The Decline of Harappan Civilization

53
The Decline of Harappan Civilization K.N.DIKSHIT EBSTRACT As pointed out by N. G. Majumdar in 1934, a late phase of lndus civilization is illustrated by pottery discovered at the upper levels of Jhukar and Mohenjo-daro. However, it was the excavation at Rangpur which revealed in stratification a general decline in the prosperity of the Harappan culture. The cultural gamut of the nuclear region of the lndus-Sarasvati divide, when compared internally, revealed regional variations conforming to devolutionary tendencies especially in the peripheral region of north and western lndia. A large number of sites, now loosely termed as 'Late Harappan/Post-urban', have been discovered. These sites, which formed the disrupted terminal phases of the culture, lost their status as Harappan. They no doubt yielded distinctive Harappan pottery, antiquities and remnants of some architectural forms, but neither town planning nor any economic and cultural nucleus. The script also disappeared. ln this paper, an attempt is made with the survey of some of these excavated sites and other exploratory field-data noticed in the lndo-Pak subcontinent, to understand the complex issue.of Harappan decline and its legacy. CONTENTS l.INTRODUCTION 2. FIELD DATA A. Punjab i. Ropar v. Katpalon ii. Bara iii. Dher Majra vi. Nagar vii. Dadheri ii. Daulatpur iii. Bhagwanpura vi. Muhammad Nagar B. Jammu and Kashmir i. Manda C. Haryana i. Mitathal v. Karsola D. Delhi i. Bhorgarh iv. Sanghol viii. Rohira iv. Mirzapur 125

Transcript of The Decline of Harappan Civilization

The Decline of Harappan Civilization

K.N.DIKSHIT

EBSTRACT

As pointed out by N. G. Majumdar in 1934, a late phase of lndus civilization is illustrated

by pottery discovered at the upper levels of Jhukar and Mohenjo-daro. However, it was the

excavation at Rangpur which revealed in stratification a general decline in the prosperity

of the Harappan culture. The cultural gamut of the nuclear region of the lndus-Sarasvati

divide, when compared internally, revealed regional variations conforming to devolutionary

tendencies especially in the peripheral region of north and western lndia. A large number ofsites, now loosely termed as 'Late Harappan/Post-urban', have been discovered. These sites,

which formed the disrupted terminal phases of the culture, lost their status as Harappan. Theyno doubt yielded distinctive Harappan pottery, antiquities and remnants of some architecturalforms, but neither town planning nor any economic and cultural nucleus. The script alsodisappeared. ln this paper, an attempt is made with the survey of some of these excavatedsites and other exploratory field-data noticed in the lndo-Pak subcontinent, to understand thecomplex issue.of Harappan decline and its legacy.

CONTENTS

l.INTRODUCTION

2. FIELD DATA

A. Punjabi. Roparv. Katpalon

ii. Bara iii. Dher Majravi. Nagar vii. Dadheri

ii. Daulatpur iii. Bhagwanpuravi. Muhammad Nagar

B. Jammu and Kashmiri. Manda

C. Haryanai. Mitathal

v. Karsola

D. Delhi

i. Bhorgarh

iv. Sanghol

viii. Rohira

iv. Mirzapur

125

ANCiENT INDlA,NEW SERIES,NO.1

E.Western Uttar Pradesh

i.Hulas il.Alamgirpur ili.Bargaon iv.Mandi

v Arnbkheri v:.Bahadarabad

F.Guiarat

i.Rangpur †|.Desalpur ili.Dhola宙ra iv Kanmerv.」uni Kuran vi.Ratanpura

G.Maharashtra

i.Daimabad

3.EV:DENCE OF RICE

4.BURIAL PRACTiCES

5.DiSCUSS10N

6.CLASSiFiCAT10N AND CHRONOLOGY

7.DATA FROM PAKISTAN

8.BACTRIA―MARGIANAARCHAEOLOGICAL COMPLEX AND LATE HARAPPANS9.THE LEGACY

10.CONCLUS10N ・

I. INTRODUCTION

t was Pointed out by A. Ghosh (1982) that the Harappan de-urbanization involved a decre ase

in settlement size and population, in surplus food production, in cessation of construction ofmonumental buildings, in use of writing and in long distance trade.

The reversal of a few abstract criteria of urbanization, as laid dovrn by Childe (1950) andAdams(1966)are equally applicable to the issue of decline of Harappan civilization. To quote l

Dales,:With the decline of this civilization,the sophisticated Harappan traits were watered dovvr by l

mingling with impoverished local cultures until what was once distinct市 ely Harappan was diluted lto the point of non― existence'(1966).In fact,the devolution of a culture appears to be the outccme l

of econornic decline which Produces cultural transforlnation and changes the cultural interaction of l

the society(Dikshit 1979).

Excavadorls,particularly at Mehrgarh,have established that Baluchistan was the nuclear region。 |Ho■vever,血e subsequent excavadons at Bhirana,and other excⅣ adons in Sarasvad va■ ey in lndia l(Gupta 1996)and Hakra valley in Pakistan(Mugh」 1992a)have added a new dimension to its o五 gh. :

The Harappan sites covered an area of about 480,000 sq knl(but not at One tilne)frЭ In ithe Himalayas in the north to Godavariin the south,and from lndus river valley in the west to the .:

メainS Of Yamunaゴ ver h the Gangetic valley.The Harappan ci宙 lization reached maturity durhg :the period c.2600-1900 BC(Map l).The Late Harappan culture,or decline,marked the end of[he l

urban phenomenon,1.e.,the idea oftown― planning,construction of monumental buildings,writing, 1

and the use of weights and lneasures(Map 2-4). 1

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Tl.iE DECLINE OF HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION

To understand the question of the Late Harappan culture and decentralization of the

Harappan civiiization, mos[ scholars have tried to locate the answer in the setting in of urban

decline, and control over long-distance trade. This was accompanied by a decline of the surrounding

hinterland that produced and supported the urban centres'

Jim Shaffer is of the view that while urban centres may have ceased to exist in Sindh, it is

impossible to assert that this was the case in the entire area covered by the Late Harappan culture

(Shaffer 7gg2).Marshall (1931) was rhe firsr to have discussed the decline in his volume on Indus

civilization.Archaeologists generally agree that definite signs of decline in urban character of Harappan

civilization became visible after 2000 BC. Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Lothal, Surkotada, etc., witnessed

the loss of strict discipline in civic constmction.

Houses, drains, lanes and roads, which had been maintained with meticulous care for centuries,

were now allowed to encroach upon each other's boundaries. The industrial sectors were deserted and

small workshops were widely scattered. The granaries, warehouses, the great bath, the pillared hall,

etc., which were meant to serve the public at large, were found to be completely deserted.

pottery also shows a marked change in the quality of manufacture aSrd variety of decorations,

in painting as well in incised patterns. New houses were built, very often from the debris of older

buildings. There are hundreds of other minor and major details of the changing scenario in the oid

cities which clearly established the fact that the end of the Harappan civilization was not sudden.

The excavations of a number of Harappan sites including smaller sites, like Alamgirpur and Hulas in

the upper doab show that some specialized industries like faience, steatite, carnelian, etc., continued

to flourish even in times of decline.

The datum line of 2000 BC does not mean that each and every Harappan township declined

in 1900 BC but that definite signs of decline were noticeable by 1700 BC. However, at several other

sites, like Banawali, Balu and Hulas, the new phase is also marked by a new style in pot-making,

pot-decoration, etc. The situation appears to be extremely complex and calls for a detailed study so

that each site can be treated as an autonomous entity as well as an example of a process of culture-

change.

The decline of the Harappan civilization was slow and gradual in every region but the

transformation from the Late Mature phase to the Late phase differs from region to region. Our

analyrical study has shown that difference in the form depended upon the nature of the site, and

had two different components: (a) the role the site played in long-distance trade, and (b) the role

of the site in agricultural processes'

In the first category are the sites which were large and established along the coastal region

of Gujarat and Sindh. The sites involved in the agricultural process are hinterland sites, which are

small and supported the coastal sites in mopping up the materials for export.

Large fortifications and planned cities were by and large absent but small and large houses

existed at Lothal, Desalpur, Surkotada, Dholavira, Kuntasi, from where trade and commerce could

be carried on a small sca1e. They dwindled into small settlements resembling the Neolithic self-

sufficient agricultural sites.

うD

ANCIENT INDIA,NEW SERIES,NO.1

The continuance of certain crafts of carnelian beads, faience beads or sheil objecr:s onl1, 51ro*-

that they belonged to the cultural milieu, which had developed during the mature phase of the

Harappan civilization. The form had completely changed because the supply of raw materill ,rvas

limited.Mature Harappan phase is often identified with a phase of culture in which industry e rtered

into long-distance trade, particularly with the west Asian regions. However, it must be r:leariy

understood that 'foreign' trade cannot be effective unless it is backed by vibrant internal trade. The

absence of inscribed seals and general scarcity of copper, bronze and other raw materials, s'rch as

chert, lapis lazuli and gold in the Late Harappan period shows that there was a severe setback tointernai and external trade.

The excavation at Kuntasi revealed a fortified industrial establishment with large sr.orage

areas and workshops. It has two periods: (a) Mature phase (2400-1900 BC) and (b) thr: Late

Harappan (1900-1700 BC).

In the absence of some fossil artefacts the excavator is of opinion that the so-called unif<rrmity

of the Harappan civilization with a strong degree of regimentation is a myth (Dhavalikar et al.

1996). Marcia Fentress proposed that there were vital differenc.es even between Harappa and

Mohenjo-daro (1984).

Dhoiavira in the Kachchh area of Gujarat revealed I-IV stages of growth and V-VII stages ofdecline of the Harappa culture. It became totally deurbanized in last stage (Bisht 7997).

Different scholars attempted a reappraisal of the Late Harappan cultures and timings oftheir cultural disintegration in three regions,viz., (a) Punjab and Sindh of Pakistan (b) conti,guous

areas in India, i.e., Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh and (c) Gujarat (Allchin and Allchin l9B2;Shaffer 7982; Dikshit 7967a, L982, 7984, 1985; Kenoyer 7989; Mughal 1989; Rao 1991; Misra

7994; Possehl 1997; Lal 7997) . They also tried to analyse the causes of change in economg :rade,

food, pottery, minor antiquities, religion and burial practices.

The reason for the decline of Harappan civilization is still vague. Many theories such as

invasion, flooding, stagnation of water, changes in river courses, climatic changes, etc., have been

advanced by Wheeler, Raikes and Dales. However, extensive hydrological studies have established

that the river Indus and Sarasvati changed their courses several times, maybe around 1900 B(1. The

cause of this was the loss of two of its major tributaries, the Sutlej and the Yamuna * the first -o the

Indus and other to the Ganga (Pl. 11A). This calamity must have brought out large scale chanlles or

disruption in the internal trade routes connecting the hinterland with the coast.

The long-disrance trade by land route and through river Indus and its tributaries connected

to Indian Ocean was affected because of a tilt in the landmass in the sub-Himalayan region caused by

an earrhquake. Incidentally, hydrological changes made the river Sarasvati dry and shifted Srrtlej's

course, once a tributary of the Sarasvati-Ghaggar, to discharge its water in the Indus in around

2000-1700 BC.

It may be noted that Sarasvati, which comes out from Adi Badri in the Siwalik, used to

discharge its water in Indian Ocean. The Landsat imagery which has a bearing on this issue, specially

the present river systems of the Sutlej-Yamuna Divide, has provided evidence of tectonic upliftwhich forced the Sutlej to abandon its old channel and start fiowing westward through a tributary

1,32

THE DECLiNE OF HARAPPAN CiVILiZAT10N

or river Beas (Pal et at. 7984). There is a distinct palaeo-channei suggesting that the Sutlej and also

Sarasvati, a mighty river, flowed through the Nara directly into the Rann of Kachchh (Sharma er al.

200s-06).It is suspected that the decline of the Harappan civilization was, at least, partiy due to the

decline in the long distance trade activities, around 1800 BC, with Mesopotamia and the Persian

Gulf (Map 5).Access to the raw materials used in the production of diverse artefacts and the exchange

systems became scarce on the north Indian sites in eastern Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar

Pradesh as the supply links with Afghanistan and Iran became non-existent, which also affected the

regional interactions. The raw materiais are steatite, alabaster, marine shells, lapis lazuli, turquoise,

carnelian, chalcedony, jasper, flint/chert, schist, shale, basalt, lead, copper/bronze, silver and gold

(Lahiri 7992).

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THE DECLINE OF HARAPPAN CiViLiZAT10N

2.FIELD DnTn

A.PunJab

Post lndependence,when all the maOr Harappan sites were located in Palcistan,the lndian

archaeologists explored the contiguous area of Puttab and Rttasthan.The sites of Kbtla Nihang

Khan,Ropar,Dher Mttra,Bara etco were exPlored and excavated(Map 6).

i. Ropar

Excavation at Ropar, on the river Sutlej during 1953 to 1955, revealed a continuous succession of

human occupation of six periods from the Harappans to the much later periods. Period i (2000-1400

BC) is assigned as Harappan and the successive Period II (1000-700 BC) is PGW culture (Fig. 1).

The Harappans were the first settlers of Ropar and this period is divided into three phases.

phase IA is dominated by pre-Harappan wares including some other cognate wares. In Phase IB,

some mixed material of Phase IA and Bara ware was noticed. The Mature Halappan ware was

dominated by sturdy red ware with typical painted designs (P1. 118). The dish-on-stand of Ropar

has a very long drooping rim which is characteristic of this region

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The chronological position of Harappa vis-ir-vis Bara is difficult to explain although the

presence of Bara ware is in small percentage. Other antiquities of Mature Harappans, namely

beads and bangles of faience, triangular [erracotta cakes and chert blades were noticed (Pl. 11C).

In Period IC, a single Harappan seal which bears three familiar symbols in obverse and two

concentric circles in the reverse without any holding device was found (Pl. 11D). Another burnt

clay lump with a hole bears impressions of three typical seals with bull motif and a legend in the

familiar Harappan script. Graffiti on pottery in Harappan script was also noticed.

A cemetery away from the habitation area revealed burials with rypical Harappan pots

including personal ornaments such as bangles of faience or shell, beads of faience and semi-

precious stones and ring of copper. A copper ring was also found on the middle finger of the right

hand of a skeleton. No house plans or layouts of the township were encountered.

The site was reoccupied by the PGW users and is devoid of any structural remains and

antiquities (I/R 1953-54: 6-7).

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135

ANCIENT:ND:A,NEW SER:ES,NO.1

ii. Bara

Bara, in Rupnagar district, Punjab, also show-s gap between the end of the Harappan culture andthe arrival of the PGW people, lvhich was evident in Ropar. Bara w-as still occupied when Ropar hadbeen deserted by the Harappans (/lR 1954-55: 10-11).

The site lies on the left bank of a monsoon rivulet named Budki Nadi. Bara pottery has distinctivecharacteristics. These are made of well-levigated, fine to medium grained clay, wheel turned with a

self-slip or an applied slip, dull brorarn in colour. Designs are painted in dull chocolate or blackBara pottery has parallels with the Harappan pottery in thickness and shapes, i.e., d sh-on-

stand, basin or large bowl with flaring sides and a variery of rims including the undercut rypes.Among the Mature Harappan shapes, absent in the Bara culture are Indus goblet with pointerl base,shallow flat dish with flaring sides, wide mouthed large storage jar with concave profile abc,ve rhebase, perforated jar, etc. (Pl. 14A-C). Houses were made of kankar stone and mud-bricks and theevidence of burnt clay lumps with reed impression is indicative of wattle and daub huts.

iii. Dher Majra

Dher Majra is located in the Sirsa valley, about 11 km north of Ropar and was excavated by Prufer in1951. Excavation at the site has revealed rwo cultural periods, of which the first belongs to l{atureHarappan phase and the second phase is characterized by a composite ceramic industry which show

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THE DECLINE OF HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION

affinities with the Harappa, Cemetery-H and other red wares Gig. 2). All these are comparable with

the Late Harappan ceramic complexes of Mitathal, Bara etc. The structural evidences of the Phase I

are a mud rampart at leasr on the side of the river whereas Late Harappan habitation deposit in the

phase II covered the ruins of the earlier habitation and the defences. The antiquities are objects of

faience, clay, bone and stcne, copper, bronze, terracotta figurines, chert blades, weights, beads of

semi-precious stones, stone querns and pestles (Prufer 1951)'

iv. Sanghol

The ancient mound of Sanghol in Ludhiana district, Punjab, is about 25 m high and covers an area

of roughly 300 sq m apd lies close to a now dry water course, possibly an ancient bed of the Sutlej

or one of its defunct tributaries.Excavarions at the site by S. S. Talwar and R. S. Bisht during 1968 to 7973 rcvealed six

cultural periods of which Period I belongs to the Late Harappan culture- Mud and mud-brick

Frc 4 Plon of strucrures of Phose 3 of Period IB ot Sanghol(after Sharma and Sharma 1982)

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structures, circular corn-bins and hearths, or tandoors, were found in this period. Other strud.ureswere of rammed earth. The fabric and form of the pottery shows striking similarities witt thepottely from Bara (Fig. 3, Pl. 12A-B). It is bright to buff in colour and has fine slip and the shapesinclude dish-on-stand, dish, bowl, beaker, vases of medium to small sizes, large storage jar, flat dishwith short sides and roughened base and hollow ring-stands. Two copper chisels of rectanS;ularcross-section and slightly splayed edge, few agate inlays, heart-shaped bangles and ear-rings of,redand azure-green faience were also reported (/AR 7969-70:31-32). Period II is characterized bl, theoccurrences of PGW and plain grey, black-slipped and associated red wares (IAR 7968-69: 25-?.6).

In the excavation at Sanghol, between 1968 and 7973, no overlap of Harappanculture with PGW was noticed. However, when excavations were begun anew in lg13,G. B. Sharma noticed an overlap of Late Harappan with the PGW in Period ic. A baked lrrick

138

THE DECLINE OF HARAPPAN C!VIL:ZAT!ON

was also founcl in this deposit. In Period IB, which is divided into six phases, Phases IIl and IV

have many mud-r,valled structures w-ith clay-lined oblong kilns or hearths including corn-

bins (Figs.4-5). Plans of strucrures revealed rooms which extended to east as well as to

the.west. These small kilns were found at several places in structural Phases II, III and IV'

In some of these kilns, pieces of faience bangles were found, thereby assuming that beads, bangles

and other small objecrs were being fired in these kilns. Ninety-two micro gold beads, unfinished

agate beads, a charred weight and copper chisels were found in one of the rooms of Phase IV

(Sharma and Sharma 7982).

ln (7973-77), when J. P. Joshi was exploring and excavating in Punjab and Haryana at

Bhagwanpura, Dadheri, Nagar, Katpalon and Mancla (J&K), he noticed an or,rrlap of PGW with Late

Harappan culture (Joshi 7978).

v. Katpalon

The excavarions ar Karpalon in punjab have shed light on the felationship between the Harappan

and pGW culture. The site yielded a sequence of three culrur6s in a deposit of 6 m. In Period I,

pGW culture has been found interlocked with the Late Harappan. An oval structure in dilapidated

condition was reqovered. The other antiquities include copper and antimony rods, teracotta beads

and wheels. This period was followed, after a break, by Period II which is assigned to the Kushan

period (Joshi and Bala l9B2: 793).

vi. Nagar

At Nagar, Joshi noticed in the lowest Period I, a PGW horizon which according to him, has a

sprinkling of Late Harappan sturdy red ware indicating interlocking of two cultures. After a gap, it

was occupied by Kushans. In Period I, antiquities included copper objects, bone sry1i, terracotta ear

ornamenrs and animal figures besides beads and bangles (Pl. 12C). In one of the trenches by the

side of the post-holes of the huts, some oval structures were also found (Joshi 1993).

vii. Dadheri

At Dadheri, in a 6 m cultural deposit, in Period IA, Late Harappan culture was noticed which was

closely followed by sub-Period IB where PGW and Late Harappan pottery was found together. inperiod IA, evidence of mud wailed houses and huts as found elsewhere iike Sanghol, etc., were also

noticed (p1. 13A). Other antiquities included copper objects, telracotta beads, wheels, round cakes,

faience bangles and rerracona painted Uull (Fig. 6). A huge storage jar with Late Harappan painted

and incised wavy lines of pre-Harappan tradition was noticed in siru (Pl. 13B) (Joshi 7993).

The sites of Katpalon and Nagar were explored by the author and H. K. Narain (IAR 1963-64:

28). This exploration along the right bank of river Sutlej in Punjab was published in 1967 (Dikshit

1967b:561-68).

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ANCiENT IND:A,NEW SER:ES,卜 0.1

Frc 6 Culrure complex of Dadheri

viii. Rohira

Rohira in Sangrur district of Punjab was explored in 1965 by the author (lAR 7964-65: 75) :md

later on it was put to excavation by the State Directorate of Archaeology, Punjab which revealed

a sequence of six cultural periods (Sharma and Kumar 1980-81: 725-727). Period I is divided intothree phases namely, lA, i.e., pre-Harappan; IB, i.e., Mature Harappan and IC, i.e., Late Harapllan(identified with Bara) (Fig. 7).

The pottery of Phase IC represented thick well-baked pots with characteristic incised design

on cooking vessels and water jars. Antiquities included faience bangles and beads and also agate

beads. This period was succeeded by PGW, black-slipped grey ware and associated red ware. In the

stratigraphy, there is a clear gap between these naro periods.

B. Jammu and Kashmir

i. Manda

The site is located on the bank of river Chenab, near Akhnoor, ln the state of Jammu and Kashmir. Ina deposit of 9.2 m, a three-fold sequence of culture with sub-periods in earliest period of occupation

were noticed.

――

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THE DECLINE OF HARAPPAN CiVlLIZAT10N

Frc 7 Section of Rohiro (after Sharmo andKumar 1980-81)

In Period IA, according to excavator, pre-Harappan red ware, whose percentage in comparison

ro Mature Harappan is berween 15-25 percent (perforated jar absent), along with other antiquities

such as bone arrowheads, terracotta cakes, potsherds with Harappan graffiti, chert blades and an

unfinished seal were noticed. In sub-Period IB, Harappan red ware and grey ware associated with

PGW were noriced. His interpretation is that this grey ware belongs to the PGW family as there is an

interlocking of these two cultures (Joshi 1993).

C. Haryana

The explorations and excavations in Haryana revealed extension of Harappa culture from Rajasthan

as well as from Punjab (Map 7). Banawali, Balu and Rakhigarhi provided a complete sequence

141

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of the Harappans' rise and fall in this region. A few sites which witnessed Harappan declin: are

mentioned below.

i. Mitathal

Mitathal lies at a distance of 10 km to the north-west of Bhiwani, a district headquarter of Hanzana.

This site accidentally came to be known with the discovery of two copper harpoons of Copper-t oard

vintage. The site was first excavated by the Panjab Universiry in 1968 (FiS. 8). The excavation

revealed Period I represented by fabrics A and C of Kalibangan I tradition whereas Period II isdivided into trnro phases. Period IIA is characterized by the rypical Harappan ceramic indttstry,

architecture, household objects and ornaments (Bhan 7975: 6).

Phase IIB is a continuation of the Mature tradition, however in a degenerate form(Figs. 9-10). The pottery is red ware and indicates general degenerating nature in terms of manufar:fttre,

treatment and decorations of pot (Bhan 7975: B). The mud-brick structures are rare and the beads

are not evenly finished. The terracotta biconical variety of beads shows rypological evolution, whereas

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THE DECLINE OF HARAPPAN CiViLiZAT10N

cart-wheels in this phase are comparatively thicker and smaller in size. The terracotta cakes wereround and of oblong varieties and the script can be seen in form of graffiti. The Mature stage ofHarappan culture degenerates slowly in Haryana and is seen assimilated with the later traditions.

ii. Daulatpur

Excavations at the site of Daulatpur (IAR 1968-69: B-9), situated on the bank of the Chautang river,revealed a succession of four cultural layers, the earliest being the Late Harappan and the latestbeing the Early Medieval period. Period I (Harappan) is marked by the occurrence of thick sturdyware including the painted variety showing Harappan forms such as the dish-on-stand and jar.

143

Ftc B Mitathal, District Bhiwani: 1968, cutting MTL 1 (after Suraj Bhan 19ZS)

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Frc 9 & lA Late Harappan pottety from Mitathal IIB (after Surq Bhan 1975)

. Evolved shapes, inferior treatment of the surface and the simpler and fewer decorations

indicate a decadent stage of the Harappan culture. The pottery has mixed assemblage of Early

Harappan, Mature Harappan and Late Harappan having Cemetery-H rype and compares to Bara.

Some noteworthy objects of this period are grinding stones, bangles of terracotta, faience and c opper

or bronze objects, beads of semi-precious stones and charred grains.

The excavations revealed five structurai phases with post-holes, wall of mud-bricl,s and

ill-fired bricl,s of various sizes. This period is succeeded by the PGW culture and the anti<luities

include antimony rod, bone pins and stone grinders, etc. To ascertain that there is no overlap of the

Harappan with PGW culture, the site was again excavated during 7976-78.

iii. Bhagwanpura

The site of Bhagwanpura on the bank of Sarasvati revealed two stages in the occupational deposit of

2.7 m. The lowest stage (IA) speaks of the absence of beakers or perforated jars from the Harappan

material (Figs. 11-12). In this stage, a solid mud platform was raised as protective measure against

floods. This material continues in the next stage (IB) with PGW culture (Figs. 13-16). A mud 'ryalledhouse having 13 rooms with a corridor in benveen and a courtyard was noticed on the eastetn side

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Frc 17 Culture complex of Bhagwanpura

146

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THE DECLiNE OF HARAPPAN CiViLIZAT10N

of the habitation (P1. 14D). The other antiquities are terracottzr bulls, cart w-heels with central hub,

bangies, copper rods ancl pins, faience beads and bangles and beacis of semi-precious stones and

bone pins (Fig. 17).

At Bhagwanpura, nro skeietons lying in north-south orientation r,vith heads towards north,

with no funerary goods, were found from the habitation area of Period IB (P1. 14E). The habitation

r,vas affected by the recurring floods, earlier in the times of Period IA and second one when the PGW

people were livingwith the Late Harappans in Period IB (Joshi 7993). There is a possibilirythat

these floods may have disturbed the stratigraphy of the site.

In connection with burials inside habitation, it may be pointed out that at Ropar, Chandigarh

and recently excavated Farmana (Shinde et al. 2O\O) diagnostic Harappan traits survived, as also the

custom of a separate cemetery away from the habitational area. Even at Sanauli, as mentioned above,

rhe cemetery survived separately from habitation area. This gives rise to suggest that the Harappans

at Bhagwanpura were perhaps diluted to the point of non-existence. If the position of these skeletons

at Bhagwanpura in habitational area is accepted, then the question arises that were these people of

Bhagwanpura IB of Harappan stock or not, because this change must have occurred due to radically

different culrural values. The users of PGW who overlapped with them, according to the excavator,

also never buried their dead in the habitational area. It was only with the advent of the Muslim period

that burials took place inside the house in some cases.

iv. Mirzapur

Excavations at Mirzapur, a small mound in Kurukshetra district revealed a Late Harappan phase of

1 to 1.5 m. deposit. The site has yielded mud-brick structures of three phases, evidence of a fireplace,

a refuse pit, an oven and corn-bin inside a room.

The other antiquities include a large number of beads made of semi-precious stones such

as agate, crystal, jasper and carnelian and a few steatite disc beads, terracotta bangles and beads,

marbles, toy cart frames and wheels, and cakes, both circular and triangular. Plain and painted

bul1 figurines, a painted curved figurine probably of a snake, faience bangles and balls with incised

decorations, beads, and a beautiful figurine of stag with a horizontal hole, etc., were also found.

The pottery is characterized by sturdy red ware, painted in light black colour with geometric

and linear designs and plant, fish and bird motifs. Classical Mature Harappan shapes such as the

perforated jar and beakers are totally absent at the site and the goblet is very rare. The site remained

unoccupied after the Late Harappans left and was again reoccupied during the Early Historical

period (Singh l9B9: 289).

v. Karsola

The site of Karsola in Julana tehsil of Jind district lies in the catchment area of river Chautang. It has

revealed in excavations a cultural sequence of three periods; namely the Late Harappan, PGW and

Kushan. The evidence of Kushan occupation has been removed by the villagers.

147

ANCiENT lNDlA,NEW SER:E〔 ;,NO.1

The aim of the excavation was to establish whether the Late Harappans continued to e>.isr u1:

till the beginning of thirteenth century BC or the antiquiry of PGW could be pushed back to a:ound1500 BC.

A total of about twenty-five trenches of 5 sq m each were laid on the entire mound. Out ofthe 3 m cultural deposit, the lowest one belonged to Late Harappan. The pottery is thick p;dntedred ware (P1. 15A-B). It has revealed mud structure along with hearths, kilns and furnaces fromthe deposit of Layers 3 to 6 (Fig. 1B). Amongst the antiquities which are very few, menrion mustbe made of solitary beads of agate and carnelian including terracotta, faience bangles and a:ticlesof shell. After the end of the Harappan period, the users of the PGW levelled the site (Laver 2)and continued to live there for some time (personal communication from V. S. Shinde and P B. S.

Senger 2011).

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Fic 18 Section of LY7, illustrating the statigraphic sequence, Karsola

vi. Muhammad Nagar

In the excavations carried out by B. R. Mani at Muhammad Nagar, Gurgaon district, Haryana,in 7997-98, a 35 cm thick deposit over the kankar-maed natural soil with ground water leldedpre-PGW deposit having sturdy red ware sherds, comparable to the pottery assemblage fromSiswal and representing Period I of the site which could be assigned to the Late Harappan Jrsfiod(LAR7997-98: 40-54). This period was succeeded by Period II having grey ware and some sherds ofPGW and associated red ware.

In another trench, this deposit also yielded black-and-red ware and grey ware. Iron objectswere also found. The succeeding period belongs to Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW).

t48

THE IDECLINE OF卜 JARAPPAN CiV:LiZAT10N

D. Delhi

i. Bhorgarh

The Directorate of Archaeology, Government of Delhi, took up the excavations at Bhorgarh from

lgg2-g4 and yielded a four-fold cultural sequence from the Late Harappan period up to the

medieval times.period I, associated with Late Harappa, revealed thick red ware pottery. in the excavation,

rwo graves were encountered. The first grave was an extended burial with three pots placed behind

the head, whereas the other grave, also an extended burial, did not contain any burial goods. Period

I was succeeded by PGW suggesting that people were living here in circular huts supported by

wooden posts. There was no cuitural overlap (Babu 7994-95)-

E. Western Uttar Pradesh

Since the discovery of Alamgirpur in 1958, a systematic survey revealed a cluster of Harappan

sites which were confined only around the tributaries of Yamuna. Most 6f these sites, located at a

distance of about 8 to 12 km confirm the pattern of linear or nucleated settlements, as noticed in

Gujarat and Punjab. A detailed srudy of these excavated sites throws light on the Harappan culture

complex of this extended region (Map B).

i. Hulas

Hulas is a type site of Harappa culture in upper Gangetic doab located on Katha nala, one of the

tributaries of the river Yamuna, an extension of Indus system of rivers till its diversion due to

tectonic movement in Himalayas, to Gangetic system of rivers somewhere in c. 2OOO/1900 BC

(Map B). It belongs ro the last quarter of the third millennium BC. The mound at Hulas has about

5 m of occupation. This is divisible into five cultural periods:

Period I The lowest yielded Harappan Ware

Period II Painted Grey Ware

Period IIi Northern Biack Polished Ware

Period IV Kushan Ware

Period V Gupta Moulded Ware

The PGW users occupied a different portion of the mound (FiS. 19).

The Harappan strata is 2.5 m thick. At one stage, the Harappans constructed a solid mud

platform running north-easVsouth-west as a protective measure against the floods. Out of five

structural levels, this strata revealed three successive living usages. Five out of forry-three structures,

including the floor levels, belonged to the earliest, thirry-two to the middle phase and the rest to the

upper phase (Fig. 20). Beginning with rectangular mud brick houses in earlier phases, circular huts

made an appearance in the middle level and both raditions continued in the upper phase (Pl. 15C-D).

1,49

ANCIENT IND:A,NEW SERIES,NO.1

78. I 50

PR:NCiPAL HARAPPAN SiTE〔 ;

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During the earlier phase, a very small percentage of coarse red ware r,r'as found with t re

Harappan po6ery, whereas in the middle phase it was the Harappan pottery r,vhich dominate d.

in the upper phase, Harappans continued with other new rypes and painted designs (Figs. 21-23,

Pl. 16A). Miniature pots dominated the phase (Dikshit 7982,1990-91).

Characteristic Harappan pottery forms including the dish with projected rim and carinated

shoulder, the globular vessel with a flange round the neck, the shallow dish with an incurved rim,

and the jar-stand with a concave profile (Wheeler 7947: rypes I, XIII, ]OC(, SLV) are rare at Hulls'

Even rypes 15, 16, 27,22 and 23 found at Aiamgirpur (Fig. 24) are absent at Hulas. The painted

motifs, which are executed in black pigment, are all simple bands, triangles, mat designs, rows of

hatched diamonds with horizontal bands, chains within bands, leaf patterns and a dancing peac()ck

with a hatched body. A few painted motifs placed on the neck and shoulder seem to have be en

derived from the pre-Harappan traditions. Still, a majority of painted motifs are Harappan.

There is also an incised decoration on the exterior of some Pot. One of the sherds had deep

conspicuous compartmented design on the inner side reminiscent of Early Harappan features.

Important antiquities included terracotta animal figurines, cakes, tmncated bicone beads,

and ball with incised mark; fragmentary copper bangles, chisels, spiral rings, wires, needles r'rith

eye and fish hooks, bone points, stone quern and pestles; faience objects-beads, bangles and pots

and also beads of agate. Indeterminate terracotta objects of various sizes were also encounterec . A

terracotta sealing with three Harappan signs was also found (Pls. 16B-E, 17A-B)'

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THE DECLiNE OF HARAPPAN Ci∨ lLIZAT10N

During the excavations at Hulas, a row of miniature pots were noticed on the periphery of

a pit (pl. 17C). The identification of these pots could not be done till the excavations at Sanauli

(Sharma etal.2006) revealedsimilarrowsof miniaturePotsnearburials (Pl. 17D).

Mention of the modes of disposal of dead in ancient India is found in Vedic literature. Certain

hlrmns in Atharvavedo describe riruals pertaining to burials. The Pitnmedha Sukta of. Atharvoveda

suggests that besides cremation, other rypes of burial rites which were prevalent in the society

included putting the dead body on higher open air place (on tree or hill) or relocating the same

(Mani 2006-07:165). The dead ancestors have been evoked in the verse:

Ye nikhataye paroptaye dagdhaye choddhitah I

S artt anstanagna a v aha pitr in havishe attov e | |

Atharvaveda (18.2.34)

The interpretation of these miniature pots in a row may be connected with burials in one or

other form. lVhen a person dies outside, then such rituals are performed by his relatives at his place.

At Sanauli some ritualistic objects of copper were found within a brick structure composed of large

size bricks having their length 51 to 53 cm. Sotupatha Brahmano mentions the size of bricks of the

chirr, the largest ones being the length of thigh bone which should be around 52 cm as found in the

pre-Mauryan bricks from various places including Lauriya Nandangarh, Rajgir and in more recent

times at Sanauli (Mani 2006-07:167).

Frc 23 Painted pottery, Hulas

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ii. Alamgirpur

Excavations at Alamgirpur, on the left bank of Hindon,. a tributary of Yamuna, revealed four

cultural periods with a break in between all of them (Fig. 24). The earliest level (Period I) of 1.8 m

thickness belongs ro the Harappa culture and Period Ii is characterised by the occurrences of PGW

and the black-slipped, black-and-red and plain red wares. The break between Period I and II was

demonstrated by their respective cultural assemblages and as well as by a difference in the texture

and composition of the layers (IAR 1958-59: 50-55). The notable potteries of Harappa culture are

dish-on-stand, goblet with painted base, cylindrical jar, beaker and perforated jar (Fig. 25, Pl. 1BA) '

peacock is a common painted design as at Hulas. Other interesting antiquities are the objects

made of terracotta, faience, steatite, semi-precious stones, bone and copper and bronze. Bear-shaped

animal headed handle being part of a vessel, a fragmentary terracotta body of a humped bull and

also the representation of a snake were found.

In a large pit, a crushed pile of fragments that revealed thick platters and troughs when

reassembled, and a short, incised inscription consisting of two symbols, probably the potter's name

or mark, were noticed (Pls. 188-C, 19A).

iii. Bargaon

Bargaon, a single culture site is situated on the left bank of the Maskara, a tributary of the Yamuna

and the excavarion yieided 1 m thick occupational deposit of Harappan ware along with unslipped

ochre-coloured ware (Figs. 26-27). Amongst antiquities, terracotta cakes, a bull headed toy cart,

wheels with central hubs, beads, chert blades, bone points, coPper rings, stone weights and faience

bangles were also found (pl. 198-E). The Harappan shapes included Indus goblet, ring-stand and

miniature pedestalled cup. No evidence of structure was found (IAR 1963-64:56-57)'

iv. Mandi

A hoard of jewellery at Mandi in Muzaffarnagar district was discovered during an excavation carried

our by D. v. Sharma et al. (7ggg-2ooo: 36-41). The excavation yieided two periods. These were

period I, which is Harappan and contemporary to that of Hulas and Alamgirpur, and Period II,

which belongs to the Kushan period.

The jewellery was divided into five types of gold beads including 37 spacer, beads of semi-

precious stones and copper were found in a copper container along with other jewellery. Some onyx

beads were also found which were earlier reported by Mackay (1937-38) at other Harappan sites

including Lothal.The pottery reported is all Late Harappan and it includes plain and painted red ware and

thick grey ware. After a hiatus, the site was occupied by Kushans having red polished ware with

stamped designs.

155

ANCiENT IND:A,NEW SERIES,NO.1

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FIG 28&29 Pο lたッル m Ambたたcri a収 1963-6つ

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THE DECLiNE OF HARAPPAN CIViLiZAT10N

v. Ambkheri

The site of Ambkheri which is located near Roorkee (Deshpande and Dikshit 1983) revealed a

cultural deposit of 1.1 m with many hitherto unknown shapes and antiquities'

The pottery is inadequately fired and usualiy the slip has a tendency to peel off. The sherds

c1o not bear any traces of paintings or incised designs, although cord design, mat impressions and

horizontally raised bands can be noticed on the exterior of the pots. The noteworthy rypes in thick

fabric included the large trough, bowi like lid with central knob, dish-on-stand, vase with flanged

rim and oval body, ring-stand and basin with under cut rim'

Awashed greyware also accompanied this complex. Miniature pots are limited (Figs' 28-29)'

Antiquities recovered are a solitary carnelian bead, terracotta objects like cart-wheel with a central

hub, animal figurines including humped bull, a fragmentary cake with oval depression and stone

saddie-querns with pestles (Fig. 30). Remains of a brick-kiln and a hearth were also noticed (P1. 19F).

In this connection, reference to Gadharona must be made, which also yielded similar pottery

as reported from Ambkheri. These included a short stemmed dish-on-stand, a handle of washed

grey ware, barrel type beads of banded agate and other terracotta figurines (IAR 7963-64: 54) '

The ochre-coloured ware from Ambkheri, while sharing the fabric of the corresponding

pottery from Bahadarabad, differs in form. on the other hand, the assemblage shows certain affinities

with the Harappan material of Alamgirpur, Bara, Bargaon and Ropar. It appears that the site is likely

to represent a degenerate phase of the Harappan culture and as such provides an important link in

bridging the gap between the Harappan and PGW cultures'

Frc 30 Antiquities, Ambkheri

1.57

ANCIENT INDlA,NEW SERIE〔 ,,NO.1

vi. Bahadarabad

At Bahadarabad, while the diversion of a canal w-as worked out ior a hydro-elecrric po,,ver hc,use, a

few sherds of red ware (called herein as ochre-coloured ware) and a hoard of copper objects (calledas the items of copper hoard) were found.

The pottery is red, thick and inadequately fired. It compared well in texture and fabrjc withthe so-called ochre-coloured ware (Figs. 31-32). A few trial trenches were laid at the site whichrevealed a deposit of hardly 60 cm through a thickness of 5.7 m of alternating sterile layers c f sandand pebbles. Immediately above the natural soil, some quartzite flake tools and waste flakes werenoticed. These tools appear to have no connection with the pottery of Bahadarabad.

The ochre-coloured ware and copper hoards could not be found associated in excavatlons atBahadarabad although a copper harpoon of this vintage was found later in regular excavations withochre-coloured ware at Saipai and more recently in the excavation of a cemetery site belonl;ing tothe Late Harappan period at Sanauli also revealed the presence of copper hoard objects wit h LateHarappans (Sharma 1989).

Bahadarabad represents a decadent stage of Harappa culture. Y. D. Sharma connr:cts itsaffinity with the Harappan pottery and suggests that 'it might well have been manufactured by thelast remnants of the Harappa before they sunk into what may at present be described as an oltlivion'(Sharma 1964). A similar situation was also noticed ar another site called Lal eila (Fig. 33). Besi,ies thePottery, which echoes Bahadarabad shapes including handled pot and painted designs of rt:gional

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THE DECLINE OF HARAPPAN CiViLIZAT10N

FIc 33 Pottery from Lal Qila

Harappan complex, a terracotta female figurine also deserves special attention. It has a narrow

receding forehead, elongated neckand prominentbreasts (Pl.20A). The shoulders are perforated

obviously for attaching arms (lAR 7969-70: 38-40).

A similar terracotta more debased in sryle and further away from the region was also reported

from Shahabad, 30 km south-east from Shahjahanpur, now kept in the National Museum. It is partly

worn out and is B cm in height (P1. 2OB). The lower portion is also broken. The execution is slightly

crude and primitive and appears to have followed the tradition of the grotesque figurines found at

Mohenjo-daro and othbr sites (Dikshit 7973: 267-63).

Manpur and Bhatpur, lying in the region of Lal Qila, also revealed similar pottery. An

indeterminate terracotta object noticed at Bargaon and other sites was also found in this region

(see Pl. 168).

F. Gujarat

A series of excavations and explorations carried out in Gujarat provided disrribution, chronology

and evolution of Harappan civilization. Gujarat is a good example of showing the devolution or

deterioration of material culture when the urban fabric of a culture disintegrates- This fact is

stratigraphically demonstrated at Rangpur and other sites (Map 9).

1.59

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THE DECLiNE OF HARAPPAN CiViLIZAT10N

i. Rangpur

Rangpur is situated on the bank of the river Bhadar in Gujarat. Excavation revealed three main

culturai stages, i.e., pre-pottery microlithic culture (Period I), Harappan culture (Period II) and

posr-Harappan lusrrous red ware culture (Period IIi). The principal ceramic industries of Period IIA

are assigned as Harappan red ware, buff ware, coarse red ware and coarse grey ware (Fig' 3a)'

The mature nature of the Harappan culture can be seen in the form of a large variety of

ceramic ware, personal ornaments, objects of domestic use and tool and weapons. Disk beads of

steatite and gold, lenticular beads of agate, cylindrical beads of steatite, carnelian and faience are

identical with the beads from Mohenjo-daro, Harappa and Lothal.

The decline of the prosperity of the Harappans can be noticed from the Period IIB which is

assigned by the excavator as Late or Degenerate Harappan culture. The degenerating nature of the

culture is apparent from the ceramics especially on the surface treatment, fabric, etc' (Figs' 35-36)'

No strucfures were seen in the entire 4 m occupational deposit of Period IIB. Post-holes suggest

thatched roof houses. The inferior ceramic wares, limited use of rypical Harappan ornaments of

steatite and the absence of chert blades and cubical stone weights are the indicators of the decline

of material prosperiry of the Harappans in this period (Rao er al' l98T'Doubts have been raised that even IIB stage at Rangpur on account of the coarseness and

indifference of pottery, absence of structures and other basic needs and the presence of post-holes

cannot be called as Harappan. In fact, the IIB and the iIC stages are truly Degenerate rather than

Late Harappan (Figs. 37-38). Soundara Rajan has quoted a corresponding C-14 date for the lustrous

red ware ar Navdatoli (phase IV) which is c. 1500-1700 BC and this date is the virtual end of the

Harappans all over this region (Fig. 39) (Soundara Rajan 7984:220-221)'

ii. Desalpur

Desalpur is located towards the northwestern part of Kachchh and was excavated by K' V' Soundara

Rajan (rAR 1963- 64: lO-72).The site is of 130 x 100 m in dimension and situated on the northern

bank of the once depredatory stream, Bamu-Chela, an effluent of the river Dhrub'

The 3 m .,ritrral deposit yietded two main cultural layers, i.e., Period I (Harappan) and

period II (Early Historic). period I is again subdivided into IA (Mature Harappan) and IB (Late

Harappan). Three structural phases ware recognised for sub-Period lA which is not evident in the

sub-Period IB. The pottery forms of Period IA is of Mature Harappan and the painted pottery is

replaced by a coarse grey fabric showing essentially horizontal lines of bluish or reddish-brown

pigment on its most exterior surface in Period IB'

Though sub-periods lA and IB show a cultural continuity, Period IB was distinguished by a

cream-slipped bichrome ware, represented by dish and bowl forms with stightly ever[ed rim and

mildly convex profile. The painted designs are in black or purple and reddish-brown on the upper

part of the bowi and comprised such motives as vertical wavy lines, concentric semi-circles, vertical

lines. Use of plain as well as grey-pained black-and-red ware, represented mostly in blunt-carinated

dishes or bowls with or without flat base is also evident in this sub-period.

161

t\

Frc 34 Red ware of Period IIA, Rangpur (afterRao et al. 1987)

ANCIENT IND:A,NEW SER:[iS,NO.1

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THE DECLINE OF HARAPPAN CiViLIZAT10N

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Irrc 38 Coorse red ware ond lusrrous red ware ofPeriod llC, Rangpur (afier Roo et al. 1987)

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(after Rao et ol. 1987)

163

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― ― ― ―

ANCIENT:NDIA,NEW SERlES,NO.1

iii. Dholavira

The site of Dholavira is located in Kachchh district of Gujarat and iies in the norrhwesrern area ofthe island of Khadir. The ancient settlement is embraced by rwo tunnels, i.e., Manhar and iV ansar.

The site was excavated for several seasons and has yielded seven chronological stage:. StageIV belongs to the classical Harappan culture and the general decline of the site can be vis:aiizedfrom stage V in terms of the maintenance of the ciry. However the pottery, seals, weighr:s, etc.,continued to be in use. After a temporary desertion of the site for a few decades, the s te wasreoccupied and the transformed Harappan culture (stage M) was noriced.

New ceramic traditions appear from the sites of Sindh, Rajasthan, and other parts of (iujarat.The fabric of the pottery underwent a perceptible change, although the forms as well as decorativemotives continued. New pottery wares such as white painted black and red and white PC:W anda coarse ware bearing incised or appliqud or both kinds of designs made their appearan,te. Thestructural evidences are confined to the citadel and southern margin of the middle town. The otherantiquities like seals underwent changes and became long and rectangular with a flat or tri;mgularback rather being square in form.

The Late Harappans of this phase abandoned the site and again occupied in deurbanizr:d formin stage VII. The transformation of Harappa culture in Phases V and M perhaps belongs to Late Maturestage because nowhere were the seals and other objects encounrered. It is only stage VII which rclongsto Harappan decline but the excavator has not offered any date for this period (Bisht 1999: 2L\).

iv. Kanmer

Recent excavations at Kanmer in Kachchh district of Gujarat revealed a fivefold cultural s€quencestarting from Early Harappan to the Medieval period, with gaps in berween. Early Harappans wereidentified in a pre-fortification deposit of about 40 cm above rhe virgin soil, whereas pe riod II,which is further divided as IIA and IIB, belongs to the Marure Harappan phase. The Late Hzrappanphase (Period III), which was found in the central part and also in the southeastern area of themound was identified on the basis of absence of the urban phase pottery, weights and ter:racottacakes. The quality and surface treatment of the Harappan portery declined and design patternand shapes also changed. The Ahar rype black-and-red ware also continued in this deposit. Theirstructllres were erected on the top of the rampart. A broken pot was found fu|I of steatite f-71,707in number) and faience beads (27).The Harappan occupation at the site from Early Haralpan toLate Harappan has no cultural discontinuiry and reflects a process of cultural evolution as well asdevolution (Kharakwal et al., 2OO9).

v. Juni Kuran

The excavation at Juni Kuran in Kachchh district have shoram it to be a typical Harappan township,showing similarities with the town planning of Dholavira. It revealed a citadel, two stadiums, apillared hall, gateways, drain and mud platforms. The Mature Harappans were succeeded by LateHarappans without any interruprion (pramanik 2003-04: 45-67).

164

THE DECLINE OF HARAPPAN CIVIL:ZAT10N

vi. Ratanpura

Ratanpura is located in Mehsana district in the estuary of the river Rupen. It is a singie culture

site which could be broadly compared with that of Rangpur's Phase IIC. This is the first site from

where black-and-red ware sherds were found in substantial quantities in the Harappan complex.

Excavators have pointed out that the ceramic assemblage represents both Harappan and non-

Harappan tradition (Fig. a0).Of these, the noteworthy finds are fragments of three varieties of terracotta sealings and

hundred of terracorra lumps of many shapes from deep circular pits (P1. 20C-D). other items are

ash, charcoal, charred and uncharred bone pieces and pottery (Sonawane 2005)'

\rVhile discussing the above sites, mention may be also made of the excavation at Vagad

- a rural Harappan settlement in Gujarat. In a cultural deposit of 1 m, the excavators noticed

three successive sub-periods starting from Mature to Late, indicating the average life of a Harappan

settlement to be approximately 400-500 cenruries.

The excavation revealed circular huts like those already found at other contemPorary sites

(p1. 20E). In addition ro this, it also yielded four circular clay lined fire altars. In the absence of

bones or any industrial materials, these must have been used for some kind of rituals. Similar fire

altars were also noticed at Lothal, Kalibangan, Navdatoli and Dangwada, which were used for the

performanc e of yajfios as tesrified by the discovery of sacrificial fire altars. This practice, started by

Harappans, was continued even after by the Chalcolithic people of central India, which confirms the

continuance of a legacy of the performance of yojfias'

As there is no evidence of burning at the site, it is presumed that the residents abandoned

the site due to failure of monsoon and consequent migration.

Vagad has definite signs of Late or Degenerate phase of the Mature Harappan culture in a

rural settlement. It appears that the Vagad settlement was abandoned prior to the Late Harappan

habitations found at Kanewal , Zekda and even Valabhi (Nasadi) where lustrous red ware was

reported right from the basal layers (Sonawane and Mehta 1985). These excavations confirmed

that urban centres flourished with the support of these satellite rural settlements. Furthermore, in

the post-urban stage, when the internal trade declined, these settlements also eventually lost their

utility and went into oblMon.At Kanewal and Zekda, circular huts existed from the beginning of the settlement until its

end (Figs. 4l-42).These stmctures were supported by mud walls arranged along the circumference

of the circle (Mehta 1gB2). In one case, the presence of a central pole was also observed on the plan.

Evidence of a hearth was also noticed.

Valabhi (Nasadi) also revealed the presence of a circular strucnrre on the patterns of other

sites. But it was observed that the site in question was flooded during the monsoon and might have

been used only for seasonal camps. why these settlements were abandoned will require an in-depth

analysis of the reasons for settlement, local topography, climate and human situation. Similar sites

could be also seen in the Bahawalpur region of Pakistan'

1,65

ANCIENT IND:A,NEW SERIES,卜 10.1

目Jo~` 事 芋 耳 /

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Fic 40 Redware, Ratanpura (AR D84-BS) Frc 41 Plan of circulor Ltuts, Kanewal (ofter Meh;.q 1gB2)

ZEKDA 1978 TRENCHES Ⅵ4 X,Y,Z,Q. 。 1 2 3pLAN OF CiRCuLAR HUTS

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Fto 42 Plan of circular huts, Zekda (after Mehta 1982)

G. Maharashtra

The extent of the Harappans was noticed on the northern periphery of Maharashtra. He:e, itsucceeded the already existing culture knovvn as Savalda found at Daimabad. It appears to tre anintrusion from the south of Gujarat.

i. Daimabad

Daimabad is situated on the left bank of Pravara, a tributary of the Godavari. The site was disco.reredby Bopardikar and excavated by different scholars at later times. Excavation by Sali (1984) in the5 m thick occupational deposit has yielded five culrural phases.

166

お皓

THE DECLINE OF HARAPPAN CIVlLiZAT10N

period I (2200-2000 BC) belongs to Savalda culture, Period II belongs to the Late Harappan

(2000-i800 BC), Period iII belongs to buff and cream ware cultrlre (1800-1600 BC), Period IV

belongs to Malwa culure (1600-1400 BC), and Period V belongs to Jorwe culture (1400-1000 BC).

Sali, on the basis of evidence found at this site suggests that the Savalda culture was preceded by

Late Harappa culrure and the Harappans entered the upper Godavari basin early in the second

millennium BC (Sali 1984).

The Harappa culture of the Tapi valiey is of a degenerate or a late form (Fig. 43). The

standard Harappan styles of painted designs were replaced by monotonous designs in this period. The

degenerating nanlre can be understood from the cultural remains such as house sftuctures, seals etc'

In a chance discovery h 7974 in Daimabad, a villager found in a pit under a tree four solid

bronzes - an elephant, a rhinoceros, a buffalo and a chariot displaying sophisticated metallurgy

rhat necessitated fresh digging by Sati (pl. 21A-D). It is likely that these bronze objects found in a

non-strarified context may be the sacred belongings and Sankalia is of the opinion that they were

brought here by refugees (Sali 1984)'

Agrawal and Kharakwal (2003: 164-165) feel that these objects do not fit in the Protohistoric

copper repertoire at all, whereas Dhavalikar (1982) places them in the Late Harappan period'

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Frc 43 Late Harappan redwore, Period Il, Daimabod (ofter Sali 1986)

167

ANCIENT:NDlA,NEW SERIES,110.1

3. EUIDENCE OF RICE

fuce has been reported from the site of Rangpur in the form of husk embedded in mud-pla;rer,whereas in Lothal, it is found in the form of impressions of the rice spikelets. The report of rir:e atKalibangan is debatable.

Potsherds and burnt plasters found in the excavations at Un on Katha nala inwestern gttarPradesh revealed traces ofrice-huskused as a ddgraissant. The huskhad a regular chess-board palternwith wavy rows. The meshes in the husk were stretched vertically with the granules covering nLajorportion of the mesh. On examination, the ornamentation paftern of the husk revealed chara,:terscommon between the cultivated rice and Oryza sa.tivo and the wild perennial Oryza ruffipogon(Mittre and Savithri i9B2).

The Harappan cultural sryle underwent a drastic change when the knowledge of ricecultivation opened more southerly and easterly regions to cereal farmers (Fairservis 1967). Thr:re isevidence of domesticated rice, finger millet (ragi) along with barley, wheat, various grams and peasfrom Hulas (saraswat 7992-93: 7-12).

. 4.BURIAI PRACTICES

The cemetery at Farmana has revealed sevenry burials so far and has been assigned to MirtureHarappan phase such as Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi or R-37 at Harappa, whereas the burial site atSanauli which revealed 116 graves belongs to a later stage of Harappan culure.

At Farmana, all the burials have a rectangular pit lined with clay. The body was placedinside the pit in north-south orientation with head towards the north. Three rypes of burial customsnamely primary, secondary and symbolic were in vogue. The burial goods has pots and jewr:lleryincluding beads, bangles, ear-rings etc. (pl. Z2A-B).

The excavation at Sanauli in western Uttar Pradesh has solved, up to certain extenl, therelationship of copper hoards and ochre-coloured ware and its relationship wrth the Late Harappancomplex. It is here that the copper hoards are found in situ.

Moreover, Sanauli has one of the biggest cemeteries known so far in Indo-pak sub-continentas at Farmana. It has double burials, triple burials, and symbolic burials including a burial withsteatite inlay pieces, burial with human skull and a gold object and child burials (pls. 23A-C ,2t.A-C)(Sharma et al. 2006)

The Rrgvedo also refers to burial customs namely cremation (agni-d.agdho) and trurial(anagni-dagdha) and both these are present in the Late Harappan burial practices. The syn,bolicburial was very corlmon with Harappans whether in north India or Gujarat. In the excavaticns atNagwada, symbolic burials were also practiced (pl. 22C).

The contribution of Farmana and Sanauli has opened a new vista for the study of h,manskeletal remains at these places as the excavations of burials of this magnitude were not knowr andexcavated so far in India. It has generated enormous data to work on the human population.

As worked out by the excavators of Farmana, the sophisticated multidisciplinaryinvestigations of this data wili certainly throw light on various aspects of Harappan popuiation

168

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THE DECLINE OF HARAPPAN CiViL!ZAT10N

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The above fieid data revealed that the Indus system of rivers constitutes an area which has political

and economic interaction through the ages with Indian ocean on the one front and with west Asia

and Gangetic India on other sides. The survey of Harappan settlements in India has revealed that

the curtural retardation of the Harappans which took piace due to economic upheaval in the nuclear

region was a later event in Gujarat and northern Inclia. The settlements in later period became smail

in size but there was a considerable increase in their number'

During Late Bronze Age (c. 1900-1400 BC), Ropar survived as an urban centre in northern

India on a small scale but other settrements in punjab such as sanghor, Dher Majra, Dadheri, Nagar

etc. were the viilage settlemenrs. At Dher Majra, Harappan bead industry survived'

The settlement of Mitathal IIA in Haryana which is said to be laid on the rwin mound patrern,

reveared only mud_brick structures. In phase IIB, the continuarion of the mature tradition can be

seen but in a deciined way as there is no polish even on beads ancl the cart-wheeis are thicker and

smarler in size. Bhagwanpura, another rite on the bank of Sarasvati, reveaied two clear-cut stages of

Late Harappu, brti, itslater stage it aiso has an overlap with the PGW like Katpalon and Nagar'

In western uttar Pradesh, the Harappan culture-complex at Hulas' Alamgirpur and Bargaon

was found as an extension of punjab **r*)( At Hulas, th" construcdon of a iarge mud platform

running in the north-east and south-west direction also survived as a conceptuai architectural feature

oftheHarappans.AterracottasealingwiththreeHarappansignswasalsofound.Theoccupationaldeposit of 2.5m thickness reveared a deciine in the construction of mud brick structures in the upper

levels, whereas circurar huts and pits of different dimensions continued from middle to upper phase

(Dikshit 1984)' ,. ^--^^e^ +r^^r Dnnqr 'rres the easternmostIn the absence of any city or tor,rrn site here, it appears that Ropar was the easternmosr

urban centre controrling the internal and external trade of the Harappans on the sutlej in Punjab

andBanawali,RakhigarhiandBhirranaontheSarasvatiinHaryana.ThetributariesoftheYamunaalsoparticipatedinthediffusionaryprocessoftheHarappancMlizationwhichwasspreadingwithregional and rocal variations from Sutrej and sarasvati to yamuna in the east. In Gujarat, no urban

centre has been reported in later period' However' at Rangpur' the Late Harappans transformed

intoanothercuitureknownasLustrousRedWare.Wasitadeclineoralocalizationprocess?However,PossehlseesadecreaseinsettiementsoftheLustrousRedWarephase(Possehl

Tggg).Thedistributionofdifferentfinishedpreciousandsemi-preciousHarappanartefactsontheIaterHarappansitesaroundls00BCandafterwards,suggestamajordisruptionfromMesopotamia,which affected the trading links with the centrar and northern zones of Harappan civilization and

ultimately with Oman, Bahrain' Afghanistan and iran'

The survey shows that Late Harappan survived regionally' each springing from their Mature

Harappan tradition having distinct assemblages rypifieJ as regional dynamics like repertoire of

169

ANGIENT INDIA, NEW SERIES, NO.1

cemetery-H in Punjab and western uttar Pradesh, Jhukar in sindh which overlapped with Kulli insouthern Baluchistan and Rangpur and Lothal in Gujarat.

5. CLaSSIFICATION ANO CHRONOLOGY

The sites of the Harappan civilization provide in the following order four different devolutionarystages in Punjab, Haryana and western uttar Pradesh, whereas in Gujarat, the sites like Ran5pur,Desalpur and Dholavira also present a similar srory. In this survey, Anarta and affiliated chalcolithicsettlements have not been taken into accounr because of their early beginning.

Nonrn IwonA. Early Marure Harappa

B. Late Mature Harappa

C. Late Harappa

D. Overlap (Late Harappa_pGW)

E. Early Mature Harappa

F. Late Mature Harappa

G. Late Harappa

Rakhigarhi, Banawali, Balu,Kotla Nihang Khan and Ropar

Ropar, Chandigarh, Bara,Mitathal IIA, Mirzapur,Alamgirpur and Hulas

Mitathal IIB, Sanghol I,Bhagwanpura IA and Bargaon

Bhagwanpura IB, Dadheri IB,Nagar I and Karpalon I

Gurenar

Dholavira, Surkotada, Desalpur,Lothal, Bagasra and NagwadaDholavira, Lothal, Desalpur,Shikarpur, Bagasra and RangpurRangpur, Desalpur, Dholavira,Kanewal, Zekda, Vagad andRatanpura

Survival of overlap phase of Late Harappa must be quite rate. This comprex was seeminglysupplanted by local cultures and diluted to the point of non_existence.The Harappa culture did not die out as it is clear from the above survey but survived inGujarat' Punjab' Haryana and parts of western Uttar pradesh. This time bracket could be workec outon the basis of their continuity with the end of Mature Harappa somewhere in 1900 BC at Rangpur,Desalpur' Ropar' Mitathal and Hulas whereas in the still later stage it overlapped with later or other

;:il"#fi f"::.t"rff: Rangpur in Gujarat region and at Dadheri, Katpal,on, Bhagwanpura etc.

The radio-carbon dates from Bara 1890 + 95 and 1645 + g0 BC could also be considered inthis context' Bara revealed fourteen layers and the earliest date is from the middle level: Laye r g at

170

THE DECLINE OF HARAPPAN CIVILiZAT10N

a depth of 1.2 m below rhe surface, thereby suggesting that the occupation at this site must have

continued for four to five hundred years more'

The c-14 dates from sanghol 1g00 * 220 and 1690 * 190 BC confirm Bara dates. TL dates

from PRL (Ahmedabad) also ranSe between 2060 * 375 and 1325 + 330 BC' The c-14 dates from

Hulas range from 2560 * 155 and 2005 + 115 (uncalibrated date in BC) and are on earlier side' The

date from Mitathal IIB is also 2370 + 220 BC. This also seems ro be too early in comparison with

Bara and Sanghol.

Geologists have suggested that somewhere in2ooo/7900 BC, due to some tectonic movement

in upper Himalayas, the Yamuna started flowing as a separate river and all the earlier tributaries

of Sarasvati started flowing into the yamuna. If this date is acceptable, then most of the sites in

western uttar pradesh courd be equated in a time bracket before 2000 BC and they might have

continued in later centuries till they came in contact with local cultures'

Excavations at Hulas and Alamgirpur including Muhammad Nagar in Gurgaon have not

shown any overlapping with PGW. The exact reason is difficult to explain at the moment except that

Harappans did not ,r*ir" for long with their material culture and did not come in contact with the

pGW as was rhe case in Haryana and punjab. These were on their main routes of migration from

lower levels to the upper..ulh., of Sarasvati and other rivers' However, there are many Harappan

sites as discussed above where the material culture of Harappans did not overlap'

In my opinion, there is no consensus on the dates based on c-14 till the differentiation

berween Mature Harappan and Late Harappan clears, and the concept of Late Harappan is better

defined or understood. In connection with the eastern domain of Harappan civilization' Ropar'

as stated earrier appears to be the last urban centre as a steatite seal and other items of Mature

Harappan culrure were found here'

Hulasisasitelyinginhinterland,SupportingurbancentresandbelongstotheMatureHarappanaccordingtothedatebracket'However,itseemstohavenovisibletraitsofMatureHarappaexceptti,u.titmightbealocalizedindigenousculture(asisthepositionofAnartainGujarat) with Harappan contacts. Bara culture has also been termed as localized culture'

Z. DATA FROM PAKISTAN

InPakistan,intheeariy50s,whatweredescribedasthePost-Harappancultureshavebeenincludedinthe Late Harappan phase since 1970 (Dani 1981)' The Late Harappan phase has been noticed in n"ro

areas, (a) the northern region with rype site Harappa where Cemetery-H culture was found at mound

AB and cholistan desert in Bahawalpur and O) the southern region where Jhukar culture was noticed

intheupperlevelsofchanhu-daro,Mohenjo-daroandAmri'Thecemetery-HmaterialnoticedatHarappa became a part of the Harappan complex noticed at the Late Harappan sites in Punjab and

Haryana. In Pakistan also, at the end of third millennium BC' a culture change was witnessed

in Mature Harappan leveis. For these seemingiy post-Harappan cultures' the term Late Harappan

is being increasingry used suggesting perhaps thar Harappan traditions continued both in Jhukar

and Cemetery-H.

171.

ANCIENT INDIA, NEW SERIES, NO.1

The renewed excavation at Jhukar in 1973-74 (Mughal lgg2b) provided strarigraphicevidence from the smaller mound 'A'. The following sequence of cultures was obtained from thr: 5.2m thick deposit as under:

Phase

Early Hisrorical

Late JhukarMiddleEarly Jhukar

Layers

l-10

11‐ 14

15‐ 17

18-20 and abOut 3 fL(0.9141n)below water level

Mature Harappan pottery was present in all the phases of Jhukar. The excavation further brough: outthat Jhukar consists of only a few pottery rypes occurring in association with the Mature Hara,panceramics in the later levels. It has been placed by two calibrated dates between 2165 and 186() BCbut continued in the lower Indus valley up to 1700 BC. To substantiate the point that the so-c:rlledJhukar culture was in fact representative of the Late decadent Harappu, .iuilirurion in sindh, itshould not be considered a different class of people as thought earlier (Mughal 1989).At Amri iIC' a transformadon was noticed in the Harappan'pottery which also conti,uedin next phase' casal regards Jhukar as a distinctive phase of the Late Harappa (casal 1g64). Thepainted design and a fragment of a bowl with stud handle from Jhukar is comparable with sirrilardesign and not rypes at Lothal A and B and Rangpur IIA and IIB (Mugha 17gg2c).The Late Harappanmaterial trom Punjab specially the cemetery-H repertoire from the graves and settrement morrndsAB and E at Harappa dates the Harappan material berween 2155 and 2o2o BC.The post urban data from Northern Baluchistan, the North-west Frontier and other are,s inPakistan is still in collection stage.The Late or Degenerate Harappan phase in Pakistan is not as clear as it is in Indian sub-continent' The cemetery-H sites in Bahawalpur are all unexcavated and the explored data inclulingany Mature Harappan material, if found from these sites, is also not urrilrbl.. The renewedexcavadon at Jhukar has no doubt shown the continuance of Jhukar pomery with Mature Harappa.It aiso implies that there is no single occupation site of Jhukar. In the earrier excavations at HaraDpa,vats was of the view that cemetery-H culture was the final stage of the Harappans (vats 1g40).In renewed excavation at Harappa from mound AB and E, the cemetery-H habitation revealedcontinuity with some changes in pottery rypes.

8. BECTRIA-MARGIANa ARCHaEOTOG IC6t COMPTEX 6ND LAT EHARAPPENSExcavations were carried out in recent decades at a number of sites in the area extending fromMargiana in the west to Bactria in northern Afghanistan. This culture is named the Bactria-MargianaArchaeological complex (BMAC) and its mature stage is datable to c. 2000 -7zoo BC. It hls atown-planning and monumental architecture as noticed at Gonur in vlargiana. some schc,larsincluding Dhavalikar (2007) declared this as culture of pastoralists and termed it as ,AryanImmigration', which came from Central Asia to India.

172

THE DECLINE OF HARAPPAN Cl∨ lLiZAT10N′

In 1999 at Gilund,a site ill Rttasthan l″ as put to excavations vvhich revealed a cluster of the

clay seals lvith a varie● ′of floral designsヽ vith sun lnotifs,buried in a silo,in the area with multiple

parallel、 A√alls of rnud bricks.ヽ「ヽhile comparing these seals、げith the BⅣlAC,which are in cut― fortts

in stone and lnetal,the excavators are of the opinion that there vvas an interaction be槙〃een this

Chalcolithic culture vvith BMAC culture in Afghanistan and Central Asia and Harappans lnight have

played a significant role as intermediaries beい veen the bA′o(POSSehl et al.2004).

Lal,who has exaFnined this hypothesis,concluded on the basis Of Bαlldhayarlα Srallt`61ttra

that a section of Vedic people after the drying up of 10wer Sarasvati basin emigrated toWardS

vvest Gandhara,Persia and Aratta bOrdering on Turkey,sometilne in the second Πlillennium BC,

where a treaty was recorded beい Veen a 1/1itanni lcing named Matiwaza and a Hittiti king named

Suppiluliuma,dated to 1380 BC.In thiS,they invoked the Vedic gods as witnesses namely

lndra,Ⅳ litra,Nasatyas and Varu■ a.There is no evldence to Sustain this theory of ilnlnigration

as there was nO entry of a new set Of people into lndia beち″een 4500 BC t0 800 BC(La1 2009).

As thiS cultural complex has ■o direct bearing vvith the declined material Culture of

Harappans,it could be discussed elsewhere while debating the original hOmeland oflndo―Aryans.

9.THE LECnCY

ln civilization in the field ofmaterial or ilnmaterial

ln exanllned.The questlon comes to nllnd as to

civilization after its collapse and in what Way did

に融痢ViSuali………駆中i灘苗[器増豊li鮒江attlre Harappan Ci宙lization(MarSha11 1931).He

l data is very rich and his ideas can be exalnined in

angan and their continuance with later ChalcolithiC

wgedよ羞T乱署ll蹴里鶴置席¶1翼r理::1∬質鷹』T[願灘柵冨:」i翼よ盤there was a complete break in tradition and no continuity ofthe lingering elements Ofthe Harappan

civllization in the contemporary and Succeeding Chalcolithic Cultures could be seen.We need not

w吼 Ⅷ 碁 ∬ 二 抵 IIimi塞¥戦 ∬ 彙 駆 11‖ 五

The legacy of Harappan civilization cal

I黒棚7瀾ぶittW∬檬質F翻聯勢1撚vvhich are outSide Harappan culture cOnteXt p(

Harappans althOugh it is difficult to substantiate.

173

ANCIENT INDIA, NEVv SERIES, NO.1

10. coNctusroN

From 1922 to 2010 we have travelled a long way to understand the Harappan urbanizationincluding its origin, extent, decline and also legacy. In terms of chronology of the Late Harappancultures or post-Urban phase, the reliable data is from Gujarat and other north Indian sites. "ihe

C-14 dates are very few except Sanghol and late levels of Mohenjo-daro (Jhukar) which do nothelp in reconstructing any acceptable time-bracket. How long did the process of diiurion of I ateHarappan cultures continued in the Indo-Pak sub-continent remains debatable.

The legacy of the Harappan civilization appears to be extremely dominant in the fielcl ofideological foundation. The mass of oral traditions, which form part of our present-day civilization,appears to be our biggest inhertitance of the Harappan civilization. The later Vedic literature rnaygive a proper background for this. We have to, therefore, make some serious efforts to correlate thearchaeological and literary data in order to work out the Harappan legacy.

AcknowledgementsI am thankful to Dr. Gautam Sengupta for asking me to write a paper for inclusion in the said journal. Theline drawings and the plates accompanying the paper are used courtesy the Archaeological Survey oflndia. I am thankful to G. L. Possehl, Vasant Shinde, P. B. S. Senger, V. H. Sonawane and Dharanr VirSharma for their permission to include the line drawings and plates of their excavations in this article.Thanks are also due to B. R. Mani for his personal communication regarding the burial practices in theAtharuaveda. My young colleagues Manjil Hazarika and Kulbhushan Mishra of the lndian ArchaeolollicalSociety worked hard on the collection of material for the article. The maps have been prepared by Kis,henSingh, Rakesh Chander and P. C. Mukhia of theASl, New Delhi. Bharat Singh typed the manuscript.

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