is usually more emotive,

complementing the higher energy that comes with a higher voice. You

will set the chorus up beautifully if your verse melody heads

upward as it approaches the chorus. Within each verse or chorus,

melodies need to show intelligent design elements. There needs to be

shape. In “Never Gone”, the second part of the verse shows higher

range than the first part. This is appropriate, because the second part

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Higher tessitura means that the notes are higher in pitch, lyinghigher in a singer’s voice.

Generally, choruses should have a higher tessitura than

verses, and focus more on the tonic note. It’s not uncommonfor a chorus to repeat that tonic note and keep returning to it.

Good male pop singers can slip into and out of falsetto withouttheir audience really knowing, or caring for that matter.

of the verse shows more emotion and strength. The higher voice helps

the audience feel that text.

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Creating a Melody by LayeringIdeas

It is entirely possible that “Never Gone” was created by the layering of

musical ideas until a completed song emerged. In that way, it is like

sculpture: songs begin as an unfashioned piece of material that is

gradually honed until desired shapes come forward.

Layering simply means that a song will begin as a chord pattern, or

rhythm, or some other simple structure. As that structure is played and

modified, other layers are added, gradually evolving into the completed

song.

Let’s Write a Song

Let’s take a look at how the layering process can help you create

songs. I want to, somewhat spontaneously, try to create a song by

layering various elements of that song one by one. In reality, the best

songwriters out there spend a good amount of time before the

composition process working on lyrics and other elements, piecing

fragments together over time. But I want to speed up the process here

right now, so that we can see how layering elements together can

produce a good song.

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Step 1 – An Underlying Layer

After some meandering around on my keyboard, I’ve come across the

following progression that’s caught my attention:

Sample 29

A rather simple two-chord progression like this can serve as an

underlying layer for an entire song. Play the two chords many times,

trying different rhythmic ideas. You may find that the chords sound

great played simply, with perhaps a little arpeggiating (chord

“noodling”). Maybe you envision a repeating rhythm underneath.

Whatever it is, play it many times, and try to discover whatever you

can that can be used and brought forward. When I tried noodling on

this progression, I became a bit fixated on the common tone G that

exists in both chords, and found myself bringing that note forward.

Perhaps if I keep this progression I can do something with that G as I

arrange the final version of the song.

Step 2 – Creating and Fusing Melodic and Text

Fragments

I began to improvise a melody above this progression. At this point, I

only have two chords to go on, and the song will eventually have more

than two chords, no doubt. But it will be good to try to bring forward

melodic ideas and fragments at this point.

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As I work on this fragment, I try to get a feeling for structural

elements. And I ask myself certain questions: Do I feel like this

fragment is going to work out to be part of a verse or a chorus? Am I

envisioning text, or even a subject area? If so, I begin writing down

words and text phrases that are coming to mind.

Step 3 – Expanding the Chord Layer

It’s likely that this song will use more than the two chords I’ve been

vamping, so I’ll try creating more chords. I’m keeping the Chord

Progression Principles in mind. If this is working out to be a verse, I

know that I can be somewhat free in using fragile progressions. If it’s a

chorus, my text will need to feel like it is summing up feelings and/or

events that a verse would present. And I’m remembering that a chorus

melody may want to feature that tonic note more frequently than a

verse. My initial fragments have been coming together a bit, and given

me something like this for a chord progression:

Sample 30

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This makes a great chord layer to use as a basis for a melody. At this

point, I’d probably choose to repeat what I’ve got there, with the

thought in mind that the underlying accompaniment will get a little

busier the second time through.

So far…

So what do we have so far? Just a progression that seems to work

quite nicely. It starts on Cadd9, the 9th simply adding a nice bit of

colour to the C major chord. It wanders away from and back to that

Cadd9 chord. Bars 5-8 take us slightly further afield, but as you can

see, all the chords come from the key of C major, and so nothing will

be shocking or out-of-place to the listener.

The first part of the sequence is comprised mainly of progressions from

the fragile end of the Two-Chord Progression Chart; the second half

features chords from the stronger end, allowing energy to build.

Step 4 – Fusing Melodic Fragments into Sections

It is at this point that I begin to piece together melodic bits into a

composite melody. I’ve been mulling some text fragments over in my

mind as I’ve been working, and I’m going to try writing them down to

try with some melody:

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Don’t forget… you can hear all of the written musical samplesin this book by visiting www.secretsofsongwriting.com

Sample 31

Well, I am only moderately satisfied with what I’ve got so far, but the

good news is… it’s my song, so I can change anything I want.

Personally, I find my lyric here to be a bit too straight ahead. I want to

use more imagery than this, so I’m probably going to go back and

change it. But for now, I’ll leave it, because I am starting to think

ahead to the chorus.

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I’ve used stronger progressions in the second half of the melody, which

fits with the more “hopeful” text. I know that when I write the chorus,

I’ll want to make it stronger by perhaps using stronger progressions,

using a higher tessitura, and featuring the tonic note more often.

As I continue working on this song, I’ll continue to put ideas down,

even if I know that the text, chords or melody won’t be what I’ll finally

want. At times, I find myself writing things down that I won’t be

keeping, knowing that I’d never allow that to be my finished song. The

reason is this: It is easier to edit something you’ve written down

than something that resides only in your mind. So don’t be afraid

to write things down. For example, I might try this as a starting point

as the melody and text for the chorus:

Sample 32

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Now my mind is confirming that for me, this isn’t the direction I want

to go in with the text. It’s too literal, and I was hoping to come up with

less obvious ways to show how I feel. Don’t be afraid to scrap

ideas and start again. It’s all part of the process. But it’s important

to get them down on paper somehow. If your theory isn’t strong

enough to write notes, sing and play it into a digital or tape recorder.

In reality, though I’ve sat here “in real time” writing this song, I’d

choose to work on the text separately for quite a while before

beginning the composition process. There are many songwriters who

“sketch together” the lyric as they fumble for words, but you’ll find that

the best songwriters out there give plenty of good thought to lyrics.

Despite my unhappiness with my text, I’ve followed basic principles in

getting this far. The verse text is mainly narrative and inconclusive,

while the chorus is more emotional and conclusive in nature. The verse

only occasionally gives the tonic note, while the chorus features it

many times. And the verse is relatively low in the singer’s range, while

the chorus takes the singer much higher.

All this proves a point: Just because you use proper songwriting

technique does not mean you will automatically produce a hit

song. Many great songwriters can compose hundreds if not thousands

of songs before a hit comes along.

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Other Ways to Compose

The Text-First Method

In my opinion, some of the best songwriters out there are the ones

that start with text first. They are poets, looking for musical ways to

present their poetry to others. I say this, because I am partial to

intelligently written text. If you love poetic text, you’ll want to listen to

lots of writers who place the lyric high in importance: Peter Gabriel,

Kate Bush, Laurie Anderson, Brian Eno, Chris Martin, and Michelle

Branch. Branch, who records on Madonna’s Maverick Records, became

a guitarist so that she could play well enough to set her poetry to

music and perform it. That’s a similar story for many poet-songwriters.

If your poetry is important to you, be certain that when you look at the

final product that the poetry comes through first and foremost. As I

mentioned before, you have to make sure that other elements of your

composition do not upstage your text.

The Rhythm/Beat-First Method

If you love the thought of getting people out on the dance floor, where

the message of the text is secondary, you’ll place beat and rhythm

higher in importance than the melody or lyric. Music of this character is

often highly electronic in nature, and composers of dance music usually

have a particular way of working. If making dance music is your

interest, you are probably already aware of the terms house, techno,

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trance, progressive, ambient and others. House music evolved out of

the disco craze of the late ‘70s and early ‘80s. Its most immediately

noticeable feature is the incessant kick-drum beat. Techno evolved

from House, incorporating the Roland TB 303 bass machine to

produced a more highly electronic, industrial sound. Trance is a highly

charged, energetic style of dance music.

Dance music is a particular genre that really needs its own book. It

requires equipment (synthesizers, sequences, etc.) and the style of

composing differs radically from the kind of songwriting dealt with in

this book.

More About Lyrics

Good text is vital to a good song. Good text doesn’t mean that it has to

be a stunning poem. Good text means that it does what it was meant

to do. Some text is extremely simple, and that simplicity may be

exactly what the song needs. If it’s mainly a dance number with a

driving beat meant to get everyone out on the dance floor, that may

not be the song to tell the world your thoughts on greed and

capitalism. A dance number may not need much beyond “love ya

baby”.

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Be concise in your lyrics. “The clock on the wall” is better than “Theclock that is on the wall.”

Too Many Wordsa big problem with text is often that it is too wordy – too much

information being communicated. And

often when this happens, it is complicated

by the fact that the melody itself tends to

be complex and involved, to fit with the

complicated text. All of these can make

listeners’ brains start to turn off. As

Melody/Lyric Principle #1 says, never

consider text without also considering

melody and harmony. You need to see

text, melody and harmony as three

corners of the composition triangle that need to be in balance.

I’ve mentioned the band Coldplay several times in this chapter. Their

music is a fantastic example of songwriting at its best. The lyric is

usually very strong, and the melodic and harmonic treatment of the

text is winning fans all over the world. Coldplay’s music is cleverly

written – a true weaving-together of all aspects of music. Chord

changes happen almost as washes of sound, where chords morph

from one to the other as they serve to convey the meaning of the lyric.

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Complexity in music is not necessarily a drawback. But losing youraudience is. Intricacy runs the risk of being interpreted as pomposity. Butsome bands use this intricacy well. Early music from Genesis, Yes, GentleGiant, King Crimson and others were studies in musical composition thatconfounded some while thoroughly entertaining others. These bandsconsidered themselves to be story-tellers more than just singer-songwriters. To properly convey the intricate storylines, writerssometimes feel the need to abandon the simple verse-chorus structuresof mainstream songwriting. If you adopt a less conventional vehicle foryour music, it will usually take you longer to build a fan base for yourmusic. People are somewhat mistrusting of new approaches to music,and some of the early progressive rock bands had to wait ten years tosee any sort of commercial success. That being said, their music standsas monuments of the twentieth century, classics of their day.

Sometimes, however, abstract lyrics will benefit from a more

predictable harmonic and melodic structure. The danger in complicated

lyrics, set to a complicated melody with a complicated chord structure,

is that you might lose some of your audience in what they view as a

sea of cerebral gobbledygook. A complex melody can upstage a deep

lyric. Also, all that complexity may across as being a bit pretentious.

Just be careful.

Don’t try to make profound lyrics sound even more profound by adding

profundity! There is a song by the John Denver called “Love is

Everywhere”, which I think is a perfect example of balance between

lyric, melody and harmony. The song is basically a lively country song,

with almost a “hootenanny” feel. You’d never guess that it could be

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anything more than that, but if you look at the lyrics, you’ll see that

there is deep meaning:

Follow your heart like a flying stallion

Race with the sun to the edge of night

Form your truth like a gold medallion

Dance in the circle of the love and the light6

I love that lyric. And I wonder if I would feel the same way about it if

the melody and chords were complex. But they aren’t. They are quite

simplistic, and in the best way possible they stay out of the way of the

lyrics.

A Good Lyric Isn’t Necessarily Deep

You don’t need deep lyrics to have a good song. It really depends on

what your song is “about”. You may want to state something simply. If

what you are writing about is straightforward, like an emotion or an

event, don’t try to write lyrics that are overly profound or intricate.

Jennifer Lopez co-wrote a song called “Again”, which attempts to

convey her feelings about a love-turned-friendship. The concept is

simple, and the emotions are predictable. And the lyrics work well

because… they are simple and predictable:

6 Love is Everywhere, ©1975 Cherry Lane Music, Music of 1091, and WB Music Corp.

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Like an angel out the sky you came

Clearing up all the clouds, the sadness and the rain

So pure and healing was the love you bring

I knew inside...(It felt so right)

For me, I’ve struggled all my life...

To find that thing that makes it right...

With you it seems I may have found

Some other kind of love...7

It’s great if your lyrics can exist as a stand-alone poem, like the ones

above. But to have a great song does not necessarily mean that the

lyric must be strong. But if it isn’t, it needs something more in another

category.

Balancing Lyrics and Melody

Songs with unremarkable lyrics need a good hook or melody, a

captivating underlying rhythm, or some other remarkable feature. In

other words, you need to decide what your song is about. If it’s all

about the poetry, make sure that the poem comes forth clearly by not

allowing the melody and harmony to upstage it.

7 “Again”, ©2002, Sony/ATV Songs LLC, Cori Tiffani Publishing, Nuyorican Publishing, Sony/ATVTunes, Jaedon Christopher Publishing, Reggie Hamlet Publishing

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Your lyrics don’t need tobe astounding poetry,but that doesn’t meanthat you should writegarbage. Think of it thisway: the walls in yourhouse might be off-white. That’sunremarkable… not bad.It’s important to knowthe difference.

It’s important to discuss this a bit here, because I need to clarify: A

complex lyric doesn’t mean that you must dumb the melody down.

Let’s go back to the analogy of the living room used in Chapter 2. If

you really like your fireplace and want it to be a focal point in your

living room, that doesn’t mean you

should leave the walls blank. In

fact, if the walls are blank, or

have really bad pictures on

them, people will be so busy

remarking to themselves how boring

the walls are that they won’t notice

your beautiful fireplace. To make that

fireplace really take its proper place as a focal point, it needs pictures

that are simple but elegant, that make their statement softly.

The Balance of “Hotel California”

When setting a strong lyric, the guideline is that you should have a

melody and an accompaniment that allow the lyric to shine forth. One

of the Eagles’ biggest hits was “Hotel California”. It’s not a profound

lyric, not complex at all. But it tells a good story, and as lyrics go, it’s

quite strong. The melody is not complex. It’s actually a bit reserved.

There are few if any big leaps, and doesn’t wander much from its

starting notes. But while not complex, it is clever, and just what the

song needs. The melodic phrases are made up of short one-bar sub-

phrases. This, coupled with its high range, gives it an agitated feel.

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When fans of the song talk about “Hotel California”, it is almost always

the text they talk about, and never the melody or harmonies. But the

structure of the melody allows the text to shine. And it’s great to hear

fans of the song try to decipher its meaning.

Many believe it’s about a drug-induced trip,

while others believe it is a song about

Satanism, or perhaps over-indulgence. Don

Henley from the Eagles has actually put

forward at least two different views of the

text. When a lyric is as strong as this one is,

it impels listeners to discuss, debate, and

otherwise argue, the meanings of specific lines. That’s when you know

that a lyric and the accompanying melody and harmonies are in perfect

balance.

Dealing with Unremarkable Lyrics

If your lyric is less remarkable, don’t assume you have a dud.

Sometimes a song is about the

harmony, or the underlying

rhythm. During the mid to late

70s, the listening public was

deep in the throes of the disco

era. At that time, it was mostly

about the rhythm; it had to be

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danceable. With few exceptions, that’s how mainstream music was

judged. That underlying disco beat was what the song was about, so

the lyrics generally took a back seat. Reading the text of a disco-era

tune is often an exercise in… nothing much. Take these rather-less-

than-weighty words from one of the ‘70s supergroups, KC & the

Sunshine Band:

Oh, that’s the way, uh-huh uh-huh,

I like it, uh-huh, uh-huh.

That’s the way, uh-huh uh-huh,






When you take me by the hand,

Tell me I’m your loving man,

When you give me all your love,

And do it the very best you can,

Oh, that’s the way, uh-huh uh-huh,

I like it, uh-huh, uh-huh…8

8 “That’s the Way (I Like It)” © 1975 Harry Wayne Casey, Richard Raymond Finch

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Disco Duck, and Other Lyrical Misfortunes.

Disco was big in the late 70s, and the lyrics weren’t necessarily gems.

It’s hard to believe that anyone actually took the time to write the

words to “That’s the Way (I like it)” down. So how did this song

actually survive? And not just survive, but become one of the big hits

from the decade? It’s that driving beat and the horn shots. KC could

have been singing the words to Aunt Mary’s Muffin Mix recipe, and it

still would have become a hit. So did other memorable disco tunes with

shockingly weak lyrics: “More, More, More”9 (“How do you like it/ How

do you like it…”); “Shake Shake Shake” (“Shake your bootie…”), and

“Disco Duck”10 (“Went to a party the other night / All the ladies were

treating me right / Moving my feet to the disco beat / How in the world

could I keep my seat / All of a sudden I began to change / I was on

the dance floor acting strange / Flapping my arms I began to cluck /

Look at me... I’m the disco duck…)

Don’t be Weak

So what do we do with all of this information? The most important

advice is: Don’t set out to deliberately write weak lyrics. Don’t write

weak anything. But if you want the song to be about the beat, about

the grooving background rhythm, lighten up on the lyrics. They’ll just

get lost otherwise. As listeners, we instinctively know that when a song

is rhythm-driven, meant for dancing, the text won’t likely be anything

that we would call “poetry”.

9 More, More, More ©1976 Gregg Diamond

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The Bridge

A bridge is the part of the song usually after the second or third

chorus, before the final verse or chorus. The purpose of a bridge is

twofold:

1. to provide additional melodic material, reducing the risk of

melodic boredom;

2. to intensify melodic and lyric energy.

More than melody, it’s the text of a bridge that really sets it apart from

the verse or chorus. The best way to conceptualize this type of text is

to imagine singing your song, and you’ve just finished singing the

second chorus. Someone stops you and says, “Tell me more about

how this all makes you feel”.

In Chapter 3, we looked at Avril Lavigne’s “Fall

to Pieces” as a good example of a form that

contains a bridge. The lyric of that song

describes a painful breakup of two lovers. If you

imagined someone saying to Lavigne after the

second chorus, “Tell me more…”, the text of the

bridge is the perfect reply: “Wanna know who you are / Wanna to

10 Disco Duck, ©1976 Fretone Records, Inc.

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know where to start / I wanna know what this means / Wanna know

how you feel / Wanna know what is real / I wanna know everything /

Everything…” 11

The bridge, then, serves as an intensifying of emotions in the text, and

an intensifying of energy of the piece. In “Fall to Pieces”, Lavigne

allows the energy to dissipate slightly at the beginning of the bridge

before driving the piece forward four bars later. The controlling of

the energy in this manner provides that all-important

contouring that is so crucial to good music.

The bridge needs to feel somewhat unsettled, because the audience

needs to feel that the conclusive nature of the chorus is needed once

again after the bridge. With this in mind, keep this advice in mind:

Harmonize the beginning of the bridge with a chord other than

the tonic chord.

Starting on a vi-chord is a popular choice; i.e., if your piece is in A

major, start the bridge with an F# minor chord. Another popular choice

is the IV-chord (a D major chord in the key of A major). This gives it

that anxious quality that many bridges need. As the bridge progresses,

you will need to give thought to having the end of the bridge meet up

with the chorus. Chords based on the fifth note of a scale (“dominant”

11 Fall to Pieces, ©2004 Avril Lavigne Publishing, Ltd.

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Some people spend more time talking about writing music thanactually writing it. The proper way to study the art ofsongwriting is to write it. There are times that you should belistening (set aside time every day), and there are times youshould be reading about it. But the one and only way toactually improve your songwriting craft is to do it.

chords) are a good choice. If the first chord of your bridge is the tonic

chord (i.e., A major in the key of A major), you may want to have an E

major chord be the joining chord between bridge and chorus.

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Chapter 5 SUMMARY



THE SHAPE OF A MELODY MUST BE PLANNED WITH VOCAL RANGE,

HARMONY AND TEXT IN MIND.


A) A VERSE CAN USE TEXT THAT IS NARRATIVE AND INCONCLUSIVE, WITH

PREDOMINANTLY FRAGILE CHORD PROGRESSIONS;

B) A CHORUS CAN USE TEXT THAT IS REFLECTIVE AND DRAWSCONCLUSIONS, AND USE STRONGER CHORD PROGRESSIONS.


THE PRESENCE OF THE KEYNOTE (TONIC NOTE) WILL STRENGTHEN THE

UNDERLYING STRUCTURE OF A MELODY. CHORUSES CAN AND SHOULD

FEATURE THE TONIC NOTE IN ITS MELODY MORE THAN VERSES.


THE HIGHEST NOTES OF MELODIES WILL MORE OFTEN THAN NOT OCCUR

IN CHORUSES.

KEY NOTES AND STATEMENTS FROM CHAPTER 5:

• The general trend of energy throughout a song should be upward. Thenotes in verses should move upward as they approach the chorus.

• The word “tessitura” refers to the general range of a song. Choruses willusually have a higher tessitura than verses.

• Composing by layering song elements is a common way to compose.Songs usually start as vague shells that become more distinct and defined asthe writer hones the elements. Much of this honing happens concurrently.

• You want verses to sound less conclusive than choruses.o You make verses feel inconclusive primarily by:

using predominantly fragile progressions; using a text that tells a story or describes feelings without

being too conclusive;

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constructing your melody to focus on notes other than thetonic note, particularly at the beginning and middle sections.Ease your way to the tonic as the verse meets up with thechorus.

o You make choruses feel conclusive and strong primarily by: using more strong progressions; using text that expresses conclusive statements about

emotions and decisions; constructing your melody to focus on the tonic note,

particularly at the beginning and end of the chorus.

• Melodies need to be contoured in such a way that they have internal energythat propels them forward, even without a chord sequence to help.

• Just because you use proper songwriting technique does not mean you willautomatically produce a hit song.

• Good text is vital to a good song. Good text doesn’t mean that it has to be astunning poem. Good text means that it does what it was meant to do. Sometext is extremely simple, and that simplicity may be exactly what the songneeds.

• You need to see text, melody and harmony as three corners of thecomposition triangle that need to be in balance.

• Complexity in music is not necessarily a drawback. But losing your audienceis. Intricacy runs the risk of being interpreted as pomposity.

• Don’t try to make profound lyrics sound even more profound by addingprofundity.

• Your lyrics don’t need to be astounding poetry, but that doesn’t mean that youshould write garbage. Think of it this way: the walls in your house might be off-white. That’s unremarkable… not bad. It’s important to know the difference.

• Don’t set out to deliberately write weak lyrics. Don’t write weakanything. But if you want the song to be about the beat, about the groovingbackground rhythm, lighten up on the lyrics.

• A bridge is the part of the song usually after the second or third chorus,before the final verse or chorus. Be sure that the bridge you construct buildsenergy, setting the audience up for the final chorus.

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Chapter 6- The Hook

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A Good Hook

In fishing, a hook is whatever

gets the fish into the boat. In

music, it’s whatever gets the

audience into your pocket.

Never underestimate the value

of a good hook. A good hook

can take a good song and

make it fantastic. Though

not a hook’s primary

purpose, it can make you

forget that a song has

unremarkable lyrics, melody,

or a ho-hum chord progression.

That being said, an audience may not be too forgiving of an entire CD

of bad songs with catchy hooks. They’ll be able to see through that.

The hook may be the prominent part of some chorus, or could be the

chorus itself. Hooks are so strong that even when they aren’t being

played you can still “hear them” somehow. If you sing the hook from a

song, you’ll only have to sing that hook, however short it might be,

and someone will invariably say, “Oh, I love that song!”

If you listen to a piece of music and find yourself humming a certain

couple of notes or bars all day long – that’s the hook! Back in the early

70s, everyone I know was singing those opening guitar chords in

Chicago’s hit “25 or 6 to 4”. That descending chord progression – that

riveting five-chord shot – is the hook that kept the tune in everyone’s

head, and brought them back to the song. In a way, hooks are

indefinable, because they are being redefined every time a writer

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composes one. The descending two-note figure every time Petula Clark

sang, “Down----town!” is a great hook. That figure doesn’t just show

up in her melody, it also becomes an integral part of the background

accompaniment throughout the song.

Hook and Motif

I mentioned Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony before, and described that

famous four-note figure as a motif. When you talk about motifs and

hooks, it is important to know that there is a difference. A motif is a

short melodic or rhythmic idea that a composer uses in a piece to

create a sense of cohesion throughout a work. You may think that I

just described a hook, but here is the main difference: In order to be a

hook, it must be short, easily remembered, and needs to stand out as

a highly distinctive feature. A hook may be a motif, but a motif may

not necessarily be a hook. In the case of the opening to Beethoven’s

Fifth – it’s both.

A motif is an important building block, but it provides its cohesion

more from the background. You may not be aware of the various

motifs that a composer uses, but you need to be aware of a

hook, or it isn’t a hook. Here’s a great example: The American

national anthem begins with what we call a dotted rhythm – a longish

note (a dotted eighth note) followed by a short one (a sixteenth note),

and then some evenly spaced quarter notes. That dotted eighth –

sixteenth note figure is a basic motif that recurs many times

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A motif is a structural element of a piece of music that forms thebackbone of that piece, recurring many times. So is a hook. Thedifference is that a motif may do its work from the background,creating cohesion throughout a song by being repetitious, but may notbe overtly noticeable. A hook by definition must be noticeable. A hook

will likely be a type of motif, but a motif need not necessarilybe a hook.

throughout the anthem. But it is not a hook, per se. It provides

structure and cohesion, and helps to glue the entire song together by

virtue of the fact that the rhythm happens over and over. But did you

know of the existence of that motif before I mentioned it just now?

Probably not. To think of it another way, the fact that a restaurant

uses burgundy red throughout its décor could be considered a motif;

The spectacular fried chicken they serve would be the hook that brings

you back.

Hooks can be any aspect of a song. It can be a part of the melody, the

lyric, the harmony, or some combination of any or all of those aspects.

More often than not, hooks appear in choruses; whatever the

songwriter has done to set the chorus words is often a hook.

Musical Lubricant

Arguably one of the most distinctive hooks from the ‘60s is the

opening guitar figure in “Oh, Pretty Woman,” co-written by Roy

Orbison. It’s the figure that introduces the song, and then comes back

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time and again. It’s the glue that holds the piece together. An

instrumental hook provides a groove. A hook like this one is like

greasing up a tile floor, and then flinging your melody across it – it just

keeps going!

Another great hook is the recurring clavinet

figure in “Superstition” by Stevie Wonder. He

starts the song with that riff, and keeps using

it for the duration of the song. That hook is so

strong that I don’t think the song ever even

has to end! And Gerry Rafferty had a big hit

with “Baker Street” back in 1978. That song

featured a great sax solo which was a

wonderful melodic hook. Embedded in that

hook was a guitar shot, that distorted guitar

glissando that was another great hook. A hook

within a hook!

A melodic/instrumental hook is a figure that

needs to be short enough that people can

remember it. The “Baker Street” sax melody is

an eight bar melody, repeated. But it is just a

four-bar question/answer format melody that

is very repetitive, and very easy to remember.

If you are going to incorporate a melodic/instrumental hook into your

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Many songwriters will use the creation of a hook as a startingpoint for a song. Don’t feel that the hook must necessarily

persist through the entire song. The clavinet lick in StevieWonder’s Superstition does, but many serve as the basis forthe intro, a tag between choruses and verses, and then as anoutro.

Hook Principle #1

MAKE IT SHORT AND MEMORABLE.

song, keep it on the short side if possible, and keep it simple. Orbison’s

guitar lick in “Oh, Pretty Woman” is only one bar long; Stevie Wonder’s

is only two. Making a melodic hook too long makes it less memorable,

less distinctive. And a melodic/instrumental hook usually needs to be

laced with a strong rhythm, something that makes it dig in and groove.

Strong rhythm is an important component of a melodic hook. Follow

this primary principle:

Long hooks lose focus, and lose their reason for existing.

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The Hook as a Basis for Your Song

Many songwriters develop a good hook first, and then use that hook as

a basis for a song. You may find it possible to work in the opposite

direction – take a song and develop a hook for it. This method is great

if you find that your song lacks pizzazz. The hook need not necessarily

be strongly related to the basic melody of your song. None of the

hooks that I’ve mentioned by Orbison, Wonder, or Rafferty actually

show up as a part of the melody of the song. They are stand-alone

melodies that decorate and complement the main melody.

So how do you know if your song needs a hook? Sometimes melodies

can be beautiful, or have beautiful moments, but taken all together,

seem to be a bit boring. Maybe it lacks a “moment”. A melodic hook

can be what would liven up such a melody.

The Subtle Hook

There are many songwriting instructors out there that try to tell

students that without a hook, your song is weaker. This is not true.

Some songs are really fantastic works, million sellers, and don’t really

have a memorable hook. And some hooks are very subtle. “Hey Jude”

is a perfect example. The descending two-note pattern on the opening

words “Hey Jude…” is a hook, but a cleverly understated one. It has a

fantastic outro that basically is a hook, but the song would survive

without it.

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Many composers use a hook to set up a piece. It serves as an intro,

then recurs many times, and is strongly featured in an outro. But if

you listen to the Beatles music, you’ll notice that they were not big

users of hooks. Many of their biggest songs start without even an intro

(“Penny Lane”, “All My Loving”, “Hey Jude” “Hello Goodbye”, and

many, many others.

The Myth of the Hook

It is a myth that your song needs a hook, by the traditional sense of

the word “hook”. What is true is that many more songs suffer from

lack of form and overall shape than they do lack of hook. I don’t trust

musicians who fixate on the hook as the be-all and end-all.

Notwithstanding, a hook can take an otherwise boring song, a song

with problems, and make you forget your problems! Songs need a

focal point, an aspect that draws attention to itself, but that is not to

say it needs a hook.

A good hook may save a song, but it is best to think of a hook as a

component of a good song, not why a song is good. If you think your

song is good only because of the hook, it’s best to take a closer look at

your song, and fix what you think is wrong about it. Then the hook

becomes a crown that your song can wear. And if your song doesn’t

have an obvious hook, don’t worry. It may not need one.

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Hook Principle #2

ADDING A HOOK TO A BAD SONG GIVES YOU A BAD SONG WITH

A HOOK.

Whether you use one or not, remember this important principle:

If you have a song that is unremarkable, it’s better to fix what is

unremarkable first before worrying about the hook. That being said,

boring songs will greatly benefit from the interest a hook will generate.

But the principle really means to say that if you have problems in your

song, fix the problems directly. A good hook can only mask existing

problems to a certain extent.

To use a previous analogy, if the 10-cent ice cream cone is the hook

that gets people into your store, that won’t solve the problem that the

rest of the food your establishment offers is bad. The good

restaurateur will fix what is bad about the food. That will make the 10-

cent ice cream an even better hook.

Another important thought: A hook is, technically, whatever brings

people back to your song, so in a sense, every song has a hook if

people want to listen to it.

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Recognizing a Hook

The issue of writing a hook is not so much about writing than it is

recognizing a hook. A hook is composed in much the same way that

you would compose any other part of your song. But if you are a

normal writer, you’ll write many, many fragments of songs that don’t

make it into songs. These ideas could form the basis for a hook in

another song. This is why it can be so important to somehow write

down or record any musical ideas you get, because you never know

when it can serve as a component of another song.

A hook does not need to have any obvious relation to the rest of your

song. This is why it’s so important to keep every idea you write. But

here are the things you’ll want to make sure you keep in mind as you

work a hook into your song:

1. Keep it short. A hook needs to be memorable, and the longer

the hook, the less memorable it will be.

2. Make rhythm a memorable component. This means that

you should make the underlying rhythm of a hook simple but

catchy. The more complicated it is, the less memorable it will

be. Simple and catchy are the key words.

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3. Don’t force a hook. If you can’t find a way to work a hook to

be a constant feature of your song, (Like “Superstition”) don’t

force it. Use it as an intro, between choruses and verses, and

as an outro (like “Baker Street”).

The most important feature of a hook is a simple one: to bring people

back to your song.

Remember these two things about hooks: 1) Keep it short, and 2) itwon’t fix a song with problems.

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Chapter 6 SUMMARY


Hook Principle #1

MAKE IT SHORT AND MEMORABLE.

Hook Principle #2

ADDING A HOOK TO A BAD SONG GIVES YOU A BAD SONG WITH A HOOK.


• In fishing, a hook is whatever gets the fish into the boat. In music, it’swhatever gets the audience into your pocket.

• If you listen to a piece of music and find yourself humming a certain couple ofnotes or bars all day long – that’s the hook!

• A motif is a short melodic or rhythmic idea that a composer uses in apiece to create a sense of cohesion throughout a work. A hook must be short,easily remembered, and needs to stand out as a highly distinctive feature. Ahook may be a motif, but a motif may not necessarily be a hook.

• A hook can liven up a good song that just needs something a bit morememorable about it.

• It is a myth that your song needs a hook, by the traditional sense of theword “hook”. What is true is that many more songs suffer from lack of formand overall shape than they do lack of hook.

• If you have a song that is unremarkable, it’s better to fix what is

unremarkable first before worrying about the hook.

• Keep a hook short, make rhythm a memorable component, and don’t

force a hook into your song if it doesn’t seem to want to be there.

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Chapter 7-Inspiration

171

The Role of Inspiration

In the preface I mentioned that songwriters will need to deal with the

creative side and the marketing side of songwriting. This book has

been about taking your ideas for songs and making them better. About

creating a better song. But there is an important aspect of writing that

we haven’t really addressed

yet: inspiration.

How much of a role does

inspiration play in the

composing of a song? What

about those songwriters who

have composed literally thousands of songs, who claim to be able to

write at least one song a day. Are they really being inspired to write

that much? The answer may surprise you: most songwriters and

composers, no matter which genre of composition you examine, place

a very low level of importance on the role of inspiration.

Misunderstanding Inspiration

There are times when you will find yourself inspired to write something

– perhaps for the wedding of a friend, the funeral of a family member,

or for some other emotionally significant occasion. But these are rare

happenings in our lives, and no doubt we will need more than

emotionally charged events to write music.

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Inspiration is, without a doubt, the most misunderstood part of the

compositional process. If you are waiting for inspiration to compose

your song – don’t wait! Start writing without it, because if you are a

normal human, you could be waiting a long time. It bears repeating

that most composers would place the importance of inspiration far, far

down on the list of necessities in the songwriting process. And did you

notice that not once in the previous chapters did I even mention the

word “inspiration”? Inspiration is not a necessary first step for

good composition.

Inspiration is often perceived to be

a magical sort of quality, as if the

writer is in communion with the

songwriting gods. There is the

romantic notion of the composer,

waiting for inspiration, suddenly

jumping up and running to his desk,

where he begins to write furiously

before all the musical ideas that just

floated into his brain disappear

again. This is, generally, a myth.

There will be times when you will

feel inspired to write, where musical

“The greatcomposer…doesnot set to workbecause he isinspired, butbecomesinspiredbecause he isworking.”

-Ernest Newman

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ideas flow freely and easily. At such times you’ll almost feel that you

are being led by a supernatural force. But this is rare for most writers,

and not necessary for writing good songs. If you feel most of the time

that writing songs is hard work, you will be happy to know that most of

the world’s great songwriters feel the same way.

THE Steps to Honing Your Songwriting Craft

So how is it that some songwriters claim to have written thousands of

songs – can you really write that much without inspiration? Yes, you

can! Writing music is more about craft than anything else. By craft I

mean that with time, you know what will work and what won’t. That

knowledge will be based on your months or years of experience. So the

relevant question is really: how can you improve your craft? Here are

some suggestions:

1. Set aside a regular time every day for writing. It is best

to get into a habit of writing. If you are a serious writer, with

aspirations to become the kind of songwriter whose songs are

sought after and recorded, try to find a regular time every day

that you can devote to composition. And as I mentioned in

Chapter 5, write down as much as possible. You can always

trash things you don’t like.

2. Listen to recordings of other writer’s songs every day.

It’s vital to good songwriting technique and style that you are

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being influenced by as many outside sources as possible.

Writers who constrain themselves to only listening to their own

music are limiting the potential for ideas and thoughts. Try

listening to genres that you wouldn’t normally listen to.

3. Record your music and listen to it. It’s important to be

listening to your own music as it comes out of your sound

system, not just as it comes out of your own mouth and piano.

By listening to your music being played back to you, you gain

the same perspective that an audience does. No need to rent

time in a studio for this – just a cassette tape machine or small

digital recorder will do.

4. Give yourself songwriting challenges. Try testing your

craft by setting a time limit to come up with a song. Find a text,

or write one out, set a timer for a half hour, then go nuts! See

if you can write a song in a half hour. If you can,

congratulations! It means that your songwriting craft is

improving. If the song you wrote is horrible, don’t worry! This is

just an exercise to hone your craft. Set even tougher limitations

for yourself. How about this idea: Choose three notes, and

write an entire song using only three notes in your melody. (If

you think that’s not possible, check out Tom Petty’s song, “Free

Fallin’”, which uses only E, F# and G#.)

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Because inspiration is an unreliable first step for composition, it’s going

to be important to do some things to help you get your songwriting

process started:

1. Keep a notepad with you to jot down lyric ideas. Sometimes

only a fragment of a line will occur to you, or you’ll stumble

across a neat way to say something. Even if it’s just one word,

write it down. You will likely find a way to fashion it into a real

text through the songwriting process.

2. If a melodic fragments pops into your mind, save it on a tape,

or write it down if you’re able. A single solitary fragment can

become a hook for a song.

3. Write down chord progressions that you stumble across, or

even just one chord that you like. As an example of how

important this can be, what would “A Hard Day’s Night” be like

Don’t wait for inspiration. Inspiration is wonderful when it isthe beginning of a songwriting process, but it is rare, and, to befrank, unnecessary. What is more necessary is to set a regular

writing time. This may be every day, but if you are a student, orworking full-time, it may only be on the weekends.

Whatever your availability, set aside the same hour or hoursweekly, and stick to it. You’ll find that that habitual writing time isfar more valuable than waiting for inspiration.

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without that defining single chord at the start of that song.

(That chord, by the way, included the following notes: D A C F

G: a Dm7 with a G added.)

To sum up – Don’t wait for inspiration. It’s wonderful when you feel

inspired (and you will, from time to time) but inspiration as a necessity

for good songs is a myth.

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Chapter 7 SUMMARY


• Most songwriters and composers, no matter which genre of composition youexamine, place a very low level of importance on the role of inspiration.

• If you are waiting for inspiration to compose your song – don’t wait! Startwriting without it, because if you are a normal human, you could be waiting along time.

• “The great composer…does not set to work because he is inspired, butbecomes inspired because he is working.” -Ernest Newman

• Set aside a regular time every day for writing.

• Listen to recordings of other writer’s songs every day.

• Record your music and listen to it. It’s important to be listening to yourown music as it comes out of your sound system, not just as it comes out ofyour own mouth and piano.

• Give yourself songwriting challenges. Try testing your craft by setting atime limit to come up with a song.

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Chapter 8- The WorldBeyond Composing –Now What?

179

The Most Important Principle of

All

Someone asked me recently to say what I hoped this book could do for

songwriters that other books already out there aren’t already doing.

The answer is probably the biggest secret of all… the secret that stunts

the progress of most would-be writers. If you learn nothing else from

this book, remember this:

BAD SONGS Are GOOD SONGS that can be fixed.

Is that a principle? Because a principle is a fundamental truth, we can

say that it is not only a principle, but probably the most important one

of this book.

It may be that up to now your music hasn’t been working for you.

What I need you to know, and what all of the songwriting principles of

this book have been trying to tell you, is that if your song isn’t working,

there are real reasons that can be addressed. You can take a song that

has problems and solve those problems. If you burn the evening meal,

you may have to throw it out and order a pizza. If your song is a

failure, don’t throw it out! Go back into the main chapters of this book,

and discover the ways that you can fix the problems.

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That being said, it’s also important not to fixate on problems that are

mystifying you. Sometimes the best answer to fixing a bad song is to

put it away for now, and start a new one. You’ll be able to come back

to it once your mind has cleared. Composers from Mozart right through

to today’s pop songwriters have stowed music away all their lives,

bringing it out again sometimes years later once their songwriting craft

improves.

And now… what?

It hasn’t been the intention of this book to deal with the marketing end

of songwriting. That is the subject for another book. But there are

things you must do if you are going to perform your music

professionally, or market your music to others.

Getting Your Song Ready… A BriefTutorial

COPYRIGHT

Once you’ve written your song, it is automatically copyrighted. This

means that unless you transfer that copyright to a publisher or another

person, you are the only person permitted to make copies of that

music. You need to get your music into a fixed form, either a recording

or print music. If you have your music in print form (handwritten or

181

computer-notated) put the copyright symbol at the bottom of the first

page of music, then the year, then your name.

Example:

©2005, Gary Ewer

It’s important to note that even though you are the copyright owner,

and have placed your copyright symbol at the bottom of your music,

this will not necessarily protect you from others who might dispute the

authorship of the song. This usually requires registering your music

with your government’s copyright agency. You should contact that

office directly, or search their respective websites:

Canada:

Canadian Intellectual Property Office

Place du Portage I50 Victoria St., Room C-114Gatineau, Quebec K1A 0C9

http://strategis.ic.gc.ca (follow the links to “Copyrights”)

United States of America:

Copyright Office, Library of Congress

Washington, DC 20559

http://www.copyright.gov/

United Kingdom:

Copyright enquiries should be made to:Telephone: 0845 9 500 505 (UK callers only - charged at localrate)International callers: +44 (0)1633 813930

182

You should note that copyright law differs from country to country, so

it is important to not accept information from non-governmental

websites as the unquestionable truth. Copyright is a highly

misunderstood area of law for many. Be certain that you contact the

government office of your country of residence.

Mailing a Copy of Your Song to Yourself is Not Enough

Many people advise songwriters to mail a copy of their newly-written

song to themselves by Registered Mail before showing it to other

singers, producers, or arrangers. In truth, this offers very little legal

protection in a court of law. The most reliable way to prove ownership

is to register your work in your government’s copyright office.

The titles of songs are not usually copyright protected, so if you hear a

song on the radio that appears to have taken the title of your song as

its own, that is not necessarily copyright infringement.

Using Other Writers’ Texts

If you find a poem that you would like to set to music, you need the

permission of the copyright owner of that text. In many countries, the

copyright on music or text will expire after a certain period of time

after the death of the writer. This period of time is usually fifty or

seventy-five years. Check with a copyright office to be certain. A

183

created work for which the copyright has expired is said to be in the

public domain.

If there isn’t a copyright notice on the text you want to use, that does

not mean it is a public domain work. It will require you to research the

title to ascertain the status. Using someone else’s work without their

permission is illegal, if that work is copyright protected. It pays to do

your research.

Know Who to Trust

And on the topic of research, you really must know who to trust in

matters of copyright. It is unwise to trust information that you’ve found

on a website if it is not a government website. The issue of copyright is

a legal issue, and it is never wise to take the word of someone not in

the legal field or government. And even in the case of a lawyer, their

reading of the law may only be a legal opinion that may not stand up

to a legal challenge.

The good news is that dealing with copyright through your

government’s copyright office is safe, and has been happening for

years. Register your songs, especially if you think they are performable

by others.

And how do other singers get to know about your songs? This is

usually accomplished by a publishing company.

184

Publishing

If your song is to be recorded by another performer, it is a good idea

to get your music published. Keep in mind, however, that a publisher

will make a judgment as to whether your song is likely to be a

commercial success. Most songs remain in unpublished form.

If you do publish through a publishing company, the typical

arrangement is that they will assume the copyright of the song.

Sometimes, a company will work out a shared copyright deal, but more

often than not, total copyright is transferred. It is the publishing

company that will pitch your song to performers, producers and other

persons of influence in the business.

Creating Your Own Publishing “Company”

Some songwriters create their own company name through which they

can assign a publisher’s copyright. For example, for a small annual fee

through your local state or provincial government, you can create a

company name (“Silly Music Publications”, for example) that you can

use in the copyright notice on your music (©2005 Silly Music

Publications) You will need to check with the government of your state,

province or other local government in your country of residence to

ensure you follow proper legal requirements for this sort of “self

publishing”.

185

The advantage to having a recognized company publish your songs is

that they usually have well-established lines of communication through

which they can distribute your song.

Mechanical Rights

If someone else records your songs, they will need to acquire

“mechanical rights” to do so. This means that the performer will need

to pay your publisher a fee for every copy of a CD they produce, and

that fee is shared with you, usually on a 50-50 basis.

Performing Rights Organizations

Another agency in the marketing end of the business is the performing

rights organization. This is the institution that licenses the performance

of your copyrighted song. The most well known agencies are ASCAP

(American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers) and BMI

(Broadcast Music, Inc.) In Canada, SOCAN (Society of Composers,

Authors and Music Publishers in Canada) controls the performing

licenses of many Canadian composers. Performers need to obtain a

license to sing your song in public.

In Conclusion

The biggest impediment to getting your songs out into the world

is not business-related, it is creation-related. If your songs are good,

you have jumped a major hurdle. Connections to the business side

186

of the songwriting world will be irrelevant to you if you don’t

have a good song to market.

Getting your songs out there means to get them performed. That

process starts with you, singing in cafés and in shows. Create a good

recording that you can shop around to publishers. Send your

recording to the local radio station. If you have friends or relatives who

sing with a band, send them your music with a demo CD, and try to

get them performing your songs. The more people out there doing

your music, the higher the chances that the right person will hear it

and want to publish or perform it.

It takes doggedness, drive and determination, mixed in with a good

measure of patience, to successfully market your songs. Sometimes it

involves a bit of luck, too. Hang in there. Commercial success usually

comes to those who are patient enough to wait for it.

Good luck!

188

Index of Song Samples

Throughout The Essential Secrets of Songwriting, songs byprofessional songwriters were referenced. Take the time to familiarizeyourself with as many of these songs as possible. Learning from thepros is what you need to improve your own skills. You can purchasemany of these songs individually from the Apple® iTunes Music Store.

Songs are listed below by chapter of reference in this text:

Title Composer /

Performer

Format/Label/Recording

Title

Concept

CHAPTER 1

All Shook Up,©1956 R&H MusicCo.

Otis Blackwell /Elvis Presley

CD: RCA: Elvis’ GoldenRecords

Yesterday, ©1965Northern Songs

Lennon &McCartney / TheBeatles

CD: Capitol: Help! Good melodic shape

Bridge OverTroubled Water, ©Paul Simon Music

Simon & Garfunkel CD: Sony: Bridge OverTroubled Water

Building energy

You Can Call Me Al,© Paul SimonMusic

Paul Simon CD: Warner Bos/WEA:Graceland

Good hook

Beat It! © MijacMusic

Michael Jackson CD: Sony: Thriller Good hook

Title Composer /Performer

Format/Label/RecordingTitle

Concept

CHAPTER 2

Thriller ©1982Rodsongs (PRS)

Rod Temperton/Michael Jackson

CD: Sony: Thriller Innovative music

Billie Jean, © MijacMusic

Michael Jackson CD: Sony: Thriller Innovative music

Red Sails in theSunset, ©

Jimmy Kennedy &Hugh Williams/Bing Crosby

CD: MCA: Top O theMorning – Irish Collection

Livin’ La Vida Loca Desmond Child &Robi Rosa/ RickyMartin

CD: Sony: Ricky Martin

189

Penny Lane Lennon &McCartney/ TheBeatles

CD: Capitol: MagicalMystery Tour

Verse-chorus design

You’re theInspiration

David Foster &Peter Cetera/Chicago

CD: Warner Bros/WEA:Chicago 17

Verse-chorus design

It’s the End of theWorld As We KnowIt (And I Feel Fine)

Bill Berry, PeterBuck, Mike Millsand Michael Stipe/R.E.M.

CD: Capitol: Document Verse-chorus design

25 or 6 to 4, ©1970 LamminationsMusic/. AureliusMusic (ASCAP)

Robert Lamm/Chicago

CD: Rhino/WEA: Chicago II Outro [ALSOCHAPTER 6: Hook]



Concept

CHAPTER 3

Lady Madonna,©1968 NorthernSongs

Lennon &McCartney/ TheBeatles

CD: Capitol: The Beatles -Past Masters Volume 2

Chorus-verse design

Hey Jude,©Sony/ATV MusicPublishing


CD: Capitol: The Beatles 1 Verse design [ALSOCHAPTER 6: Hook;Song with nointro]

Fall to Pieces,©2004 AvrilLavigne Publishing,Ltd.

Lavigne & Maida CD: Arista: Under My Skin Verse-chorus-bridgedesign

Hound Dog, ©1952Leiber & Stoller

Leiber & Stoller/Elvis Presley

CD: RCA: Elvis’ GoldenRecords

Same melody forverse and chorus

Born in the U.S.A. Bruce Springsteen CD: Sony: Born in theU.S.A.

Same melody forverse and chorus

I Walk the Line,©1956 House ofcash, Inc

Johnny Cash CD: Sony: Best of the BestGold- Johnny Cash

Verse-without-chorusstructure

By the Time I Getto Phoenix, ©1969EMI Sosaha Music,Jonathan ThreeMusic Co.

Jimmy Webb/ GlenCampbell

CD: Capitol: By the Time IGet to Phoenix

Verse-without chorusstructure

The House of theRising Sun, ©1965Beechwood Musiccorporation , CPEMusic Inc

Traditionalmelody, arrangedby Alan Price/ TheAnimals

CD: Golgr: House of theRising Sun [IMPORT]

Verse-without chorusstructure

190

Supper’s Ready,©1972, StratsongLtd.

Banks/ Collins/Gabriel/ Hackett/Rutherford /Genesis

CD: Atlantic/ WEA: Foxtrot

Invisible Touch,published byAnthony BanksLtd/Philip CollinsLtd/MichaelRutherford Ltd/Hitand Run Music(Publishing) Ltd

Banks/ Collins/Rutherford/Genesis

CD: Atlantic/ WEA: InvisibleTouch

The Times TheyAre A-Changin’,Copyright © 1963;renewed 1991Special Rider Music

Bob Dylan CD: Sony: The Times TheyAre A-Changin’

Refrain form

Let It Be,©Sony/ATV MusicPublishing


CD: Capitol: Let it Be Refrain form

Suzanne, © 1967Leonard Cohenand Sony/ATVMusic PublishingCanada Company

Leonard Cohen CD: Sony: The Songs ofLeonard Cohen

Verse-refrain form

I know What I like(In YourWardrobe), ©1974,Hit & Run Music

Banks/ Collins/Gabriel/ Hackett/Rutherford /Genesis

CD: Atlantic/WEA: SellingEngland By the Pound

Through-composedverse structure

Real Love,©Lenono Music

John Lennon/ TheBeatles

CD: EMI International: RealLove [CD-SINGLE][IMPORT]

Good energy &pacing



Concept

CHAPTER 4

Without You, ©1970 ApplePublishing Ltd.

Ham & Evans/Harry Nilsson

CD: RCA: Harry Nilsson: AllTime Greatest Hits

Strong vs fragileprogressions

Like a Rock, ©1985, GearPublishing Co.(ASCAP)

Bob Seger/ BobSeger & the SiverBullet Band

CD: Capitol: Like a Rock Two-bar harmonicrhythm

191

Your Smiling Face,©1977, JamesTaylor

James Taylor CD: Sony: JT Varying harmonicrhythm

This Land is YourLand, ©1956(renewed 1984),1958 (renewed1986) and 1970TRO-Ludlow Music,Inc. (BMI)

Woody Guthrie/various artists

CD: Music Little People:This Land is Your Land:Songs of Unity

Variations withharmonies

Personally, ©1978,SonyATV TreePublishing

Paul Kelly/ KarlaBonoff

CD: Sony: Wild Heart of theYoung

Modal mixture iv-chord

Islands in theStream, ©1983Gibb BrothersMusic andCrompton Songs

Barry, Maurice,Robin Gibb/ KennyRogers & DollyParton

CD: Capitol: Duets Modal mixture iv-chord

Crocodile Rock,©1972 Elton John& Bernie Taupin

Elton John &Bernie Taupin/Elton John

CD: Island: Don’t Shoot MeI’m Only the Piano Player

Secondary dominantchord

One Flight Down,©Beanly Songs

Jesse Harris/Norah Jones

CD: Blue Note Records:Come Away With Me

Secondary dominantchord

Layla, ©1970Unichapell MusicInc.

Eric Clapton &James Gordon/Derek and theDominos

CD: Polydor/PGD: Layla Chord inversion

One Tin Soldier,©1969 ABC/DunhillMusic, Inc.

Dennis Lambert &Brian Potter/ TheOriginal Caste

CD: TA Records: One TinSoldier

Modulation

Goodbye to Love,© 1972 by AlmoMusicCorp./Hammer andNails Music, Inc.

John Bettis &Richard Carpenter/The Carpenters

CD: A&M: Carpenters: LoveSongs

Modulation

Put Your Hand inthe Hand ©1970,Beechwood Music

Gene McLellan/Ocean

LP: Yorkville/ARC: Put YourHand in the Hand

Modulation



Concept

CHAPTER 5

Big Yellow Taxi, ©1970 SiquombPublishing

Joni Mitchell CD: Warner Bros/WEA: BigYellow Taxi [CD SINGLE]

Verse-refrain form

192

Never Gone,©2005 ZombaRecording

Gary Baker,Steven Diamond,Kevin Richardson/Backstreet Boys

CD: Jive: Never Gone Strong verse-chorusstructure

Love isEverywhere,©1975 Cherry LaneMusic, Music of1091, and WBMusic Corp.

John Denver, JoeHenry, JohnSommers, SteveWeisberg/ JohnDenver

CD: BMG Music: Windsong Strong lyric

Again, ©2002,Sony/ATV SongsLLC, Cori TiffaniPublishing,NuyoricanPublishing,Sony/ATV Tunes,Jaedon ChristopherPublishing, ReggieHamlet Publishing

Cory Rooney, TroyOliver, JenniferLopez, ReggieHamlet

CD: Sony: This is Me… Then Beautifully simplelyric

Hotel California,©1975 FingersMusic

Glenn Frey, DonHenley/ TheEagles

CD: Elektra/WEA: HotelCalifornia

Story-lyric

That’s the Way (Ilike it), © 1975Harry WayneCasey, RichardRaymond Finch

Harry WayneCasey, RichardRaymond Finch/K.C. and theSunshine Band

CD: Rhino/WEA: The Bestof KC & the Sunshine Band

Simple lyric

More, More, More,©1976 GreggDiamond

Gregg Diamond/Andrea TrueConnection

CD: Kama Sutra / Buddah:Andrea True Connection –Greatest Hits

Simple lyric

Shake Your Bootie,© 1976 HarryWayne Casey,Richard RaymondFinch

Harry WayneCasey, RichardRaymond Finch/K.C. and theSunshine Band

CD: Rhino/WEA: The Bestof KC & the Sunshine Band

Simple lyric

Disco Duck,©©1976 FretoneRecords, Inc.

Rick Dees/ RickDees and His Castof Idiots

CD: Rhino/WEA: Super Hitsof the ‘70s: Have a NiceDay

Simple lyric

193



Concept

CHAPTER 6

Downtown, ©1964Universal MCAMusic Publishing

Anthony PeterHatch/ PetuaClark

CD: GNP Crescendo:Greatest Hits of Petula Clark

Hook

Oh, Pretty Woman,©1964 BarbaraOrbison Music Co.,Orbi Lee Publishing,R Key DarkusPublishing,Sony/ATV AcuffRose Music

Joe Melson, RoyOrbison, RayRush/ RoyOrbison

CD: Madacy Records: Oh,Pretty Woman: RoyOrbison’s Greatest Hits

Hook

Superstition,©1975 Black BullMusic Inc, JobeteMusic Co. ,Inc

Stevie Wonder CD: Motown/PGD: StevieWonder – The DefinitiveCollection

Hook

Baker Street,©1978 UniversalSongs of PolygramInternational

Gerry Rafferty CD: Disky Records: BakerStreet [IMPORT]

Hook

Penny Lane, ©1967Northern Songs



Song with no intro

All My Loving,©Sony/ATV MusicPublishing


CD: Capitol: The Beatles1962-1966

Song with no intro

Hello Goodbye,©Sony/ATV MusicPublishing



Song with no intro



Concept

CHAPTER 7

Free Fallin’ ©1989,SBK April Music,Gone Gator Music

Tom Petty & JeffLynne/ Tom Petty

CD: MCA Records: FullMoon Fever

Melody with threepitches

Hard Day’s Night,©1966 Sony/ATVMusic Publishing


CD: Capitol: The Beatles1962-1966

Interesting openingchord

194

GLOSSARY

3rd The note of a chord or scale that is three notes above the root.

5th The note of a chord or scale that is five notes above the root.

7th The note of a chord or scale that is seven notes above the root.

Ad hoc design A song form in which the basic structure is invented for oneparticular piece, often using the structure of the text as its maincontrolling aspect.

Arpeggio Playing the notes of a chord in succession rather than at thesame time; also called a “broken chord”

Borrowed chord See “Modal mixture”

Bridge The part of a song usually before the final chorus. The text of abridge features an intensifying of emotions, and the overallenergy of a song increases through the bridge.

Broken chord See “arpeggio”

Cadence The concluding two-or-three chord pattern at the end of amusical phrase. All phrases end with a cadence.

Chord Three or more notes sounding simultaneously.

Chord progression A series of chords that is usually designed to emphasize a certainchord as the tonic chord. Progressions either strongly callattention to the tonic, or do so in less obvious ways.

Chord sequence See “Chord progression”.

Chorus Lines of text and melody that form the next part of a song after averse. The text of a chorus is usually more emotional than averse, and more conclusive.

195

Circle-of-fifths A sequence of chords in which the roots of each chord is fournotes lower than the succeeding chord. A very strong andpredictable progression.

Contrast In songwriting, the differentiation between various sections of asong by varying aspects such as loudness, range,instrumentation, etc.

Creativity The ability to use one’s imagination to create a work of art.

Demo A recording of a song that serves as a work-in-progress forimproving the final produced version. Demos will likely not havethe same polish as a final version. It is meant be a sketch.

Dominant The fifth note of a scale. A chord built on the fifth note is calledthe dominant chord.

Energy In songwriting, the overall power of a song. Songs that are quiet,reflective and pitched low have a low energy level, and songsthat are louder and pitched higher have a high energy level.Instrumentation is a major factor in the governing of energy.

Falsetto The ability, esp. with male singers, to sing notes higher thannormal. Many pop singers develop this ability to increase theirrange and modify their tonal output.

Form In music, the structure. Macro level forms refer to overall designs(e.g. verse-chorus-bridge) Micro level forms refer to phrasedesigns (e.g., AABA)

Genre A classification or grouping of artwork that all display a similarstyle or form. Country and blues are examples of two differentgenres.

Harmoniclanguage

The kind of chords that a song might use. For example, manysongs add 9ths to chords, as part of the basic harmonic languageof that piece.

Harmonic rhythm The pattern governing the predictability of chord changes; i.e.,quick chord changes = quick harmonic rhythm

Harmony The combination of several tones performed simultaneously.When melodies are written to infer the harmony by outliningnotes from chords, this is called implied harmony.

196

Hook A short, easily remembered element of a song that brings alistener back. Usually the part of the song that is most easilybrought to mind, and is meant to attract listeners.

Interval The distance between two notes; e.g., the interval between thetonic and dominant note of a scale is a perfect 5th.

Introduction The first bars of a song. Usually instrumental. Used to set up theharmonic language, tempo and style of the song.

Inversion Placing a note other than the root at the bottom of a chord.Placing the 3rd at the bottom is called “first inversion”; placing the5th at the bottom is called “second inversion”. In pop musicnomenclature, these are often referred to as “slash chords”because of the practice of showing the main chord name first,the bass note second, with a slash in between. (e.g., C/E meansa C major chord with an E in the bass.)

Lyric The text of a song.

Melody A sequence of notes.

Modal mixture Also called a borrowed chord. Borrowing a chord from a minorscale if in a major key; borrowing a chord from a major scale if ina minor key. (e.g. Fm is a borrowed iv-chord when in the key ofC major.)

Modulation Key change.

Motif A short musical idea (rhythmic, melodic, or combination of both)that forms the backbone of a song. A motif may or may not beimmediately noticeable as an important constructional element. A“hook” can be a motif. (See “Hook”).

Music theory The study of written music. Students of music theory learn toread and write music using graphic symbols. In western cultures,this usually means notes and rests on a five-line staff.

Outro The formal element in a song that serves as the end. In manysongs, the “repeat and fade” serves as an outro.

197

Passing chord A chord that usually occurs on a weak beat between two chordson successive strong beats.

Pedal tone A musical phrase in which the chord names change, but thesame note is held throughout in one particular instrument(usually bass).

Phrase In music, a musical thought. A song is made up of many phrases.Phrases can be divided into sub-phrases. Phrases are delineatedby cadences.

Refrain A short, repeated section of a song, usually occurring at the endof a verse.

Rhythm Pattern of sound that implies an underlying beat or tempo.

Riff A short, repeated musical idea, often associated with guitarplaying, similar in meaning to a “lick”.

Roman numerals Many musicians refer to the chords found in a certain key byRoman numerals. For example, the chord based on the first noteof a scale is given the Roman numeral I, and the one on the fifthnote is given V.

Root The bottom note of a chord; the note that gives the chord itsname.

Secondarydominant chord

In Songwriting, a major chord that usually ascends by four notesthat is usually minor; i.e., taking a minor chord and making itmajor is the normal way to create a secondary dominant.

Semitone A half step; the smallest interval in most pop music

Slash chord See “Inversion”

Song In the context of this book, any self-contained musical work of 3– 10 minutes, with lyrics. Usually contains verses and choruses,as well as an intro, a bridge, etc.

Sus2 See “Suspension”


198


Suspension The purposeful hold up of a tone in a chord before allowing it todescend to its normal location within a chord. Csus4 is: C-F-G,normally resolving to a C major chord: C-E-G. Sus4 and sus9(sus2) are the most common suspensions in pop music.

Talent Natural aptitude or skill.

Tessitura The range within which most of the notes of a piece of musicoccur.

Tonic The first note of a scale. A chord built on the first note is calledthe tonic chord.

Vamp Repetition of a musical phrase.

Verse Lines of text and melody that form the first part of a song afterthe introduction. The text of a verse is usually narrative orotherwise descriptive of events.

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Index

AA Hard Day’s Night, 175Adams, Douglas, 92adjudication, 32All My Loving, 165, 193All Shook Up, 21, 188ambient, 144Anderson, Laurie, 143ASCAP, 185, 189, 190audience, 13, 21, 26, 27, 32, 34, 35, 56, 57,

88, 125, 135, 146, 154, 157, 159, 169

BBackstreet Boys, 131, 192Baker Street, 162, 168, 193bass, 23, 33, 112, 113, 114, 121, 144, 196,

197Beat It, 28, 37, 188Bea t les , 19, 21, 43, 52, 57, 61, 165, 188,

189, 190Bee Gees, 33, 105, 127Beethoven, 28, 160Big Yellow Taxi, 123, 191Billie Jean, 37, 38, 188bluegrass, 14, 22, 54blues, 13, 14, 54, 104BMI, 185, 191Bonoff, Karla, 105, 191Born in the U.S.A., 54, 189

Branch, Michelle, 143Bridge Over Troubled Water, 23, 57, 188Bush, Kate, 143By the Time I Get to Phoenix, 55, 189

CCampbell, Glen, 55, 189Carpenters, the, 117, 191Carrie, Mariah, 86Cash, Johnny, 55, 189Chicago, 43, 44, 159, 189chord progressions, 13, 72, 73, 74, 87, 92,

95, 97, 100, 121, 156chorus, 13, 20, 23, 42, 43, 44, 45, 48, 51,

52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 60, 64, 66,67, 68, 70, 86, 87, 88, 98, 115, 116,117, 120, 130, 132, 133, 134, 138, 140,141, 142, 153, 154, 156, 157, 159, 161,189, 194, 195

Clapton, Eric, 113, 191Clark, Petula, 160, 193classical, 13, 14, 22coda, 44Cohen, Leonard, 27, 57Coldplay, 123, 127, 145Come Away With Me, 109, 191contrast, 50, 51, 195copyright, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184copyright infringement, 182country, 13, 14, 18, 22, 146creative, 10, 20, 21, 29creativity, 15, 29

201

Crocodile Rock, 108, 191

DDance music, 144demo, 32, 33, 35, 37, 41Denver, John, 146, 192Disco Duck, 152, 192Downtown, 160drums, 23, 33Dylan, Bob, 38, 190

EEagles, the, 149, 150Eno, Brian, 143Evans and Ham, 86

Ffalsetto, 127, 195form, 3, 12, 20, 39, 40, 41, 43, 48, 53, 54,

55, 57, 62, 70, 120, 128, 131, 153, 165,167, 169, 190, 191, 194, 198

Foxtrot, 56, 190Free Fallin’, 174, 193

GGabriel, Peter, 143Gary Ewer’s Easy Music Theory, 30Genesis, 56, 58, 190Goodbye to Love, 117, 191government, 181, 182, 183, 184guitar, 32, 33, 39, 53, 67, 77, 96, 104, 159,

161, 162, 163, 197Guthrie, Woody, 100, 191

Hharmonic sequences. See Chord

Progressionsharmony, 20, 35, 120, 195Harris, Jesse, 109, 191Hello Goodbye, 165, 193Henley, Don, 150, 192Hey Jude, 52, 164, 165, 189

hook, 13, 20, 21, 28, 39, 46, 148, 159, 160,161, 162, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169,188, 196

horns, 33Hotel California, 149, 150, 192Hound Dog, 54, 189house, 24, 25, 73, 74, 82, 85, 93, 121, 128,

130, 143, 157House of the Rising Sun, The, 55, 189

II Know What I Like (In Your Wardrobe),

58I Walk the Line, 55, 189imagery, 56, 88, 140inspiration, 170, 171, 172, 189instrumentation, 23, 54, 62, 119, 195Intro, 43, 53, 61Invisible Touch, 56, 190Islands in the Stream, 105, 118, 191It’s the End of the World as We Know It

(And I Feel Fine), 43iTunes, 13, 188

JJackson, Michael, 28, 37, 38, 188jazz, 13, 22John, Elton, 108, 191

KKC & the Sunshine Band, 151, 192Kelly, Paul, 105

LLavigne, Avril, 53, 153, 154, 189Layla, 113, 191Leiber, Jerry, 54Livin' La Vida Loca, 38, 188Lopez, Jennifer, 147, 192Love is Everywhere, 146, 147, 192lyric, 20, 35, 122, 145, 147, 156, 196lyrics, 21, 27, 30, 39, 55, 72, 136, 142,

146, 147, 148, 149, 151, 152, 157, 159,197

202

Mmacro design, 42, 51, 52, 63, 69, 70Madonna, 52, 143, 189Maida, Raine, 53Martin, Chris, 123, 127, 143Matthews, Dave, 123McMartney, Paul, 22, 123mechanical rights, 185melody, 13, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 27,

35, 39, 43, 44, 46, 54, 59, 63, 124, 125,126, 128, 130, 133, 134, 136, 137, 139,141, 143, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150,156, 157, 159, 160, 161, 162, 164, 194,196, 198

micro design, 42, 63, 65, 69microphone, 33modulation, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119More More More, 152

NNever Gone, 131, 134, 136, 192Nilsson, Harry, 86, 190

OOcean, 118, 191Oh, Pretty Woman, 161, 163, 193One Flight Down, 109, 191Orbison, Roy, 161, 193outro, 44, 53, 68, 189, 196ownership, 182

PParton, Dolly, 105, 118, 191passing chord, 113, 114Penny Lane, 43, 165, 189, 193performing rights organization, 185Personally, 105, 140, 191Petty, Tom, 174, 193poetry, 27, 46, 55, 56, 59, 143, 148, 152,

157pop, 13, 14, 19, 50, 57, 79, 88, 97, 195,

196, 197, 198Presley, Elvis, 21, 54, 188

principles, 12, 29, 60, 74, 79, 130, 131,142

progressive, 144publish, 184, 185, 186publisher, 3, 180, 184, 185Put Your Hand in the Hand, 118, 191

RR.E.M., 43, 189radio, 33, 182, 186Rafferty, Gerry, 162, 193Red Sails in the Sunset, 38, 188Registered Mail, 182rhythm, 20, 35, 62, 63, 97, 143, 197rock, 13, 22, 54Rogers, Kenny, 105, 191root position triad, 112

Ssecondary dominant, 107, 108, 109, 110,

197Selling England by the Pound, 58Shake Shake Shake, 152Simon & Garfunkel, 23, 57, 188Simon, Paul, 28, 188simplicity, 21, 144, 157singer, 43, 118, 125, 126, 133, 142slash chords, 113, 196SOCAN, 185songwriter, 10, 11, 14, 15, 17, 32, 37, 38,

44, 48, 51, 53, 72, 79, 88, 90, 94, 101,116, 117, 123, 124, 128, 129, 130, 131,136, 142, 143, 161, 164, 188

Springsteen, Bruce, 54, 189Stefani, Gwen, 123Stoller, Mike, 54Superstition, 162, 168, 193Supper’s Ready, 56, 190sus4, 111, 112sus9, 111, 112, 198suspension, 110, 111Suzanne, 57, 190synthesizer, 33

203

Ttechno, 143tessitura, 127, 198The Restaurant at the End of the Universe,

92This Land is Your Land, 100, 103, 191Thriller, 37, 188trance, 144Twain, Mark, 1725 or 6 to 4, 44, 159, 189

Vverse, 13, 20, 21, 23, 24, 39, 42, 43, 44,

45, 48, 52, 53, 54, 55, 57, 58, 59, 60,

70, 86, 87, 88, 105, 108, 115, 116, 117,120, 130, 132, 133, 134, 138, 142, 153,156, 157, 189, 190, 194, 195, 197, 198

WWagner, Richard, 17Webb, Jimmy, 55, 189Wild Honey Pie, 19, 21Without You, 86Wonder, Stevie, 162, 163, 193

YYesterday, 22, 24, 123, 124, 125, 188You Can Call Me Al, 28, 188

204

Credits

Most of the photographs used in this text are from the “stock.xchng” website.http://sxc.hu. Stock.xchng is a free stock photo site.

Photo on page 72: “Fingers on Guitar”, Eduardo Galvani, Brazil. View more photos fromMr. Galvani by browsing http://sxc.hu

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