The effect of Mindfulness practice on self-efficacy among employees

in an organization

Naama Katan

THESIS SUBMITTED AFTER CONFERRAL OF THE MASTER'S DEGREE

University of Haifa

Faculty of management

Department of business administration

November, 2018

I

The effect of Mindfulness practice on self-efficacy among employees

in an organization

By: Naama Katan

Supervised by: Prof. Shay Tzafrir

Supervised by: Prof. Guy Enosh

University of Haifa

Faculty of management

Department of business administration

November, 2018

II

Contents

Abstract ........................................................................................................................................................ III

List of Tables and Figures ............................................................................................................................. IV

INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................. 1

Theoretical Background ................................................................................................................................ 4

What is mindfulness? Background and definition .................................................................................... 4

What is Self-efficacy ? ............................................................................................................................... 5

Mindfulness and self-efficacy .................................................................................................................. 6

Mindfulness Intervention Programs ......................................................................................................... 8

The MBSR Intervention in the Workplace ................................................................................................ 8

Method ....................................................................................................................................................... 10

Study Design ........................................................................................................................................... 10

Trustworthiness and credibility .............................................................................................................. 11

Process and Participants ......................................................................................................................... 12

The MBSR training................................................................................................................................... 12

Measurement.......................................................................................................................................... 13

Ethical Considerations ............................................................................................................................. 14

Results ......................................................................................................................................................... 15

Effect of MBSR Training on FMI .............................................................................................................. 16

Association between FMI and NSGE ....................................................................................................... 17

Discussion.................................................................................................................................................... 20

Crisis at the Company and Organizational Change ................................................................................. 20

Work Family Enrichment......................................................................................................................... 24

Limitations .............................................................................................................................................. 26

Future Research ...................................................................................................................................... 27

References .................................................................................................................................................. 29

Appendix 1 - The MBSR training outline ................................................................................................. 43

Appendix 2 - FMI Questionnaire ............................................................................................................. 45

Appendix 3 - NSGE Questionnaire .......................................................................................................... 46

III

The effect of Mindfulness practice on self-efficacy among employees

in an organization

Naama Katan

Abstract Mindfulness has been the subject of growing attention and interest in recent years. Numerous

scholars have found that mindfulness can be helpful for resolving many mental and physical

health problems and improving workplace benefits. Yet little attention has been paid to the effect

of mindfulness practice on employees’ self-efficacy. This study focused on the role of

mindfulness practice in improving employees’ self-efficacy. We hypothesized that a positive

relationship exists between these constructs. To test this hypothesis, we offered the Mindfulness-

Based Stress Reduction program to employees of a commercial company in Israel. Thirty-two

employees volunteered to participate in the training and comprised two experimental groups.

During the training, the company faced a severe crisis and announced that more than 2,000

employees would be laid off. This was a very stressful and difficult time for the employees.

Results show that improvement in participants’ mindfulness scores significantly improved their

self-efficacy scores and helped them cope with the crisis. This finding is important and can be

very beneficial to organizations seeking to improve their employees’ self-efficacy via

mindfulness practice.

Keywords: mindfulness, self-efficacy, organizational change

IV

List of Tables and Figures

Table 1: Study Design and measures …………………………………………………….17

Table 2: Descriptive Statistics and Correlations ………………………………………. 19

Figure 1 : Two experiments design ……………………………………………………… 30

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“Mindfulness is incredibly important to organizations because organizations are like

organisms; they are alive, they are made up of people and if you are not aware of the

various ways in which people’s mind expresses itself, then the organization can really get

into some kind of mental space where no one is talking to anyone else and no one is really

listening”

(Kabat-Zinn, 2008)

INTRODUCTION

Mindfulness has been the subject of growing attention and interest in recent years (Baer,

2003; Coo & Salanova, 2018; de Vibe et al., 2017; Good et al., 2016; Grossman, Neimann,

Schmidt, & Walach, 2004; Hyland, Lee, & Mills, 2015; Malarkey, Jarjoura, & Klatt, 2013; Neff

& Davidson, 2016; Robins & Chapman, 2004; Segal, Williams, & Teasdale, 2018). Mindfulness

refers to orienting oneself to the present moment. Definitions of mindfulness commonly emphasize

that it involves maintaining awareness of one’s immediate experience, as opposed to being

distracted by past- or future-oriented thoughts or engaged in avoidance the present. It also involves

maintaining an attitude of nonjudgment (Bishop et al., 2004; Kabat-Zinn, 2003).

Numerous scholars have found that mindfulness can be helpful for resolving many mental

and physical health problems, including stress, pain, anxiety, and depression (Baer, 2003; de Vibe

et al., 2017; Grossman et al., 2004; Kabat-Zinn, 1990; Segal et al., 2018; Wolever et al., 2012,

Creswell, 2017); can be a daily coping tool for healthy individuals (Shapiro, Schwartz, & Bonner,

1998); and can promote psychological well-being (Goldstein & Kornfield, 1987; Kabat-Zinn,

2003; Walsh & Shapiro, 2006). In addition, mindfulness has been proven to help individuals

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disengage from automatic thoughts, habits, and unhealthy behavior patterns, and thereby elevate

their happiness (Brown & Ryan, 2003). Therefore, researchers have focused on means of

developing and enhancing mindfulness among employees (Hyland et al., 2015; Glomb, Duffy,

Bono, & Yang, 2011 ; Re, Narayanan & Ho, 2015), and it has been suggested that organizations

view mindfulness as a desirable cultural attribute. Support for this perspective has been evidenced

in studies that linked mindfulness to positive individual and organizational factors, such as work–

life balance (Johnson, Kiburz, Dumani, Cho, & Allen, 2011), work satisfaction (Hülsheger,

Alberts, Feinholdt, & Lang, 2013), leadership development (Baron & Cayer, 2011), work

engagement (Leroy, Anseel, Dimitrova, & Sels, 2013), work performance (Sutcliffe, Vogus, &

Dane, 2016) and turnover intentions (Dane & Brummel, 2014), and reduced occupational stress

(Byron et al., 2015).

An additional benefit of mindfulness training is its positive effects on the extent to which

employees experience emotional exhaustion in their jobs (Hülsheger et al., 2013), particularly in

high-stress fields (Galantino, Baime, Maguire, Szapary, & Farrar, 2005). Although studies have

investigated the general benefits of mindfulness for individual health (Bishop et al., 2004), well-

being (Collard, Avny, & Boniwell, 2008; Irving, Dobkin, & Park, 2009), and work–family balance

(Johnson et al., 2011), less attention has been paid to employees’ confidence that they can fulfill

their job; that is, their self-efficacy.

Research has found that level of self-efficacy predicts several important work-related

outcomes, including job attitudes (Saks, 1995), training proficiency (Martocchio & Judge, 1997),

work engagement (Coo & Salanova, 2018), and job performance (Coo & Salanova, 2018;

Stajkovic & Luthans, 1998). A few researchers have examined the influence of mindfulness on

students, interns, and doctoral counseling students (Caldwell, Harrison, Adams, Quin, & Greeson,

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2010; Greason & Cashwell, 2009). For instance, Cherian and Jacob (2013) found that the

performance of employees is positively influenced by their overall self-efficacy. In addition, the

authors found that the complexity of the tasks and the performance locus moderated the link

between self-efficacy and performance in the workplace. These two factors play an important role

in organizational settings, tending to weaken the link between self-efficacy and performance.

This study focused on the role of mindfulness intervention in improving employees’ self-

efficacy. Therefore, its goal was to gain an understanding of the pattern of the relationship between

mindfulness training (intervention) and employees’ self-efficacy. Given the definition of

mindfulness as “maintaining awareness on one’s immediate experience” (Thompson & Waltz,

2007, p. 1876-1875 ) and evidence of the positive impact of mindfulness and self-efficacy on

various workplace-related constructs, it is surprising that this line of research has not yet been

profoundly explored.

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Theoretical Background

What is mindfulness? Background and definition

Mindfulness as it is currently practiced and taught in secular Western culture is closely

related to traditional Buddhist mind-training methods. As part of Buddhist practice, mindfulness

is the act of seeing things as they truly are in the present moment (Gunaratana, 2011). Buddhist

practice is based on the belief that a clear, stable, and focused mind is an essential requirement for

effective mental training and purification, which will eventually lead to the cessation of the

suffering caused by ignorance and self-delusion (Bodhi, 1994).

Despite the practice of mindfulness becoming more popular in recent decades (Coo &

Salanova, 2018; Hyland et al., 2015), scholars attempting to translate the concept into a clear

construct have faced challenges. Mindfulness has been defined differently by different disciplines,

teachers, practitioners, and researchers. For instance, the Vietnamese Zen Master Thich Nhat

Hanh, defined mindfulness as “keeping one’s consciousness alive to the present reality” (Hanh,

1976, p. 11). Kabat-Zinn (2005) defined mindfulness as “paying attention in a particular way: on

purpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally” (p. 4). According to Brown, Ryan, and

Creswell (2007), mindfulness is a “receptive attention to and awareness of present events and

experience” (p. 212 ). Although there are various definitions of mindfulness, most

conceptualizations have operationalized three common aspects. First, mindfulness is present-

focused consciousness (Dane, 2011). At the core of most definitions of mindfulness is a focus on

the “here and now,” which requires “giving full attention to the present” (Thondup, 1996, p. 48).

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A person ruminating about the past or focused on the future is not exhibiting mindfulness. Second,

mindfulness involves paying close attention to both internal and external phenomena (Brown &

Ryan, 2003; Dane, 2011; Glomb et al., 2011). These include both internal stimuli, such as thoughts,

feelings, and bodily sensations, and external stimuli, including sights, sounds, smells, and events,

occurring in the physical and social environment (Glomb et al., 2011; Kabat-Zinn, 2005). Third,

mindfulness involves paying attention to stimuli in an open and accepting way, “without imposing

judgments, memories, or other self-relevant cognitive manipulations on them” (Glomb et al., 2011,

p. 119). Brown, Ryan, and Creswell’s (2007) study captured these three elements, suggesting that

mindfulness is “a receptive attention to and awareness of present moment events and experiences”

(p. 212). Individual mindfulness is achieved through mindfulness training programs (Good et al.,

2016; Majumdar, Grossman, Dietz-Waschkowski, Kersig, & Walach, 2002).

Hypothesis 1: Individual mindfulness awareness will increase following a mindfulness

training program.

What is Self-efficacy ?

The concept of self-efficacy derives from Bandura’s (1986) social cognitive theory and

describes people’s judgment of their own abilities to execute a course of action required to deal

with certain situations. A central proposition of social cognitive theory is that self-efficacy is a key

determinant of successful performance. Specifically, if people believe in their ability to perform a

specific task, then they activate sufficient effort that, if executed well, leads to successful task

completion. Conversely, if people do not believe in their ability to perform a specific task, then

they cease their efforts prematurely and are more likely to fail.

Regarding its implications for performance, Bandura also noted the importance of self-

efficacy for people’s health and well-being. For example, Bandura (1988) explained that when

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people have high levels of self-efficacy, they feel more able to cope with difficult situations and

tasks, feel less disturbed by them, and as a result experience less strain and depression. Conversely,

when people have low levels of self-efficacy, they feel unable to cope with difficult situations and

tasks, dwell more on obstacles and their own deficiencies, and as a result experience more strain

and depression.

Bandura’s propositions regarding the implications of self-efficacy for health and well-

being have been most comprehensively examined in the context of work. In this context, research

has focused on whether work-related self-efficacy can moderate the effects of workplace stressors

on employees’ experiences of occupational strain. In an early investigation of this relationship, Jex

and Gudanowski (1992) found no evidence of the moderating impact of work-related self-efficacy

on the relationships between workplace stressors and several indexes of occupational strain.

However, in a follow-up study involving a much larger sample, Jex and Bliese (1999) found that

employees with low levels of work-related self-efficacy responded more negatively, in terms of

psychological and physical strain, to long work hours and work overload compared to employees

with high levels of work-related self-efficacy. Since these two early investigations, several

additional studies have also found evidence suggesting that the impact of workplace stressors on

experiences of occupational strain is stronger, and thus more problematic, for employees with low

levels of work-related self-efficacy, relative to employees with high levels of work-related self-

efficacy (Panatik, O’Driscoll, & Anderson, 2011; Schaubroeck, Lam, & Xie, 2000). In addition,

Panatik et al. (2011) found that individuals with high self-efficacy tend to use problem-focused

coping strategies, whereas the coping strategies of those with low self-efficacy tend to be more

emotion focused.

Mindfulness and self-efficacy

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Research on mindfulness and self-awareness has suggested that mindfulness practice can bring

about a fundamental shift in the practitioner’s self-perception. Namely, it helps people shift away

from self-regulation (a judgmental, temporal view of the self as an object of experience) and

toward a healthier framework of self-liberation (an accepting, nontemporal view of the self as a

subject of experience). Moreover, evidence suggests that mindfulness practice can increases self-

efficacy because emotional states (mood or affect) are strongly influenced by an individual’s

beliefs about his or her ability to handle difficult or threatening situations (Greason & Cashwell,

2009; Panatik et al., 2011; Wei, Tsai, Lannin, Du, & Tucker, 2015). Carleton, Barling and

Trivisonno (2018) found out that mindfulness positively effects transformational leadership

behaviors, through increasing leadership self-efficacy and leader’s positive affect. For

individuals with low self-efficacy, such situations can cause stress and depression. Conversely,

highly self-efficacious individuals feel capable of managing their problems, are less distressed by

them, and tend to choose behaviors that make situations less threatening. Furthermore,

individuals with better coping skills are less likely to ruminate on distressing subjects and better

able to divert their attention elsewhere. They are therefore more likely to calm themselves down,

reducing anxiety, stress, and sadness to tolerable levels. Because mindfulness training can

decrease rumination, stress, anxiety, and depression (Baer, 2003; Grossman et al., 2004), we

posit that it may also have a positive effect on the practitioners’ self-efficacy.

Given these empirical findings regarding the constructs of mindfulness and self-efficacy,

there is a strong basis for hypothesizing that a positive relationship exists between them, such that

the self-efficacy of individuals who practice mindfulness on a regular basis is stronger.

Hypothesis 2: There is a positive correlation between individual mindfulness and self-

efficacy.

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Mindfulness Intervention Programs

Organizations seeking to address employees’ stress can use mindfulness interventions (de

Vibe et al., 2017; Good et al., 2016). There has been a dramatic increase in randomized controlled

trials of mindfulness interventions over the past two decades (Creswell,2017). A common

intervention is the Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) program. This program was

founded in 1979 by Jon Kabat-Zinn and his colleagues at the University of Massachusetts Stress

Reduction Clinic to help patients with chronic pain (Kabat-Zinn, 1982). This program has been

adopted and popularized as a mainstream care intervention (Good et al., 2016) and has been

adopted to suit a secular society and scientific standards. MBSR is widely known and taught, and

through its manualization, it can be comparatively easily replicated and implemented. Good results

with MBSR training for individuals with chronic illness or in recovery have been reported

(Majumdar et al., 2002). The success of MBSR led to the development of clinically oriented

mindfulness-based programs and approaches, including mindfulness-based cognitive therapy

(Segal, Teasdale, Williams, & Gemar, 2002), dialectical behavior therapy (Linehan, 1993), and

acceptance and commitment therapy (Hayes, Pistorello, & Levin, 2012), the effectiveness of all of

which is supported by research results. Yet these programs are more clinically oriented. Because

MBSR was found to be a good workplace-oriented program, we posited that MBSR may constitute

a good intervention for personnel development and increasing self-efficacy in the workplace.

Hypothesis 3: Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction intervention can positively affect

employees’ self-efficacy.

The MBSR Intervention in the Workplace

Until recently, mindfulness training in the workplace has consisted mostly of lightly

customized MBSR programs. In the last decade, however, workplace training has emerged as a

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separate domain within the broader field of MBSR-based secular mindfulness training. Today,

several larger organizations and numerous smaller firms specialize in offering workplace

mindfulness training, including Appropriate Response, the Institute for Mindful Leadership, The

Potential Project, and the Search Inside Yourself Leadership Institute. The format and content of

workplace mindfulness programs have been adapted from the MBSR model to be more conducive

to the workplace.

The intervention follows the generic MBSR manual, adapted for the relevant workplace

context. The training consists of eight 1.5-hour evening classes. Only participants willing to

practice for at least 10 minutes each day are admitted to the training. Classes feature a combination

of teaching and formal meditation practice and sharing experiences. Formal meditation consists of

a progressive sequence and combines body exercises and formal mindfulness meditation practices,

while seated and moving. Subjects receive an email summary of each session, including links to

guided meditations for home practice.

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Method

According to Edmondson (2007), methodological issues need to be considered when

translating research on mindfulness into the workplace setting. Much of the experimental evidence

on mindfulness has emerged from laboratory experiments using nonworkplace samples, which

raises questions about the generalizability of their results. Although mindfulness, and particularly

mindfulness in work settings, remains an emerging research area that would benefit from

exploratory qualitative and cross-sectional research, it is sufficiently mature to demand studies

using more rigorous designs (Edmondson & McManus, 2007). Therefore, to examine our research

questions, we examined the effects of an MBSR training on a randomly selected group of workers

in a real work setting.

Study Design

Mix Method Research

In the current study we used a mix method approach which combined a quantitative experimental

design with a qualitative follow-up to explore whether a relationship exists between MBSR

intervention in the workplace and employees’ self-efficacy. In recent years, mixed methods

research has developed as an approach with unique characteristics and philosophy. Whereas in the

past, qualitative and quantitative approaches were combined haphazardly by patching together

methods drawn from different approaches, today the emphasis is on a pre-planned integrated

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approach that draws on the strengths of all the techniques used (Greene, Caracelli, & Graham,

1989; Greene & Caracelli, 2003; Johnson, Onwuegbuzie & Turner, 2007;Venkatesh, Brown, &

Bala, 2013). Therefore, we used in this study a mixed method approach which allows a better

understanding of the field or the phenomenon investigated (Johnson, Onwuegbuzie & Turner,

2007). The experimental design was based on a pre–post comparison of two randomly assigned

groups in one workplace. The use of a pre–post experimental design helps control for most internal

validity threats, and therefore, is considered a rigorous means of examining causality claims

(Monette, Sullivan, & DeJong, 2013)—in our case the effect of mindfulness training on the sense

of self-efficacy.

To acquire a deeper understanding, we used a qualitative focus-group design and open-

ended questionnaires in which participants were able to express their experiences and perceived

changes in self-beliefs. The use of a qualitative approach helps researchers understand in depth

and detail real situations and concepts (Sabar, 1990; Shekedi, 2007). By using this methodology,

we sought a deeper understanding of the role and effect of mindfulness in employees’ self-efficacy

and change processes.

Trustworthiness and credibility

Qualitative research focuses on achieving trustworthiness and credibility with respect to the subject

of the study, without claiming to finding an absolute truth (Hammersley, 1995), as opposed to

quantitative research, in which validity means truth (Angen, 2000). In qualitative research, the

focus moves from validity to validation, from a definitive sense of reality to a process of validation

occurring between the researcher and reader in which one’s subjective understanding is involved

(Angen, 2000). The use of extensive quoted speech in the analysis and the researcher’s presentation

of a ‘case’ enable the reader to evaluate whether different aspects of the data collected create

12

consistently rich and thick descriptions (Lincoln and Guba, 1985). In addition, qualitative research

does not claim to generalize; since each study is uniquely affected by the specific context and

interviewees, there is no expectation to replicate what has been found in other situations (Schofield,

1993). In this study we used a mixed method approach, this process increased our confidence in

our findings and the of mindfulness practice on increasing self-efficacy in the work place.

Process and Participants

The MBSR training was offered to employees at one of the biggest commercial companies

in Israel. The department selected to participate in the training was the research and development

department. The employees in this department possess abilities that are both valuable and unique

and may serve as a source of competitive advantage, and therefore their self-efficacy is crucial to

the company’s success. This selected department offered its employees the opportunity to

participate in an MBSR training program. One hundred and fifty employees elected to attend a

lecture regarding mindfulness and its benefits. Of these, 60 volunteered to participate in the full

training. Using a randomized selection method, 16 employees were chosen to participate in the

first round of classes, and thus comprised the experimental group. A second group of 16 signed up

for a second training. Most of the participating employees were women (N= 23; 71.8 %). The

average age was 44 years old with an age range from 34 to 55. The mean working hours per week

was 47 with a range between 35 to 60 hours a week.

The MBSR training

The MBSR training featured eight weekly sessions; the duration of each session was 90

minutes. Participants received the training free of charge. The training was held in their free time,

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and they were required to practice an additional 20 minutes per day at home. As part of the study,

participants filled out several questionnaires, before the beginning of the training (Time 1), at the

end of the training (Time 2), and 2 months later as a follow-up (Time 3), as seen in Table 1. The

questionnaires were sent to the participants using a code to maintain their anonymity and

confidentiality.

Table 1. Study Design and Measures

Measurement Time 1 Time 2 Time 3

Mindfulness (FMI) + + +

Self-efficacy (NSGE) + + +

Control (Gender, Age) +

Note. FMI = Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory; NSGE = New General Self-Efficacy.

Measurement

Mindfulness. A questionnaire was used to measure mindfulness (α =.84). Items were based on the

Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory (FMI; Buchheld, Grossman, & Walach, 2001), which is one of

the most common psychometric measures of mindfulness. The FMI has both long (30 items) and

short (14 items) versions. The conceptualization of the original 30-item form was based on

Buddhist psychology and hence requires that the individuals being tested are acquainted with

Buddhist knowledge (Buchheld et al., 2001). Thus, Walach (2006) presented a one-dimensional

14-item short version, which proved to be semantically independent of Buddhist knowledge or a

meditation context (Walach, Buttenmüller, Kleinknecht, & Schmidt, 2006). Responses to the items

are given on a scale from 1 (very rarely) to 5 (almost always). Both forms have been validated

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empirically in German- and English-speaking populations (Heidenreich, Ströhle, & Michalak,

2006; Leigh, Bowen, & Marlatt, 2005).

Self-efficacy. Self-efficacy was measured using the New General Self-Efficacy (NSGE)

questionnaire developed by Chen and Gully (1997) and updated by Chen, Gully, and Eden (2001)

(α =.86). According to Eden and Gully (2001), the NGSE scale helps explain motivation and

performance in a variety of work contexts. The questionnaire features eight items, with responses

given on a scale from 1 (not agree at all ) to 5 (strongly agree ).

Control variables. According to Good and colleagues (2016), research on workplace

mindfulness typically lacks adequate measurement of common individual differences (e.g.,

intelligence, attitudes, and personality) that present alternative explanations for the effects of

mindfulness. Further, studies typically do not control for organizational context (e.g., role, task

characteristics, team climate), which may moderate the relation between the quality and practice

of mindfulness and workplace outcomes (Good et al., 2016). Therefore, we focused this research

on similar job roles in one department (research and development). Job roles were categorized

based on low, medium, and high complexity. In light of prior research, we controlled for individual

factors, such as gender and years of experience (Good et al., 2016). Using the MBSR intervention

in a classical experiment design (enabling us to control for threats to internal validity), we were

able to determine the contribution of mindfulness training to increased self-efficacy in the

workplace.

Ethical Considerations

Participants were informed that they had no obligation to participate and that they were

free to stop the interview at any stage. Their identifying details were kept confidential. The study

15

was authorized by the University of Haifa, Faculty of Health and Welfare Committee for Ethical

Research with Human Beings (Institutional Review Board).

Results

Most of the participating employees were women (n = 23; 71.8 %). The average age was

44 years old, with a range from 34 to 55. The mean working hours per week was 47, with a range

between 35 and 60 hours a week. As seen in Table 2, FMI scores increased 29% between T1 and

T3 from 2.90 to 3.75.

NSGE scores increased between T1 and T3 from 3.84 to 4.50, an increase of 17%. It is

important to note that the initial NSGE was very high because this is a very self-instructive

department featuring developers and engineers. More specifically, it should be noted that the

subjects’ initial self-efficacy score was very high (3.85 out of 5). This is unsurprising given the

participants’ academic and professional backgrounds; all subjects in both groups held advanced

degrees in exact sciences and occupied positions with high educational requirements in the

company’s research and development department (developers and engineers).

Table 2. Descriptive Statistics and Correlations

n Min Max M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6

1. FMI1 32 1.67 4.58 2.90 0.58 α =.84

2. FMI2 21 2.33 4.17 3.39 0.54 .340 α =.88

3. FMI3 14 2.67 4.42 3.76 0.51 .331 .554* α =.89

4. NSGE1 32 2.63 4.63 3.85 0.52 .382* .267 -.045 α =.86

5. NSGE2 21 2.50 5.00 3.89 0.59 .293 .454* .150 .641** α =.91

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6. NSGE3 14 3.75 5.00 4.46 0.43 -.250 .480* .256 .024 .258 α =.92

Note. FMI = Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory; NSGE = New General Self-Efficacy.

*Correlation is significant at.05. **Correlation is significant at.01 level (1-tailed).

Effect of MBSR Training on FMI

The first hypothesis predicted that mindfulness training (MBSR) would have a positive

effect on the employees’ mindfulness, as measured by the FMI. This hypothesis was examined

using a paired-samples t-test. The results indicated an increase of 0.52 in FMI between T1 and T2.

This increase was found to be significant, t(18) = -3.47, p <.01.

This finding was explained and further supported by the results of the qualitative follow-

up. Most (83%) of the participants stated that after completing the training, they noticed two main

changes: a decrease in their tendency to respond automatically and an improvement in their

awareness of having multiple courses of action to choose from when facing situations wherein

they had previously felt trapped with no choice. In the qualitative part of the current study (in-

focus groups and open-ended questionnaires), many of the participants stated that the training and

continued practice had helped them develop the ability to stop and think before reacting. This

pause between event and reaction had, according to the participants, allowed them to respond in a

calmer fashion, which they perceived as better. Similar quantitative findings are therefore not

surprising using the metaphor of exiting the automatic pilot. One of the participants summed up

this process:

“The realization that we perform many of our day-to-day tasks on auto-pilot has allowed

me to recognize the need to stop, reassess the situation, and choose the option that would

yield the best result for me, instead of reacting automatically. It helped me shift my focus

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from the action to what is best for me. As a result, some of these automatic reactions no

longer happen.”

Another participant when referring to the effect of the training stated also that the practice

allowed him to stop reacting in an automatic pilot and instead allowed him to choose a better

options to react in different situations. He also noted that the open and acceptance way help him

to deal with stressful situations. He also noted about the positive effect of breathing on calming in

stress situations:

“Instead of reacting automatically, I can now stop, think, and come up with a more level-

headed response. I can stop and rethink my actions when I recognize self-judgment. When

things do not go the way I want them to, I can consider my options, and if I cannot change

the situation, I can—sometimes, not always—accept it the way it is and try to look on the

bright side. Breathing really helps me find moments of calm during stressful times.”

Association between FMI and NSGE

The second hypothesis was that mindfulness (as measured by the FMI) would be positively

correlated with self-efficacy (as measured by the NSGE). This hypothesis was examined using

Pearson’s r correlation test. The results revealed a positive correlation between mindfulness and

self-efficacy at both T1 and T2 (see Table 2). Specifically, a significant positive correlation was

found between FMI1 and NSGE1 (r =.382, p <.05) and between FMI2 and NSGE2 (r =.454, p

<.05).

These findings are further supported by qualitative results. One participant described the

effects of mindfulness and awareness on his self-efficacy and belief in his ability to tackle

assignments.

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“Mindfulness has given me the tools to calm myself down during stressful times, to

recognize that a calmer starting position helps me clearly define the tasks I am facing, avoid

unnecessary stressful situations, and avoid stumbling into the same pitfalls again and again.

I just stop, avoid reacting reflexively, refocus, and move on.”

As this participant stated, mindfulness gave him the ability to calm and to better define the task he

is handling, by doing do his self-efficacy was higher and was raised from 4.13 in T1 to 5 in T2.

He also stated that stopping and refocusing again after stressfull situations helped him to better

cope with this those difficult times. Indeed, one of the definitions and characteristics of high self-

efficacy is the ability to cope with difficult and demanding situations (Panatik et al., 2011).

Effect of MBSR Training on NSGE

The third hypothesis was that the MBSR training would have a positive effect on the

employees’ self-efficacy (NSGE) scores. This hypothesis was examined using a paired-samples t-

test. The results indicated that the differences in NSGE scores between T1 and T2 were not

significant t = -0.09, p >.10). One possible reason for this is that not all participants practiced

meditation as regularly as instructed.

This finding gave rise to an alternative hypothesis, that the changes in self-efficacy (NSGE)

are a function of changes in FMI, rather than exposure to the training. To test this alternative

hypothesis, changes in NSGE between T1 and T2 were measured specifically among participants

who showed an above-average increase in their mindfulness (FMI score). To achieve this, we

measured the changes in the participants’ FMI scores between T1 and T2 (ΔMFMI = 0.52).

Differences between NSGE scores were then examined for participants whose FMI scores had

improved by more than the average difference (ΔMFMI). The change in NSGE (ΔMNSGE = 0.25)

among these participants was found to be significant and positive (p <.005), indicating that

19

participants whose FMI scores had increased had also experienced an increase in their NSGE

scores.

These findings are further supported by qualitative results. One participant which practice

at least two times a week described the effects of mindfulness and awareness on her self-efficacy

in her day to day tasks :

“I am less stressed, more relaxed, more enjoying, finding refuge in islands of inner

peace and pleasure in the sea of daily tasks. Then I return to the routine, with a clean mind

and ready to handle the next target. “

As this participated stated, she feels the calmer and more relaxed, this can be seen in her FMI

values which increased from 3.17 in T1 to 4.42 in T3.In addition to that as she sated that this

relaxation help her to return to the routine and handle her tasks in a clean mind, as can be seen

also in her NSGE values which were raised from 3.63 in T1 to 4.63 in T3.

Furthermore, NSGE was shown to have improved significantly between T2 and T3.

Specifically, the NSGE score increased by 0.33 (one-tailed t-test: t[13] = 2.21, p <.05). This effect

and its possible explanations are explored in the discussion section.

20

Discussion

The results of the tests we conducted support our first two hypotheses. The analysis conducted to

test the first hypothesis showed that the participants’ mindfulness had improved following the

MBSR training. This is consistent with previous findings regarding the effect of mindfulness

training on individuals in general and employees in particular. This finding is also in line with

previous research. For example, Williams (2006) found that mindfulness practice led to positive

attitudinal change in addition to lessening the negative impact of daily hassles on practitioners.

In support of the second hypothesis, we found a significant positive correlation between

mindfulness and self-efficacy scores. This finding is important and can be very beneficial to

organizations seeking to improve their employees’ capability and performance by helping them

become more efficacious or to hire employees with higher odds of being efficacious.

In testing Hypothesis 3, we found that the direct cause of the improvement in self-efficacy

was not the MBSR training itself, but rather the improvement in the participants’ mindfulness.

This finding is important for organizations and employees, because numerous studies have shown

self-efficacy to have a beneficial effect on individual and organizational performance.

Crisis at the Company and Organizational Change

During the training, the company faced a severe crisis that led to a large-scale

organizational change—the company announced that more than 2,000 employees would be laid

off. This was a very stressful and difficult time for the employees. Being laid off means having to

deal with employment uncertainty, financial pressures, and other difficulties, which in turn can

lead to unhealthy emotions and negatively affect health and self-perception. The ability to maintain

21

well-being and make decisions to secure reemployment are crucial factors for recently laid-off

individuals (Barner, 2011).

Research has focused on identifying the negative effects of job loss (including its financial

impact) and understanding the experience of stress to ensure well-being (Kanfer & Bufton, 2018;

López Bohle, Chambel, & Diaz-Valdes Iriarte, 2018). The crisis had a significant impact on laid-

off employees and those who remained at the company (the survivors). Past research has found

that the survivors’ affective reactions to the crisis affect their ability to adapt to new situations.

Accordingly, these reactions modulate the effect of the downsizing on the organization (Sahdev&

Tyson., 1999). In studying individuals’ reactions to downsizing, research has considered broad

affective constructs, such as anxiety, stress, and emotional well-being (Paterson & Cary, 2002).

These emotional states do not have a clear and focused object, but rather involve generalized

feelings about the situation (Frijda, 1986). Hareli and Tzafrir (2006) suggested that downsizing

can also lead to more specific emotional states, such as guilt or shame. These emotions arise from

judgments of particular issues in a given situation (Frijda, 1986). According to Sullivan and von

Wachter (2007), factory closings and mass layoffs usually mean a decline in the standard of living,

limited future prospects, and significant psychological effects, such as low self-esteem and

depression. Studies of mass layoffs have found that job displacement raises mortality rates by as

much as 15% to 20%, lowers consumption, and significantly decreases later earnings in the long

run.

The layoffs in this specific company had nothing to do with the employees’ performance

or individual qualities. This was a strategic decision influenced by such external factors as

competition, the state of the economy, and conditions in the pharmaceutical industry. Through this

traumatic event, some laid-off individuals stayed well—in mind and body—whereas others did

22

not. This variance may result from differences in personality and the individuals’ preparedness to

cope with the new situation. Mindfulness practice, such as that prescribed in the MBSR training,

is one way to better prepare individuals for this type of crisis.

Mindfulness may play a key role in shaping an individual’s layoff experience and

minimizing or even eliminating negative impact. Ample research has demonstrated that

mindfulness substantially improves an individual’s ability to manage stressful life events

(Carmody & Baer, 2008; Galante et al., 2018; Kabat-Zinn, 1990, 2003; Wallace & Shapiro, 2006).

Laid-off individuals need to maintain their physical and emotional well-being through the trauma,

and mindfulness practice has been shown to help achieve this. Research also indicated that

mindfulness practice increases self-motivation and decision-making ability (e.g., Bishop et al.,

2004; Ennis, 2017). These are important factors in seeking reemployment.

Because this crisis deeply affected the employees, we introduced a fourth questionnaire 4

months after the employees had completed the second training (9 months after they had completed

the first one). The purpose of this questionnaire was to examine the effect of the training and

subsequent practice on the participants’ mindfulness and self-efficacy, to see how they had coped

with this difficult time, and to determine whether becoming more mindful had helped them cope

successfully.

Participants were asked several open-ended questions regarding the crisis, including

whether they were still employed at the pharmaceutical company and how the training and practice

had affected their ability to cope with the organization’s challenging situation. The questionnaires

were sent to the participants’ email addresses at the pharmaceutical company’s domain by default,

or to other addresses if they had provided any. It is therefore possible that we were unable to reach

some of the laid-off employees. Of the two groups, nine participants completed the questionnaire.

23

Of those who completed the questionnaires, 33% (n = 3) stated that they had either left the

company voluntarily or been laid off. All participants stated that the training had helped them cope

with the situation, and 77% (n = 7) stated that it had helped them “to a great extent” or “to a very

great extent.” One participant shared the following insight:

“When you’re in touch with yourself and feeling confident, you think rationally and

make the right choices. That’s why I feel that the training and practice have helped me

reach the decision to leave the company of my own volition. I now have a new job in

a higher position and with better conditions.”

This account supports the assumption that self-awareness (the second component of

mindfulness, according to its definition) helped this participant to believe in his abilities and to

reach to a decision of leaving the company of his own violation. Indeed, from the start of the

training to the time period after the crisis, this participant’s FMI score increased from 3.21 to 3.53,

leading to a subsequent increase in NSGE, from 3.75 to 4.13

Other participants described the effect of the training on their confidence in their ability to

face challenges during the cutbacks:

“The training took place during one of the company’s most difficult periods. It was

perfect timing. I believe that had I not taken the course, I would have had more

difficulties coping—both at the company and otherwise.”

Another participant reported:

“The training has helped me cope better with problematic situations.”

24

Organizational changes are becoming increasingly common in today’s workplace.

However, research has shown that such changes lead to stress, especially when they are forced on

employees (Armenakis & Bedeian, 1999; Vakola & Nikolaou, 2005; Vakola & Petrou, 2018). Our

findings are in line with other studies (Avey, Wernsing, & Luthans, 2008Charoensukmongkol,

2017), which showed that mindfulness may help employees cope with organizational change in

various ways. In our study, all participants stated that the daily practice had helped them cope with

the crisis in the organization. More specifically, most of those who participated in this stage (n =

8) stated that daily practice had helped them to a “moderate extent” or higher. These findings are

in line with Bond and Bunce (2003), who found that employees with higher levels of acceptance—

a key component of mindfulness—had better job control. Mindfulness could reduce the stress

associated with the loss of job control, a common result of organizational change.

The ability to cope with problematic situations is characteristic of people with high self-

efficacy (Lloyd, Bond, & Flaxman, 2017; Panatik et al., 2001). Our findings indicate that the

ability to be mindful contributes to increased self-efficacy, and that high self-efficacy in turn

improves the ability to face and cope with sudden and disruptive organizational change.

Work Family Enrichment

Participants reported that the benefits of the training extended beyond the workplace; it

also helped them overcome challenges and cope with stressful situations at home, with their

families. One participant stated that after completing the training, she had organized a birthday

party for her daughter and discovered that what had previously been a very stressful task was now

stress-free. She reported being able to perform better because of her confidence in her abilities.

Other participants described the effect of the training on her relationships with her family :

25

“Accepting my self allows me to accept more easily those around me, and

this is reflecting first and foremost in my relationship with my spouse and children.

I’m less judgmental, more listening, giving space to the feelings and opinions of the

other. More compassion. More stops to think, is there any other way to solve, less

harmful, more effective and useful.”

Those and other examples indicate that the increased self-efficacy that follows an increase

in mindfulness contributes to work–family enrichment. Powell and Greenhaus (2006) defined

work–family enrichment as the extent to which experiences in one role improve the quality of life

in the other role. They found that work–family enrichment is either unrelated or negatively related

to work–family conflict, depending on the specific process that determines how experiences in one

role may affect experiences in the other role.

As seen from the participants’ answers, the training provided at the workplace affected

their awareness and self-efficacy with their families. Not only does this added benefit equip

employees to better cope with challenges in their personal lives, it is also very important to

organizations, because an employee’s personal well-being can greatly improve performance at

work.

To obtain and explain quantitative data, we used both open-ended questions and focus

groups. These two research methods are interpretative in nature. They focus on attempting to learn

about people in their natural environments using their own interpretations of their experiences

(Denzin & Lincoln, 1994, 2002).

The study has shown the effect of mindfulness on self-efficacy among individuals with

high initial NSGE scores—developers and engineers from a company’s research and development

department. The findings indicate a significant improvement in these individuals’ NSGE scores.

26

According to Michels’ iron law of oligarchy, if an improvement is evident in a group with such

high initial self-efficacy scores, we are likely to see similar findings in groups with lower self-

efficacy as well.

Limitations

The study was originally designed for two groups: an experimental group and a control

group. During the study, we encountered difficulties in preserving the control group. This

limitation prevented us from assessing the control group and comparing the results to the

experimental group. To overcome this limitation and minimize the history threat to internal

validity (Campbell & Stanley, 1963)—namely, the possibility that an event occurring outside the

framework of the training caused the improvement in the participants’ scores (Christ, 2007)—we

held a second mindfulness training course at the company. We conducted another test using a two-

experiment design, similar to the one used by Campbell and Stanley (2015). The tests we

conducted are summed up in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Two-Experiment Design

Note. FMI = Freiburg Mindfulness Inventory.

The goal of the first test was to make sure no external events affected the participants’

mindfulness level and to minimize history and maturation threats to internal validity. To do this,

27

we checked that the two groups’ initial FMI scores were the same. We found no significant

differences between the groups (p =.55). Furthermore, both groups were chosen from the same

department using a randomized selection method, and no differences in personality profiles were

found between the groups. Because the two randomly selected groups started with the same

mindfulness scores and personality profiles, we can conclude that the two groups had equivalent

starting points.

A second test examined the change in the experimental group’s mindfulness levels

following the training. We found a significant positive change in the experimental group’s

mindfulness (p <.06).

The third test checked for significant differences in the two groups’ mindfulness scores at

T2. At this point, the first group had already completed the training, whereas the second group had

not. Thus, the test examined whether the change indicated in the experimental group had been the

outcome of time-related threats to internal validity (i.e., history, maturation). The experimental

group’s score differed significantly compared to the control group’s (p <.001), indicating a

significant change in the experimental group.

Future Research

In this study, we examined the effect of mindfulness on self-efficacy among employees

with high initial self-efficacy. To investigate this further, we recommend examining the effects of

mindfulness practice and mindfulness improvement on self-efficacy in groups with lower initial

NSGE scores and more diverse professional backgrounds. We also recommend expanding the

study to include quantitative work efficiency measurements to assess the participants’ performance

at work. To achieve this, participants must be selected from departments in which performance

28

can be quantified. Last, we recommend using and maintaining a larger control group and finding

more ways to motivate control group members to complete the questionnaires.

29

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Appendix 1 - The MBSR training outline

From the book “The Mindful workplace” Michael Chaskalson, 2011.

Week 1: Automatic pilot

The goal of this session is that the participants will notice and be aware of the “automatic-

pilot mode,” that is, doing what we know how to do without a great deal of self-awareness

of ourselves. The participants will take the first steps toward some kind of commitment to

learning how regularly to step out of automatic pilot mode and become more aware.

Week 2: Dealing with barriers

The rationale of this session is that further focus on the body exposes more clearly the

extent of the chatter in the mind. Participants will begin to see the extent to which their

center of attention tends to be located in their thinking progress.

Week 3: Mindfulness of the breath and body in movement

The goal of this session is that the participants will learn more about the power of being

present to our experience. Participants will learn how bringing their attention deliberately

to their bodies at times of difficulty can offer another perspective on the difficulty and can

often instigate a more resourceful way of dealing with the difficulty.

Week 4: Staying present and dealing with stress

The goal of this session is that the participants will see the way in which our attempts to

cling on to desirable experiences and push undesirable ones away colors our minds and

drives our behavior.

44

Participants will also learn about the neurophysiology of stress and begin to develop more

resourceful ways of dealing with stressful situations. Participants will begin to create

strategies for recognizing and dealing with stressful moments.

Week 5: Acceptance: Allowing/letting be

The purpose of this session is to learn the values of allowing things to be just as they are

without judging them or trying to make them different. This attitude of acceptance is a

major part of taking care of ourselves and it allows us to see more clearly what, if anything,

needs to change.

Week 6: Relationships and thoughts are not facts

The purpose of this session is to learn to see thoughts just for what they are – thoughts

– and to step back from them, without necessarily needing to question them or to seek

an alternative.

Week 7: How can I best take care of myself?

In this session, participants will explore the relationship between activities and stress.

Participants will begin to create strategies and activities for increasing their level of

wellbeing.

Week 8: Acceptance and Change

The rationale of this session is that regular mindfulness practice can support a sustaining

balance in life that makes for greater effectiveness and higher levels of satisfaction and

wellbeing. In this last session, participants will share their feelings about the entire training

and commit to future practice in their daily life.

45

Appendix 2 - FMI Questionnaire

1. I am open to the experience of the present moment.

2. I sense my body, whether eating, cooking, cleaning, or talking.

3. When I notice an absence of mind, I gently return to the experience of the here and

now.

4. I am able to appreciate myself.

5. I pay attention to what’s behind my actions.

6. I see my mistakes and difficulties without judging them.

7. I feel connected to my experience in the here-and-now.

8. I accept unpleasant experiences.

9. I am friendly to myself when things go wrong.

10. I watch my feelings without getting lost in them.

11. In difficult situations, I can pause without immediately reacting.

12. I experience moments of inner peace and ease, even when things get hectic and

stressful.

13. I am impatient with myself and with others.

14. I am able to smile when I notice how I sometimes make life difficult.

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Appendix 3 - NSGE Questionnaire

1. I will be able to achieve most of the goals that I have set for myself.

2. When facing difficult tasks, I am certain that I will accomplish them.

3. In general, I think that I can obtain outcomes that are important to me.

4. I believe I can succeed at most any endeavor to which I set my mind.

5. I will be able to successfully overcome many challenges.

6. I am confident that I can perform effectively on many different tasks.

7. Compared to other people, I can do most tasks very well.

8. Even when things are tough, I can perform quite well.

בחינת ההשפעה של תרגול מיינדפולס על מסוגלות עצמית של עובדים

בארגון

נעמה קטן

תקציר

. לתיקוף מדעי במספר עצום של מחקרים מדעייםזכה בשנים האחרונות , מודעות קשובה ,מיינדפולנס

הן ברמה האישית מבחינה רגשית מיינדפולנסתרגול מחקרים אלה מצביעים על השלכות חיוביות של

למרות . ביצועים ומחויבות למשימה, יחסים בין אישיים: ופיזית והן מבחינת השלכות בתחום העבודה כגון

לא נעשה , בעשור האחרון במספר המחקרים הבוחנים את תירגול מיינדפולנס והשפעותיו הגידול העצום

זאת . של עובדים בארגון( self-efficacy)על החוללות העצמית מחקר מקיף הבוחן את השפעת התירגול

על יכולתם לסיים משימה ועל הצלחתם , למרות התרומה העצומה של האחרונה על ביצועי העובדים

השערת המחקר הינה כי קיים קשר . המחקר הנוכחי בא לבחון את השפעה זו .ןבהכשרות והדרכות למיניה

. לבין מדד החוללות העצמית חיובי בין תרגול המיינדפולנס

פ של אחת "על מחלקת המו MBSRבחנו את השפעתו של קורס מיינדפולנס , על מנת לבחון זאת

הינו תכנית תירגול המיינדפולנס מובילה אשר נבחנה ונמצאה MBSRקורס ה . מהחברות הגדולות בארץ

עובדים התנדבו לקחת חלק 60פ של החברה "מתוך עובדי המו. כעומדת בסטנדרטיים חברתיים ומדעיים

, במהלך הקורסים. משתתפים להוות שתי קבוצות מחקר 32מתוכם בחרנו בצורה רנדומלית , בתכנית

עובדה אשר יצרה לחץ ומתח , מעובדיה 200החברה עמדה בפני משבר גדול והודיעה על פיטוריהם על

.בקרב העובדים במהלך תקופה זו

. בסוף ולאחר הקורס, נערכו לפני תאיכותני כאשר הבדיקו המחקר שילב ניתוח כמותני עם ניתוח

הנתונים . מהממצאים עלה כי קיימת עלייה מובהקת במדד החוללות העצמית אצל משתתפי הקורס

האיכותניים הצביעו על כך כי עלייה זו סייעה לעובדים להתמודד עם התקופה הקשה בחברה והגבירה את

ממצא זה הינו נתון חשוב אשר יכול . תקופה הן בעבודה והן בביתאמונתם ביכולתם להתמודד עם אתגרי ה

לסייע מאד לארגונים אשר מעוניינים לשפר את מדד החוללות העצמית בקרב עובדיהם ובכך לסייע להם

. להיות להתמודד בצורה טובה יותר עם משימות הן ברמה האירגונית וברמה האישית

מסוגלות עצמית של עובדים בחינת ההשפעה של תרגול מיינדפולס על

בארגון

נעמה קטן: מאת

פרופסור שי צפריר: בהנחיית

פרופסור גיא אנוש

"מוסמך" התואר קבלת לאחר המוגשת (תזה) מחקרית גמר עבודת

חיפה אוניברסיטת

לניהול הפקולטה

עסקים למנהל החוג

2018, נובמבר

על מסוגלות עצמית של עובדים בחינת ההשפעה של תרגול מיינדפולס

בארגון

נעמה קטן

"מוסמך" התואר קבלת לאחר המוגשת (תזה) מחקרית גמר עבודת

חיפה אוניברסיטת

לניהול הפקולטה

עסקים למנהל החוג

2018, נובמבר