The Effect Of Colored Accent Marks In Music Notation ...
Transcript of The Effect Of Colored Accent Marks In Music Notation ...
University of Mississippi University of Mississippi
eGrove eGrove
Electronic Theses and Dissertations Graduate School
2016
The Effect Of Colored Accent Marks In Music Notation During The The Effect Of Colored Accent Marks In Music Notation During The
Sight-Reading Process For High School And College Wind Sight-Reading Process For High School And College Wind
Instrumentalists Instrumentalists
Eric Bradley Malone University of Mississippi
Follow this and additional works at: https://egrove.olemiss.edu/etd
Part of the Music Education Commons
Recommended Citation Recommended Citation Malone, Eric Bradley, "The Effect Of Colored Accent Marks In Music Notation During The Sight-Reading Process For High School And College Wind Instrumentalists" (2016). Electronic Theses and Dissertations. 710. https://egrove.olemiss.edu/etd/710
This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at eGrove. It has been accepted for inclusion in Electronic Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of eGrove. For more information, please contact [email protected].
THEEFFECTOFCOLOREDACCENTMARKSINMUSICNOTATIONDURINGTHESIGHT-
READINGPROCESSFORHIGHSCHOOLANDCOLLEGEWINDINSTRUMENTALISTS
AThesisPresentedfortheMasterofMusic
DegreeTheUniversityofMississippi
by
ERICB.MALONE
August2016
ii
ABSTRACT
Thepurposeofthisstudywastotestnewwaysofimprovingthesight-reading
processinmusic.Thisexperimentalstudyhasbeensplitintotwoidenticalstudies
completedindifferentsettings.Thefirststudyutilized56volunteerwindinstrumentalists
fromahighschoolbandassubjects,whilethesecondstudyutilized30volunteerwind
instrumentalistsfromacollegebandassubjects.
Thesamepretest-posttestexperimentwasusedforeachstudy.Thesubjectswere
randomlydividedintoanexperimentalgroupandacontrolgroup,whiletwoshortmusical
excerptswerecomposedtousefortheexperiment.Thepretestexcerptwasunalteredto
determinenaturaltendenciesofaccentsduringthesight-readingprocessforeachgroup.
Theposttestexcerpthadtheaccentmarksprintedinredinkfortheexperimentalgroup
only,whilethecontrolgroupreadtheexcerptinunalteredblackink.Allofthetestswere
audio-recorded,andthesubjectsfilledoutaquestionnaireofadditionalinformationafter
theposttest.
Aftertherecordingswereevaluatedtodetermineifthesubjectsperformedthe
accents,theresultswererevealing.Thehighschoolstudyshowedthatonly16%of
subjectsperformedaccentsduringthepretest,andtheposttestshowed43%ofsubjectsin
theexperimentalgroupperformedaccents.Thecollegestudyshowedthat40%ofsubjects
performedaccentsduringthepretest,andtheposttestshowed93%ofsubjectsinthe
experimentalgroupperformedaccents.Thequestionnaireshowedthatlessons,older
iii
subjects(inhighschoolonly),andbrassplayerstypicallyperformedaccentsmore
consistently.Collegesubjectsalsoclearlyperformedtheaccentsmorethandidhighschool
subjects.
iv
DEFINITIONS:
1. Color,fortheuseofthisstudy,isalwaysred.
2. Accentsareatypeofarticulationusedtoinstructthemusiciantoplaceemphasison
acertainbeatornote.Fortheuseofthisstudy,“accents”refertonormal(>)accent
marksonly.
3. Assistant,fortheuseofthisstudy,appliestothepersonthattheresearcherusedto
administertheexperimentwithasecondgroupofsubjectstomaketheprocess
moreefficientandgainmoresubjectsforthestudy.
4. Judge,fortheuseofthisstudy,appliestotheexpertmusiciansthattheresearcher
recruitedtolistentotherecordingsandevaluatewhetherthesubjectperformedthe
accentsintheexcerptsornot.Thesemusicianswereallintheprocessof
completingaMasterofMusicdegreeinMusicEducation.
5. LocationDirector,fortheuseofthisstudy,referstothebanddirectorofeach
location.
v
TABLEOFCONTENTS
ABSTRACT...................................................................................................................................................................ii
LISTOFDEFINITIONS...........................................................................................................................................iv
LISTOFTABLES......................................................................................................................................................vi
LISTOFFIGURES....................................................................................................................................................vii
CHAPTER1:INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................................1
CHAPTER2:REVIEWOFLITERATURE..........................................................................................................5
CHAPTER3:METHODOLOGY...........................................................................................................................22
CHAPTER4:RESULTS..........................................................................................................................................29
CHAPTER5:DISCUSSION...................................................................................................................................39
LISTOFREFERENCES..........................................................................................................................................46
LISTOFAPPENDICES...........................................................................................................................................50
VITA..............................................................................................................................................................................66
vi
LISTOFTABLES
1. QuestionnaireResultsSheet---HighSchool..................................................................................52
2. QuestionnaireResultsSheet---College...........................................................................................54
3. HighSchool,College,andCombined-Experimentalv.ControlGroupData....................32
4. HighSchoolandCollegeGenderAnalysis-Experimentalv.ControlGroupData.........33
5. HighSchoolandCollegeAgeAnalysis-Experimentalv.ControlGroupData................34
6. CombinedNumberofYearsinBandAnalysis-Experimentalv.ControlGroup
Data...............................................................................................................................................................35
7. HighSchoolandCollegeInstrumentTypeAnalysis-Experimentalv.ControlGroup
Data...............................................................................................................................................................37
8. CombinedNumberofYearsinLessonsAnalysis-Experimentalv.ControlGroup
Data...............................................................................................................................................................38
vii
LISTOFFIGURES
1. Combined(HighSchoolandCollege)ObservedRecordingResultsforChi-Squared
Analysis........................................................................................................................................................29
2. Combined(HighSchoolandCollege)ExpectedRecordingResultsforChi-Squared
Analysis........................................................................................................................................................30
3. HighSchoolObservedRecordingResultsforChi-SquaredAnalysis.................................30
4. HighSchoolExpectedRecordingResultsforChi-SquaredAnalysis..................................31
5. CollegeObservedRecordingResultsforChi-SquaredAnalysis..........................................31
6. CollegeExpectedRecordingResultsforChi-SquaredAnalysis...........................................31
1
CHAPTER1:INTRODUCTION
Sight-readinghasalwaysbeenoneofthemostimportantskillsthatamusiciancan
have.Theabilitytolookatnotationonapieceofmusicandperformitproficientlythevery
firsttimehelpsgreatlyinfuturerehearsalsofthatpiece.Itallowstheperformertospend
lesstimeworkingonbasicfundamentalslikerhythms,pitches,andpulse;whileallowing
himorhertospendmoretimeonthedetailslikemusicality,articulation,and
interpretation.Sight-readingisaskillthatmustbedevelopedthroughpractice.However,
therearealwaysmusicianslookingforsimpletrickstohelpthemselvesandtheirstudents
tosight-readmoreefficiently.Whilethereisnotricktosolveallofthemysteriesofsight-
reading,therearesomethingsthathavebeendiscoveredtohelpamusicianalongthe
processofimprovement.Someoftheseactivitieshavebeendiscoveredandpassedalong
throughtheyears,whileothershavestillyettobediscovered.
Sinceover60%oftheproblemsinsight-reading(McPherson1994)aretypically
identifiedasbeingrhythmic,itisnosurprisethatmusicianshaveworkedonwaystomake
rhythmmoreaccessibletoyoungmusicians.Oneofthekeywaysthatmusicianshave
helpedwiththerhythmicaspectofsight-readingisthroughbodymovement.Onewaythis
canbeseenisbythemusiciankeepingpulsebytappingthefootwhenplaying.Thisis
somethingseenwithmostmusiciansfromearlyyearsofstudytotheprofessionallevel.
Anotheractionthatsomemusiciansemploywhensight-readingistheclappingofrhythms
beforetheyperformtheexcerpt(Boyle1970).Patternrecognitionexercisesprovetobe
2
anotheractionperformedbymusicianstoaidintheabilitytosight-readmoreproficiently.
Ithasbeenfoundthatusingflashcardsinthebeginningyearsofmusicstudycanaid
musiciansindeterminingpitchnamesaswellastheintervalsthatarebeingusedinsight-
readingmaterials(Fineet.al2006).
Thesesingularskillswerefoundtobehelpful,butnottheonlynecessaryskills
whenreadingmusic.Itwassoondiscoveredthatatruemusiciancannotbeproficientat
sight-readingwithonesingularskill,butmustinsteadhaveacollectionofskillsthatprove
tobeofimportancetoallmusicians.Althoughrhythmictrainingisnecessaryalongwith
patternrecognition,therearemanyotheraspectsofmusictrainingnecessaryaswell.The
abilitytointernallyhearmusicbeforeithasbeenplayed.Thishasbeenestablishedas
importantbytheresearchofBobbitt(1970),Harris(2001),andMishra(2014).These
studies,alongwithothersdiscussedinChapter2,alsodescribethenecessaryskillssuchas:
attentiveandrapidlymovingeyes,musicalstyletraining,readingcomprehension,
psychomotorskills,andreactiontime.Someoftheseskillsareeasilytrained,whileothers
takemuchtimeanddedicationtoimprove,astheyarenotallphysicalskills,butcognitive
abilitiesaswell.
Someresearchershavealsolookedatthepossibilityofchangingmusicnotationto
involvetheuseofcolor.Thisuseofcolortoaltermusicnotationhasgonethroughaperiod
ofexperimentalstudiestodiscoverifithasviableuseinthefutureofmusiceducation.
Someofthesestudieshavebeenabittooradicaltobeusedasanewformofmusic
notation,likePoast’s(2000)ColorMusictechniqueusedtomakeapaintingthatisreadas
musicnotation.Othershavebeensimpleinnature,likeKuoandMing-Chuen’s(2013)
articledescribingtheuseoftwelvecolorsandshape-notesinsteadoftypicalnotation.
3
Therehave,however,beensomeworthwhilestudiesdoneusingcolorsnottocompletely
erasetraditionalmusicnotation,buttohighlightitinstead.Thesestudiesshowpromising
waysofhowtohelpincreasetheproficiencyofsight-readingbymusicianswithsimple
changes.
Evenwiththetypesofactivitiesthathavebeenattemptedinordertoimprovethe
sight-readingprocessformusicians,nonehavebeenabletosolveanyproblemsontheir
own.Ittakesacollectionofthesestudiesandmethodstotrulyimprovetheprocessfor
currentandfuturemusicians.Thepurposeofthisstudyistotestnewwaystoimprovethe
sight-readingprocess.Asanaccomplishedmusician,Ihavebeenaskedtoadjudicatemany
auditions.Inmytimeasajudge,itseemsthatthelastthingthatmusiciansfocusonduring
thesight-readingportionofanauditionistheuseofdifferentarticulationsandaccentsthat
arepresentinthenotation.Thesesimplecomponentstothemusicwouldimprovethe
resultsoftheauditionexponentially,butthestudentsstillneglecttheseaspectsofthe
music.Perhapsoneofthereasonsthattheseportionsofthemusicareabandonedis
becausethenotationissocluttered.
Musiciansmustbecomeexpertsatdecodingsymbolsquickly,butitbecomes
difficultwhenamusicianmustreadsomanysymbolsatonceinordertoplayasinglebeat
ofthemusic.Thetimesignature,keysignature,pitch-name,accidental,dynamics,
articulation,accent,tempo,etc.mustallbereadandrememberedforeverysinglenote-
headinthenotation.Partsofthisnotationcaneasilygetlostinallofthisblackinkonthe
page.ThatiswhyIthoughtofafewsimplechangestomaketomusicnotationoverthe
pastfewyearsofmystudythathaveshednewlightonwaystoimprovesight-reading.
Althoughthisstudyisnotthefinalstepoftheprocess,itisanimportantstep.Thesmallest
4
andmosteasilyignoredpartofnotationistheaccentmarkeitheraboveorbelowthenote-
head.Withthatinmind,makingasimpleadjustmenttothemusicnotationtobringmore
attentiontothissmall,butimportantsymbolseemsnecessary.
Itmakesperfectsensetoutilizetheadvancesintechnologytoprintmusicincolor.
Asseeninpreviousstudies,usingcolorinnotationcanhelptohighlightcertainaspectsof
notation.Perhapsthechangingofonesimplething,likethecoloroftheaccentmark,can
makeadifferenceinthesight-readingprocesswithminimaleffortforthemusician.Simply
makingthecolorofanaccentmarkinmusicnotationredwhileitissurroundedbyblack
inkmaydrawtheattentionofthemusiciantothatmarkwhileheorsheisreadingthrough
thenotation.Thisoneadjustment,unlikemanyoftheotheronesbeingstudied,would
requirenoadditionaltrainingforthemusiciansincetheworkhasalreadybeendone.Ifthe
musicianhasbeentaughtproperlytobeginwith,thenthiswilljusthelptobringthat
trainingtotheauditionprocessmorereadily.
5
CHAPTER2:REVIEWOFLITERATURE
Sight-reading
Sight-readinghasbeenidentifiedasoneofthenecessaryskillsofamusician.There
are,however,manyaspectsofsight-readingthathavebeenstudiedtodeterminehowto
improvethisskillamongcurrentandfuturemusicians.Thisresearchhasshownthatthere
aremanyaspectsofsight-readingthatmustbeimprovedtoimprovetheoverallabilityof
musicians.Therehavebeenstudiesthathaveshownalackofabilitywithregardto
rhythm,pitch,ageneralcollectionofmusicalabilities,selectcognitiveabilities,andeven
notationrecognition.
RegardingRhythm
Manystudieshavebeencompletedwithregardstoimprovingrhythmicaccuracy
andshowingthatrhythmisapitfalltothesight-readingprocess.Boyle(1970)showedthat
simplerhythmicmovement,likethetappingofamusician’sfootduringthesight-reading
processcanmakeamajordifferenceinaccuracy.Boyle’sstudyutilizedatotalof191
subjectsintheexperiment.Thesubjectsoftheexperimentalgroupweretrainedtotap
theirfoottothepulseduringthesight-readingprocessaswellasclappingtherhythms
beforetheybeginplaying.Theresultsoftheposttestshowedthattherhythmreadingskills
andsight-readingscoresweresignificantlyhigherfortheexperimentalgroupthanthey
wereforthecontrolgroup.Thissuggeststhatrhythmicmovementisvery
6
advantageoustosight-readingefficiency.
ThisresearchbyBoylebeenexpandedbyothermusicresearchersthroughthe
yearsaswell.Onemusicresearcherthatsupportedfurthertheimportanceofrhythmic
readingabilityduringthesight-readingprocessisMcPherson(1994).McPherson’sstudy
showedthatthemajorityofmistakesmadeduringthesight-readingprocesswereindeed
rhythmicmistakes.Hisstudyincluded101highschoolclarinetandtrumpetplayersas
subjectsfortheexperiment.ThisAustralianstudysplitthethesubjectsintotwogroups,
Group1(gradesseventhroughnine)andGroup2(gradestenthroughtwelve).Therewere
littlesignificantresultsinGroup1,mostlybecauseofinconsistencybetweensubjects.
Group2showedthatbetween59%and64%(averageof61.3%)oferrorsmadeduringthe
sight-readingprocesswererhythmic.Thisnumberisdirectlyinlinewithprevious
researchstudiescitingmorethan60%oferrorsmadeinthesight-readingprocessas
rhythmic.Theothercategoriesofmistakeswerenotsignificantlyconsistenttomake
judgments.
Itiscleartoseefromthesestudiesthatrhythmisanimportantaspectwhenit
comestoreadingmusic.WithMcPherson’sstudy(1994)showingthatover60%ofthe
mistakesmadeduringsight-readingbeingattributedtorhythm,itisnowonderwhy
researchintorhythmreadingissoimportant.Boyle’s(1970)contributionsshowthe
possibilityofphysicalactionscouldhelprhythmicreadingabilitytobedeveloped.These
twostudiesshowaverylimitedviewofresults,butbothshowthatagoodportionofthe
mistakesmadeduringsight-readingcanbeattributedtorhythmicreadinginaccuracies.
7
RegardingPitch
Anotherimportantfacetofsight-readingabilityasidefromrhythmreading,is
clearlyregardingpitch.Thisparticularaspectofmusicreadingisviewedbymanytobethe
mostimportant,whichmakessensewiththeamountofresearchdonetodevelopwaysto
improvepitchrecognitioninmusicians.AstudybyFineet.al(2006)showedthe
importanceofpatternrecognitioninsight-reading.Thisstudywasdonewithvocalists,so
itdidincludesomemoreparticularskillsetswithregardstopitchaccuracy.Thestudy
usedtwotests:anintervalsingingtestandthesingingofBachchoraleswithalterationsin
melody,harmony,orboth.Thestudy’sresultsshowedthatthevocalistsweremore
capableofsight-singingthealteredharmoniesthantheywereoftheothertwoversions.
Thestudyalsoshowedthat,aswasexpected,sight-readingabilityofvocalistsweredirectly
relatedtotheintervalsingingabilityofthevocalists.Thisstudydidshowthatpattern
recognitionwasextremelyimportanttothesight-readingabilityofvocalists.Thispattern
recognitionabilitycanbedirectlyrelatedtoinstrumentalistsaswellbecauseitdescribes
theabilityofrealizingpitchesbeforethemusicianperformsthem.Thisstudyshowsthat
readingpitchesisnotalwayssuchagivenwhenreadingmusic.
RegardingCollectionofNecessarySkills
Sometimestheresearchintomusicsight-readingdoesnotyieldasingleresultofa
necessaryskill,butinsteadyieldsacollectionofskillsthatarenecessarytobeagreatsight
reader.OnestudyofthisnaturecomesfromBobbit’s(1970)studyinwhichheintroduces
asystemofteachingmusicreadingskillstoelementary-agechildren.Hissystemof
teachingwastestedfornearlyayeartogetsomegoodresults.Thisstudyusedavarietyof
helpfultoolsliketape-recordedclips,slideshows,aswellasaveryquick-pacedmovement
8
fromoneitemofinstructiontothenext.Hissystemspentnomorethanfiveminuteson
anyitemofinstructionandwasprogrammedsothateachlessoncouldhandlelargegroups
ofchildren,aswellasseparatingeachportionofthelessonintologicallysequencedsmall
steps.Theconceptsdependedonbeingabletograspthematerialwithalimitedamountof
timeandtheuseofrepetitiontoreinforceit.Heteachesintervalsinanordernot
dependentonscalesorkeys,butinsteadbasinghisprogressiononintervalsthatare
prevalentinmusicliterature.Hissystemdependsonstartingthisprogramedcurriculum
noearlierthanthirdgradeandhavingeachclasssplitintotwogroupsforsingingand
rhythmexercises.Hisresultsshowedthatafteronlytwenty-fivethirty-minutesessions,
fifthgradersthatwerepreviouslyunabletoevenrecognizeintervalswereabletosing
intervalsofaperfectfourth,majorthird,minorthird,andoctave.Healsousedasimple
analysisofworthwhilemusicliteraturewiththeclasstofindintervalsthattheywere
learningatthetime.Bobbittfeltthatcontinueduseofthissystemwouldleadtomuch
greatermusicalliteracyandagreaterappreciationofmusicliterature.
Anotherstudytodeterminethebestpredictorvariablesforsight-readingability
wasdonebyElliot(1982).Hestudiedthirtycollegeinstrumentalistsassubjectsand
lookedattheirtechnicalproficiency,sight-singingability,rhythm-readingability,
cumulativegradepointaverage,cumulativemusictheorygradepointaverage,cumulative
performancejurygradepointaverage,andmajorinstrumentgradepointaverage.Various
testswereusedaswellasthesubjects’schoolrecordstoobtaintherequiredinformation
forthestudy.Theresultsshowedthatthemostsignificantrelationshipwithsight-reading
performanceisduetorhythm-readingandhighperformancejuryscores.Thecombination
9
ofthesetwofactorsprovedtobethemostconsistentpredictorsofhighachievingsight-
readers.
AnarticlebyHarris(2001)discussesthefunctionofeyeswhenreadingmusic,
calledrapideyemovement.Hisdescriptionisthattheeyemovesbackandforthacrossthe
pageasmanyasfiveorsixtimesasecond.Thisrapideyemovementisthekeytosight-
readingability.Healsodiscussesabasiccombinationoffactorsthatarenecessaryto
performasaproficientsightreader:recognizingpitch,understandingrhythm,looking
ahead,rememberingthekeysignature,observingnotationalmarkings,andremembering
fingerings.Healsodiscussesmorein-depthfactorsthatarenecessaryinthesight-reading
processlikeforminganauralunderstandingofthemusic,developingmusicalinstrinct,and
combiningnotesandrhythm,whilestillkeepingasteadypulse.Withthecombinationof
allofthesefactors,Harrisbelievesthatanyonecanperformimpressivelyduringthesight-
readingprocess.
Themeta-analysisdonebyMishra(2014)wasdonetodetermineifstudiesusing
experimentalmeasurestoinfluencesight-readingabilityhadanyeffect.Mishratook106
studiesintoaccountandanalyzedtheirresultsasawholetofindmoresignificantoverall
results.Thetreatmentswereseparatedintoelevencategoriesbytheauthor.Themost
effectivetreatmenttypesprovedtobeauraltraining,controlledreading,creativeactivities,
andsinging/solfege.Sincethetreatmenttypeswerenotallhomogeneousandnottreating
thesamesubjectsorthesamesubjectsize,itishardtoclassifytheresultsconsistently
throughouttheanalysis.
ThestudybyRaynerandPollatsek(1997)studiedthemovementsoftheeyes,the
optimalspanbetweentheeyesandthehands,andtheperceptualspanduringthesight-
10
readingofmusic.Thestudyusespianistsassubjects,sincethistypeofstudyismore
commonwiththesemusicians.Theamountofpulsesthattheeyesreadaheadofthe
handswhilethemusicianisplayingtheinstrumentistheaimoftheexperiment.The
resultsoftheexperimentshowthatthetypicalandoptimalspanoftheeyesisabouttwoor
threepulsesaheadofthehandsforaskilledperformer.Thefinalaspecttestedwasthe
perceptualspan,meaninghowfaraheadtheeyesareactuallyviewingthenotation.Since
theeyesdoscansomuchfasterthanthemotorfunctionscanhandle,researcherswanted
toknowjusthowfaraheadtheeyesareseeing.Itwasconcludedthroughtheexperiment
thattheeyestypicallyseealittlemorethanasinglemeasureofmusicaltimeaheadofthe
hands.
ThearticlebySaxon(2009)isacompilationofskillsfromvariousstudiesand
articlestellingthebestwaystobeagreatsight-readerasamusician.Someofthe
suggestionsinclude:keeptheeyesmovingforward,neverlookbackatwhatcouldhave
beenbetter;donotcorrectmistakes;count;andkeepasteadytempo.Thearticlepresents
strategiestohelpwiththesesuggestionsandothers.Italsopresentseducatorswithsome
tipstohelpstudentsimprovetheirsight-readingability.
Zhukov(2014)didastudyevaluatingdifferentapproachestotheteachingofsight-
readingskillstopianists.Theresearcherwantedtodetermineifpianists’sight-reading
skillscouldbestrengthenedwithtraininginanyofthefollowingteachingapproaches:
accompanying,rhythmtraining,andtheunderstandingofmusicalstyle.Thestudyutilized
100pianistsforthestudyandtheyweregradedusingsoftwaretogivefourscoresona
pre/posttestsetup.Thepianistsweretrainedwiththeirrespectiveprogramfortenweeks
beforetheevaluationstookplace.Theresultsshowedthatrhythmtrainingandmusical
11
styleunderstandingwerethemostsignificanttrainingprogramsandwereworthfurther
research.Nosignificantresultswerefoundforanyofthethree,however.
Fromthiscollectionofresearch,onecanseethatthebestsight-readingmusicians
donothaveonesingleskillthatmakesthemsoproficient,butinsteadtheyhavea
collectionofmanyskills.AccordingtoresearchbyElliot,Zhukov,andothersfromabove
sections,clearlyrhythmisanimportantskillthatmustbeincludedinthemixalongwitha
highmusicalstyleunderstandingresultinginproficientperformanceskills.Theresearch
ofRayner,Pollatsek,Harris,andSaxonshowsthatanothernecessaryfactorforsight-
readingisthecontinualmovementoftheeyeslookingaheadinthemusicandnoticing
importantfactorsthatarechanginginthenotation.Theseresearchersdiscussedhowthe
eyesmoveaheadofthehands,butmustnotbeexpectedtomovemuchfasterthanthe
handsareperforminginordertobeintheoptimaleye-handspan.TheresearchofBobbitt,
Harris,andMishrashowthatanotherimportantfactorinthesight-readingcollectionofa
musician’sskillsisanauralunderstandingofthemusic.Inorderforamusiciantobeable
tolookatthemusicandbeabletoplayitimmediately,heorshemustbeabletolookatthe
musicandbeabletohearthemusicinternallybeforeattemptingtoperformit.According
tothisresearch,thecollectionofskillsincludes:auraltraining,eyesthatconstantlymove
andnoticeeverything,musicalstyleunderstanding,andrhythmictraining.Witha
collectionofskillslikethese,anymusicianhasagoodchanceofbecomingaproficient
sight-reader.
RegardingCognitiveAbilities
Althoughsight-readingdependsonmanyfactorslikenotesandrhythms,thereare
stillsomeabilitiesthatareessentialtosight-readingthatarenotaseasytomeasure.These
12
cognitiveabilitiesaremuchmoredifficulttomeasureduringasight-readingperformance,
whichisonereasonwhytheseabilitieshaven’tbeentestedasmuch.Untilrecently,
researchintotheseareasinvolvingmusicdidnotoccurthatoften.Drai-Zerbibet.al(2011)
didastudyinvestigatingtheseabilitiesalongwiththeuseofeye-trackingtechnology.This
studyutilizedtwenty-fivepianistsassubjectsandusedthiseye-trackingtechnologyto
showthatthemoreexperiencedpianistswereabletolookthroughsight-readingexcerpts
morequicklyandfindproblemareastolookatmoreextensivelybeforetheinexperienced
pianistswereabletodothesame.Overall,theexperimentshowedthattheexpertswere
abletoanalyzetheproblemareasinthemusicanddiscoversolutionstotheseproblems
quickerthanthenon-expertsaswellasmoreefficiently.Thisuseofcross-modalityof
mentalactionsshowstheuseofacognitiveabilitythathadneverbeenexamineduntilthis
point.
AstudybyHaywardandGromko(2009)investigatedevenmorepredictorsofsight-
readingability.Thepredictorstestedweretechnicalproficiency,spatial-temporal
visualization,andauraldiscrimination.Thestudyutilizedseventywindinstrumentalistsas
subjects.Theywereassessedindividuallyandingroupsforallofthesefactors.Theresults
supportedotherresearchthatthesefourskillsareindeedthebestcognitivepredictorsof
goodsight-readingabilityamongmusicians.
Otherstudiesintocognitiveabilitiesweredonepreviouslyaswell.Oneoftheseby
Gromko(2004)testedmentalcapacitiestofindgoodpredictorsofsight-readingability.
Gromkoenlistedtheuseof98subjectstotestcertainskills:readingcomprehension,
rhythmic/tonalaudiation,spatialorientation,visualfieldarticulation,andothermorein-
depthskills.Gromkofoundthatmusicisindeedacompositeintelligencethatdrawson
13
severaldifferentcognitiveskillswhenreadingmusic.Theskillsthatwerefoundtohave
themostinfluenceoverthesight-readingabilitieswerereadingcomprehension,rhythmic
audiation,andspatialorientation.Rhythmicaudiationsupportspreviousresearchthat
showedrhythmicreadingasoneofthebestpredictorsofgoodsight-readers.Spatial
orientationisbestexplainedbysayingthatmusiciansreadmusicasiftheyarereadingan
architecturalblueprint.Readingcomprehensioniseasilyexplainedtobeimportant
becausereadingmusicandreadingwordsarebothrulegovernedandbothdependonthe
abilitytodeciphersymbols.Thiscombinationshouldprovetobethebestpredictionof
sight-readingability.
OneofthestudiesbyKopiezet.al(2006)setouttoclassifysightreadersaseither
lowachievingorhighachievingbytestingtwenty-sevenpredictorvariablesforfifty-two
pianists.Thepianistsweretakenthroughaseriesoftestsandinterviewquestionstomake
adeterminationoftheirskillsforthesevariables.Thesevariablescouldbecategorizedinto
threegroups:generalcognitiveskills,elementarycognitiveskills,andpractice-related
skills.Althoughtheresearcherswerenotabletoclearlydillineateawaytoclassifythe
musiciansintolow/highachieversbecauseofunclearresults,theywereabletodiscover
otherusefulinformationtohelppredictbettersight-readingabilities.Oneresultshowed
thatsimplereactiontimemixedwithhighaccumulationofsight-readingpracticetendsto
producemoreefficientsight-readingmusicians.Also,sight-readingabilityinhigh-level
pianistsispartiallydeterminedbyacquiredexpertisepairedwithotherfactors,likespeed
ofinformationprocessingandpsychomotorspeed.
AverysimilarstudybyKopiezandLee(2006)usedfifty-twopianistsassubjects
withonlytwenty-threepredictorvariablestotestthroughdifferentexperimentsand
14
interviewquestions.Thisstudywasusedtodetermineamodelformusiciansonwhichto
basetheirpracticetobeagreatsight-reader.Workingmemoryandshort-termmemory
provedtobethemostimportantgeneralcognitiveskillspresentinagoodsight-reader.
Thesetwocognitiveabilitiesareclearlyimportantinsight-readingmusicbecauseofthe
abilitytostoreinformationinthememoryinaninstantforashortperiodoftimetobeable
tolookaheadinthemusictosolvefutureproblemsbeforetheinstantofperformance.The
onlyelementarycognitiveabilitythatwasanysignificanceforagoodsight-readerappears
tobetrillspeed.Thiscognitiveabilitydirectlyrelatestopsychomotorskills.Themodel
resultsalsoshowedthemostrelevantexpertise-relatedskillistheamountoftimespent
practicingsight-reading.
WiththeresultsoftheKopiezet.alstudies,itisclearthatpsychomotorskills,short-
termmemory,workingmemory,andreactiontimearethemostimportantcognitive
abilitiestohaveinordertobeagoodsight-reader.Gromko’sstudyshowstheneedfor
readingcomprehensionskillsandspatialorientationaswell.Furtherreinforcementof
Gromko’sresearchcamewithhercolleagueHaywardwhentheyfoundthattechnical
proficiency,spatial-temporalvisualization,andauraldiscriminationprovedtobethemost
helpfulpredictors.TheideaofgoodreadingcomprehensiongoesalongwithDrai-Zerbib
et.al’sstudy,whichalsoproducedhelpfulresults,sayingthattheabilitytolookahead
whileplayingandcomprehendingwhatmusicisahead.Thecollectionofallofthese
cognitiveabilitiesmakesforthepotentialofagreatmusicsight-reader.
RegardingNotation
Onetopicofinterestthatgetslittleresearchintoitseffectsonsight-readingisthe
effectsofnotation.Notationaldifferencesarerareinthesetimesbecauseallpublishers
15
andprinterstypicallyusethesamestyleofsoftwarethatareconfiguredinthesameways
toprintmusic.Thisdoesnotnecessarilymeanthatconventionalnotationisthemost
effectivestyleofnotationwhenreadingmusic,andresearchintothisideaiscertainly
worththeeffort.Gregory(1972)didastudyregardingthisidea.Thestudyusedsixty-
threeclarinetplayersassubjectsforthestudy.Thesubjectswereaskedtosightread
excerptsthatwerepresentedinfourdifferentways:conventionalnotation,conventional
notationwithpulsesindicatedbyvisiblemarkings,notationspacedproportionallyto
rhythmicduration,andanotationwithstemlessnoteheadsthatareelongated
proportionatelytorhythmicduration.Nosignificantresultswerenotedinthestudy,buta
surveyofthesubjectswasalsotakenandtheresultswereshown.Themostcomments
wereaboutthenotationindicatingpulseandthenotationwithstemlessnoteheads.The
firstonewasratedwellforthelearningprocess,butdistractingduringthesight-reading
process.Thesecondnotationstylewasmarkedastroublingbecauseoflackoffamiliarity.
Thisstudyshowsmostlyalackofresearchintothetopic,butshowstheuseofresearchlike
this.Althoughtherewerenosignificantresults,itstillshowedaninterestingideathatis
worthmoreresearch.
Sight-readingisanecessaryskillforanymusician,and,likeanyotherskill,needsto
bepracticed.Eventhoughamusicianshouldpracticesight-readingingeneral,developing
otherskillscanprovetobeoneofthemosthelpfulwaystoimproveproficiencyintheskill
ofsight-reading.Researchshowsthatthemostimportantskillinvolvedinsight-readingis
rhythm-readingability.TheresearchofMcPherson,Boyle,Elliot,andZhukovallsupport
thisclaimoftheimportanceofrhythm.Theirresearchshowswaysofimprovingthese
rhythmicabilitiesforthingsaseasyasclappingrhythmsbeforetheperformanceand
16
tappingthefoottothepulse.Anotherimportantskillisauraltraining,whichrelates
directlytopitchcontrolandaccuracy.Thenecessityofpitchandauraltrainingis
presentedbyBobbitt,Harris,Mishra,andFineet.al.Thedevelopmentofcertaincognitive
abilitiessuchaspsychomotorskills,short-termmemory,reactiontime,reading
comprehension,andspatialorientationarealsoevidentbecauseoftheresearchofKopiez,
Gromko,andDrai-Zerbibet.al.Thereisalsoadesiretoimproveresearchintotheeffectsof
notationonsight-readingabilitywiththestudyofGregory.Theskillsofanaccomplished
sightreaderwilldirectlytranslatetothenecessaryskillsofagreatmusicianandperformer
aswell.
ResearchUtilizingColor
ThisarticlebyPoast(2000)discussesthetechniqueofColorMusicandits
possibilitiesforthefuture.Poastdescribesindetailsomeofhiscolormusiccompositions.
Hediscussesvariousstudiesdoneincolorpsychologyandhowdifferentcolorsbringabout
specificconnotations.Hetalksabouthowtheseconnotationscanbeusedinmusicto
notateinamoreartisticwayusingthesecolorsandvariousshapesasopposedtonormal
notation.Thescorestothesecolormusicpiecestypicallyareworksofartthemselvestobe
shownattheperformance.Thisarticlediscussesthepastandfutureusesofthistechnique
inmusicnotation.
ThearticlebyColla(2001)isaneducator’sguidetointroducingandteaching
elementary-agedstudentswiththeuseof“rainbowsolfege.”Colladescribesthismethodas
idealforteachingchildrenfrombeginningyearsofmusicuntilthethirdgradewhenthey
begintransitioningtotraditionalblack-and-whitenotation.Thisideaistakenandadapted
fromIsaacNewton’sassigningofthecolorstothemajorscaleintheeighteenthcentury.
17
Thissystemassignspeacefulcolorsofthespectrumtothestabletonesinthediatonicscale,
whilegivingthemoreactivetonesamoreintensecolorofthespectrum.Tonic‘do’isgiven
blue,‘so’isyellow,‘mi’isgreen(mixtureofblueandyellow),‘re’isturquoise(mixtureof
blueandgreen),‘fa’isred,‘ti’isorange,and‘la’aspurple.Thissystemholdsmany
connectionsbetweenmusicandartbasedonhowthecolorswereassigned.Thetonesthat
leadtoeachotherareassignedrespectivecolorsthatleadtothemaswellintheartworld.
Itisbesttousethissystematsuchayoungagebecauseresearchshowsthatchildrenare
intuitivetocolormostduringthistimeandareintheideatimeperiodtolearntosingin
tune.Thisarticleofferswaystousethissystemintheclassroomandwaystouseiteven
pastthestagesofelementary-agedchildren.Collabelievesthatthissystemofferscreative
teachingandresearchpossibilitiesforthefutureofcolorinteachingstrategies.
KuoandMing-Chuen(2013)usethisarticleasaproposaltomusicteachersof
beginnerstotryanewstyleofmusicnotationthatutilizescolor.Thearticlealsopresentsa
studyusedtohelptheauthorsinventthisnewnotationbasedonproblemspresentedby
practicingmusicians.Itassignstwelvecolorstothetwelveindividualtonesthatmakeup
music.Thesystemalsoutilizesshape-notesintheformoftrianglestohelpdistinguish
betweennaturalpitchesandsharp/flatpitches.Thearticleshowssomeexamplesofwhat
certainmusicalselectionslooklikeinthisnewnotationaswell.
AstudybyRogers(1991)wasusedtodiscoverifinstructionalmaterialsutilizing
color-codednotationwouldpositivelyaffectstudents’performanceofmusicaltasksin
threeareas:performingfrommemory,sight-reading,andnamingletternamesofnotes.
Ninety-twobeginningwindplayersfromthefifthandsixthgradesweretestedinthis
study.Theexperimentalgroupusedmethodbookswhereeachpitchwashighlightedina
18
differentcolorwhilethecontrolgroupusedthesamebookswithoutthecoloredhighlights.
Aftertwelveweeks,theyweretested.Althoughthestudentsstatedthattheyfavoredthe
color-codednotation,theresultsdidnotshowanysignificantdifferenceonanyofthetests
onewayoranother.
AnotherstudybyRogers(1996)wasdonetodiscoverwhethertheuseofcolored
rhythmicnotationduringinstructionaltimeswouldaffecttherhythm-readingskillsof
sixty-fourfirstandsecondgraders,asopposedtothecontrolgroupofseventystudents.A
twenty-threeweektrialperiodwasusedtofullyintegratetheexperimentalgroupintothe
program.Liketheabovestudy,amajorityofthestudentspreferredreadingthiscolored
notation.Thisstudyshowedthattheexperimentalgroupdidhavenoticeablyhigherscores
intheirrhythmreadingthanthecontrolgroup,butonlyonthecolorednotation.When
Rogerstestedthesamesubjectsusingtraditionalblackandwhitemusicnotation,the
controlgrouphadaslightlyhighersight-readingscorethandidtheexperimentalgroup
thatwasusedtoreadingcolorednotation.Thisshowsthatwiththenewstimulus
removed,noimprovementsweremade.Theseresultsposemoreresearchquestionstobe
answered.
Thesestudiesshowpreviousattemptstoutilizecolorinmusicteaching.Oneuseof
colorbyPoastcompletelycombinestheworldsofartandmusicbycomposingapieceof
musicwhilecomposingamasterpieceofart.Theperformerinterpretsthepaintingand
performsapieceofmusicbasedonthepaintingpresented.Thisisacompletelynew
innovationinwhichthemusicianisnolongerperformingasetofinstructionsfrom
standardnotation,butisinsteadinterpretingapiecebyanartistinmusicalformat.Ina
sense,creatingthesoundtogoalongwiththevisual.Thiscombinationofmusicandart
19
wascontinuedinColla’sarticleaboutRainbowSolfegeandthepossibilitiesthatexistfor
theeducationofchildrenwiththissystemofpedagogy.Thecombinationofcolorsand
solfegewerecombinedtoevokethevisualandauralperceptionsofchildrenatsucha
youngandimpressionableage.Thisstyleofteachingleadsstraightintotheresearch
presentedbyKuo,Ming-Chuen,andRogersbyutilizingcolorasdifferentpitches.Thisidea
wastakenfromcenturies-oldtraditionsandrenovatedtofitwiththeeducationalsystemof
todaytohelpchildrensight-read,performfrommemory,andrecognizepitchesbysight.
Thoughnosignificantresultswerefound,thestudiesdidshowpromisethatdeserved
moretesting.Rogerscontinuedhisstudybypresentingcolorwithrhythmicfiguresinstead
ofpitch.Thisstudywasmetwithmoresuccessandshowsevenmorepromiseforfuture
researchintotheuseofcolorwithmusicnotation.
Synesthesia
AstudybyBankierisandSimner(2015)wasdonetodetermineiftherewasalink
betweensynesthesiaandsoundsymbolism.Synesthesiaisaconditionthatcausesunusual
cross-modalacuities,likesoundtriggeringcolorsorwordstriggeringtaste.Sound
symbolismisthepropertyofsomewordsfortheirmeaningtobelinkedwiththeir
enunciations.Meaningthatinsomecases,non-nativespeakerscanunderstandthe
meaningofforeignwords.Thestudyincludednineteensynesthetesandfifty-sevennon-
synestheses.Theylistenedto400wordsfromtenunfamiliarlanguagesandwereasked
themeaningsofthewordsinatwo-alternativeforced-choicetest.Synesthetessignificantly
outperformedtheircounterpartsinthistest,suggestingalinktosoundsymbolism.
Synesthesiaisnotsimplyconfinedtothetypeofpersonthatseescolorswithsoundor
hearsandwordandtastesit.Therearemanydifferenttypesofsynesthesiathathave
20
presentedtheresearchworldwithmanypossibilities.Sincesynesthesiapresentssucha
fascinatingpossibilityofmusicianslookingatmusicalnotationandseeingcolors,more
researchintothisfieldisnecessary.
ResearchRegardingArticulations/Accents
ThisstudybyGeringeret.al(2006)usedninetymusicmajorsassubjectsto
considertheeffectsofarticulationstylesontheawarenessofmodulatedtempos.The
subjectsheardexcerptsfromtwopiecesofmusicthatcontainedbothstaccatoandlegato
passages.Theexcerptshadbeenmodifiedtograduallyincreasetempo,graduallydecrease
tempo,ornotchangetempo.Theresultsshowthatthearticulationstyleandthedirection
ofthetemporalmodulationdidaffectthesubject’sperceptionoftemposignificantly.Allof
thestaccatoselectionswerethoughttobeincreasingintempomorethanthatofthelegato
selections.Thisstudyshowshowdifferentarticulationstylescanaffectthedriveofa
musicalselectionaswellaswhatthenaturalpreferencefortempofluctuationsareforthe
humanear.
ThisarticlebyTolson(2012)isaneducator’sguidetoreadingandteaching
articulationsinajazzensemblesetting.Therearesomanypiecesofmusicinthejazz
ensembleworldwithsomanydifferentjazzarticulations,butitisdifficultfortheeducator
todecipherthebestwaytoteachthesearticulationsasveryfewaretrainedinjazz
articulationsduringtheireducation.Thisarticleprovidesasolidfoundationtobeginthat
educationaswellasguidelinestohelpunderstandhowtoteachthisstyletoanensemble
withtheuseofarticulationsyllables.
Articulationsandaccentsareanimportantpartofthemusicallanguage.These
smallsymbolscanbeusedtodrivemusictemposforwardortoholdthembackwithoutan
21
audienceevenrealizingthatitishappening.Thisphenomenonisdemonstratedbythe
studycompletedbyGeringeret.al.Thatstudydemonstratedhowstaccatoarticulations
candrivethetempoofapieceofmusicforward,asisthenaturalinclinationperceivedby
thehumanear.Thelegatoarticulationscandotheexactopposite.Inordertotake
advantageofthesenaturaltendenciesofarticulations,amusicianmustbetaughtthe
properwaytoperformthesearticulations.ThislessonistaughtbyTolson’sarticle.He
givesaninstructionalguidetostrategiesneededtoteachmusicianshowtoproperly
articulateandaccentinagivenpieceofmusic.
22
CHAPTER3:METHODOLOGY
PilotStudy
ApilotstudyofthesametypewasperformedinAprilof2015foraresearchclass.
Thepilotstudycontainedonesinglesight-readingexcerptwithtwoaccentmarkspresent
inthenotation.Theexperimentalgroupreadthenotationwithaccentsprintedinredink
whilethecontrolgroupreadthenotationwithaccentsprintedinblackink.Thesubjects
wererecordedusinganaudiorecordingdevice.Theresearcherlistenedtoeachrecording
andjudgedwhetherthesubjectperformedtheaccentsthatwerepresentintheexcerpt
withasimple‘yes’or‘no’response.Theresultswerethenanalyzedandorganized.Inthe
studyof125highschoolsubjects,only34%ofthemperformedaccentsduringthesight-
readingprocess.Ofthat34%,70%ofthemwereintheexperimentalgroup.Theseresults
supportpreviouslystatedmaterialthatmostmusiciansdonotseemtoperformaccents
duringthesight-readingprocessingeneral.Thispilotstudyhelpedtheresearcherto
developthemostefficientset-upforthemethodologyusedinthepresentexperiment.
ReceivingPermission
Thisisanexperimentalresearchprojectinvolvingafewsimpleprocesses.Since
thisprojectincludeshumansubjects,theresearcherfirstsubmittedaproposalforthe
experimenttotheUniversityofMississippiInstitutionalReviewBoard(IRB)forapproval.
Oncealloftherequirementsweremetandapprovalwasgrantedfortheproject,the
researcherbeganthenextsteps.
23
Theresearcherthenattemptedtogainpermissiontoworkwiththreepublichigh
schoolbandprogramsthroughtheirrespectiveadministratorsaswellasvolunteersina
universitybandprogram.Theresearcherdecidedtofocusononepublichighschooland
thecollegestudentsonlybecauseofschedulingdifficulties.Theresearcherreceived
permissiontouseanaudiorecordingdevicewitheachsubjectinthestudy.Althoughthe
subjectswererecorded,thesubjectsremainedanonymousandnopersonalinformation
wasrequestedordisplayedduringthisstudy.Afterpermissionwasgrantedfromthe
administrator,theresearcherdiscussedtheexperimentwiththehighschoolbanddirector
(locationdirector)andcollegedirector(locationdirector)togainpermissionfromthemas
wellassetuptwoseparatedaysfortheteststobecompletedateachschool.The
researcheralsoscheduledadaybeforethetestingbeganateachlocationtogiveabrief
descriptionoftheprojecttothesubjects,sotherewouldbenofalsepretensesaboutthe
project.
Theresearcherreceivedalistofnamesorganizedbyinstrumentfromthehigh
schoollocation.Atthispoint,thesubjectswereassignedtoeitherthecontrolgrouporthe
experimentalgroup.Theresearcherassignedsubjectsintogroupsbymakingsurethere
wasabalancedinstrumentationforeachgroup.Thecollegegroup’ssubjectswere
assignedsothateachgroupwouldhavethesamenumberofsubjects.Eachsubjectwas
givenanidentifiercardwithafour-digitcodeonittokeepthesubjectsanonymousduring
therecordingprocess.Thisidentifiercardwasusedtoaidintheanalysisoftheresults
fromExcerptAtoExcerptB.Thecardsweremadeforeachsubjecttogivetothe
moderatoroftheexperimentatthestartoftherecording.Theresearcherarrangedwith
24
thelocationdirectorfortheuseoftworooms.Eachroomwassetupwithtwochairsand
twostands.
Preparation
Theresearcherdevelopedtwoshortsight-readingexcerpts,ExcerptAandExcerpt
B,whichweremadeappropriateforallmusiciansbeingtested.Eachexcerptcontainsat
leasttwoinstancesofanaccentmarkinthemusicnotation.Theresearcherprintedtwo
copiesofeachexcerpt.ExcerptAremainsintraditionalblackinkforboththeexperimental
andcontrolgroups.ExcerptBisintraditionalblackinkforthecontrolgroup,buthasbeen
alteredfortheexperimentalgrouptocontainaccentmarksprintedinredink.The
excerptswereprintedforeveryinstrumenttypeandplacedintoafolderforthe
appropriategroup.Therearetwocopiesofeachfolder.Onecopywasmadeforthe
researcherandtheotherfortheassistant.
Theresearcheralsocreatedashortquestionnaire(Appendix9)forthesubjectsto
completeafterthesecondexcerptwasperformed.Thequestionnaireonlycontainsseven
questions.Thereisaplacetowritethesubject’sidentifiercode,age,instrument,gender,
numberofyearsinband,numberofyearstakinglessons(ifany),andtoreportany
colorblindness.
RecruitingHelp
Theresearcherfoundtwocolleaguestouseasjudgesinthestudy.Thejudgeswere
graduatestudentspursuingaMasterofMusicdegreeinmusiceducation,justlikethe
researcher.Theresearcheractedasthethirdjudgeforthestudy.Judge1playssaxophone,
judge2playstrumpet,andjudge3playstuba.Thethreeexpertjudgesweretrainedto
evaluatetherecordingsbyreplyingwitheitherayesornoresponsetoeachrecording
25
basedonwhetherthesubjectperformedanaccentatthespecifiedtimeinthemusic.They
wereallgivenacleardefinitionofwhatanaccentsoundslike(aslistedinthedefinitions
portion).Sevenrecordingswerecreatedforreliabilitytestingandwerenotincludedinthe
experiment’srecordings.Thereliabilitycoefficientwascalculatedbydividingthetotal
numberofagreementsbythetotalnumberofinstancesandresultedina.90agreement.
Oncetheexperimentwascompleted,thejudgeslistenedtoeachoftherecordingsto
dothesamethingtheydidforthereliabilitytest.Theyfollowedalongwiththeircopyof
themusicalexcerptandrecordedeithera‘yes’or‘no’astowhetherthesubjectperformed
anaccent.
Theresearcheralsogainedtheaidofanassistant.Thisprovedtobenecessaryin
ordertodoublethenumberofsubjectstested.Thehighschoolband’sstudentteacherwas
usedasanassistantatthehighschool(noassistantwasnecessaryatthecollege)toensure
thattheassistantwaspresentwithoutfail.Thisisthemostefficientdesignplan.
Testing-HighSchool
Atotalof56highschoolwindinstrumentalistscompletedthestudy.Thefirstdayof
thetestwasdevotedtoExcerptAforbothgroups(theexperimentalgroupandthecontrol
group).Theresearcher/assistant(moderator)distributedtheidentifiercardstothe
subjectsastheenteredthetestingroomonthefirstday.Eachmoderatortestedhalfofthe
subjects,butbothhadanevenmixofexperimentalandcontrolgroupsubjects.The
moderatorinvitedthesubjectsinoneatatime.Whenenteringtheroom,thesubjectswere
givenanidentifiercardbythemoderator.Theidentifiercodesignaledwhichfoldertouse
(eithertheexperimentalfolderorthecontrolfolder).Thesubjectwasthenpresentedwith
ExcerptAandgiventhirtysecondstoviewtheexcerptwithoutmakinganynoiseonthe
26
instrument.Afterthirtysecondspassed,themoderatortoldthesubjecttobeginthesight-
reading.Oncethesubjectfinishedtheexcerpt,theywereaskedtoleaveasthenextsubject
enteredtorepeattheprocess.OncethetestsforExcerptAwerefinished,theresearcher
collectedtheresultsandfiledthemwiththelocationnameonapersonallaptopinorderto
keeptherecordingstogetherandprivate.
Aweeklater,thesecondtestdaywasdevotedtothealteredExcerptB.The
moderatorsusedthesamesetupandprocedurethatwasusedduringthefirsttestingday.
Theonlydifferenceintheprocedurewasthatthesubjectscompletedthequestionnaire
beforecomingintothetestingroom.Theyhandedthecompletedquestionnaireand
identifiercardtothemoderatorbeforesight-readingbegan.AfterExcerptBtestswere
completed,theresearchercollectedtheresultsandfiledthemonthelaptopjustasbefore.
Testing-College
Atotalof30collegewindinstrumentalistscompletedthestudy.Thefirstdayofthe
testwasdevotedtoExcerptAforbothgroups(theexperimentalgroupandthecontrol
group).Themoderatortestedallofthesubjects,andhadanevenmixofexperimentaland
controlgroupsubjects.Themoderatorinvitedthesubjectsinoneatatime.Whenentering
theroom,thesubjectsweregivenanidentifiercardbythemoderator.Theidentifiercode
signaledwhichfoldertouse.ThesubjectwasthenpresentedwithExcerptAandgiven
thirtysecondstoviewtheexcerptwithoutmakinganynoiseontheinstrument.After
thirtysecondspassed,themoderatortoldthesubjecttobeginthesight-reading.Oncethe
subjectfinishedtheexcerpt,theywereaskedtoleaveasthenextsubjectenteredtorepeat
theprocess.OncethetestsforExcerptAwerefinished,theresearchercollectedtheresults
27
andfiledthemwiththelocationnameonapersonallaptopinordertokeeptherecordings
togetherandprivate.
Aweeklater,thesecondtestdaywasdevotedtothealteredExcerptB.The
moderatorusedthesamesetupandprocedurethatwasusedduringthefirsttestingday.
Theonlydifferenceintheprocedurewasthatthesubjectscompletedthequestionnaire
beforecomingintothetestingroom.Theyhandedthecompletedquestionnaireand
identifiercardtothemoderatorbeforesight-readingbegan.AfterExcerptBtestswere
finished,theresearchercollectedtheresultsandfiledthemonthelaptopjustasbefore.
Analysis/Results
Thejudgeswereremindedhowtoevaluatetherecordingsandinstructedtoprovide
asimple‘yes’or‘no’answerforeachrecordingastowhetherthesubjectperformedthe
accentornot.Theresearcherthenuploadedtherecordingstoaprivatestoragedrive
onlineandgavethetwojudgesaccesstoit.Thedrivecontainedthreefolders,oneforeach
judge.Eachfoldercontainedtherecordingsforeachlocationandaspreadsheettorecord
thedata.Thejudgeslistenedtotherecordingsanddocumentedtheirresults.Thejudges
didallofthedataentryonlineanddidnothavetosaveanyinformationtotheirown
devices.Alloftheinformationwastransferredtotheresearcher’spersonallaptopwiththe
originalrecordings.Theresearcherdeletedalloftheinformationthatisontheprivate
storagedriveaccordingtoprotocol.Theresearchercompiledtheresultsofthe
questionnaire.Thequestionnaire’sresultswereanalyzedandorganizedintoatable,and
thenthequestionnaireswereshredded.Soonafter,theoriginalaudiorecordingswere
deletedaswell.
28
Theresearcheralsocompiledtheresultsfromtherecordingresultscompletedby
thejudgesandusedChi-SquaredAnalysistoanalyzetheresultsoftheevaluations.The
resultswereorganizedandaredisplayedinthenextchapter.Thereweresomestudents
whowereonlythereforthefirsttestingday,buttheirresultsweredisregarded.The
resultswereallcompiledandareintheappendix.Table1showsalloftheresultsforthe
recordingsandquestionnaireofthe56highschoolwindinstrumentaliststhatwereusedas
subjectsinthestudy.28ofthesubjectswereinthecontrolgroupand28wereinthe
experimentalgroup.Table2showsalloftheresultsfortherecordingsandquestionnaire
ofthe30collegewindinstrumentalistsusedinthestudy.15ofthesubjectswereinthe
controlgroupwhiletheother15wereintheexperimentalgroup.Theseresultswereused
totestthenullhypothesisthatwasstatedpreviously:Theuseofcolortobringattentionto
theaccentmarkswillhavenoeffectontheperformanceofthedesiredaccentduringthe
sight-readingprocessthantheuseofstandardmusicnotation.
29
CHAPTER4:RESULTS
Analysis
Theanalysisshowsthatwiththetwogroupscombined,thenullhypothesisis
rejected,whichmeansthattheuseofcolortobringattentiontoaccentmarksdoeshavean
effectontheperformanceofaccentsduringthesight-readingprocess.UsingtheChi-
SquaredTestforCross-CategorizedFrequencyData,Figure1showstheobservedresults
forthetwogroups(highschoolandcollege)combinedinatablenecessaryforChi-Squared
Analysis.Figure2showstheexpectedresultsforthecombinedgroupsinthesametypeof
table.Forthisgroupofdata,χ2(chi-squared)iscalculatedat9.07andthedegreeof
freedom(df)valueis1.Withthisinformation,asignificancevalueof.5%isgiven.This
meansthatthedifferencebetweentheexperimentalgroup’sposttestyesvalue
(26/31=83.9%)andthecontrolgroup’sposttestyesvalue(12/28=42.9%)mustbewithin
.5%fortheresultstobeinsignificantandthenullhypothesisaccepted.Thatisnotthecase,
sothenullhypothesisisrejectedforthecombinedgroup.
Combined-Observed PretestYes PosttestYes TotalsExperimental 5 26 31Control 16 12 28Totals 21 38 59
Figure1Combined(HighSchoolandCollege)ObservedRecordingResultsforChi-SquaredAnalysis
30
Thenullhypothesisisalsorejectedinthehighschoolgroupdata,meaningthatthe
useofcolortobringattentiontoaccentmarksdoeshaveaneffectontheperformanceof
accentsduringthesight-readingprocessforhighschoolsubjects.Figure3showsthe
observedresultsforthehighschoolgrouponlyinatableforChi-SquaredAnalysis.Figure
4showstheexpectedresultsforthehighschoolgrouponly.Forthisgroupofdata,χ2(chi-
squared)is9.12andthedegreeoffreedom(df)valueis1.Withthissimilarinformation,a
significancevalueof.5%isagaindetermined.Thismeansthattheexperimentalposttest
value(12/12=100%)andthecontrolposttestvalue(5/14=35.7%)mustbewithin.5%in
orderfortheresultstobeinsignificantandthatsamenullhypothesistobeaccepted.
Again,thatisnotthecase,sothenullhypothesisisrejectedforthehighschoolgroupas
well.
Combined-Expected PretestYes PosttestYes TotalsExperimental 11.03 19.97 31Control 9.97 18.03 28Totals 21 38 59
Figure2Combined(HighSchoolandCollege)ExpectedRecordingResultsforChi-SquaredAnalysis
HighSchool-Observed
PretestYes PosttestYes Totals
Experimental 0 12 12Control 9 5 14Totals 9 17 26
Figure3HighSchoolObservedResultsforChi-SquaredAnalysis
31
Theanalysisshowsthatwiththecollegegroup,thenullhypothesisfailstobe
rejected,meaningthatthereisnodatatosuggestthattheuseofcolortobringattentionto
accentmarkshasaneffectontheperformanceofaccentsduringthesight-readingprocess
forcollegesubjects.UsingtheChi-SquaredTestforCross-CategorizedFrequencyData,
Figure5showstheobservedresultsfromthecollegegroup.Figure6showstheexpected
resultsforthecollegegroup.Forthisgroupofdata,χ2(chi-squared)is1.06andthedegree
offreedom(df)valueis1.Withthisdata,asignificancevalueof30.3%isdetermined.This
meansthattheexperimentalposttestvalue(14/19=73.7%)andthecontrolposttestvalue
(7/14=50%)mustbewithin30.3%inordertoshowthattheresultsareinsignificantand
acceptthenullhypothesis.Thesedataverifythefailuretorejectthenullhypothesisfor
collegesubjects.
HighSchool-Expected
PretestYes PosttestYes Totals
Experimental 4.15 7.85 12Control 4.85 9.15 14Totals 9 17 26
College-Observed PretestYes PosttestYes TotalsExperimental 5 14 19Control 7 7 14Totals 12 21 33
Figure4HighSchoolExpectedResultsforChi-SquaredAnalysis
Figure5CollegeObservedResultsforChi-SquaredAnalysis
College-Expected PretestYes PosttestYes TotalsExperimental 6.91 12.09 19Control 5.09 8.91 14Totals 12 21 33Figure6CollegeExpectedResultsforChi-SquaredAnalysis
32
Table3strengthensthefindingsdiscussedinpreviousparagraphsasitshowsthe
statisticsofbothgroupsindividuallyandcombined.Italsoshowstheposttestdatabroken
downbycontrolgroupandexperimentalgroup.
HighSchool
PretestYes
PretestYes% PosttestYesandPostTestYes%
Control
Control% Experimental
Experimental%
Total 9of56 16.1% 5of28 27.8% 12of28 42.9%
College
PretestYes
PretestYes% PosttestYesandPostTestYes%
Control
Control% Experimental
Experimental%
Total 12of30 40% 7of15 46.7% 14of15 93.3%
Combined
PretestYes
PretestYes% PosttestYesandPostTestYes%
Control
Control% Experimental
Experimental%
21of86 24.4%
12of43 27.9% 26of43 60.5%
TheinformationinTables4,5,and6showtheanalysisofgender,age,andnumber
ofyearsinband,respectively.Thesetableswereusedtoanalyzeeachaspectofthe
questionnairecompletedbyeachsubjectaswellastheoverallresults.ThedatafromTable
4shownosignificantadvantagetoeithergenderduringeitherphaseoftheexperiment.
Table3HighSchool,College,andCombined-Experimentalv.ControlGroupData
33
Inthehighschoolgroup,thedatadosuggestthatageissignificantsignificant
overall.ThedatainTable5showtheanalysisofthedifferentagesofthetwogroups
duringtheexperiment.Duringthepretestphaseofthehighschoolgroup,thepercentageof
subjectsperformingaccentsrisesexponentiallyhigherforeachadditionalyearinagefor
thesubjects.Thiscontinuesuntilreachingtheageofeighteen.Lookingattheposttest
phaseforthehighschoolgroup,averysimilartrendcanbeseen.Agefourteenhasthe
lowestpercentageofsubjectsperformingaccents,andeachsuccessiveagegetsahigher
percentagethantheonebefore.Thistime,however,eventheeighteenyear-oldsubjects
performbetteroverall.Itisalsoworthnotingthattheexperimentalgroupforeachagedid
betterthandidthecontrolgroupforeachage.Noclearpatterncanbeseeninthecollege
group’sperformanceofaccentsamongages.Theexperimentalgroupdoesstillappearto
performaccentsmorethandoesthecontrolgroup.Thiswillbediscussedfurtherinthe
nextchapter.
GenderAnalysis HighSchool PretestYes PretestYes% PosttestYesandPostTestYes%
Control Control% ExperimentalExperimental%
Male 3of21 14.3% 1of11 9.1% 4of10 40%Female 6of35 17.1% 2of18 11.1% 8of17 47.1%
College PretestYes PretestYes% PosttestYesandPostTestYes%
Control Control% ExperimentalExperimental%
Male 10of21 47.6% 6of10 60% 9of11 81.8%Female 2of9 22.2% 2of4 50% 5of5 100%Table4HighSchoolandCollegeGenderAnalysis-Experimentalv.ControlGroupData
34
Asidefromafewseparateyearsofstandout,nosignificantpatterncanbe
foundthatsuggeststhatthenumberofyearsinbandaffectsasubject’sabilityortendency
toperformaccentsmorereadily.TheinformationinTable6showsananalysisofthe
numberofyearsinbandforeachofthesubjectsduringtheexperiment.Sinceitdidnot
seemrelevanttosplitthedataintogroups,thesedataarecombinedforthetwogroups.It
canbeseen,however,thattheexperimentalgroupdoeshavehigherpercentagesthandoes
thecontrolgroup.
AgeAnalysisHigh
School PretestYesPretestYes
% PosttestYesandPostTestYes%
Control
Control% Experimental
Experimental%
14 0of4 0% 1of2 50% 0of2 0%15 1of17 5.9% 0of6 0% 4of11 36.4%16 4of19 21.1% 1of10 10% 4of9 44.4%17 4of13 30.8% 1of8 12.5% 3of5 60%18 0of3 0% 2of2 100% 1of1 100%
College PretestYes
PretestYes% PosttestYesandPostTestYes%
Control
Control% Experimental
Experimental%
18 1of2 50% 1of2 50% N/A N/A19 2of4 50% 2of2 100% 2of2 100%20 3of6 50% 1of2 50% 4of4 100%21 1of5 20% 1of2 50% 2of3 66.7%22 3of6 50% 1of5 20% 1of1 100%23 1of5 20% 1of1 100% N/A N/A24 1of3 33.3% 0of1 0% 2of2 100%25 1of2 50% N/A N/A 2of2 100%26 1of1 100% N/A N/A 1of1 100%
Table5HighSchoolandCollegeAgeAnalysis-Experimentalv.ControlGroupData
35
NumberofYearsinBandAnalysis Combined PretestYes PretestYes% PosttestYesandPostTestYes%
ControlControl% Experimental
Experimental%
1 0of1 0% N/A N/A 0of1 0%3 1of5 20% 0of3 0% 1of2 50%4 2of13 15.4% 0of4 0% 1of9 11.1%5 4of18 22.2% 1of10 10% 7of8 87.5%6 1of13 7.7% 0of6 0% 3of7 47.9%7 2of6 33.3% 4of5 80% 1of1 100%8 4of6 66.7% 3of5 60% 1of1 100%9 1of5 20% 1of3 33.3% 2of2 100%10 3of7 42.9% 1of1 100% 5of6 83.3%11 1of2 50% 1of1 100% 1of1 100%12 0of2 0% 0of2 0% N/A N/A13 2of2 100% 0of1 0% 1of1 100%14 1of3 33.3% 0of1 0% 2of2 100%15 0of1 0% N/A N/A 1of1 100%16 0of1 0% N/A N/A 1of1 100%
Theresultsshowthatbrassplayers,andmorespecificallytrumpetplayers,perform
accentsmoreconsistentlythanothers.Thenextsetofinformationdisplaysananalysisof
thesubjectsbytypeofinstrumentandispresentedinTable7.Althoughthereisnodata
thatsaydefinitivelythatoneinstrumentperformsaccentsmorefrequentlythananyother,
thesedatadosuggestthattrumpetplayerstendtoaccentmoreconsistentlythandoother
instrumenttypes.Nomatterthephaseoftheexperimentorthegroup(highschoolor
college),thepercentageofaccentingtrumpet-playingsubjectstendtobecloseto50%,
whereas,allotherinstrumenttypesseemtofluctuatequiteabit.Whenitcomesto
instrumentfamilies,resultspresentthemselvesalittlemoreclearly.Inthehighschool
grouppretest,thebrassplayersperformedtwiceaswellasthewoodwindplayersdid
Table6CombinedNumberofYearsinBandAnalysis-Experimentalv.ControlGroupData
36
(21.4%v10.7%).However,duringtheposttestphase,thetwofamilieswerealmosteven
with28.6%ofthebrasscomparedto32.1%ofthewoodwinds.
InstrumentAnalysis
HighSchoolPretestYes
PretestYes% PosttestYesandPostTestYes%
Control Control% Experimental Experimental%Flute 0of12 0% 0of5 0% 4of7 57.1%Clarinet 2of9 22.2% 1of5 20% 2of4 50%Saxes 1of6 16.7% 0of4 0% 1of2 50%Bassoon 0of1 0% N/A N/A 1of1 100%Trumpet 3of7 42.9% 1of4 25% 1of3 33.3%Horn 1of7 14.3% 1of4 25% 0of3 0%Trombone 1of11 9.1% 2of5 40% 2of6 33.3%Euphonium 0of1 0% N/A N/A 1of1 100%Tuba 1of2 50% 0of1 0% 0of1 0%
Brass 6of28 21.4% 4of14 28.6% 4of14 28.6%Woodwind 3of28 10.7% 1of14 7.1% 8of14 57.1%
CollegePretestYes
PretestYes% PosttestYesandPostTestYes%
Control Control% Experimental Experimental%Clarinet 1of2 50% 1of1 100% 1of1 100%Saxes 2of9 22.2% 2of4 50% 4of5 80%Bassoon 0of1 0% 0of1 0% N/A N/ATrumpet 4of7 57.1% 2of3 66.7% 4of4 100%Horn 1of5 20% 2of3 66.7% 2of2 100%Trombone 2of3 66.7% N/A N/A 3of3 100%Euphonium 2of3 66.7% 0of3 0% N/A N/A
Brass 9of18 50% 4of9 44.4% 9of9 100%Woodwind 3of12 25% 3of6 50% 5of6 83.3%
CombinedBrass 15of46 32.6% 8of23 34.8% 13of23 56.5%CombinedWoodwind 6of40 15% 4of20 20% 13of20 65%
Table7HighSchoolandCollegeInstrumentTypeAnalysis-Experimentalv.ControlGroupData
37
Thecollegegroupwasverysimilarinresults.Exactly50%ofthebrassplayers
performedaccentsduringthepretestphasewhileexactly25%ofthewoodwinds
performedaccentsduringthesamephase.Again,theposttestpresentedthefamiliesas
almostevenwith72%ofthebrassfamilyperformingaccentscomparedto66.7%ofthe
woodwindfamily.Sincethesametrendisseeninbothgroups,thereisnoneedtolookat
thecombinedstatistics.Theexperimentalgroupdidshowimprovementforboth
instrumentfamilies,butthewoodwindfamilyincreaseditsnumberssignificantlymore
duringtheposttestphasethandidthebrassfamily.Thiswillalsobediscussedinthenext
chapter.
Resultsindicatedthatmusiclessonsdohaveapositiveaffectontheexperiment.
Thelastcollectionofinformation,Table8,displaysananalysisofthenumberofyearsin
musiclessonsforthecombinedgroupofsubjects.Byexaminingthedataofthepretest
phase,nodefinitivepatternseemstoarisetosuggestthatlessonsmakeadifference.A
similarlackofapatternoccurswhenviewingthedatafortheposttestphaseofthe
experiment.Whenlookingatthedataatthebottomofthetable,however,aclearpattern
doesseemtoarise.Althoughitdoesnotappeartomatterhowmanyyearsthesubjects
tooklessons,asignificantpatternisvisiblewhenlookingatthesimplefactifthesubjects
havetakenmusiclessonsornot.Thesubjectswhohavetakenlessonsperformedaccents
240%morethandidthosewhohadnottakenanymusiclessonsduringthepretestphase.
Duringtheposttestphase,thesubjectswhohadtakenlessonsperformedaccents300%
morethandidthosewhohadnottakenanylessons.Itisalsonoteworthytomentionthat
theexperimentalgroupdidperformsignificantlybetterthandidthecontrolgroupagain.
38
NumberofYearsinLessons Combined PretestYes PretestYes% PosttestYesandPostTestYes%
Control
Control%
Experimental
Experimental%
0Years 7of47 14.9% 4of27 14.8% 7of20 35%(0<1)Years 1of3 33.3% 0of1 0% 2of2 100%1Year 1of11 9.1% 1of2 50% 6of9 66.7%2Years 4of6 66.7% 2of3 66.7% 3of3 100%3Years 2of4 50% 0of1 0% 3of3 100%4Years 2of5 40% 2of3 66.7% 1of2 50%5Years 1of5 20% 2of3 66.7% 2of2 100%6Years 2of4 50% 1of2 50% 2of2 100%9Years 1of1 100% 0of1 0% N/A N/A
NoLessons 7of47 14.9% 4of27 14.8% 7of20 35%Lessons 14of39 35.9% 8of16 50% 19of23 82.6%
Table8CombinedNumberofYearsinMusicLessonsAnalysis-Experimentalv.ControlGroupData
39
CHAPTER5:DISCUSSION
Basedonalloftheinformationpresented,thefollowingclaimscanbemadeabout
thecombinedgroups:theuseofcolordoesmakeadifferenceintheperformanceof
accents;thepilottestdatamatchwiththecurrentexperimentaldata;genderdoesnot
appeartomakeadifferenceintheperformanceofaccents;brassplayerstendtoperform
betterinitially,butperformevenlywithwoodwindswiththetreatmentadded;thenumber
ofyearsinbandisinsignificant;andthosewhohavehadmusiclessons(nomatterthe
timeframe)performaccentsmorethanthosewhohavenothadlessons.Additionally,age
onlymakesadifferenceinthehighschoolgroup.Theinformationreportedthroughthe
questionnairetopicspresentsalotofdatatosiftthrough,butanalysesofallofthesedata
donotdefinitivelyproveanyoftheseclaims.Theydo,however,presentsomeinteresting
discussionsthatcanbearguedfororagainstinthischapter.
Implications
Overall,thehighschoolgroupinthecurrentexperimentstrengthensthefindings
fromthepilotstudy.Whencomparingthecurrentexperimenttothepilottest,onlythe
posttestresultscanbeconsidered,sincetheprocedureduringthatphasematchesthepilot
testprocedure.Inthehighschooldata,only30.4%(17/56)ofthesubjectsperformedthe
accentsduringtheposttestphase.However,70.6%(12/17)ofthosewhoperformedthe
accentsintheposttestwerepartoftheexperimentalgroup.Thefigure30.4%is
40
insignificantlylessthanthe34%ofsubjectswhoperformedaccentsinthepilottest.The
70.6%matchesalmostperfectlywiththepilottestdataof70%.
Thecombineddatasetshowsslightlymixedresultswhencomparedtothepilottest
data.Thedatashowthat44.2%(38/86)ofthesubjectsperformedaccentsduringthe
posttestphaseoftheexperiment.Thatnumberissignificantlyhigherthanthe34%
observedduringthepilottest.Also,68.4%(26/38)ofthoseaccentingsubjectsduringthe
posttestphaseweremembersoftheexperimentalgroup.Thatnumberisinsignificantly
smallerthanthepilottestnumberof70%.
Theconclusionsforthecollegegroupdefinitivelyshowthatcolordoesnotmakeas
muchofadifferenceasitdoesinthehighschoolgroup.Inthecollegeportionofthestudy,
anastounding70%performedtheaccentsintheposttestphase.Thatismorethandouble
thepercentageofhighschoolsubjectsof30.4%.Thatisalsoadrasticallyhighernumber
thanthepilottestdataof34%.Averysimilar66.7%(14/21)ofthoseaccentingsubjectsin
theposttestweremembersoftheexperimentalgroup.Thatnumberisinsignificantlyless
thanthe70%ofaccentingsubjectswhowerepartoftheexperimentalgroupinthepilot
test.
Basedontheresultsandtheircomparisonstothepilottestdata,itisdefinitivethat
theadditionofcolorpositivelyaffectsthehighschoolgroupofsubjects.Theresultsare
howeverinconclusiveforthecollegegroup.Thecollegesubjectsclearlyperformaccents
morethandohighschoolsubjectsoverall,buttheexperimentalgroupwasonthesame
levelregardlessofthegroupidentification.
Thegenderanalysiswasinterestingbecauseofthelackofsignificanceonewayor
another.Theresultsshowedarelativelyevenpercentageofsubjectsaccentingduringthe
41
performance.Thehighschooldatawereverysimilarthroughoutbothphasesofthe
experiment.Thecollegegroup,however,showedasignificantdifferenceinthepretest
portionofthestudy.Here,47.6%ofthemalesaccentedcomparedwith22.2%ofthe
females.Thatseemsverysignificantsincethemalesperformedaccentstwiceasmuchas
thefemalesdid.However,duringtheposttestphaseoftheexperiment,theresultsevened
outagain.Therefore,thefemaledataincreasemuchmorethandidthemaledataduring
theposttestphase.
Theagefactoroftheresultsprovedtomakeadifferenceforthehighschoolgroup,
butdidnotseemtomatteratallinthecollegegroup.Itmakesperfectsenseforanolder
musiciantoperformaccentsmoreconsistentlythanayoungermusicianbecauseof
experienceandtraining.Theoldersubjectmostlikelywouldhavebeentaughtthe
differentareasofimportanceinmusicandwouldhavemoreexperiencesight-reading
musicwithalotofmusicalityinitcomparedtoamoreinexperienced,youngersubject.The
posttestshowedthattheyoungestsubjectsdidthepoorestwitheachadvancementinage
performingbetter.
Whentryingtodiscoverwhichinstrumentfamilyandtypeperformedaccentsthe
mostconsistentlythroughoutthesubjects,thebrassfamilyandtrumpet-playingsubjects
seemedtohavethebestoutcomes.Althoughitisdifficulttopickanyoneinstrumentas
beingthemostconsistentamongthewindinstrumentalists,oneinstrumenttypedoes
seemtobethemostconsistentinperformingaccents.Thatinstrumentisthetrumpet.The
trumpetgroupeitherhadthehighestpercentageorwasinthetoppercentileforeach
phaseoftheexperimentinthehighschool,college,andcombinedgroups.Trumpetplayers
oftenhavetoplaythemelodyorsometimesfanfares,andthesepartsofmusicfrequently
42
haveaccents.Thisisprobablyareasonthattrumpetsubjectsdidbetteroverallthanother
subjects.Theinstrumentfamilyresearchseemedtofollowsuitwiththetrumpetdata.The
brassfamilyofinstrumentsperformedaccentsmoreconsistentlyduringeveryphaseofthe
experimentexcepttheexperimentalgroupduringtheposttestforthehighschoolsubjects.
Thisdatashowsthatbrassplayersaremorelikelytoperformaccentsoverall,butalsothat
woodwindplayersmaynotnoticethemaseasily.
Thequestionnaireresultsshowthatthesubjectswhotooklessonsperformed
accentsmoreconsistentlythandidthosewhohadnottakenlessons.Curiously,thesedata
dosuggestthatitdoesnotmatterthenumberofyearsthatasubjecthastakenlessons,it
onlymattersthatthesubjecttooklessonsatsomepoint.Theresultsshowthatthosewho
havetakenlessonsperformbetween240%and300%betterthanthosewhohavenothad
lessons.Thoseareabsolutelystaggeringnumberstoconsider.
LimitationsandFutureResearch
Asdiscussed,thegenderanalysisshowednosignificanceforeithergender.The
datadidshowaninconsistencyduringthecollegepretestportionofthestudy,however,
withthe47.6%ofmalesaccentingcomparedtothe22.2%offemales.Sincethemale
numberismorethandoublethatofthefemale,itissignificanttoanobserver.Themale
samplesizewasalsomorethandoublethatofthefemalesamplesize.Statistically,that
couldhaveskewedtheresultsslightly.Withthesedrasticdifferencesinthenumberof
subjects,thisrepresentsaninterestingexperimenttoreplicateonalargerandmore
balancedscaletodetermineifthereisasignificantdifferenceonewayoranother.
Thecollegegroupresultsforageshowedacompletelackofsignificance,whichis
unexpected.Muchlikethegenderanalysis,thenumbersofsubjectsforeachagewasquite
43
differentandcouldhaveskewedthenumbersslightly.Basically,thesamplesizeswerenot
largeenoughorbalancedenoughtogainanymeaningfuloutcome.Thisareaofthe
experimentshouldbereplicatedtodetermineiftheresultsareaccurateornot.
Thereisnodiscernablepatternfoundinthedatathatsuggestsanynumberofyears
inbandisbetterthananyotherThedataforthenumberofyearsinbandwasexpectedto
matchupwiththeageresults.Thesubjectsthatwereinbandlongerwereexpectedtobe
olderandwouldhavemoreexperience.Thisexpectationprovedtobetrueinthatthere
wasnosignificantpatternofimportance,muchliketheagedataincollege.Again,the
samplesizeforeachdatapointisquitesmalloverall,sothereisanopportunityformore
study.
ThereasonthatIdidnotincludepercussionistsinthisstudyisbecauseaccentsare
averynecessaryandbasiccomponentofpercussionmusic.Percussionistsaredefinitely
goingtoperformaccentsmoreconsistentlythanwindinstrumentalists.Thisexperimental
designkeepsthedatafromgettingskewedbypercussionists.Thisideadoesrepresentan
areaoffurtherstudy,however.Onecouldeasilyreplicatethestudyonlylookingat
instrumenttypesandcomparingperformancesofaccentsamongthedifferentinstrument
typesandfamilies.
Whenlookingatthecollectivedata,lessonsdohaveapositiveaffectinthe
performanceofaccentsaswell.Muchlikeageandnumberofyearsinband,itwas
expectedthatthenumberofyearstakingmusiclessonswouldmakeadifferenceinthe
databecauseoftheobviousexperienceplayingmultipletypesanddifficultiesofmusic.
Thedatasuggestotherwiseseeingastherewasnoobviouspatternthatarosebylookingat
thedata.Again,itcouldbeduetothefactthatthenumberofsubjectsformostofthedata
44
pointsisquitelow.Thiscouldbeanotheraspectoftheexperimentthatshouldbestudied
further.
Thefinalaspectofthesurvey,color-blindness,cannotbedefinitivelyprovenfrom
thisstudyeither.Therewereonlythreesubjectsthatwerecolor-blind.Twoofthemwere
inthecontrolgroup,sotheywerenon-factors.Theotheronewasintheexperimental
group,butperformedaccentsappropriatelyduringboththepretestandposttest.Theone
intheexperimentalgroupwasalso25yearsofageandhadtakenlessons.Therefore,
basedonpreviousresults,hewouldbeexpectedtoperformtheaccents.Overall,no
definitivestatementscanbemadeaboutcolor-blindnessbasedonthisstudy.
Anotheraspectofthisexperimentthatshouldbetestedistheuseofothercolors
besidesred.Redwaschosenforthisexperimentbecauseaccentmarksaremeanttobe
playedforcefullyandmakeanimpactinthemusic.Icouldnotthinkofanothercolorthat
signifiesthesamekindofreaction.Redseemedtobethemostapplicabletothisparticular
aspectofmusic.Theexperimentcouldeasilybereplicatedusingothercolorstoseeifa
differentcolorbringsaboutmorepositiveresults.Otherstudiescouldalsobedoneadding
colortodifferentformsofarticulation.Thiswasasimpleexperimentandshouldbe
replicatedinmanydifferentways.
Conclusion
Themostimportantpartofthisstudyisthefactthatthecolormadeadifferencein
theperformancebythesubjects.Usingcolorlikethisseemsprettylimitedforitspurposes,
buttruthfully,theusesarequitenumerous.Someeducatorsmightusethisresearchto
validatetheuseofhighlightersduringscorestudyormusicrehearsalstodrawattentionto
certainpartsofthemusicforboththeconductorandthemusicians.Thisiscertainlya
45
validpoint.Othersmayusethismaterialtosuggestawayofkeepingtheattentionof
youngmusiciansduringmusicclassbyusingdifferentcolorsinthemusic.Stillothersmay
suggestthattheresearchissimplyawayofutilizingtechnologymoreintheclassroom.I
thinkthisresearchisvalidforallofthesereasons,butalsoforothers.
Ithinkthisresearchisnotonlyvalid,butnecessary.Idonotthinkthattheuseof
colorinmusicnotationissomethingthatisjustagoodideaforthefuture.Ithinkitisan
ideathatneedstobeimplementedinmusicnotationnow.We,asmusicians,arelimiting
ourselvestoonesimplecolortoshowsomanyimportantthings.Justbecausemusic
notationhasbeendonethiswayforsuchalongtimeisnoreasontokeepfollowingthe
tradition.Ifthereareclearadvantagestousingsimpleadvancesintechnology,thenthere
isnoreasonnottousethem.Musiciansarereadytogopaperlesswithanattempttousing
tabletsinsteadofcopyingmusic,butnoonehasutilizedthepossibilityofcoloredinkona
pieceofmusic.Itseemsasthoughmusiciansaretryingtoskipafewtechnologicalsteps
thatcouldmakeahugeimprovementinthecraftthatismusic.
Itseemsclearthroughthisstudythatmanythingscaninfluenceamusician’sability
tonoticeandperformaccentsduringthesight-readingprocess.Themostinfluentialones
duringthisstudywereageduringhighschool,instrumenttype,andwhetheramusician
takesmusiclessons.Thereisopportunityformoretestingtoseeifothercolors,theagesof
collegestudents,numberofyearsinlessons,gender,andthenumberofyearsinbandmake
adifferenceduringthesight-readingprocess.Onethingisclear;however,andthatisthe
factthattheadditionofcolortoaccentmarksdoesmakeasignificantpositivedifferencein
theperformanceofaccentsduringthesight-readingprocess.
47
REFERENCES
Bankieris,K.,&Simner,J.(2015).Whatisthelinkbetweensynaesthesiaandsound
symbolism.Cognition(136),186-195.
Bobbitt,R.(1970).Thedevelopmentofmusicreadingskills.JournalofResearchinMusic
Education,18(2),143-156.
Boyle,J.D.(1970).Theeffectofprescribedrhythmicalmovementsontheabilitytoread
musicatsight.JournalofResearchinMusicEducation,18(4),307-318.
Colla,G.(2001).Rainbowsolfege.TeachingMusic,9(2),32-37.
Conway,C.,Marshall,H.,&Hartz,B.(2014).Movementinstructiontofacilitatebeat
competencyininstrumentalmusic.MusicEducatorsJournal,100(3),61-66.
Drai-Zerbib,V.,Baccino,T.,&Bigand,E.(2011).Sight-readingexpertise:Cross-modality
integrationinvestigatedusingeyetracking.PsychologyofMusic,40(2),216-235.
Elliot,C.A.(1982).Thereleationshipsamonginstrumentalsight-readingabilityandseven
selectedpredictorvariables.JournalofResearchinMusicEducation,30(1),5-14.
Fine,P.,Berry,A.,&Rosner,B.(2006).Theeffectofpatternrecognitionandtonal
predictabilityonsight-singingability.PsychologyofMusic,34(4),431-447.
Geringer,J.,Madsen,C.,MacLeod,R.,&Droe,K.(2006).Theeffectofarticulationstyleon
perceptionofmodulatedtempo.JournalofResearchinMusicEducation,54(4),324-
336.
Gregory,T.B.(1972).Theeffectofrhythmicnotationvariablesonsight-readingerrors.20
(4),462-468.
Gromko,J.E.(2004).Predictorsofmusicsight-readingabilityinhighschoolwindplayers.
JournalofResearchinMusicEducation,52(1),6-15.
48
Harris,P.(2001).Rapideyemovement.TheStrad,112(1333),536-538.
Hayward,C.M.,&Gromko,J.E.(2009).Relationshipsamongmusicsight-readingand
technicalproficiency,spatialvisualization,andauraldiscrimination.Journalof
ResearchinMusicEducation,57(1),26-36.
Kopiez,R.,&Lee,J.(2006).Towardsadynamicmodelofskillsinvolvedinsightreading
music.MusicEducationResearch,8(1),97-120.
Kopiez,R.,Weihs,C.,Ligges,U.,&Lee,J.(2006).Classificationofhighandlowachieversina
musicsight-readingtask.PsychologyofMusic,34(1),5-26.
Kuo,Y.-T.,&Chuang,M.-C.(2013).Aproposalofacolormusicnotationsystemonasingle
melodyformusicbeginners.InternationalJournalofMusicEducation,31(4),394-
412.
McPherson,G.E.(1994).Factorsandabilitiesinfluencingsightreadingskillinmusic.
JournalofResearchinMusicEducation,42(3),217-231.
Mishra,J.(2014).Improvingsightreadingaccuracy:Ameta-analysis.PsychologyofMusic,
42(2),131-156.
Poast,M.(2000).Colormusic:Visualcolornotationformusicalexpression.Leonardo,33
(3),215-221.
Rayner,K.,&Pollatsek,A.(1997).Eyemovements,theeye-handspan,andtheperceptual
spanduringsight-readingofmusic.CurrentDirectionsinPsychologicalScience,6
(2),49-53.
Rogers,G.L.(1991).Effectofcolor-codednotationonmusicachievementofelementary
instrumentalstudents.JournalofResearchinMusicEducation,39(1),64-73.
49
Rogers,G.L.(1996).Effectofcoloredrhythmicnotationonmusic-readingskillsof
elementarystudents.JournalofResearchinMusicEducation,44(1),15-25.
Saxon,K.(2009).Thescienceofsightreading.AmericanMusicTeacher,58(6),22-25.
Strouse,L.H.(2007).Improvingrhythmreadinginmiddleschoolband.TeachingMusic,14
(5),34-38.
Tolson,J.(2012).Jazzstyleandarticulation:Howtogetyourbandorchoirtoswing.Music
EducatorsJournal,99(1),80-86.
Zhukov,K.(2014).Evaluatingnewapproachestoteachingofsight-readingskillsto
advancedpianists.MusicEducationResearch,16(1),70-87.
52
Table1:QuestionnaireResultsSheet---HighSchool
IdentifierCode Instrument Age Gender
#Yearsin
Band
#Yearsin
LessonsColorblind?
Accent?Attempt
1/Attempt2
PC09 Clarinet 14 Female 3 0 No No YesPC11 Flute 16 Female 4 0 No No NoPC12 Trombone 18 Male 7 0 No No YesPC13 Flute 15 Female 3 0 No No NoPC15 Flute 16 Female 6 0 No No NoPC18 Trumpet 17 Female 7 5 No Yes YesPC22 Trumpet 17 Male 6 0 No No NoPC24 Trumpet 16 Female 5 0 No Yes NoPC26 Saxophone 17 Male 7 0 No Yes NoPC28 Flute 17 Female 6 0 No No NoPC29 Saxophone 17 Male 6 0 No No NoPC32 Clarinet 15 Female 4 0 No Yes NoPC34 Flute 16 Female 5 0 No No NoPC36 Clarinet 17 Female 6 0 No No NoPC40 Trumpet 16 Female 5 0 No Yes NoPC43 Saxophone 16 Male 5 0 No No NoPC45 Horn 16 Female 5 0 No No NoPC46 Tuba 17 Male 6 0 No Yes NoPC47 Horn 16 Female 5 0 No No NoPC52 Trombone 17 Female 5 9 No Yes NoPC53 Clarinet 16 Female 4 0 No Yes NoPC54 Trombone 18 Male 7 0 No No YesPC55 Clarinet 14 Female 4 0 No No NoPC56 Saxophone 15 Male 5 0 No No NoPC57 Horn 15 Female 5 0 No No NoPC58 Horn 16 Male 5 0 No Yes Yes
PC59 Trombone 15 Male 3 0Yes-Red/Blue No No
PC60 Trombone 15 Female 4 0 No No NoPE09 Flute 16 Female 5 0 No No YesPE10 Horn 16 Male 6 0 No No NoPE11 Flute 17 Female 5 0 No No YesPE13 Flute 15 Female 4 0 No No NoPE15 Trombone 15 Male 4 0 No No NoPE17 Flute 14 Female 4 0 No No NoPE20 Trumpet 15 Male 5 0 No No Yes
53
Appendix1:Table1:QuestionnaireResultsSheet---HighSchool
PE22 Trombone 16 Female 5 1 No No NoPE24 Clarinet 17 Female 6 4 No No YesPE26 Flute 17 Female 6 0.5 No No YesPE28 Flute 15 Female 4 1 No No YesPE30 Flute 15 Female 4 1 No No NoPE33 Saxophone 14 Female 4 0 No No NoPE38 Tuba 16 Male 6 0 No No NoPE40 Trombone 15 Female 1 0 No No NoPE41 Horn 15 Male 4 0 No No NoPE42 Trumpet 16 Female 6 0 No No NoPE43 Trombone 17 Male 3 3 No No NoPE44 Bassoon 15 Male 5 1 No No YesPE45 Clarinet 15 Female 3 0 No No NoPE46 Euphonium 16 Female 5 0 No No YesPE47 Clarinet 16 Female 4 0 No No NoPE52 Trombone 18 Female 7 0 No No YesPE53 Horn 15 Male 4 0 No No NoPE54 Trombone 16 Male 6 0 No No YesPE55 Clarinet 16 Female 5 0 No No YesPE56 Trumpet 17 Male 6 1 No No NoPE60 Saxophone 15 Male 5 0.25 No No Yes
Key PE-Experimental PC-Control 28-Experimental 28-Control
54
Appendix 2:Table2:QuestionnaireResultsSheet---College
Table2:QuestionnaireResultsSheet---College
IdentifierCode Instrument Age Gender
#Yearsin
Band
#Yearsin
LessonsColorblind?
Accent?Attempt
1/Attempt2OC01 Saxophone 23 Male 7 5 No No YesOC02 Euphonium 22 Male 13 2 No Yes NoOC03 Trumpet 19 Female 8 4 No Yes YesOC04 Clarinet 22 Male 9 4 No Yes YesOC05 Saxophone 19 Male 8 6 No Yes YesOC06 Trumpet 22 Male 12 5 No No No
OC07 Bassoon 21 Male 9 3Yes-Blue/Purple No No
OC08 Euphonium 22 Male 8 0.5 No Yes NoOC09 Euphonium 20 Female 9 0 No No NoOC10 Saxophone 22 Male 12 4 No No NoOC11 Trumpet 18 Male 8 2 No Yes YesOC12 Horn 21 Female 11 1 No No YesOC13 Saxophone 24 Male 14 6 No No NoOC14 Horn 18 Female 8 1 No No NoOC15 Horn 20 Male 10 2 No Yes Yes
OE01 Saxophone 25 Male 14 3Yes-Red/Green Yes Yes
OE02 Trombone 19 Male 8 1 No No YesOE03 Trombone 20 Male 10 1 No Yes YesOE04 Horn 21 Male 10 2 No No YesOE05 Trombone 20 Male 10 3 No Yes YesOE06 Saxophone 21 Male 10 0 No No NoOE07 Trumpet 22 Female 10 5 No No YesOE08 Trumpet 24 Male 13 6 No Yes YesOE09 Clarinet 20 Female 9 1 No No YesOE10 Horn 20 Male 10 2 No No YesOE11 Trumpet 19 Female 9 1 No No YesOE12 Saxophone 25 Female 15 5 No No YesOE13 Trumpet 21 Female 11 2 No Yes YesOE14 Saxophone 24 Male 14 6 No No YesOE15 Saxophone 26 Male 16 4 No No Yes
Key OE-Experimental 15-Experimental OC-Control 15-Control
56
Appendix3:PretestSight-ReadingExcerptinScoreNotation
&&&&&&&&&?
&&?
&??
bb### ### ### #
b
#
b#
bb
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
Flute
Oboe
Clarinet in Bb
Bass Clarinet
Contralto Clarinet
Contrabass Clarinet
Alto Sax
Tenor Sax
Baritone Sax
Bassoon
Horn in F
Trumpet in Bb
Trombone
Baritone (T.C.)
Euphonium
Tuba
œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œœ œ œ œœ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œœ œ œ œœ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œœ œ œ œœ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ
q = 95 œ œ œ. œ. œ Œœ œ œ. œ. œ Œ
œ œ œ. œ. œ Œ
œ œ œ. œ. œ Œœ œ œ. œ. œ Œ
œ œ œ. œ. œ Œœ œ œ. œ. œ Œœ œ œ. œ. œ Œœ œ œ. œ. œ Œœ œ œ. œ. œ Œœ œ œ. œ. œ Œ
œ œ œ. œ. œ Œœ œ œ. œ. œ Œ
œ œ œ. œ. œ Œœ œ œ. œ. œ Œ
œ œ œ. œ. œ Œ
œ œ œ>> œ œ œ>
œ œ œ>> œ œ œ>
œ œ œ>> œ œ œ>œ œ œ>> œ œ œ>œ œ œ>> œ œ œ>
œ œ œ>> œ œ œ>œ œ œ>> œ œ œ>
œ œ œ>> œ œ œ>
œ œ œ>> œ œ œ>
œ œ œ>> œ œ œ>
œ œ œ>> œ œ œ>
œ œ œ>> œ œ œ>œ œ œ>> œ œ œ>
œ œ œ>> œ œ œ>œ œ œ>> œ œ œ>
œ œ œ>> œ œ œ>
œ œ œ. œ. œ ‰ Jœœ œ œ. œ. œ ‰ Jœ
œ œ œ. œ. œ ‰ jœœ œ œ. œ. œ ‰ jœœ œ œ. œ. œ ‰ jœœ œ œ. œ. œ ‰ jœœ œ œ. œ. œ ‰ jœœ œ œ. œ. œ ‰ Jœœ œ œ. œ. œ ‰ jœœ œ œ. œ. œ ‰ jœœ œ œ. œ. œ ‰ jœœ œ œ. œ. œ ‰ jœœ œ œ. œ. œ ‰ jœœ œ œ. œ. œ ‰ jœœ œ œ. œ. œ ‰ jœ
œ œ œ. œ. œ ‰ jœ
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ.
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ.
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ.œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ.œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ.
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ.œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ.œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ.
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ.
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ.
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ.
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ.œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ.
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ.œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ.
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ.
œ œ œ œ œ ‰ Jœ
œ œ œ œ œ ‰ Jœ
œ œ œ œ œ ‰ Jœ
œ œ œ œ œ ‰ Jœ
œ œ œ œ œ ‰ Jœ
œ œ œ œ œ ‰ Jœ
œ œ œ œ œ ‰ Jœ
œ œ œ œ œ ‰ Jœ
œ œ œ œ œ ‰ Jœ
œ œ œ œ œ ‰ Jœ
œ œ œ œ œ ‰ Jœ
œ œ œ œ œ ‰ Jœ
œ œ œ œ œ ‰ Jœ
œ œ œ œ œ ‰ Jœ
œ œ œ œ œ ‰ Jœ
œ œ œ œ œ ‰ jœ
œ œ œ. œ. œ œœ œ œ. œ. œ œ
œ œ œ. œ. œ œœ œ œ. œ. œ œœ œ œ. œ. œ œ
œ œ œ. œ. œ œœ œ œ. œ. œ œœ œ œ. œ. œ œ
œ œ œ. œ. œ œœ œ œ. œ. œ œœ œ œ. œ. œ œ
œ œ œ. œ. œ œœ œ œ. œ. œ œ
œ œ œ. œ. œ œœ œ œ. œ. œ œ
œ œ œ. œ. œ œ
œ œ ˙œ œ ˙
œ œ ˙œ œ ˙œ œ ˙
œ œ ˙œ œ ˙œ œ ˙
œ œ ˙œ œ ˙œ œ ˙
œ œ ˙œ œ ˙
œ œ ˙œ œ ˙
œ œ ˙
Pretest Sight-Reading Excerpt
©
Score
57
Appendix4:PretestSight-ReadingExcerptFluteSubjectExample
& b 44 œ œ œ œq = 95 œ œ œ. œ. œ Œ œ œ œ>> œ œ œ> œ œ œ. œ. œ ‰ Jœ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ. œ.
& b6 œ œ œ œ œ ‰ Jœ œ œ œ. œ. œ œ œ œ ˙
Pretest Sight-Reading Excerpt
©
Flute
58
Appendix5:PosttestControlGroupSight-ReadingExcerptinScoreNotation
&&?
&&&&&&&&&?
&??
bb
bb
bb
#
#
#
b
bb
bb
bb
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
Flute
Oboe
Bassoon
Clarinet in Bb
Bass Clarinet
Contralto Clarinet
Contrabass Clarinet
Alto Sax
Tenor Sax
Baritone Sax
Trumpet in Bb
Horn in F
Trombone
Baritone (T.C.)
Baritone (B.C.)
Tuba
œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œ
˙ Œ œ œ˙ Œ œ œ˙ Œ œ œ˙ Œ œ œ˙ Œ œ œ˙ Œ œ œ˙ Œ œ œ˙ Œ œ œ˙ Œ œ œ˙ Œ œ œ˙ Œ œ œ˙ Œ œ œ˙ Œ œ œ˙ Œ œ œ˙ Œ œ œ
˙ Œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ Œœ œ œ Œœ œ œ Œ
œ œ œ Œ
œ œ œ Œ
œ œ œ Œ
œ œ œ Œœ œ œ Œ
œ œ œ Œœ œ œ Œ
œ œ œ Œœ œ œ Œœ œ œ Œ
œ œ œ Œœ œ œ Œ
œ œ œ Œ
œ œ œ œ œ œ>
œ œ œ œ œ œ>
œ œ œ œ œ œ>
œ œ œ œ œ œ>œ œ œ œ œ œ>œ œ œ œ œ œ>œ œ œ œ œ œ>œ œ œ œ œ œ>
œ œ œ œ œ œ>œ œ œ œ œ œ>
œ œ œ œ œ œ>œ œ œ œ œ œ>
œ œ œ œ œ œ>
œ œ œ œ œ œ>œ œ œ œ œ œ>
œ œ œ œ œ œ>
œ œ œ œ œ œ>
œ œ œ œ œ œ>
œ œ œ œ œ œ>
œ œ œ œ œ œ>œ œ œ œ œ œ>œ œ œ œ œ œ>œ œ œ œ œ œ>œ œ œ œ œ œ>
œ œ œ œ œ œ>œ œ œ œ œ œ>
œ œ œ œ œ œ>œ œ œ œ œ œ>
œ œ œ œ œ œ>
œ œ œ œ œ œ>œ œ œ œ œ œ>
œ œ œ œ œ œ>
œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ> œ œ œ œ œ
œ> œ œ œ œ œ
œ> œ œ œ œ œ
œ> œ œ œ œ œ
œ> œ œ œ œ œ
œ> œ œ œ œ œ
œ> œ œ œ œ œ
œ> œ œ œ œ œ
œ> œ œ œ œ œ
œ> œ œ œ œ œ
œ> œ œ œ œ œ
œ> œ œ œ œ œ
œ> œ œ œ œ œ
œ> œ œ œ œ œ
œ> œ œ œ œ œ
œ> œ œ œ œ œ
Posttest Control Group Sight-Reading ExcerptEric Malone
©2016
Score
59
Appendix6:PosttestControlGroupSight-ReadingExcerptFluteSubjectExample
& bb 44 œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙ Œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ Œ œ œ œ œ œ œ>
& bb6 œ œ œ œ œ œ> œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ> œ œ œ œ œ
Posttest Sight-Reading ExcerptEric Malone
©2016
Flute
C2
60
Appendix 7:PosttestExperimentalGroupSight-ReadingExcerptinScoreNotation Note: All (>) marks are printed in red ink.
&&?
&&&&&&&&&?
&??
bb
bb
bb
#
#
#
b
bb
bb
bb
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
44
Flute
Oboe
Bassoon
Clarinet in Bb
Bass Clarinet
Contralto Clarinet
Contrabass Clarinet
Alto Sax
Tenor Sax
Baritone Sax
Trumpet in Bb
Horn in F
Trombone
Baritone (T.C.)
Baritone (B.C.)
Tuba
œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œ
˙ Œ œ œ˙ Œ œ œ˙ Œ œ œ˙ Œ œ œ˙ Œ œ œ˙ Œ œ œ˙ Œ œ œ˙ Œ œ œ˙ Œ œ œ˙ Œ œ œ˙ Œ œ œ˙ Œ œ œ˙ Œ œ œ˙ Œ œ œ˙ Œ œ œ
˙ Œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ Œœ œ œ Œœ œ œ Œ
œ œ œ Œ
œ œ œ Œ
œ œ œ Œ
œ œ œ Œœ œ œ Œ
œ œ œ Œœ œ œ Œ
œ œ œ Œœ œ œ Œœ œ œ Œ
œ œ œ Œœ œ œ Œ
œ œ œ Œ
œ œ œ œ œ œ>
œ œ œ œ œ œ>
œ œ œ œ œ œ>
œ œ œ œ œ œ>œ œ œ œ œ œ>œ œ œ œ œ œ>œ œ œ œ œ œ>œ œ œ œ œ œ>
œ œ œ œ œ œ>œ œ œ œ œ œ>
œ œ œ œ œ œ>œ œ œ œ œ œ>
œ œ œ œ œ œ>
œ œ œ œ œ œ>œ œ œ œ œ œ>
œ œ œ œ œ œ>
œ œ œ œ œ œ>
œ œ œ œ œ œ>
œ œ œ œ œ œ>
œ œ œ œ œ œ>œ œ œ œ œ œ>œ œ œ œ œ œ>œ œ œ œ œ œ>œ œ œ œ œ œ>
œ œ œ œ œ œ>œ œ œ œ œ œ>
œ œ œ œ œ œ>œ œ œ œ œ œ>
œ œ œ œ œ œ>
œ œ œ œ œ œ>œ œ œ œ œ œ>
œ œ œ œ œ œ>
œ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œœ œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ œ œ œ œ œ œ
œ> œ œ œ œ œ
œ> œ œ œ œ œ
œ> œ œ œ œ œ
œ> œ œ œ œ œ
œ> œ œ œ œ œ
œ> œ œ œ œ œ
œ> œ œ œ œ œ
œ> œ œ œ œ œ
œ> œ œ œ œ œ
œ> œ œ œ œ œ
œ> œ œ œ œ œ
œ> œ œ œ œ œ
œ> œ œ œ œ œ
œ> œ œ œ œ œ
œ> œ œ œ œ œ
œ> œ œ œ œ œ
Posttest Experimental Group Sight-Reading ExcerptEric Malone
©2016
Score
61
Appendix 8:PosttestExperimentalGroupSight-ReadingExcerptFluteSubjectExample Note: All (>) marks are printed in red ink.
& bb 44 œ œ œ œ œ œ ˙ Œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ Œ œ œ œ œ œ œ>
& bb6 œ œ œ œ œ œ> œ œ œ œ œ œ œ œ> œ œ œ œ œ
Posttest Sight-Reading ExcerptEric Malone
©2016
Flute
E2
63
Appendix 9:BlankSubjectQuestionnaire
SubjectQuestionnaire
Identifier_______________________________________Instrument_____________________________________
Age______________________________________________Gender__________________________________________
Howmanyyears(includingthisyear)haveyoubeeninband?_______Haveyouevertaken
lessons?Ifso,howmanyyears_____________________________________________________________________
Areyoucolorblind?__________________________Ifso,pleaseexplainwhatformofcolorblindness
65
Appendix 10: IRB Approval Email
7/23/16, 12:44 PMUniversity of Mississippi Mail - IRB Exempt Approval of 16x-228
Page 1 of 2https://mail.google.com/mail/u/3/?ui=2&ik=26a273b4dc&view=pt&q=…&qs=true&search=query&th=1537ab3e56a647cb&siml=1537ab3e56a647cb
Eric Malone <[email protected]>
IRB Exempt Approval of 16x-2281 message
[email protected] <[email protected]> Tue, Mar 15, 2016 at 9:35 AMTo: Eric Malone <[email protected]>, ANDREW PANEY <[email protected]>
Mr. Malone:
This is to inform you that your application to conduct research with human participants, “The Effect of Colored AccentMarks in Music Notation During the Sight-reading Process for High School Wind Instrumentalists" (Protocol #16x-228), has been approved as Exempt under 45 CFR 46.101(b)(#1).
Please remember that all of The University of Mississippi’s human participant research activities, regardless ofwhether the research is subject to federal regulations, must be guided by the ethical principles in The Belmont Report:Ethical Principles and Guidelines for the Protection of Human Subjects of Research.
It is especially important for you to keep these points in mind:
• You must protect the rights and welfare of human research participants.
• Any changes to your approved protocol must be reviewed and approved before initiating those changes.
• You must report promptly to the IRB any injuries or other unanticipated problems involving risks toparticipants or others.
If you have any questions, please feel free to contact the IRB at [email protected].
Ashley S. Crumby, PharmD
Graduate Student Assistant, Research Integrity and ComplianceUniversity of Mississippi
213 Barr
66
VITA Education: ItawambaCommunityCollegeFulton,MS AssociateofArt-May2011 Major:MusicEducation OverallGPAinResidency:3.77/4.00
TheUniversityofMississippiUniversity,MS BachelorofMusic-May2014 Major:MusicEducation(Instrumental) BachelorofArts-May2014 Major:Mathematics OverallGPAinResidency:3.68/4.00 OverallGPA:3.74/4.00Honors RecipientofOutstandingGraduateStudentinMusicEducation2016andActivities: RecipientofOutstandingGraduateStudentinMusic2016
ParticipatedinUniversityofNotreDame’s58thCollegiateJazzFestivalMemberofSigmaAlphaLambda[LeadershipandHonors]
MemberofPhiKappaPhi[HonorsSociety]MemberofPhiKappaLambda[MusicEducationHonors]MemberofMississippiProfessionalEducatorsPresentedoriginalresearchprojectatMissouriMusicEducators
Association MemberofNationalAssociationforMusicEducators
WinneroftheUniversityofMississippiConcertoCompetition-2012/2013
Chancellor’sHonorRoll-2011-2014DrumMajor(ItawambaCommunityCollege)-2008-2010MemberofPhiThetaKappa[LeadershipandHonorsSociety]
(ChapterVicePresident-2009/2010,ChapterPresident-2010/2011,GoldenKeyAward-2011,MemberoftheYearAward-2009-2011)
ItawambaCommunityCollegeFineArtsDivisionMostOutstandingStudent-2010/2011
SalutatorianatCaledoniaHighSchool-2008Memberofvariousperformingensemblesincludingjazzband,steel
drumensemble,windensemble,saxophonequartet,etc.