THE DIFFUSION AND MOSAICS OF LANGUAGES. Tracing Linguistic Diversification Diffusion of languages...
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THE DIFFUSION AND MOSAICS OF LANGUAGES
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Tracing Linguistic Diversification
Diffusion of languages– Sound shifts– William Jones and ancient Sanskrit– Jacob Grimm and consonants
From Jones and Grimm to the (Proto) Indo-European language– This concept had major implications creating
major research tasks
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The Language Tree
Divergence– August Schleicher– Languages to dialects– Dialects isolated
becoming discrete languages
– Language tree model
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The Language Tree
Convergence– Long-isolated languages making contact– Human mobility complicates language study– Languages and relocation diffusion
Replacement– Replacement or modification of language by stronger
invaders of a less advanced people goes on today– No reason to believe it has not happened ever since
humans began to use language
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Theories of Language Diffusion
Roots– Proto-language had words for landscape features,
certain vegetation Indicators of where a language may have developed
Conquest theory– Somewhere north of the Black Sea in the vast
steppes of Ukraine and Russia– > 5000 years ago, used horses, developed the
wheel, and traded
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Theories of Language Diffusion
Agriculture theory– Source area in Anatolia, Turkey
Few words for plains but many for high-relief landforms
Non-plains-dwelling animals and trees Mesopotamian Cultural Hearth
– Support for the theory Distance decay
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Drawbacks of the theory– Not much farming in Anatolia
Agricultural Theory
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The Search For The Superfamily
Renfrew’s agricultural hearths model Russian scholars long interested
– Nostratic
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The Search For The Superfamily
Nostratic – Vocabulary
No names for domestic plants or animals
– Hunter-gatherers, ~ 14,000 years ago– Possible ancestral language for many other languages– Links widely separated languages– Perhaps a direct successor of a proto-world language
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Diffusion to the Pacific
When populated by people? Diffusion into the Pacific north of Indonesia and
New Guinea AustronesianMalay-Polynesian Speed of diffusion amazing considering the
fragmented Pacific realm Most of Polynesia settled within several
centuries
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Diffusion to The Americas
Diffusion in the Americas– Dominated by Indo-European languages– Pre-Columbian populations quite low– If Bering land-bridge hypothesis, then most intricately
divided branch of language tree The Greenberg hypothesis
– 3 families of indigenous American languages– Implies a period longer than the (generally) accepted
12,000-to-13,000-year-ago immigration into the Americas
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Influences onIndividual Languages
Individual tongues– Contact important for non-written languages– Three critical components have influenced the
world's linguistic mosaic: Literacy Technology Political organization
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Printing press– Germany 1588– Easier to publish texts
Rise of national states– Integrated state territory– Common linguistic influences via interaction
Influences on Individual Languages
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MODERN LANGUAGE MOSAICS
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Changing Cultural Composition in the United States
Hispanics population on the rise An “official” second language?
– Even divides Hispanic communities– Hispanic policy organization report, 1990
Early European immigrants faced language barrier…
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Language and Culture
Current debates– Language vs. cultural preservation– English = international communication standard– Some countries have made English (or another
language) their official language Neocolonialism to some Emotional attachment important What is the US’s official language?
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Language and Trade
The Esperanto experiment Lingua franca
– Linguistic convergence of Frankish, Italian, Greek, Spanish, and Arabic
– Today’s usage of “lingua franca” Swahili has become the lingua franca of East Africa In West Africa Hausa is a regional tongue
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Language and Trade
Creolization– “Pidgin”– Sometimes a mother tongue– Difficult distinguishing between them & dialects
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Multilingualism
Few true monolingual states left – Japan, Uruguay, Venezuela, Iceland, Portugal,
Poland, and Lesotho
Multilingual states– Linguistic fragmentation can reflect cultural
pluralism
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Multilingualism
Regional expression– Examples:
Switzerland Russia Andean Cultures
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Multilingualism
Canada– French & English
speaking areas– Still divided
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Multilingualism
Belgium Dutch-speaking and
French-speaking regions Brussels officially
bilingual, but majority speak French
Reflects 19th century efforts to build an integrated state
Linguistic partition in 1920s
For Flemish identity Language regions tend to
foster regionalism
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Multilingualism
Nigeria A colonial creation Three major regional
languages– 230 established tongues
English as “official” language
– Repercussions?
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Official languages
Serve different purposes– Enhance internal communication and interaction– Colonial influence– Official language can cause problems
Hindi example
– US official language? None!
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Toponymy
The systematic study of place names– Reveal a lot about a culture
Examples?– Why, AZ; Nothing, AZ; Ajo, AZ; Marana, AZ– Peru, ME; Bolivia, SC
Two part names– Many place names consist of two parts
A specific or given part Generic or classifying part E.g., Pennsylvania (Penn’s Forest)
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Toponymy
Taxonomy of Toponymy– Historian George Stewart classified place names into ten
categories Descriptive Associative Incident Possessive Commendatory Commemorative
– LA (El Pueblo de Nuestra Senora la Reina de los Angeles de Porciuncula)
Folk-etymology Manufactured Mistake So-called Shift names
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Toponymy
Changing place names– Elicit strong passions
E.g., post-colonial African countries; Burma to Myanmar; Siam to Thailand
– Changing city or town names often more difficult than changing in territory names
– Post-Soviet Union Thousands of places were renamed Many bitter arguments
– South Africa today...
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Language and The Global Cultural Mosaic
African Storyteller; Gaelic Bard; Troubadour– Tales contain history and psyche of the people
Language can reveal how people view reality Language and religion are two cornerstones of
culture
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Discussion Question, set #1
Language divergence involves the differentiation of languages over time and space.
– Where in North America is language divergence in progress today?
– What geographic factors contribute to this process here (in N.A.) and elsewhere?
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Discussion Question, set #2
Over the more than two centuries of its existence, the US has been a largely English-speaking country. For African-Americans, European-Americans, and Asian-Americans, English became the first (often the only) language. Today, Spanish is challenging this English monopoly.
– What geographic factors play major roles in this process? How? Why?