: . B y M r K o o g le r o f C o le g io: . B y M r K o o g le r o f C o le g ioA lb a n iaA lb a n ia

The Age of The Age of Reason & Reason &

EnlightenmeEnlightenmentnt

Th e O r ig in s o f?E n lig h t e n m e n t

► S C IEN TIF ICS C IEN TIF IC ::► ’ N e w t o n s s y s t e m w a s’ N e w t o n s s y s t e m w a s

s y n o n y m o u ss y n o n y m o u s w it h t h e e m p ir ic a l a n d t h e w it h t h e e m p ir ic a l a n d t h e

.p r a c t ic a l.p r a c t ic a l► S c ie n t if ic la w s c o u ld b e S c ie n t if ic la w s c o u ld b e e x p r e s s e d a s e x p r e s s e d a s

.u n iv e r s a l m a t h e m a t ic a l f o rm u la s .u n iv e r s a l m a t h e m a t ic a l f o rm u la s

► S c ie n c e a llo w e d a lt e r n a t iv e s t o S c ie n c e a llo w e d a lt e r n a t iv e s t ob eb e

im a g in e d in e v e r y t h in g f r o m im a g in e d in e v e r y t h in g f r o mp o lit ic sp o lit ic s

.t o r e lig io n .t o r e lig io n

’ Willia m B la k e sNewton, 1 7 9 5

Th e R o y a l A c a d e m y o f, S c ie n c e s P a r is

Z o o lo g y & B io lo g y

A d is s e c t io n a t t h e R o y a l A d is s e c t io n a t t h e R o y a l, .Ac a d e m y Lo n d o n, .Ac a d e m y Lo n d o n

C h e m is t r y La b s & B o t a n y G a r d e n s

N a t u r a l H is t o r yC o lle c t io n s

► C o c o a p la n t C o c o a p la n t.d r a w in g .d r a w in g

► S ir H a n s S ir H a n sS lo a n eS lo a n e(1 6 6 0 -1 7 5 3 ).(1 6 6 0 -1 7 5 3 ).

► C o lle c t e d f r o m C o lle c t e d f r o m.J a m a ic a .J a m a ic a

Wo m e n & S c ie n c e

Th e Th e G e rm a n G e rm a n

a s t r o n o ma s t r o n o m e r e r

H e v e liu s H e v e liu s & h is w if e & h is w if e

e x a m in e e x a m in e t h e t h e

.h e a v e n s .h e a v e n s

Th e O r ig in s o f?E n lig h t e n m e n t► R ELIG IO U SR ELIG IO U S ::

► -p h y s ic o t h e o lo g y-p h y s ic o t h e o lo g y –– a n a t t e m p t a n a t t e m p t( ) in s p ir e d b y s c ie n c e t o e x p la in( ) in s p ir e d b y s c ie n c e t o e x p la in

’ G o d s P r o v id e n c e b y r e f e r e n c e’ G o d s P r o v id e n c e b y r e f e r e n c e

t o h is t o h is w o r k in n a t u r e w o r k in n a t u r e & n o t & n o t p r im a r ily t h r o u g h h is b ib lic a l p r im a r ily t h r o u g h h is b ib lic a l

.Wo r d .Wo r d

► s u p p o r t o f a “ r a t io n a l” s u p p o r t o f a “ r a t io n a l”, r e lig io n f r e e, r e lig io n f r e e

, , f r o m m y s t e r ie s m ir a c le s , , f r o m m y s t e r ie s m ir a c le sa n da n d

.s u p e r s t it io n s .s u p e r s t it io n s

Th e O r ig in s o f?E n lig h t e n m e n t►

R ELIG IO U SR ELIG IO U S ::►D e is mD e is mV Th e b e lie f in t h e e x is t e n c e o f Th e b e lie f in t h e e x is t e n c e o f

a G o d o r s u p r e m e b e in g b u t a a G o d o r s u p r e m e b e in g b u t a , d e n ia l o f r e v e a le d r e lig io n , d e n ia l o f r e v e a le d r e lig io n

b a s in gb a s in g’ o n e s b e lie f o n t h e’ o n e s b e lie f o n t h e l ig h tlig h t o f o f

n a t u r en a t u r e a n d r e a s o n a n d r e a s o n ..

V D e is t s s a w n o p o in t in a n y D e is t s s a w n o p o in t in a n yp a r t ic u la rp a r t ic u la r

; r e lig io n t h e y r e c o g n iz e d o n ly a; r e lig io n t h e y r e c o g n iz e d o n ly ad is t a n td is t a n tG o dG o d , u n in v o lv e d in t h e d a ily lif e o f, u n in v o lv e d in t h e d a ily lif e o f

.m a n .m a n

Th e O r ig in s o f?E n lig h t e n m e n t► R ELIG IO U SR ELIG IO U S ::

► , G r a d u a lly h ig h ly e d u c a t e d, G r a d u a lly h ig h ly e d u c a t e d P r o t e s t a n t s & C a t h o lic s t h o u g h t P r o t e s t a n t s & C a t h o lic s t h o u g h t

m o r e a b o u t m o r e a b o u t ’ G o d s w o r k a s’ G o d s w o r k a s r e v e a le d t h r o u g h s c ie n c e r e v e a le d t h r o u g h s c ie n c e , ,

r a t h e r t h a n t h r o u g h t h e r a t h e r t h a n t h r o u g h t h e.S c r ip t u r e s .S c r ip t u r e s

► P a n t h e is mP a n t h e is m

V Th e b e lie f t h a t G o d a n d Th e b e lie f t h a t G o d a n d .n a t u r e a r e o n e a n d t h e s a m e .n a t u r e a r e o n e a n d t h e s a m e

C e n t e r s o f t h eE n lig h t e n m e n t

Th e C h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f t h eE n lig h t e n m e n t

► R a t io n a lis m R a t io n a lis m r e a s o n is r e a s o n is .t h e a r b it e r o f a ll t h in g s .t h e a r b it e r o f a ll t h in g s

► C o s m o lo g y C o s m o lo g y a n e w a n e w , c o n c e p t o f m a n h is , c o n c e p t o f m a n h is

, e x is t e n c e o n e a r t h & t h e , e x is t e n c e o n e a r t h & t h e p la c e o f t h e e a r t h in t h e p la c e o f t h e e a r t h in t h e

.u n iv e r s e .u n iv e r s e

► S e c u la r is m S e c u la r is m a p p lic a t io n a p p lic a t io n o f t h e m e t h o d s o f s c ie n c e o f t h e m e t h o d s o f s c ie n c e t o r e lig io n & t o r e lig io n &

.p h ilo s o p h y .p h ilo s o p h y

Th e C h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f t h eE n lig h t e n m e n t

1.1. -O p t im is m & S e lf -O p t im is m & S e lfC o n f id e n c eC o n f id e n c e

Th e b e lie f t h a t m a n is Th e b e lie f t h a t m a n is .in t r in s ic a lly g o o d .in t r in s ic a lly g o o d

Th e b e lie f in s o c ia l Th e b e lie f in s o c ia l.p r o g r e s s .p r o g r e s s

2.2. F r e e d o mF r e e d o m

.O f t h o u g h t a n d e x p r e s s io n .O f t h o u g h t a n d e x p r e s s io n

B r in g lib e r t y t o a ll m e n B r in g lib e r t y t o a ll m e n( m o d e r n b a t t le a g a in s t( m o d e r n b a t t le a g a in s t

).a b s o lu t is m ).a b s o lu t is m

3.3. E d u c a t io n o f t h e M a s s e s E d u c a t io n o f t h e M a s s e s

Th e C h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f t h eE n lig h t e n m e n t

1.1. Le g a l R e f o rm s Le g a l R e f o rm s

, , J u s t ic e k in d n e s s a n d, , J u s t ic e k in d n e s s a n d c h a r it y c h a r it y n o t o r t u r e o r n o t o r t u r e o r

in d is c r im in a n t in d is c r im in a n t.in c a r c e r a t io n .in c a r c e r a t io n

. D u e p r o c e s s o f la w . D u e p r o c e s s o f la w

2.2. C o n s t it u t io n a lis mC o n s t it u t io n a lis m

Wr it t e n c o n s t it u t io n s Wr it t e n c o n s t it u t io n s , .l is t in g c it iz e n s r ig h t s , .l is t in g c it iz e n s r ig h t s

3.3. .C o s m o p o lit a n is m .C o s m o p o lit a n is m

Th e “ E n lig h t e n e d ” In d iv id u a l Th ePhilosopher

► Th e y w e r e s t u d e n t s o f s o c ie t y w h o Th e y w e r e s t u d e n t s o f s o c ie t y w h o a n a ly z e d it s e v ils a n d a d v a n c e d a n a ly z e d it s e v ils a n d a d v a n c e d

.r e f o rm s .r e f o rm s

M a r q u is d e C o n d o r c e t(1 7 4 3 -1 7 9 4 )

► Progress of the Human Progress of the Human MindMind , 1 7 9 4, 1 7 9 4

An e x p e c t a t io n An e x p e c t a t io n o f u n iv e r s a l o f u n iv e r s a l

.h a p p in e s s .h a p p in e s s E v e r y in d iv id u a l E v e r y in d iv id u a l

g u id e d b y r e a s o n g u id e d b y r e a s o n c o u ld e n jo y t r u e c o u ld e n jo y t r u e

.in d e p e n d e n c e .in d e p e n d e n c e H e a d v o c a t e d a H e a d v o c a t e d a

f r e e a n d e q u a l f r e e a n d e q u a l, e d u c a t io n , e d u c a t io n

c o n s t it u t io n a lis mc o n s t it u t io n a lis m, a n d e q u a l r ig h t s, a n d e q u a l r ig h t s

.f o r w o m e n .f o r w o m e n

J o h n Lo c k e (1 6 3 2 -1 7 0 4 )

► Letter on TolerationLetter on Toleration, , 1 6 8 91 6 8 9

► Two Treatises ofTwo Treatises ofGovernmentGovernment , 1 6 9 0, 1 6 9 0

► Some ThoughtsSome ThoughtsConcerningConcerningEducationEducation, 1 6 9 3, 1 6 9 3

► The Reasonab lenessThe Reasonab lenessof Christianityof Christianity, 1 6 9 5, 1 6 9 5

’ J o h n Lo c k e s ( )P h ilo s o p h y I

► Th e in d iv id u a l m u s t b e c o m e a Th e in d iv id u a l m u s t b e c o m e a“ r a t io n a l“ r a t io n a l

.c r e a t u r e ”.c r e a t u r e ”► Vir t u e c a n b e le a r n e d a n d Vir t u e c a n b e le a r n e d a n d

.p r a c t ic e d .p r a c t ic e d► .H u m a n b e in g s p o s s e s s f r e e w ill .H u m a n b e in g s p o s s e s s f r e e w ill

t h e y s h o u ld b e p r e p a r e d f o r t h e y s h o u ld b e p r e p a r e d f o r.f r e e d o m .f r e e d o m

o b e d ie n c e s h o u ld b e o u t o f o b e d ie n c e s h o u ld b e o u t o f,c o n v ic t io n ,c o n v ic t io n

.n o t o u t o f f e a r .n o t o u t o f f e a r► Le g is la t o r s o w e t h e ir p o w e r t o a Le g is la t o r s o w e t h e ir p o w e r t o a

c o n t r a c tc o n t r a c t w it h t h e p e o p le w it h t h e p e o p le ..

► N e it h e r k in g s n o r w e a lt h a r e N e it h e r k in g s n o r w e a lt h a r e .d iv in e ly o r d a in e d .d iv in e ly o r d a in e d

’ J o h n Lo c k e s ( )P h ilo s o p h y II

► Th e r e a r e c e r t a in n a t u r a l r ig h t s Th e r e a r e c e r t a in n a t u r a l r ig h t s t h a t a r e e n d o w e d b y G o d t o a ll t h a t a r e e n d o w e d b y G o d t o a ll

.h u m a n b e in g s .h u m a n b e in g s life , liberty, property!life , liberty, property!

► Th e d o c t r in e o f t h e D iv in e R ig h t o f Th e d o c t r in e o f t h e D iv in e R ig h t o f .K in g s w a s n o n s e n s e .K in g s w a s n o n s e n s e

► H e f a v o r e d a r e p u b lic a s t h e b e s t H e f a v o r e d a r e p u b lic a s t h e b e s t .f o rm o f g o v e r n m e n t .f o rm o f g o v e r n m e n t

Im m a n u e l K a n t(1 7 2 4 -1 8 0 4 )

► Critique of Pure Critique of Pure ReasonReason, 1 7 8 1, 1 7 8 1

► ““ Wh a t is Wh a t is?E n lig h t e n m e n t ”?E n lig h t e n m e n t ”

, 1 7 8 4, 1 7 8 4

► Metaphysical Metaphysical Foundations ofFoundations ofNatural Science , Natural Science , 1 7 8 61 7 8 6

’ K a n t s P h ilo s o p h y

► Dare to Know!Dare to Know!► H e in t r o d u c e d t h e c o n c e p t o f H e in t r o d u c e d t h e c o n c e p t o f

t r a n s c e n d e n t a lis mt r a n s c e n d e n t a lis m s o m e t h in g s s o m e t h in g s a r e k n o w n b y m e t h o d s o t h e r t h a n a r e k n o w n b y m e t h o d s o t h e r t h a n

.e m p ir ic a lly .e m p ir ic a lly Th e b e lie f in t h e e x is t e n c e o f Th e b e lie f in t h e e x is t e n c e o f

- a n o n r a t io n a l w a y t o - a n o n r a t io n a l w a y t o .u n d e r s t a n d t h in g s .u n d e r s t a n d t h in g s

Th e e x is t e n c e o f n e it h e r t im e n o r Th e e x is t e n c e o f n e it h e r t im e n o r s p a c e is d e t e rm in e d b y e m p ir ic a l s p a c e is d e t e rm in e d b y e m p ir ic a l

.u n d e r s t a n d in g .u n d e r s t a n d in g Th e s e t y p e o f t h in g s a r e Th e s e t y p e o f t h in g s a r e a a

prioripriori..V Th e y t r a n s c e n d s e n s o r y Th e y t r a n s c e n d s e n s o r y

.e x p e r ie n c e .e x p e r ie n c eV , Th e y a r e p u r e n o t , Th e y a r e p u r e n o t

e m p ir ic a le m p ir ic a l [ [[ c o n c e p t s lik e[ c o n c e p t s lik e, - , f a it h p r e e x is t e n c e lif e, - , f a it h p r e e x is t e n c e lif e a f t e r d e a t h a f t e r d e a t h ].].

Th o m a s P a in e (1 7 3 7 -1 8 0 9 )

► Common Common SenseSense , , 1 7 7 61 7 7 6

► The Rights The Rights of Manof Man, , 1 7 9 11 7 9 1

Vo lt a ir e (1 7 1 2 -1 7 7 8 )

► AKA AKA F r a n c o is F r a n c o is .M a r ie A r o u e t .M a r ie A r o u e t

► Essay on the CustomsEssay on the Customsand Spirit of Nationsand Spirit of Nations , , 1 7 5 617 5 6

► CandideCandide , 1 7 5 9, 1 7 5 9

► Philosophical Philosophical DictionaryDictionary, 1 7 6 4, 1 7 6 4

’ ( )Vo lt a ir e s “ W is d o m ” I

► Every man is guilty of all the good he Every man is guilty of all the good he didn’ t do. didn’ t do.► God is a comedian playing to an God is a comedian playing to an audience audience too afraid to laugh. too afraid to laugh.► If God did not exist, it would be If God did not exist, it would be necessary necessary to invent him. to invent him.► It is dangerous to be right when the It is dangerous to be right when the government is wrong. government is wrong.► Love truth and pardon error.Love truth and pardon error.

’ Vo lt a ir e s “ W is d o m ”( )II

► Judge of a man by his questions rather Judge of a man by his questions rather thanthan by his answers. by his answers.► Men are equal; it is not b irth, but virtueMen are equal; it is not b irth, but virtue that makes the difference. that makes the difference.►Here, here , my good man, this is no time Here, here , my good man, this is no time to be making enemies.to be making enemies.► Prejudice is opinion without judgment.Prejudice is opinion without judgment.► The way to become boring is to say The way to become boring is to say everything. everything.► I may not agree with what you have to I may not agree with what you have to say,say, but I will defend to the death your right but I will defend to the death your right to to say it. say it.

D a v id H u m e (1 7 1 1 -1 7 7 6 )

► The Natural The Natural History of History of Re lig ion Relig ion [][][[(1 7 5 5 ]).[[(1 7 5 5 ]).

► B e lie f in B e lie f in G o d r e s t e d G o d r e s t e d

o n o n s u p e r s t it io n s u p e r s t it io n

a n d f e a r a n d f e a r r a t h e r t h a n r a t h e r t h a n

.o n r e a s o n .o n r e a s o n

E d w a r d G ib b o n(1 7 3 7 -1 7 9 4 )

È H e p o in t e d o u t H e p o in t e d o u t p r o b le m s w it h p r o b le m s w it h

c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n t e m p o r a r y E n g la n d a n d t r ie d E n g la n d a n d t r ie d

.t o u r g e r e f o rm .t o u r g e r e f o rm

► The De cline andThe De cline andFall of the Roman Fall of the Roman Empire Empire (6 volumes), (6 volumes), 1787.1787.

Th e B a r o n d e M o n t e s q u ie u (1 6 8 9 -1 7 5 5 )

► Persian Persian LettersLetters , , 1 7 2 1 1 7 2 1

► On the Spirit On the Spirit of of LawsLaws , 1 7 5 8, 1 7 5 8

’ M o n t e s q u ie u sP h ilo s o p h y

► Th r e e t y p e s o f Th r e e t y p e s o f:g o v e r n m e n t :g o v e r n m e n t

.M o n a r c h y .M o n a r c h y .R e p u b lic .R e p u b lic .D e s p o t is m .D e s p o t is m

A s e p a r a t io n o f A s e p a r a t io n o f p o lit ic a l p o w e r s p o lit ic a l p o w e r s e n s u r e d f r e e d o m a n d e n s u r e d f r e e d o m a n d

.l ib e r t y .l ib e r t y

J e a n J a c q u e s R o u s s e a u (1 7 1 2 -1 7 7 8 )

► A Discourse A Discourse on the on the Sciences and Sciences and ArtsArts , 1 7 5 0, 1 7 5 0

► Emile , 1762.Emile , 1762.

► The Social The Social Contract, Contract, 1762.1762.

’ R o u s s e a u s P h ilo s o p h y( )I

► Q u e s t io nQ u e s t io n D o e s D o e s p r o g r e s s in t h e a r t s a n d p r o g r e s s in t h e a r t s a n d s c ie n c e s c o r r e s p o n d s c ie n c e s c o r r e s p o n d

w it h p r o g r e s s in w it h p r o g r e s s in?m o r a lit y ?m o r a lit y

, A s c iv il iz a t io n s p r o g r e s s , A s c iv il iz a t io n s p r o g r e s s t h e y m o v e a w a y f r o m t h e y m o v e a w a y f r o m

.m o r a lit y .m o r a lit y S c ie n c e & a r t r a is e d S c ie n c e & a r t r a is e d

a r t if ic ia l b a r r ie r s b e t w e e n a r t if ic ia l b a r r ie r s b e t w e e n p e o p le a n d t h e ir n a t u r a l p e o p le a n d t h e ir n a t u r a l

.s t a t e .s t a t e , Th e r e f o r e t h e r e v iv a l o f, Th e r e f o r e t h e r e v iv a l o f

s c ie n c e a n d t h e a r t s h a d s c ie n c e a n d t h e a r t s h a d , c o r r u p t e d s o c ia l m o r a ls , c o r r u p t e d s o c ia l m o r a ls

!n o t im p r o v e d t h e m !n o t im p r o v e d t h e m

!N O !N O

’ R o u s s e a u s P h ilo s o p h y( )II

Vir t u e e x is t s in t h e ” s t a t e o f Vir t u e e x is t s in t h e ” s t a t e o f, n a t u r e ” b u t lo s t in, n a t u r e ” b u t lo s t in

.“ s o c ie t y ”.“ s o c ie t y ” G o v e r n m e n t m u s t p r e s e r v e G o v e r n m e n t m u s t p r e s e r v e

“ v ir t u e ” a n d “ v ir t u e ” a n d.” lib e r t y ”.” lib e r t y ”

Man is born free , yet everywhere he is Man is born free , yet everywhere he is in chains.in chains.

Th e c o n c e p t o f t h e Th e c o n c e p t o f t h e ” N o b le ” N o b le.S a v a g e ”.S a v a g e ”

Liberty, Equality, Fraternity.Liberty, Equality, Fraternity. C iv il l ib e r t y C iv il l ib e r t y in v e s t ALL in v e s t ALL

r ig h t s a n d lib e r t ie s in t o a r ig h t s a n d lib e r t ie s in t o a.s o c ie t y .s o c ie t y

’ R o u s s e a u s P h ilo s o p h y( )III

► In In The Social ContractThe Social Contract:: Th e r ig h t k in d o f p o lit ic a l Th e r ig h t k in d o f p o lit ic a l

o r d e r c o u ld m a k e p e o p le o r d e r c o u ld m a k e p e o p le .t r u ly m o r a l a n d f r e e .t r u ly m o r a l a n d f r e e

In d iv id u a l m o r a l f r e e d o m In d iv id u a l m o r a l f r e e d o m c o u ld b e a c h ie v e d o n ly b y c o u ld b e a c h ie v e d o n ly b y

’ le a r n in g t o s u b je c t o n e s ’ le a r n in g t o s u b je c t o n e s in d iv id u a l in t e r e s t s t o t h e in d iv id u a l in t e r e s t s t o t h e

““ G e n e r a l W ill G e n e r a l W ill .”.” In d iv id u a ls d id t h is b y In d iv id u a ls d id t h is b y

e n t e r in g in t o a s o c ia l e n t e r in g in t o a s o c ia l c o n t r a c t n o t w it h t h e ir c o n t r a c t n o t w it h t h e ir

, .r u le r s b u t w it h e a c h o t h e r, .r u le r s b u t w it h e a c h o t h e rV Th is s o c ia l c o n t r a c t w a s Th is s o c ia l c o n t r a c t w a s

d e r iv e d f r o m h u m a n d e r iv e d f r o m h u m a n, , n a t u r e n o t f r o m h is t o r y, , n a t u r e n o t f r o m h is t o r y

, .t r a d it io n o r t h e B ib le, .t r a d it io n o r t h e B ib le

’ R o u s s e a u s P h ilo s o p h y( )IV

► P e o p le w o u ld b e m o s t f r e e a n d P e o p le w o u ld b e m o s t f r e e a n d m o r a l u n d e r a r e p u b lic a n f o rm m o r a l u n d e r a r e p u b lic a n f o rm

o f g o v e r n m e n t w it h d ir e c t o f g o v e r n m e n t w it h d ir e c t.d e m o c r a c y .d e m o c r a c y

► , H o w e v e r t h e in d iv id u a l c o u ld, H o w e v e r t h e in d iv id u a l c o u ld b e “ f o r c e d t o b e f r e e ” b y t h e b e “ f o r c e d t o b e f r e e ” b y t h e

.t e rm s o f t h e s o c ia l c o n t r a c t .t e rm s o f t h e s o c ia l c o n t r a c t H e p r o v id e d n o le g a l H e p r o v id e d n o le g a l

p r o t e c t io n s f o r in d iv id u a l p r o t e c t io n s f o r in d iv id u a l.r ig h t s .r ig h t s

► ’ :R o u s s e a u s t h in k in g’ :R o u s s e a u s t h in k in g H a d a g r e a t in f lu e n c e o n t h e H a d a g r e a t in f lu e n c e o n t h e

F r e n c h r e v o lu t io n a r ie s o f F r e n c h r e v o lu t io n a r ie s o f17 8 9 .1 7 8 9 .

H is a t t a c k s o n p r iv a t e H is a t t a c k s o n p r iv a t e p r o p e r t y in s p ir e d t h e p r o p e r t y in s p ir e d t h e

1 9c o m m u n is t s o f t h e 1 9c o m m u n is t s o f t h e cc s u c h s u c h .a s K a r l M a r x .a s K a r l M a r x

PopularizingPopularizingthethe

EnlightenmeEnlightenmentnt

D e n is D id e r o t(1 7 1 3 -1 7 8 4 )► All things must be All things must be

examined, debated, examined, debated, investigated without investigated without exception and exception and without regard for without regard for anyone ’ s fee lings.anyone ’ s fee lings.

► We will speak We will speak against sense less against sense less laws until they are laws until they are reformed; and, reformed; and, while we wait, we while we wait, we will ab ide by them.will ab ide by them.

’ D id e r o t s Encyclopédie

’ D id e r o t s Encyclopédie

Th e Encyclopédie

► Comple te cycle of Comple te cycle of knowledge … … … … ...…knowledge … … … … ...…change the general way of change the general way of thinking .thinking .

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► , -A lp h a b e t ic a l c r o s s, -A lp h a b e t ic a l c r o s s,r e f e r e n c e d ,r e f e r e n c e d

.i l lu s t r a t e d .i l lu s t r a t e d

► F ir s t p u b lis h e d in F ir s t p u b lis h e d in1 7 5 1 .1 7 5 1 .

’ P a g e s f r o m D id e r o t sEncyclopedie

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R e a d in g D u r in g t h e E n lig h t e n m e n t

► :Lit e r a c y

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► M a n y r e a d e r s f o r e a c h b o o k M a n y r e a d e r s f o r e a c h b o o k(2 0 : 1 )(2 0 : 1 )

, n o v e ls p la y s & o t h e r, n o v e ls p la y s & o t h e r.l i t e r a t u r e .l i t e r a t u r e

, , jo u r n a ls m e m o ir s “ p r iv a t e, , jo u r n a ls m e m o ir s “ p r iv a t e.l iv e s ”.l iv e s ”

, , p h ilo s o p h y h is t o r y, , p h ilo s o p h y h is t o r y.t h e o lo g y .t h e o lo g y

, n e w s p a p e r s p o lit ic a l, n e w s p a p e r s p o lit ic a l.p a m p h le t s .p a m p h le t s

An In c r e a s e in R e a d in g

An In c r e a s e in R e a d in g

“ M u s t R e a d ” B o o k s o f t h e T im e

?Th e Le g a c y o f t h e E n lig h t e n m e n t

1.1. Th e d e m o c r a t ic Th e d e m o c r a t ic r e v o lu t io n s b e g u n in r e v o lu t io n s b e g u n in

1 7 7 6 Am e r ic a in a n d 1 7 7 6 Am e r ic a in a n d , c o n t in u e d in Am s t e r d a m , c o n t in u e d in Am s t e r d a m

, B r u s s e ls a n d e s p e c ia lly, B r u s s e ls a n d e s p e c ia lly in P a r is in t h e la t e in P a r is in t h e la t e

17 8 0 , s p u t e v e r y17 8 0 , s p u t e v e r y We s t e r n g o v e r n m e n t o n We s t e r n g o v e r n m e n t o n

.t h e d e f e n s iv e .t h e d e f e n s iv e

1.1. , , R e f o rm d e m o c r a c y a n d, , R e f o rm d e m o c r a c y a n d r e p u b lic a n is m h a d b e e n r e p u b lic a n is m h a d b e e n

p la c e d ir r e v o c a b ly o n p la c e d ir r e v o c a b ly o n .t h e We s t e r n a g e n d a .t h e We s t e r n a g e n d a

?Th e Le g a c y o f t h e E n lig h t e n m e n t

1.1. N e w f o rm s o f c iv il s o c ie t y N e w f o rm s o f c iv il s o c ie t y – -- , , a r o s e c lu b s s a lo n s – -- , , a r o s e c lu b s s a lo n s

, f r a t e r n a ls p r iv a t e, f r a t e r n a ls p r iv a t e, a c a d e m ie s le n d in g, a c a d e m ie s le n d in g

, l ib r a r ie s a n d, l ib r a r ie s a n d/ p r o f e s s io n a l s c ie n t if ic/ p r o f e s s io n a l s c ie n t if ic

.o r g a n iz a t io n s .o r g a n iz a t io n s

1 1919 cc c o n s e r v a t iv e s c o n s e r v a t iv e s b la m e d it f o r t h e m o d e r n b la m e d it f o r t h e m o d e r n

“ e g a lit a r ia n d is e a s e ” “ e g a lit a r ia n d is e a s e ”( o n c e r e f o rm e r s b e g a n( o n c e r e f o rm e r s b e g a n

t o c r it ic iz e e s t a b lis h e d t o c r it ic iz e e s t a b lis h e d, ’ in s t it u t io n s t h e y d id n t, ’ in s t it u t io n s t h e y d id n t

k n o w w h e r e a n d w h e n t o k n o w w h e r e a n d w h e n t o!)s t o p !)s t o p

Th e Le g a c y o f t h e?E n lig h t e n m e n t

� It e s t a b lis h e d a It e s t a b lis h e d a m a t e r ia lis t ic t r a d it io n m a t e r ia lis t ic t r a d it io n

b a s e d o n a n e t h ic a l b a s e d o n a n e t h ic a l s y s t e m d e r iv e d s o le ly s y s t e m d e r iv e d s o le ly

f r o m a n a t u r a lis t ic f r o m a n a t u r a lis t ic a c c o u n t o f t h e h u m a n a c c o u n t o f t h e h u m a n

(c o n d it io n t h e (c o n d it io n t h e “ R e lig io n “ R e lig io n o f N a t u r e ” o f N a t u r e ” ).).

� Th e o r e t ic a lly e n d o w e d Th e o r e t ic a lly e n d o w e d w it h f u ll c iv i l a n d le g a l w it h f u ll c iv i l a n d le g a l

, r ig h t s t h e, r ig h t s t h e in d iv id u a lin d iv id u a l h a d h a d c o m e in t o e x is t e n c e a s a c o m e in t o e x is t e n c e a s a

p o lit ic a l a n d s o c ia l f o r c e p o lit ic a l a n d s o c ia l f o r c e .t o b e r e c k o n e d w it h .t o b e r e c k o n e d w it h