The Decline of Harappan Civilization
Transcript of The Decline of Harappan Civilization
The Decline of Harappan Civilization
K.N.DIKSHIT
EBSTRACT
As pointed out by N. G. Majumdar in 1934, a late phase of lndus civilization is illustrated
by pottery discovered at the upper levels of Jhukar and Mohenjo-daro. However, it was the
excavation at Rangpur which revealed in stratification a general decline in the prosperity
of the Harappan culture. The cultural gamut of the nuclear region of the lndus-Sarasvati
divide, when compared internally, revealed regional variations conforming to devolutionary
tendencies especially in the peripheral region of north and western lndia. A large number ofsites, now loosely termed as 'Late Harappan/Post-urban', have been discovered. These sites,
which formed the disrupted terminal phases of the culture, lost their status as Harappan. Theyno doubt yielded distinctive Harappan pottery, antiquities and remnants of some architecturalforms, but neither town planning nor any economic and cultural nucleus. The script alsodisappeared. ln this paper, an attempt is made with the survey of some of these excavatedsites and other exploratory field-data noticed in the lndo-Pak subcontinent, to understand thecomplex issue.of Harappan decline and its legacy.
CONTENTS
l.INTRODUCTION
2. FIELD DATA
A. Punjabi. Roparv. Katpalon
ii. Bara iii. Dher Majravi. Nagar vii. Dadheri
ii. Daulatpur iii. Bhagwanpuravi. Muhammad Nagar
B. Jammu and Kashmiri. Manda
C. Haryanai. Mitathal
v. Karsola
D. Delhi
i. Bhorgarh
iv. Sanghol
viii. Rohira
iv. Mirzapur
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ANCiENT INDlA,NEW SERIES,NO.1
E.Western Uttar Pradesh
i.Hulas il.Alamgirpur ili.Bargaon iv.Mandi
v Arnbkheri v:.Bahadarabad
F.Guiarat
i.Rangpur †|.Desalpur ili.Dhola宙ra iv Kanmerv.」uni Kuran vi.Ratanpura
G.Maharashtra
i.Daimabad
3.EV:DENCE OF RICE
4.BURIAL PRACTiCES
5.DiSCUSS10N
6.CLASSiFiCAT10N AND CHRONOLOGY
7.DATA FROM PAKISTAN
8.BACTRIA―MARGIANAARCHAEOLOGICAL COMPLEX AND LATE HARAPPANS9.THE LEGACY
10.CONCLUS10N ・
I. INTRODUCTION
t was Pointed out by A. Ghosh (1982) that the Harappan de-urbanization involved a decre ase
in settlement size and population, in surplus food production, in cessation of construction ofmonumental buildings, in use of writing and in long distance trade.
The reversal of a few abstract criteria of urbanization, as laid dovrn by Childe (1950) andAdams(1966)are equally applicable to the issue of decline of Harappan civilization. To quote l
Dales,:With the decline of this civilization,the sophisticated Harappan traits were watered dovvr by l
mingling with impoverished local cultures until what was once distinct市 ely Harappan was diluted lto the point of non― existence'(1966).In fact,the devolution of a culture appears to be the outccme l
of econornic decline which Produces cultural transforlnation and changes the cultural interaction of l
the society(Dikshit 1979).
Excavadorls,particularly at Mehrgarh,have established that Baluchistan was the nuclear region。 |Ho■vever,血e subsequent excavadons at Bhirana,and other excⅣ adons in Sarasvad va■ ey in lndia l(Gupta 1996)and Hakra valley in Pakistan(Mugh」 1992a)have added a new dimension to its o五 gh. :
The Harappan sites covered an area of about 480,000 sq knl(but not at One tilne)frЭ In ithe Himalayas in the north to Godavariin the south,and from lndus river valley in the west to the .:
メainS Of Yamunaゴ ver h the Gangetic valley.The Harappan ci宙 lization reached maturity durhg :the period c.2600-1900 BC(Map l).The Late Harappan culture,or decline,marked the end of[he l
urban phenomenon,1.e.,the idea oftown― planning,construction of monumental buildings,writing, 1
and the use of weights and lneasures(Map 2-4). 1
126
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Tl.iE DECLINE OF HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION
To understand the question of the Late Harappan culture and decentralization of the
Harappan civiiization, mos[ scholars have tried to locate the answer in the setting in of urban
decline, and control over long-distance trade. This was accompanied by a decline of the surrounding
hinterland that produced and supported the urban centres'
Jim Shaffer is of the view that while urban centres may have ceased to exist in Sindh, it is
impossible to assert that this was the case in the entire area covered by the Late Harappan culture
(Shaffer 7gg2).Marshall (1931) was rhe firsr to have discussed the decline in his volume on Indus
civilization.Archaeologists generally agree that definite signs of decline in urban character of Harappan
civilization became visible after 2000 BC. Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Lothal, Surkotada, etc., witnessed
the loss of strict discipline in civic constmction.
Houses, drains, lanes and roads, which had been maintained with meticulous care for centuries,
were now allowed to encroach upon each other's boundaries. The industrial sectors were deserted and
small workshops were widely scattered. The granaries, warehouses, the great bath, the pillared hall,
etc., which were meant to serve the public at large, were found to be completely deserted.
pottery also shows a marked change in the quality of manufacture aSrd variety of decorations,
in painting as well in incised patterns. New houses were built, very often from the debris of older
buildings. There are hundreds of other minor and major details of the changing scenario in the oid
cities which clearly established the fact that the end of the Harappan civilization was not sudden.
The excavations of a number of Harappan sites including smaller sites, like Alamgirpur and Hulas in
the upper doab show that some specialized industries like faience, steatite, carnelian, etc., continued
to flourish even in times of decline.
The datum line of 2000 BC does not mean that each and every Harappan township declined
in 1900 BC but that definite signs of decline were noticeable by 1700 BC. However, at several other
sites, like Banawali, Balu and Hulas, the new phase is also marked by a new style in pot-making,
pot-decoration, etc. The situation appears to be extremely complex and calls for a detailed study so
that each site can be treated as an autonomous entity as well as an example of a process of culture-
change.
The decline of the Harappan civilization was slow and gradual in every region but the
transformation from the Late Mature phase to the Late phase differs from region to region. Our
analyrical study has shown that difference in the form depended upon the nature of the site, and
had two different components: (a) the role the site played in long-distance trade, and (b) the role
of the site in agricultural processes'
In the first category are the sites which were large and established along the coastal region
of Gujarat and Sindh. The sites involved in the agricultural process are hinterland sites, which are
small and supported the coastal sites in mopping up the materials for export.
Large fortifications and planned cities were by and large absent but small and large houses
existed at Lothal, Desalpur, Surkotada, Dholavira, Kuntasi, from where trade and commerce could
be carried on a small sca1e. They dwindled into small settlements resembling the Neolithic self-
sufficient agricultural sites.
うD
ANCIENT INDIA,NEW SERIES,NO.1
The continuance of certain crafts of carnelian beads, faience beads or sheil objecr:s onl1, 51ro*-
that they belonged to the cultural milieu, which had developed during the mature phase of the
Harappan civilization. The form had completely changed because the supply of raw materill ,rvas
limited.Mature Harappan phase is often identified with a phase of culture in which industry e rtered
into long-distance trade, particularly with the west Asian regions. However, it must be r:leariy
understood that 'foreign' trade cannot be effective unless it is backed by vibrant internal trade. The
absence of inscribed seals and general scarcity of copper, bronze and other raw materials, s'rch as
chert, lapis lazuli and gold in the Late Harappan period shows that there was a severe setback tointernai and external trade.
The excavation at Kuntasi revealed a fortified industrial establishment with large sr.orage
areas and workshops. It has two periods: (a) Mature phase (2400-1900 BC) and (b) thr: Late
Harappan (1900-1700 BC).
In the absence of some fossil artefacts the excavator is of opinion that the so-called unif<rrmity
of the Harappan civilization with a strong degree of regimentation is a myth (Dhavalikar et al.
1996). Marcia Fentress proposed that there were vital differenc.es even between Harappa and
Mohenjo-daro (1984).
Dhoiavira in the Kachchh area of Gujarat revealed I-IV stages of growth and V-VII stages ofdecline of the Harappa culture. It became totally deurbanized in last stage (Bisht 7997).
Different scholars attempted a reappraisal of the Late Harappan cultures and timings oftheir cultural disintegration in three regions,viz., (a) Punjab and Sindh of Pakistan (b) conti,guous
areas in India, i.e., Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh and (c) Gujarat (Allchin and Allchin l9B2;Shaffer 7982; Dikshit 7967a, L982, 7984, 1985; Kenoyer 7989; Mughal 1989; Rao 1991; Misra
7994; Possehl 1997; Lal 7997) . They also tried to analyse the causes of change in economg :rade,
food, pottery, minor antiquities, religion and burial practices.
The reason for the decline of Harappan civilization is still vague. Many theories such as
invasion, flooding, stagnation of water, changes in river courses, climatic changes, etc., have been
advanced by Wheeler, Raikes and Dales. However, extensive hydrological studies have established
that the river Indus and Sarasvati changed their courses several times, maybe around 1900 B(1. The
cause of this was the loss of two of its major tributaries, the Sutlej and the Yamuna * the first -o the
Indus and other to the Ganga (Pl. 11A). This calamity must have brought out large scale chanlles or
disruption in the internal trade routes connecting the hinterland with the coast.
The long-disrance trade by land route and through river Indus and its tributaries connected
to Indian Ocean was affected because of a tilt in the landmass in the sub-Himalayan region caused by
an earrhquake. Incidentally, hydrological changes made the river Sarasvati dry and shifted Srrtlej's
course, once a tributary of the Sarasvati-Ghaggar, to discharge its water in the Indus in around
2000-1700 BC.
It may be noted that Sarasvati, which comes out from Adi Badri in the Siwalik, used to
discharge its water in Indian Ocean. The Landsat imagery which has a bearing on this issue, specially
the present river systems of the Sutlej-Yamuna Divide, has provided evidence of tectonic upliftwhich forced the Sutlej to abandon its old channel and start fiowing westward through a tributary
1,32
THE DECLiNE OF HARAPPAN CiVILiZAT10N
or river Beas (Pal et at. 7984). There is a distinct palaeo-channei suggesting that the Sutlej and also
Sarasvati, a mighty river, flowed through the Nara directly into the Rann of Kachchh (Sharma er al.
200s-06).It is suspected that the decline of the Harappan civilization was, at least, partiy due to the
decline in the long distance trade activities, around 1800 BC, with Mesopotamia and the Persian
Gulf (Map 5).Access to the raw materials used in the production of diverse artefacts and the exchange
systems became scarce on the north Indian sites in eastern Punjab, Haryana and western Uttar
Pradesh as the supply links with Afghanistan and Iran became non-existent, which also affected the
regional interactions. The raw materiais are steatite, alabaster, marine shells, lapis lazuli, turquoise,
carnelian, chalcedony, jasper, flint/chert, schist, shale, basalt, lead, copper/bronze, silver and gold
(Lahiri 7992).
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134
THE DECLINE OF HARAPPAN CiViLiZAT10N
2.FIELD DnTn
A.PunJab
Post lndependence,when all the maOr Harappan sites were located in Palcistan,the lndian
archaeologists explored the contiguous area of Puttab and Rttasthan.The sites of Kbtla Nihang
Khan,Ropar,Dher Mttra,Bara etco were exPlored and excavated(Map 6).
i. Ropar
Excavation at Ropar, on the river Sutlej during 1953 to 1955, revealed a continuous succession of
human occupation of six periods from the Harappans to the much later periods. Period i (2000-1400
BC) is assigned as Harappan and the successive Period II (1000-700 BC) is PGW culture (Fig. 1).
The Harappans were the first settlers of Ropar and this period is divided into three phases.
phase IA is dominated by pre-Harappan wares including some other cognate wares. In Phase IB,
some mixed material of Phase IA and Bara ware was noticed. The Mature Halappan ware was
dominated by sturdy red ware with typical painted designs (P1. 118). The dish-on-stand of Ropar
has a very long drooping rim which is characteristic of this region
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The chronological position of Harappa vis-ir-vis Bara is difficult to explain although the
presence of Bara ware is in small percentage. Other antiquities of Mature Harappans, namely
beads and bangles of faience, triangular [erracotta cakes and chert blades were noticed (Pl. 11C).
In Period IC, a single Harappan seal which bears three familiar symbols in obverse and two
concentric circles in the reverse without any holding device was found (Pl. 11D). Another burnt
clay lump with a hole bears impressions of three typical seals with bull motif and a legend in the
familiar Harappan script. Graffiti on pottery in Harappan script was also noticed.
A cemetery away from the habitation area revealed burials with rypical Harappan pots
including personal ornaments such as bangles of faience or shell, beads of faience and semi-
precious stones and ring of copper. A copper ring was also found on the middle finger of the right
hand of a skeleton. No house plans or layouts of the township were encountered.
The site was reoccupied by the PGW users and is devoid of any structural remains and
antiquities (I/R 1953-54: 6-7).
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ANCIENT:ND:A,NEW SER:ES,NO.1
ii. Bara
Bara, in Rupnagar district, Punjab, also show-s gap between the end of the Harappan culture andthe arrival of the PGW people, lvhich was evident in Ropar. Bara w-as still occupied when Ropar hadbeen deserted by the Harappans (/lR 1954-55: 10-11).
The site lies on the left bank of a monsoon rivulet named Budki Nadi. Bara pottery has distinctivecharacteristics. These are made of well-levigated, fine to medium grained clay, wheel turned with a
self-slip or an applied slip, dull brorarn in colour. Designs are painted in dull chocolate or blackBara pottery has parallels with the Harappan pottery in thickness and shapes, i.e., d sh-on-
stand, basin or large bowl with flaring sides and a variery of rims including the undercut rypes.Among the Mature Harappan shapes, absent in the Bara culture are Indus goblet with pointerl base,shallow flat dish with flaring sides, wide mouthed large storage jar with concave profile abc,ve rhebase, perforated jar, etc. (Pl. 14A-C). Houses were made of kankar stone and mud-bricks and theevidence of burnt clay lumps with reed impression is indicative of wattle and daub huts.
iii. Dher Majra
Dher Majra is located in the Sirsa valley, about 11 km north of Ropar and was excavated by Prufer in1951. Excavation at the site has revealed rwo cultural periods, of which the first belongs to l{atureHarappan phase and the second phase is characterized by a composite ceramic industry which show
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THE DECLINE OF HARAPPAN CIVILIZATION
affinities with the Harappa, Cemetery-H and other red wares Gig. 2). All these are comparable with
the Late Harappan ceramic complexes of Mitathal, Bara etc. The structural evidences of the Phase I
are a mud rampart at leasr on the side of the river whereas Late Harappan habitation deposit in the
phase II covered the ruins of the earlier habitation and the defences. The antiquities are objects of
faience, clay, bone and stcne, copper, bronze, terracotta figurines, chert blades, weights, beads of
semi-precious stones, stone querns and pestles (Prufer 1951)'
iv. Sanghol
The ancient mound of Sanghol in Ludhiana district, Punjab, is about 25 m high and covers an area
of roughly 300 sq m apd lies close to a now dry water course, possibly an ancient bed of the Sutlej
or one of its defunct tributaries.Excavarions at the site by S. S. Talwar and R. S. Bisht during 1968 to 7973 rcvealed six
cultural periods of which Period I belongs to the Late Harappan culture- Mud and mud-brick
Frc 4 Plon of strucrures of Phose 3 of Period IB ot Sanghol(after Sharma and Sharma 1982)
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structures, circular corn-bins and hearths, or tandoors, were found in this period. Other strud.ureswere of rammed earth. The fabric and form of the pottery shows striking similarities witt thepottely from Bara (Fig. 3, Pl. 12A-B). It is bright to buff in colour and has fine slip and the shapesinclude dish-on-stand, dish, bowl, beaker, vases of medium to small sizes, large storage jar, flat dishwith short sides and roughened base and hollow ring-stands. Two copper chisels of rectanS;ularcross-section and slightly splayed edge, few agate inlays, heart-shaped bangles and ear-rings of,redand azure-green faience were also reported (/AR 7969-70:31-32). Period II is characterized bl, theoccurrences of PGW and plain grey, black-slipped and associated red wares (IAR 7968-69: 25-?.6).
In the excavation at Sanghol, between 1968 and 7973, no overlap of Harappanculture with PGW was noticed. However, when excavations were begun anew in lg13,G. B. Sharma noticed an overlap of Late Harappan with the PGW in Period ic. A baked lrrick
138
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THE DECLINE OF HARAPPAN C!VIL:ZAT!ON
was also founcl in this deposit. In Period IB, which is divided into six phases, Phases IIl and IV
have many mud-r,valled structures w-ith clay-lined oblong kilns or hearths including corn-
bins (Figs.4-5). Plans of strucrures revealed rooms which extended to east as well as to
the.west. These small kilns were found at several places in structural Phases II, III and IV'
In some of these kilns, pieces of faience bangles were found, thereby assuming that beads, bangles
and other small objecrs were being fired in these kilns. Ninety-two micro gold beads, unfinished
agate beads, a charred weight and copper chisels were found in one of the rooms of Phase IV
(Sharma and Sharma 7982).
ln (7973-77), when J. P. Joshi was exploring and excavating in Punjab and Haryana at
Bhagwanpura, Dadheri, Nagar, Katpalon and Mancla (J&K), he noticed an or,rrlap of PGW with Late
Harappan culture (Joshi 7978).
v. Katpalon
The excavarions ar Karpalon in punjab have shed light on the felationship between the Harappan
and pGW culture. The site yielded a sequence of three culrur6s in a deposit of 6 m. In Period I,
pGW culture has been found interlocked with the Late Harappan. An oval structure in dilapidated
condition was reqovered. The other antiquities include copper and antimony rods, teracotta beads
and wheels. This period was followed, after a break, by Period II which is assigned to the Kushan
period (Joshi and Bala l9B2: 793).
vi. Nagar
At Nagar, Joshi noticed in the lowest Period I, a PGW horizon which according to him, has a
sprinkling of Late Harappan sturdy red ware indicating interlocking of two cultures. After a gap, it
was occupied by Kushans. In Period I, antiquities included copper objects, bone sry1i, terracotta ear
ornamenrs and animal figures besides beads and bangles (Pl. 12C). In one of the trenches by the
side of the post-holes of the huts, some oval structures were also found (Joshi 1993).
vii. Dadheri
At Dadheri, in a 6 m cultural deposit, in Period IA, Late Harappan culture was noticed which was
closely followed by sub-Period IB where PGW and Late Harappan pottery was found together. inperiod IA, evidence of mud wailed houses and huts as found elsewhere iike Sanghol, etc., were also
noticed (p1. 13A). Other antiquities included copper objects, telracotta beads, wheels, round cakes,
faience bangles and rerracona painted Uull (Fig. 6). A huge storage jar with Late Harappan painted
and incised wavy lines of pre-Harappan tradition was noticed in siru (Pl. 13B) (Joshi 7993).
The sites of Katpalon and Nagar were explored by the author and H. K. Narain (IAR 1963-64:
28). This exploration along the right bank of river Sutlej in Punjab was published in 1967 (Dikshit
1967b:561-68).
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― ― ― ― ― ―
■■■■■■
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ANCiENT IND:A,NEW SER:ES,卜 0.1
Frc 6 Culrure complex of Dadheri
viii. Rohira
Rohira in Sangrur district of Punjab was explored in 1965 by the author (lAR 7964-65: 75) :md
later on it was put to excavation by the State Directorate of Archaeology, Punjab which revealed
a sequence of six cultural periods (Sharma and Kumar 1980-81: 725-727). Period I is divided intothree phases namely, lA, i.e., pre-Harappan; IB, i.e., Mature Harappan and IC, i.e., Late Harapllan(identified with Bara) (Fig. 7).
The pottery of Phase IC represented thick well-baked pots with characteristic incised design
on cooking vessels and water jars. Antiquities included faience bangles and beads and also agate
beads. This period was succeeded by PGW, black-slipped grey ware and associated red ware. In the
stratigraphy, there is a clear gap between these naro periods.
B. Jammu and Kashmir
i. Manda
The site is located on the bank of river Chenab, near Akhnoor, ln the state of Jammu and Kashmir. Ina deposit of 9.2 m, a three-fold sequence of culture with sub-periods in earliest period of occupation
were noticed.
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THE DECLINE OF HARAPPAN CiVlLIZAT10N
Frc 7 Section of Rohiro (after Sharmo andKumar 1980-81)
In Period IA, according to excavator, pre-Harappan red ware, whose percentage in comparison
ro Mature Harappan is berween 15-25 percent (perforated jar absent), along with other antiquities
such as bone arrowheads, terracotta cakes, potsherds with Harappan graffiti, chert blades and an
unfinished seal were noticed. In sub-Period IB, Harappan red ware and grey ware associated with
PGW were noriced. His interpretation is that this grey ware belongs to the PGW family as there is an
interlocking of these two cultures (Joshi 1993).
C. Haryana
The explorations and excavations in Haryana revealed extension of Harappa culture from Rajasthan
as well as from Punjab (Map 7). Banawali, Balu and Rakhigarhi provided a complete sequence
141
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MAp 7 Harappan sites in the Sarasvati and Drkhodvati valleys (Haryana)
of the Harappans' rise and fall in this region. A few sites which witnessed Harappan declin: are
mentioned below.
i. Mitathal
Mitathal lies at a distance of 10 km to the north-west of Bhiwani, a district headquarter of Hanzana.
This site accidentally came to be known with the discovery of two copper harpoons of Copper-t oard
vintage. The site was first excavated by the Panjab Universiry in 1968 (FiS. 8). The excavation
revealed Period I represented by fabrics A and C of Kalibangan I tradition whereas Period II isdivided into trnro phases. Period IIA is characterized by the rypical Harappan ceramic indttstry,
architecture, household objects and ornaments (Bhan 7975: 6).
Phase IIB is a continuation of the Mature tradition, however in a degenerate form(Figs. 9-10). The pottery is red ware and indicates general degenerating nature in terms of manufar:fttre,
treatment and decorations of pot (Bhan 7975: B). The mud-brick structures are rare and the beads
are not evenly finished. The terracotta biconical variety of beads shows rypological evolution, whereas
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THE DECLINE OF HARAPPAN CiViLiZAT10N
cart-wheels in this phase are comparatively thicker and smaller in size. The terracotta cakes wereround and of oblong varieties and the script can be seen in form of graffiti. The Mature stage ofHarappan culture degenerates slowly in Haryana and is seen assimilated with the later traditions.
ii. Daulatpur
Excavations at the site of Daulatpur (IAR 1968-69: B-9), situated on the bank of the Chautang river,revealed a succession of four cultural layers, the earliest being the Late Harappan and the latestbeing the Early Medieval period. Period I (Harappan) is marked by the occurrence of thick sturdyware including the painted variety showing Harappan forms such as the dish-on-stand and jar.
143
Ftc B Mitathal, District Bhiwani: 1968, cutting MTL 1 (after Suraj Bhan 19ZS)
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Frc 9 & lA Late Harappan pottety from Mitathal IIB (after Surq Bhan 1975)
. Evolved shapes, inferior treatment of the surface and the simpler and fewer decorations
indicate a decadent stage of the Harappan culture. The pottery has mixed assemblage of Early
Harappan, Mature Harappan and Late Harappan having Cemetery-H rype and compares to Bara.
Some noteworthy objects of this period are grinding stones, bangles of terracotta, faience and c opper
or bronze objects, beads of semi-precious stones and charred grains.
The excavations revealed five structurai phases with post-holes, wall of mud-bricl,s and
ill-fired bricl,s of various sizes. This period is succeeded by the PGW culture and the anti<luities
include antimony rod, bone pins and stone grinders, etc. To ascertain that there is no overlap of the
Harappan with PGW culture, the site was again excavated during 7976-78.
iii. Bhagwanpura
The site of Bhagwanpura on the bank of Sarasvati revealed two stages in the occupational deposit of
2.7 m. The lowest stage (IA) speaks of the absence of beakers or perforated jars from the Harappan
material (Figs. 11-12). In this stage, a solid mud platform was raised as protective measure against
floods. This material continues in the next stage (IB) with PGW culture (Figs. 13-16). A mud 'ryalledhouse having 13 rooms with a corridor in benveen and a courtyard was noticed on the eastetn side
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Fic 13 & L4 Pottery of Period lB, Bhagwanpura (after Joshi 1993)
ANCiENT:ND:A,NEW SER:ES,NO.1
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Frc 17 Culture complex of Bhagwanpura
146
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THE DECLiNE OF HARAPPAN CiViLIZAT10N
of the habitation (P1. 14D). The other antiquities are terracottzr bulls, cart w-heels with central hub,
bangies, copper rods ancl pins, faience beads and bangles and beacis of semi-precious stones and
bone pins (Fig. 17).
At Bhagwanpura, nro skeietons lying in north-south orientation r,vith heads towards north,
with no funerary goods, were found from the habitation area of Period IB (P1. 14E). The habitation
r,vas affected by the recurring floods, earlier in the times of Period IA and second one when the PGW
people were livingwith the Late Harappans in Period IB (Joshi 7993). There is a possibilirythat
these floods may have disturbed the stratigraphy of the site.
In connection with burials inside habitation, it may be pointed out that at Ropar, Chandigarh
and recently excavated Farmana (Shinde et al. 2O\O) diagnostic Harappan traits survived, as also the
custom of a separate cemetery away from the habitational area. Even at Sanauli, as mentioned above,
rhe cemetery survived separately from habitation area. This gives rise to suggest that the Harappans
at Bhagwanpura were perhaps diluted to the point of non-existence. If the position of these skeletons
at Bhagwanpura in habitational area is accepted, then the question arises that were these people of
Bhagwanpura IB of Harappan stock or not, because this change must have occurred due to radically
different culrural values. The users of PGW who overlapped with them, according to the excavator,
also never buried their dead in the habitational area. It was only with the advent of the Muslim period
that burials took place inside the house in some cases.
iv. Mirzapur
Excavations at Mirzapur, a small mound in Kurukshetra district revealed a Late Harappan phase of
1 to 1.5 m. deposit. The site has yielded mud-brick structures of three phases, evidence of a fireplace,
a refuse pit, an oven and corn-bin inside a room.
The other antiquities include a large number of beads made of semi-precious stones such
as agate, crystal, jasper and carnelian and a few steatite disc beads, terracotta bangles and beads,
marbles, toy cart frames and wheels, and cakes, both circular and triangular. Plain and painted
bul1 figurines, a painted curved figurine probably of a snake, faience bangles and balls with incised
decorations, beads, and a beautiful figurine of stag with a horizontal hole, etc., were also found.
The pottery is characterized by sturdy red ware, painted in light black colour with geometric
and linear designs and plant, fish and bird motifs. Classical Mature Harappan shapes such as the
perforated jar and beakers are totally absent at the site and the goblet is very rare. The site remained
unoccupied after the Late Harappans left and was again reoccupied during the Early Historical
period (Singh l9B9: 289).
v. Karsola
The site of Karsola in Julana tehsil of Jind district lies in the catchment area of river Chautang. It has
revealed in excavations a cultural sequence of three periods; namely the Late Harappan, PGW and
Kushan. The evidence of Kushan occupation has been removed by the villagers.
147
ANCiENT lNDlA,NEW SER:E〔 ;,NO.1
The aim of the excavation was to establish whether the Late Harappans continued to e>.isr u1:
till the beginning of thirteenth century BC or the antiquiry of PGW could be pushed back to a:ound1500 BC.
A total of about twenty-five trenches of 5 sq m each were laid on the entire mound. Out ofthe 3 m cultural deposit, the lowest one belonged to Late Harappan. The pottery is thick p;dntedred ware (P1. 15A-B). It has revealed mud structure along with hearths, kilns and furnaces fromthe deposit of Layers 3 to 6 (Fig. 1B). Amongst the antiquities which are very few, menrion mustbe made of solitary beads of agate and carnelian including terracotta, faience bangles and a:ticlesof shell. After the end of the Harappan period, the users of the PGW levelled the site (Laver 2)and continued to live there for some time (personal communication from V. S. Shinde and P B. S.
Senger 2011).
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Fic 18 Section of LY7, illustrating the statigraphic sequence, Karsola
vi. Muhammad Nagar
In the excavations carried out by B. R. Mani at Muhammad Nagar, Gurgaon district, Haryana,in 7997-98, a 35 cm thick deposit over the kankar-maed natural soil with ground water leldedpre-PGW deposit having sturdy red ware sherds, comparable to the pottery assemblage fromSiswal and representing Period I of the site which could be assigned to the Late Harappan Jrsfiod(LAR7997-98: 40-54). This period was succeeded by Period II having grey ware and some sherds ofPGW and associated red ware.
In another trench, this deposit also yielded black-and-red ware and grey ware. Iron objectswere also found. The succeeding period belongs to Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW).
t48
THE IDECLINE OF卜 JARAPPAN CiV:LiZAT10N
D. Delhi
i. Bhorgarh
The Directorate of Archaeology, Government of Delhi, took up the excavations at Bhorgarh from
lgg2-g4 and yielded a four-fold cultural sequence from the Late Harappan period up to the
medieval times.period I, associated with Late Harappa, revealed thick red ware pottery. in the excavation,
rwo graves were encountered. The first grave was an extended burial with three pots placed behind
the head, whereas the other grave, also an extended burial, did not contain any burial goods. Period
I was succeeded by PGW suggesting that people were living here in circular huts supported by
wooden posts. There was no cuitural overlap (Babu 7994-95)-
E. Western Uttar Pradesh
Since the discovery of Alamgirpur in 1958, a systematic survey revealed a cluster of Harappan
sites which were confined only around the tributaries of Yamuna. Most 6f these sites, located at a
distance of about 8 to 12 km confirm the pattern of linear or nucleated settlements, as noticed in
Gujarat and Punjab. A detailed srudy of these excavated sites throws light on the Harappan culture
complex of this extended region (Map B).
i. Hulas
Hulas is a type site of Harappa culture in upper Gangetic doab located on Katha nala, one of the
tributaries of the river Yamuna, an extension of Indus system of rivers till its diversion due to
tectonic movement in Himalayas, to Gangetic system of rivers somewhere in c. 2OOO/1900 BC
(Map B). It belongs ro the last quarter of the third millennium BC. The mound at Hulas has about
5 m of occupation. This is divisible into five cultural periods:
Period I The lowest yielded Harappan Ware
Period II Painted Grey Ware
Period IIi Northern Biack Polished Ware
Period IV Kushan Ware
Period V Gupta Moulded Ware
The PGW users occupied a different portion of the mound (FiS. 19).
The Harappan strata is 2.5 m thick. At one stage, the Harappans constructed a solid mud
platform running north-easVsouth-west as a protective measure against the floods. Out of five
structural levels, this strata revealed three successive living usages. Five out of forry-three structures,
including the floor levels, belonged to the earliest, thirry-two to the middle phase and the rest to the
upper phase (Fig. 20). Beginning with rectangular mud brick houses in earlier phases, circular huts
made an appearance in the middle level and both raditions continued in the upper phase (Pl. 15C-D).
1,49
ANCIENT IND:A,NEW SERIES,NO.1
78. I 50
PR:NCiPAL HARAPPAN SiTE〔 ;
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150
S̈EA 、.
THE DECLINE OF HARAPPAN Cl∨ ILiZAT10N
AЮ EARLY旧〕EN/Aし 喩 RES
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Fic 19 Schematic section ccross Hulas mound, 1978-83
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Frc 20 Circular huts and mud-walledhouses, Hulas
151
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During the earlier phase, a very small percentage of coarse red ware r,r'as found with t re
Harappan po6ery, whereas in the middle phase it was the Harappan pottery r,vhich dominate d.
in the upper phase, Harappans continued with other new rypes and painted designs (Figs. 21-23,
Pl. 16A). Miniature pots dominated the phase (Dikshit 7982,1990-91).
Characteristic Harappan pottery forms including the dish with projected rim and carinated
shoulder, the globular vessel with a flange round the neck, the shallow dish with an incurved rim,
and the jar-stand with a concave profile (Wheeler 7947: rypes I, XIII, ]OC(, SLV) are rare at Hulls'
Even rypes 15, 16, 27,22 and 23 found at Aiamgirpur (Fig. 24) are absent at Hulas. The painted
motifs, which are executed in black pigment, are all simple bands, triangles, mat designs, rows of
hatched diamonds with horizontal bands, chains within bands, leaf patterns and a dancing peac()ck
with a hatched body. A few painted motifs placed on the neck and shoulder seem to have be en
derived from the pre-Harappan traditions. Still, a majority of painted motifs are Harappan.
There is also an incised decoration on the exterior of some Pot. One of the sherds had deep
conspicuous compartmented design on the inner side reminiscent of Early Harappan features.
Important antiquities included terracotta animal figurines, cakes, tmncated bicone beads,
and ball with incised mark; fragmentary copper bangles, chisels, spiral rings, wires, needles r'rith
eye and fish hooks, bone points, stone quern and pestles; faience objects-beads, bangles and pots
and also beads of agate. Indeterminate terracotta objects of various sizes were also encounterec . A
terracotta sealing with three Harappan signs was also found (Pls. 16B-E, 17A-B)'
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Frc 21 Pottery types from Hulas
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THE DECLiNE OF HARAPPAN Ci∨ lLIZAT10N
During the excavations at Hulas, a row of miniature pots were noticed on the periphery of
a pit (pl. 17C). The identification of these pots could not be done till the excavations at Sanauli
(Sharma etal.2006) revealedsimilarrowsof miniaturePotsnearburials (Pl. 17D).
Mention of the modes of disposal of dead in ancient India is found in Vedic literature. Certain
hlrmns in Atharvavedo describe riruals pertaining to burials. The Pitnmedha Sukta of. Atharvoveda
suggests that besides cremation, other rypes of burial rites which were prevalent in the society
included putting the dead body on higher open air place (on tree or hill) or relocating the same
(Mani 2006-07:165). The dead ancestors have been evoked in the verse:
Ye nikhataye paroptaye dagdhaye choddhitah I
S artt anstanagna a v aha pitr in havishe attov e | |
Atharvaveda (18.2.34)
The interpretation of these miniature pots in a row may be connected with burials in one or
other form. lVhen a person dies outside, then such rituals are performed by his relatives at his place.
At Sanauli some ritualistic objects of copper were found within a brick structure composed of large
size bricks having their length 51 to 53 cm. Sotupatha Brahmano mentions the size of bricks of the
chirr, the largest ones being the length of thigh bone which should be around 52 cm as found in the
pre-Mauryan bricks from various places including Lauriya Nandangarh, Rajgir and in more recent
times at Sanauli (Mani 2006-07:167).
Frc 23 Painted pottery, Hulas
153
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ANCIENT lNDiA,NEW SERIES,NO.1
PLnl}'lREDl,uREs PAINTEDGREY$,ARE BLACK-&-REDV{aRE
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Ftc 24 schematic section across the mound of Alamgirpur 1959 (lAR lgsT-sg)
色ヽ旧|~ず 2Ψ
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154
TEttoTn cAKES STEATrrE 8は たNcE HARAPRN WARES I Nハ AL RGURNES NscRIBED POTSEEADS
FIG 25 Poιιcッ 妨 pes OfPeriOdム ス:αttgfrpur e択 1958-59
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THE DECLINE OF HARAPPAN CiViLiZAT10N
ii. Alamgirpur
Excavations at Alamgirpur, on the left bank of Hindon,. a tributary of Yamuna, revealed four
cultural periods with a break in between all of them (Fig. 24). The earliest level (Period I) of 1.8 m
thickness belongs ro the Harappa culture and Period Ii is characterised by the occurrences of PGW
and the black-slipped, black-and-red and plain red wares. The break between Period I and II was
demonstrated by their respective cultural assemblages and as well as by a difference in the texture
and composition of the layers (IAR 1958-59: 50-55). The notable potteries of Harappa culture are
dish-on-stand, goblet with painted base, cylindrical jar, beaker and perforated jar (Fig. 25, Pl. 1BA) '
peacock is a common painted design as at Hulas. Other interesting antiquities are the objects
made of terracotta, faience, steatite, semi-precious stones, bone and copper and bronze. Bear-shaped
animal headed handle being part of a vessel, a fragmentary terracotta body of a humped bull and
also the representation of a snake were found.
In a large pit, a crushed pile of fragments that revealed thick platters and troughs when
reassembled, and a short, incised inscription consisting of two symbols, probably the potter's name
or mark, were noticed (Pls. 188-C, 19A).
iii. Bargaon
Bargaon, a single culture site is situated on the left bank of the Maskara, a tributary of the Yamuna
and the excavarion yieided 1 m thick occupational deposit of Harappan ware along with unslipped
ochre-coloured ware (Figs. 26-27). Amongst antiquities, terracotta cakes, a bull headed toy cart,
wheels with central hubs, beads, chert blades, bone points, coPper rings, stone weights and faience
bangles were also found (pl. 198-E). The Harappan shapes included Indus goblet, ring-stand and
miniature pedestalled cup. No evidence of structure was found (IAR 1963-64:56-57)'
iv. Mandi
A hoard of jewellery at Mandi in Muzaffarnagar district was discovered during an excavation carried
our by D. v. Sharma et al. (7ggg-2ooo: 36-41). The excavation yieided two periods. These were
period I, which is Harappan and contemporary to that of Hulas and Alamgirpur, and Period II,
which belongs to the Kushan period.
The jewellery was divided into five types of gold beads including 37 spacer, beads of semi-
precious stones and copper were found in a copper container along with other jewellery. Some onyx
beads were also found which were earlier reported by Mackay (1937-38) at other Harappan sites
including Lothal.The pottery reported is all Late Harappan and it includes plain and painted red ware and
thick grey ware. After a hiatus, the site was occupied by Kushans having red polished ware with
stamped designs.
155
ANCiENT IND:A,NEW SERIES,NO.1
7 91~可
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FIG 26&27 Pοιたり shqフθs_ルοm Bα rgaοn
FIG 28&29 Pο lたッル m Ambたたcri a収 1963-6つ
156
l
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ヌミ
0
THE DECLiNE OF HARAPPAN CIViLiZAT10N
v. Ambkheri
The site of Ambkheri which is located near Roorkee (Deshpande and Dikshit 1983) revealed a
cultural deposit of 1.1 m with many hitherto unknown shapes and antiquities'
The pottery is inadequately fired and usualiy the slip has a tendency to peel off. The sherds
c1o not bear any traces of paintings or incised designs, although cord design, mat impressions and
horizontally raised bands can be noticed on the exterior of the pots. The noteworthy rypes in thick
fabric included the large trough, bowi like lid with central knob, dish-on-stand, vase with flanged
rim and oval body, ring-stand and basin with under cut rim'
Awashed greyware also accompanied this complex. Miniature pots are limited (Figs' 28-29)'
Antiquities recovered are a solitary carnelian bead, terracotta objects like cart-wheel with a central
hub, animal figurines including humped bull, a fragmentary cake with oval depression and stone
saddie-querns with pestles (Fig. 30). Remains of a brick-kiln and a hearth were also noticed (P1. 19F).
In this connection, reference to Gadharona must be made, which also yielded similar pottery
as reported from Ambkheri. These included a short stemmed dish-on-stand, a handle of washed
grey ware, barrel type beads of banded agate and other terracotta figurines (IAR 7963-64: 54) '
The ochre-coloured ware from Ambkheri, while sharing the fabric of the corresponding
pottery from Bahadarabad, differs in form. on the other hand, the assemblage shows certain affinities
with the Harappan material of Alamgirpur, Bara, Bargaon and Ropar. It appears that the site is likely
to represent a degenerate phase of the Harappan culture and as such provides an important link in
bridging the gap between the Harappan and PGW cultures'
Frc 30 Antiquities, Ambkheri
1.57
ANCIENT INDlA,NEW SERIE〔 ,,NO.1
vi. Bahadarabad
At Bahadarabad, while the diversion of a canal w-as worked out ior a hydro-elecrric po,,ver hc,use, a
few sherds of red ware (called herein as ochre-coloured ware) and a hoard of copper objects (calledas the items of copper hoard) were found.
The pottery is red, thick and inadequately fired. It compared well in texture and fabrjc withthe so-called ochre-coloured ware (Figs. 31-32). A few trial trenches were laid at the site whichrevealed a deposit of hardly 60 cm through a thickness of 5.7 m of alternating sterile layers c f sandand pebbles. Immediately above the natural soil, some quartzite flake tools and waste flakes werenoticed. These tools appear to have no connection with the pottery of Bahadarabad.
The ochre-coloured ware and copper hoards could not be found associated in excavatlons atBahadarabad although a copper harpoon of this vintage was found later in regular excavations withochre-coloured ware at Saipai and more recently in the excavation of a cemetery site belonl;ing tothe Late Harappan period at Sanauli also revealed the presence of copper hoard objects wit h LateHarappans (Sharma 1989).
Bahadarabad represents a decadent stage of Harappa culture. Y. D. Sharma connr:cts itsaffinity with the Harappan pottery and suggests that 'it might well have been manufactured by thelast remnants of the Harappa before they sunk into what may at present be described as an oltlivion'(Sharma 1964). A similar situation was also noticed ar another site called Lal eila (Fig. 33). Besi,ies thePottery, which echoes Bahadarabad shapes including handled pot and painted designs of rt:gional
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THE DECLINE OF HARAPPAN CiViLIZAT10N
FIc 33 Pottery from Lal Qila
Harappan complex, a terracotta female figurine also deserves special attention. It has a narrow
receding forehead, elongated neckand prominentbreasts (Pl.20A). The shoulders are perforated
obviously for attaching arms (lAR 7969-70: 38-40).
A similar terracotta more debased in sryle and further away from the region was also reported
from Shahabad, 30 km south-east from Shahjahanpur, now kept in the National Museum. It is partly
worn out and is B cm in height (P1. 2OB). The lower portion is also broken. The execution is slightly
crude and primitive and appears to have followed the tradition of the grotesque figurines found at
Mohenjo-daro and othbr sites (Dikshit 7973: 267-63).
Manpur and Bhatpur, lying in the region of Lal Qila, also revealed similar pottery. An
indeterminate terracotta object noticed at Bargaon and other sites was also found in this region
(see Pl. 168).
F. Gujarat
A series of excavations and explorations carried out in Gujarat provided disrribution, chronology
and evolution of Harappan civilization. Gujarat is a good example of showing the devolution or
deterioration of material culture when the urban fabric of a culture disintegrates- This fact is
stratigraphically demonstrated at Rangpur and other sites (Map 9).
1.59
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THE DECLiNE OF HARAPPAN CiViLIZAT10N
i. Rangpur
Rangpur is situated on the bank of the river Bhadar in Gujarat. Excavation revealed three main
culturai stages, i.e., pre-pottery microlithic culture (Period I), Harappan culture (Period II) and
posr-Harappan lusrrous red ware culture (Period IIi). The principal ceramic industries of Period IIA
are assigned as Harappan red ware, buff ware, coarse red ware and coarse grey ware (Fig' 3a)'
The mature nature of the Harappan culture can be seen in the form of a large variety of
ceramic ware, personal ornaments, objects of domestic use and tool and weapons. Disk beads of
steatite and gold, lenticular beads of agate, cylindrical beads of steatite, carnelian and faience are
identical with the beads from Mohenjo-daro, Harappa and Lothal.
The decline of the prosperity of the Harappans can be noticed from the Period IIB which is
assigned by the excavator as Late or Degenerate Harappan culture. The degenerating nature of the
culture is apparent from the ceramics especially on the surface treatment, fabric, etc' (Figs' 35-36)'
No strucfures were seen in the entire 4 m occupational deposit of Period IIB. Post-holes suggest
thatched roof houses. The inferior ceramic wares, limited use of rypical Harappan ornaments of
steatite and the absence of chert blades and cubical stone weights are the indicators of the decline
of material prosperiry of the Harappans in this period (Rao er al' l98T'Doubts have been raised that even IIB stage at Rangpur on account of the coarseness and
indifference of pottery, absence of structures and other basic needs and the presence of post-holes
cannot be called as Harappan. In fact, the IIB and the iIC stages are truly Degenerate rather than
Late Harappan (Figs. 37-38). Soundara Rajan has quoted a corresponding C-14 date for the lustrous
red ware ar Navdatoli (phase IV) which is c. 1500-1700 BC and this date is the virtual end of the
Harappans all over this region (Fig. 39) (Soundara Rajan 7984:220-221)'
ii. Desalpur
Desalpur is located towards the northwestern part of Kachchh and was excavated by K' V' Soundara
Rajan (rAR 1963- 64: lO-72).The site is of 130 x 100 m in dimension and situated on the northern
bank of the once depredatory stream, Bamu-Chela, an effluent of the river Dhrub'
The 3 m .,ritrral deposit yietded two main cultural layers, i.e., Period I (Harappan) and
period II (Early Historic). period I is again subdivided into IA (Mature Harappan) and IB (Late
Harappan). Three structural phases ware recognised for sub-Period lA which is not evident in the
sub-Period IB. The pottery forms of Period IA is of Mature Harappan and the painted pottery is
replaced by a coarse grey fabric showing essentially horizontal lines of bluish or reddish-brown
pigment on its most exterior surface in Period IB'
Though sub-periods lA and IB show a cultural continuity, Period IB was distinguished by a
cream-slipped bichrome ware, represented by dish and bowl forms with stightly ever[ed rim and
mildly convex profile. The painted designs are in black or purple and reddish-brown on the upper
part of the bowi and comprised such motives as vertical wavy lines, concentric semi-circles, vertical
lines. Use of plain as well as grey-pained black-and-red ware, represented mostly in blunt-carinated
dishes or bowls with or without flat base is also evident in this sub-period.
161
t\
Frc 34 Red ware of Period IIA, Rangpur (afterRao et al. 1987)
ANCIENT IND:A,NEW SER:[iS,NO.1
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Frc 35 Buff ware and coorse red ware of pe.riodIIB, Rangpur (after Rao et al. 1987)
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THE DECLINE OF HARAPPAN CiViLIZAT10N
FIG 37 Red″ arc ofPeriOd lc Ran`フ ur tttCr
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Irrc 38 Coorse red ware ond lusrrous red ware ofPeriod llC, Rangpur (afier Roo et al. 1987)
園 鼎 Ⅷ 呂騨 1旧 Щ れヽ R122中9'p“ η語・・ll″
5F弓 2-Frc 39 Lustrous red wore of Period lll, Rongpur
(after Rao et ol. 1987)
163
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― ― ― ―
ANCIENT:NDIA,NEW SERlES,NO.1
iii. Dholavira
The site of Dholavira is located in Kachchh district of Gujarat and iies in the norrhwesrern area ofthe island of Khadir. The ancient settlement is embraced by rwo tunnels, i.e., Manhar and iV ansar.
The site was excavated for several seasons and has yielded seven chronological stage:. StageIV belongs to the classical Harappan culture and the general decline of the site can be vis:aiizedfrom stage V in terms of the maintenance of the ciry. However the pottery, seals, weighr:s, etc.,continued to be in use. After a temporary desertion of the site for a few decades, the s te wasreoccupied and the transformed Harappan culture (stage M) was noriced.
New ceramic traditions appear from the sites of Sindh, Rajasthan, and other parts of (iujarat.The fabric of the pottery underwent a perceptible change, although the forms as well as decorativemotives continued. New pottery wares such as white painted black and red and white PC:W anda coarse ware bearing incised or appliqud or both kinds of designs made their appearan,te. Thestructural evidences are confined to the citadel and southern margin of the middle town. The otherantiquities like seals underwent changes and became long and rectangular with a flat or tri;mgularback rather being square in form.
The Late Harappans of this phase abandoned the site and again occupied in deurbanizr:d formin stage VII. The transformation of Harappa culture in Phases V and M perhaps belongs to Late Maturestage because nowhere were the seals and other objects encounrered. It is only stage VII which rclongsto Harappan decline but the excavator has not offered any date for this period (Bisht 1999: 2L\).
iv. Kanmer
Recent excavations at Kanmer in Kachchh district of Gujarat revealed a fivefold cultural s€quencestarting from Early Harappan to the Medieval period, with gaps in berween. Early Harappans wereidentified in a pre-fortification deposit of about 40 cm above rhe virgin soil, whereas pe riod II,which is further divided as IIA and IIB, belongs to the Marure Harappan phase. The Late Hzrappanphase (Period III), which was found in the central part and also in the southeastern area of themound was identified on the basis of absence of the urban phase pottery, weights and ter:racottacakes. The quality and surface treatment of the Harappan portery declined and design patternand shapes also changed. The Ahar rype black-and-red ware also continued in this deposit. Theirstructllres were erected on the top of the rampart. A broken pot was found fu|I of steatite f-71,707in number) and faience beads (27).The Harappan occupation at the site from Early Haralpan toLate Harappan has no cultural discontinuiry and reflects a process of cultural evolution as well asdevolution (Kharakwal et al., 2OO9).
v. Juni Kuran
The excavation at Juni Kuran in Kachchh district have shoram it to be a typical Harappan township,showing similarities with the town planning of Dholavira. It revealed a citadel, two stadiums, apillared hall, gateways, drain and mud platforms. The Mature Harappans were succeeded by LateHarappans without any interruprion (pramanik 2003-04: 45-67).
164
THE DECLINE OF HARAPPAN CIVIL:ZAT10N
vi. Ratanpura
Ratanpura is located in Mehsana district in the estuary of the river Rupen. It is a singie culture
site which could be broadly compared with that of Rangpur's Phase IIC. This is the first site from
where black-and-red ware sherds were found in substantial quantities in the Harappan complex.
Excavators have pointed out that the ceramic assemblage represents both Harappan and non-
Harappan tradition (Fig. a0).Of these, the noteworthy finds are fragments of three varieties of terracotta sealings and
hundred of terracorra lumps of many shapes from deep circular pits (P1. 20C-D). other items are
ash, charcoal, charred and uncharred bone pieces and pottery (Sonawane 2005)'
\rVhile discussing the above sites, mention may be also made of the excavation at Vagad
- a rural Harappan settlement in Gujarat. In a cultural deposit of 1 m, the excavators noticed
three successive sub-periods starting from Mature to Late, indicating the average life of a Harappan
settlement to be approximately 400-500 cenruries.
The excavation revealed circular huts like those already found at other contemPorary sites
(p1. 20E). In addition ro this, it also yielded four circular clay lined fire altars. In the absence of
bones or any industrial materials, these must have been used for some kind of rituals. Similar fire
altars were also noticed at Lothal, Kalibangan, Navdatoli and Dangwada, which were used for the
performanc e of yajfios as tesrified by the discovery of sacrificial fire altars. This practice, started by
Harappans, was continued even after by the Chalcolithic people of central India, which confirms the
continuance of a legacy of the performance of yojfias'
As there is no evidence of burning at the site, it is presumed that the residents abandoned
the site due to failure of monsoon and consequent migration.
Vagad has definite signs of Late or Degenerate phase of the Mature Harappan culture in a
rural settlement. It appears that the Vagad settlement was abandoned prior to the Late Harappan
habitations found at Kanewal , Zekda and even Valabhi (Nasadi) where lustrous red ware was
reported right from the basal layers (Sonawane and Mehta 1985). These excavations confirmed
that urban centres flourished with the support of these satellite rural settlements. Furthermore, in
the post-urban stage, when the internal trade declined, these settlements also eventually lost their
utility and went into oblMon.At Kanewal and Zekda, circular huts existed from the beginning of the settlement until its
end (Figs. 4l-42).These stmctures were supported by mud walls arranged along the circumference
of the circle (Mehta 1gB2). In one case, the presence of a central pole was also observed on the plan.
Evidence of a hearth was also noticed.
Valabhi (Nasadi) also revealed the presence of a circular strucnrre on the patterns of other
sites. But it was observed that the site in question was flooded during the monsoon and might have
been used only for seasonal camps. why these settlements were abandoned will require an in-depth
analysis of the reasons for settlement, local topography, climate and human situation. Similar sites
could be also seen in the Bahawalpur region of Pakistan'
1,65
ANCIENT IND:A,NEW SERIES,卜 10.1
目Jo~` 事 芋 耳 /
11Mヽ ~i口留
S
Fic 40 Redware, Ratanpura (AR D84-BS) Frc 41 Plan of circulor Ltuts, Kanewal (ofter Meh;.q 1gB2)
ZEKDA 1978 TRENCHES Ⅵ4 X,Y,Z,Q. 。 1 2 3pLAN OF CiRCuLAR HUTS
―
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Fto 42 Plan of circular huts, Zekda (after Mehta 1982)
G. Maharashtra
The extent of the Harappans was noticed on the northern periphery of Maharashtra. He:e, itsucceeded the already existing culture knovvn as Savalda found at Daimabad. It appears to tre anintrusion from the south of Gujarat.
i. Daimabad
Daimabad is situated on the left bank of Pravara, a tributary of the Godavari. The site was disco.reredby Bopardikar and excavated by different scholars at later times. Excavation by Sali (1984) in the5 m thick occupational deposit has yielded five culrural phases.
166
お皓
。
「
∃
THE DECLINE OF HARAPPAN CIVlLiZAT10N
period I (2200-2000 BC) belongs to Savalda culture, Period II belongs to the Late Harappan
(2000-i800 BC), Period iII belongs to buff and cream ware cultrlre (1800-1600 BC), Period IV
belongs to Malwa culure (1600-1400 BC), and Period V belongs to Jorwe culture (1400-1000 BC).
Sali, on the basis of evidence found at this site suggests that the Savalda culture was preceded by
Late Harappa culrure and the Harappans entered the upper Godavari basin early in the second
millennium BC (Sali 1984).
The Harappa culture of the Tapi valiey is of a degenerate or a late form (Fig. 43). The
standard Harappan styles of painted designs were replaced by monotonous designs in this period. The
degenerating nanlre can be understood from the cultural remains such as house sftuctures, seals etc'
In a chance discovery h 7974 in Daimabad, a villager found in a pit under a tree four solid
bronzes - an elephant, a rhinoceros, a buffalo and a chariot displaying sophisticated metallurgy
rhat necessitated fresh digging by Sati (pl. 21A-D). It is likely that these bronze objects found in a
non-strarified context may be the sacred belongings and Sankalia is of the opinion that they were
brought here by refugees (Sali 1984)'
Agrawal and Kharakwal (2003: 164-165) feel that these objects do not fit in the Protohistoric
copper repertoire at all, whereas Dhavalikar (1982) places them in the Late Harappan period'
ヽ 上ノ/)° 電
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Frc 43 Late Harappan redwore, Period Il, Daimabod (ofter Sali 1986)
167
ANCIENT:NDlA,NEW SERIES,110.1
3. EUIDENCE OF RICE
fuce has been reported from the site of Rangpur in the form of husk embedded in mud-pla;rer,whereas in Lothal, it is found in the form of impressions of the rice spikelets. The report of rir:e atKalibangan is debatable.
Potsherds and burnt plasters found in the excavations at Un on Katha nala inwestern gttarPradesh revealed traces ofrice-huskused as a ddgraissant. The huskhad a regular chess-board palternwith wavy rows. The meshes in the husk were stretched vertically with the granules covering nLajorportion of the mesh. On examination, the ornamentation paftern of the husk revealed chara,:terscommon between the cultivated rice and Oryza sa.tivo and the wild perennial Oryza ruffipogon(Mittre and Savithri i9B2).
The Harappan cultural sryle underwent a drastic change when the knowledge of ricecultivation opened more southerly and easterly regions to cereal farmers (Fairservis 1967). Thr:re isevidence of domesticated rice, finger millet (ragi) along with barley, wheat, various grams and peasfrom Hulas (saraswat 7992-93: 7-12).
. 4.BURIAI PRACTICES
The cemetery at Farmana has revealed sevenry burials so far and has been assigned to MirtureHarappan phase such as Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi or R-37 at Harappa, whereas the burial site atSanauli which revealed 116 graves belongs to a later stage of Harappan culure.
At Farmana, all the burials have a rectangular pit lined with clay. The body was placedinside the pit in north-south orientation with head towards the north. Three rypes of burial customsnamely primary, secondary and symbolic were in vogue. The burial goods has pots and jewr:lleryincluding beads, bangles, ear-rings etc. (pl. Z2A-B).
The excavation at Sanauli in western Uttar Pradesh has solved, up to certain extenl, therelationship of copper hoards and ochre-coloured ware and its relationship wrth the Late Harappancomplex. It is here that the copper hoards are found in situ.
Moreover, Sanauli has one of the biggest cemeteries known so far in Indo-pak sub-continentas at Farmana. It has double burials, triple burials, and symbolic burials including a burial withsteatite inlay pieces, burial with human skull and a gold object and child burials (pls. 23A-C ,2t.A-C)(Sharma et al. 2006)
The Rrgvedo also refers to burial customs namely cremation (agni-d.agdho) and trurial(anagni-dagdha) and both these are present in the Late Harappan burial practices. The syn,bolicburial was very corlmon with Harappans whether in north India or Gujarat. In the excavaticns atNagwada, symbolic burials were also practiced (pl. 22C).
The contribution of Farmana and Sanauli has opened a new vista for the study of h,manskeletal remains at these places as the excavations of burials of this magnitude were not knowr andexcavated so far in India. It has generated enormous data to work on the human population.
As worked out by the excavators of Farmana, the sophisticated multidisciplinaryinvestigations of this data wili certainly throw light on various aspects of Harappan popuiation
168
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THE DECLINE OF HARAPPAN CiViL!ZAT10N
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Farmana by the excaVators.
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at
5.olscussloN
The above fieid data revealed that the Indus system of rivers constitutes an area which has political
and economic interaction through the ages with Indian ocean on the one front and with west Asia
and Gangetic India on other sides. The survey of Harappan settlements in India has revealed that
the curtural retardation of the Harappans which took piace due to economic upheaval in the nuclear
region was a later event in Gujarat and northern Inclia. The settlements in later period became smail
in size but there was a considerable increase in their number'
During Late Bronze Age (c. 1900-1400 BC), Ropar survived as an urban centre in northern
India on a small scale but other settrements in punjab such as sanghor, Dher Majra, Dadheri, Nagar
etc. were the viilage settlemenrs. At Dher Majra, Harappan bead industry survived'
The settlement of Mitathal IIA in Haryana which is said to be laid on the rwin mound patrern,
reveared only mud_brick structures. In phase IIB, the continuarion of the mature tradition can be
seen but in a deciined way as there is no polish even on beads ancl the cart-wheeis are thicker and
smarler in size. Bhagwanpura, another rite on the bank of Sarasvati, reveaied two clear-cut stages of
Late Harappu, brti, itslater stage it aiso has an overlap with the PGW like Katpalon and Nagar'
In western uttar Pradesh, the Harappan culture-complex at Hulas' Alamgirpur and Bargaon
was found as an extension of punjab **r*)( At Hulas, th" construcdon of a iarge mud platform
running in the north-east and south-west direction also survived as a conceptuai architectural feature
oftheHarappans.AterracottasealingwiththreeHarappansignswasalsofound.Theoccupationaldeposit of 2.5m thickness reveared a deciine in the construction of mud brick structures in the upper
levels, whereas circurar huts and pits of different dimensions continued from middle to upper phase
(Dikshit 1984)' ,. ^--^^e^ +r^^r Dnnqr 'rres the easternmostIn the absence of any city or tor,rrn site here, it appears that Ropar was the easternmosr
urban centre controrling the internal and external trade of the Harappans on the sutlej in Punjab
andBanawali,RakhigarhiandBhirranaontheSarasvatiinHaryana.ThetributariesoftheYamunaalsoparticipatedinthediffusionaryprocessoftheHarappancMlizationwhichwasspreadingwithregional and rocal variations from Sutrej and sarasvati to yamuna in the east. In Gujarat, no urban
centre has been reported in later period' However' at Rangpur' the Late Harappans transformed
intoanothercuitureknownasLustrousRedWare.Wasitadeclineoralocalizationprocess?However,PossehlseesadecreaseinsettiementsoftheLustrousRedWarephase(Possehl
Tggg).Thedistributionofdifferentfinishedpreciousandsemi-preciousHarappanartefactsontheIaterHarappansitesaroundls00BCandafterwards,suggestamajordisruptionfromMesopotamia,which affected the trading links with the centrar and northern zones of Harappan civilization and
ultimately with Oman, Bahrain' Afghanistan and iran'
The survey shows that Late Harappan survived regionally' each springing from their Mature
Harappan tradition having distinct assemblages rypifieJ as regional dynamics like repertoire of
169
ANGIENT INDIA, NEW SERIES, NO.1
cemetery-H in Punjab and western uttar Pradesh, Jhukar in sindh which overlapped with Kulli insouthern Baluchistan and Rangpur and Lothal in Gujarat.
5. CLaSSIFICATION ANO CHRONOLOGY
The sites of the Harappan civilization provide in the following order four different devolutionarystages in Punjab, Haryana and western uttar Pradesh, whereas in Gujarat, the sites like Ran5pur,Desalpur and Dholavira also present a similar srory. In this survey, Anarta and affiliated chalcolithicsettlements have not been taken into accounr because of their early beginning.
Nonrn IwonA. Early Marure Harappa
B. Late Mature Harappa
C. Late Harappa
D. Overlap (Late Harappa_pGW)
E. Early Mature Harappa
F. Late Mature Harappa
G. Late Harappa
Rakhigarhi, Banawali, Balu,Kotla Nihang Khan and Ropar
Ropar, Chandigarh, Bara,Mitathal IIA, Mirzapur,Alamgirpur and Hulas
Mitathal IIB, Sanghol I,Bhagwanpura IA and Bargaon
Bhagwanpura IB, Dadheri IB,Nagar I and Karpalon I
Gurenar
Dholavira, Surkotada, Desalpur,Lothal, Bagasra and NagwadaDholavira, Lothal, Desalpur,Shikarpur, Bagasra and RangpurRangpur, Desalpur, Dholavira,Kanewal, Zekda, Vagad andRatanpura
Survival of overlap phase of Late Harappa must be quite rate. This comprex was seeminglysupplanted by local cultures and diluted to the point of non_existence.The Harappa culture did not die out as it is clear from the above survey but survived inGujarat' Punjab' Haryana and parts of western Uttar pradesh. This time bracket could be workec outon the basis of their continuity with the end of Mature Harappa somewhere in 1900 BC at Rangpur,Desalpur' Ropar' Mitathal and Hulas whereas in the still later stage it overlapped with later or other
;:il"#fi f"::.t"rff: Rangpur in Gujarat region and at Dadheri, Katpal,on, Bhagwanpura etc.
The radio-carbon dates from Bara 1890 + 95 and 1645 + g0 BC could also be considered inthis context' Bara revealed fourteen layers and the earliest date is from the middle level: Laye r g at
170
THE DECLINE OF HARAPPAN CIVILiZAT10N
a depth of 1.2 m below rhe surface, thereby suggesting that the occupation at this site must have
continued for four to five hundred years more'
The c-14 dates from sanghol 1g00 * 220 and 1690 * 190 BC confirm Bara dates. TL dates
from PRL (Ahmedabad) also ranSe between 2060 * 375 and 1325 + 330 BC' The c-14 dates from
Hulas range from 2560 * 155 and 2005 + 115 (uncalibrated date in BC) and are on earlier side' The
date from Mitathal IIB is also 2370 + 220 BC. This also seems ro be too early in comparison with
Bara and Sanghol.
Geologists have suggested that somewhere in2ooo/7900 BC, due to some tectonic movement
in upper Himalayas, the Yamuna started flowing as a separate river and all the earlier tributaries
of Sarasvati started flowing into the yamuna. If this date is acceptable, then most of the sites in
western uttar pradesh courd be equated in a time bracket before 2000 BC and they might have
continued in later centuries till they came in contact with local cultures'
Excavations at Hulas and Alamgirpur including Muhammad Nagar in Gurgaon have not
shown any overlapping with PGW. The exact reason is difficult to explain at the moment except that
Harappans did not ,r*ir" for long with their material culture and did not come in contact with the
pGW as was rhe case in Haryana and punjab. These were on their main routes of migration from
lower levels to the upper..ulh., of Sarasvati and other rivers' However, there are many Harappan
sites as discussed above where the material culture of Harappans did not overlap'
In my opinion, there is no consensus on the dates based on c-14 till the differentiation
berween Mature Harappan and Late Harappan clears, and the concept of Late Harappan is better
defined or understood. In connection with the eastern domain of Harappan civilization' Ropar'
as stated earrier appears to be the last urban centre as a steatite seal and other items of Mature
Harappan culrure were found here'
Hulasisasitelyinginhinterland,SupportingurbancentresandbelongstotheMatureHarappanaccordingtothedatebracket'However,itseemstohavenovisibletraitsofMatureHarappaexceptti,u.titmightbealocalizedindigenousculture(asisthepositionofAnartainGujarat) with Harappan contacts. Bara culture has also been termed as localized culture'
Z. DATA FROM PAKISTAN
InPakistan,intheeariy50s,whatweredescribedasthePost-Harappancultureshavebeenincludedinthe Late Harappan phase since 1970 (Dani 1981)' The Late Harappan phase has been noticed in n"ro
areas, (a) the northern region with rype site Harappa where Cemetery-H culture was found at mound
AB and cholistan desert in Bahawalpur and O) the southern region where Jhukar culture was noticed
intheupperlevelsofchanhu-daro,Mohenjo-daroandAmri'Thecemetery-HmaterialnoticedatHarappa became a part of the Harappan complex noticed at the Late Harappan sites in Punjab and
Haryana. In Pakistan also, at the end of third millennium BC' a culture change was witnessed
in Mature Harappan leveis. For these seemingiy post-Harappan cultures' the term Late Harappan
is being increasingry used suggesting perhaps thar Harappan traditions continued both in Jhukar
and Cemetery-H.
171.
ANCIENT INDIA, NEW SERIES, NO.1
The renewed excavation at Jhukar in 1973-74 (Mughal lgg2b) provided strarigraphicevidence from the smaller mound 'A'. The following sequence of cultures was obtained from thr: 5.2m thick deposit as under:
Phase
Early Hisrorical
Late JhukarMiddleEarly Jhukar
Layers
l-10
11‐ 14
15‐ 17
18-20 and abOut 3 fL(0.9141n)below water level
Mature Harappan pottery was present in all the phases of Jhukar. The excavation further brough: outthat Jhukar consists of only a few pottery rypes occurring in association with the Mature Hara,panceramics in the later levels. It has been placed by two calibrated dates between 2165 and 186() BCbut continued in the lower Indus valley up to 1700 BC. To substantiate the point that the so-c:rlledJhukar culture was in fact representative of the Late decadent Harappu, .iuilirurion in sindh, itshould not be considered a different class of people as thought earlier (Mughal 1989).At Amri iIC' a transformadon was noticed in the Harappan'pottery which also conti,uedin next phase' casal regards Jhukar as a distinctive phase of the Late Harappa (casal 1g64). Thepainted design and a fragment of a bowl with stud handle from Jhukar is comparable with sirrilardesign and not rypes at Lothal A and B and Rangpur IIA and IIB (Mugha 17gg2c).The Late Harappanmaterial trom Punjab specially the cemetery-H repertoire from the graves and settrement morrndsAB and E at Harappa dates the Harappan material berween 2155 and 2o2o BC.The post urban data from Northern Baluchistan, the North-west Frontier and other are,s inPakistan is still in collection stage.The Late or Degenerate Harappan phase in Pakistan is not as clear as it is in Indian sub-continent' The cemetery-H sites in Bahawalpur are all unexcavated and the explored data inclulingany Mature Harappan material, if found from these sites, is also not urrilrbl.. The renewedexcavadon at Jhukar has no doubt shown the continuance of Jhukar pomery with Mature Harappa.It aiso implies that there is no single occupation site of Jhukar. In the earrier excavations at HaraDpa,vats was of the view that cemetery-H culture was the final stage of the Harappans (vats 1g40).In renewed excavation at Harappa from mound AB and E, the cemetery-H habitation revealedcontinuity with some changes in pottery rypes.
8. BECTRIA-MARGIANa ARCHaEOTOG IC6t COMPTEX 6ND LAT EHARAPPENSExcavations were carried out in recent decades at a number of sites in the area extending fromMargiana in the west to Bactria in northern Afghanistan. This culture is named the Bactria-MargianaArchaeological complex (BMAC) and its mature stage is datable to c. 2000 -7zoo BC. It hls atown-planning and monumental architecture as noticed at Gonur in vlargiana. some schc,larsincluding Dhavalikar (2007) declared this as culture of pastoralists and termed it as ,AryanImmigration', which came from Central Asia to India.
172
THE DECLINE OF HARAPPAN Cl∨ lLiZAT10N′
In 1999 at Gilund,a site ill Rttasthan l″ as put to excavations vvhich revealed a cluster of the
clay seals lvith a varie● ′of floral designsヽ vith sun lnotifs,buried in a silo,in the area with multiple
parallel、 A√alls of rnud bricks.ヽ「ヽhile comparing these seals、げith the BⅣlAC,which are in cut― fortts
in stone and lnetal,the excavators are of the opinion that there vvas an interaction be槙〃een this
Chalcolithic culture vvith BMAC culture in Afghanistan and Central Asia and Harappans lnight have
played a significant role as intermediaries beい veen the bA′o(POSSehl et al.2004).
Lal,who has exaFnined this hypothesis,concluded on the basis Of Bαlldhayarlα Srallt`61ttra
that a section of Vedic people after the drying up of 10wer Sarasvati basin emigrated toWardS
vvest Gandhara,Persia and Aratta bOrdering on Turkey,sometilne in the second Πlillennium BC,
where a treaty was recorded beい Veen a 1/1itanni lcing named Matiwaza and a Hittiti king named
Suppiluliuma,dated to 1380 BC.In thiS,they invoked the Vedic gods as witnesses namely
lndra,Ⅳ litra,Nasatyas and Varu■ a.There is no evldence to Sustain this theory of ilnlnigration
as there was nO entry of a new set Of people into lndia beち″een 4500 BC t0 800 BC(La1 2009).
As thiS cultural complex has ■o direct bearing vvith the declined material Culture of
Harappans,it could be discussed elsewhere while debating the original hOmeland oflndo―Aryans.
9.THE LECnCY
ln civilization in the field ofmaterial or ilnmaterial
ln exanllned.The questlon comes to nllnd as to
civilization after its collapse and in what Way did
に融痢ViSuali………駆中i灘苗[器増豊li鮒江attlre Harappan Ci宙lization(MarSha11 1931).He
l data is very rich and his ideas can be exalnined in
angan and their continuance with later ChalcolithiC
wgedよ羞T乱署ll蹴里鶴置席¶1翼r理::1∬質鷹』T[願灘柵冨:」i翼よ盤there was a complete break in tradition and no continuity ofthe lingering elements Ofthe Harappan
civllization in the contemporary and Succeeding Chalcolithic Cultures could be seen.We need not
w吼 Ⅷ 碁 ∬ 二 抵 IIimi塞¥戦 ∬ 彙 駆 11‖ 五
The legacy of Harappan civilization cal
I黒棚7瀾ぶittW∬檬質F翻聯勢1撚vvhich are outSide Harappan culture cOnteXt p(
Harappans althOugh it is difficult to substantiate.
173
ANCIENT INDIA, NEVv SERIES, NO.1
10. coNctusroN
From 1922 to 2010 we have travelled a long way to understand the Harappan urbanizationincluding its origin, extent, decline and also legacy. In terms of chronology of the Late Harappancultures or post-Urban phase, the reliable data is from Gujarat and other north Indian sites. "ihe
C-14 dates are very few except Sanghol and late levels of Mohenjo-daro (Jhukar) which do nothelp in reconstructing any acceptable time-bracket. How long did the process of diiurion of I ateHarappan cultures continued in the Indo-Pak sub-continent remains debatable.
The legacy of the Harappan civilization appears to be extremely dominant in the fielcl ofideological foundation. The mass of oral traditions, which form part of our present-day civilization,appears to be our biggest inhertitance of the Harappan civilization. The later Vedic literature rnaygive a proper background for this. We have to, therefore, make some serious efforts to correlate thearchaeological and literary data in order to work out the Harappan legacy.
AcknowledgementsI am thankful to Dr. Gautam Sengupta for asking me to write a paper for inclusion in the said journal. Theline drawings and the plates accompanying the paper are used courtesy the Archaeological Survey oflndia. I am thankful to G. L. Possehl, Vasant Shinde, P. B. S. Senger, V. H. Sonawane and Dharanr VirSharma for their permission to include the line drawings and plates of their excavations in this article.Thanks are also due to B. R. Mani for his personal communication regarding the burial practices in theAtharuaveda. My young colleagues Manjil Hazarika and Kulbhushan Mishra of the lndian ArchaeolollicalSociety worked hard on the collection of material for the article. The maps have been prepared by Kis,henSingh, Rakesh Chander and P. C. Mukhia of theASl, New Delhi. Bharat Singh typed the manuscript.
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Wheeler, Sir M. 1g47. Harappa 1946:The Defences and Cemetery R- 37. Ancient lndia3:58-130'
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