The cultural and spiritual values of nature in Chinese ...

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The cultural and spiritual values of nature in

Chinese World Heritage Sites: A comparative study

of Fanjingshan, Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan

By Xindan Hu

Registration No. 941113370080

MSc Forest and Nature Conservation Policy

Wageningen University

August 2019

Supervised by:

Dr. B (Bas) Verschuuren, Forest and Nature Conservation Policy Group

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Abstract

With the increasing awareness of the inseparable relationship between nature and culture

in the World Heritage Convention, the cultural and spiritual values of nature start to be

taken into account in the protection of World Heritage sites. According to the guidebook

“Cultural and Spiritual Significance of Nature: Guidance for its role in Protected and

Conserved Area Governance”, the cultural and spiritual values of nature can be classified

into 7 types: Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic value; Recreational and therapeutic value;

Artistic, traditional and contemporary value; Information, knowledge and educational

value; Historical, ethnological value; Linguistic traditions, both written and oral value;

Religious and spiritual value. To better understand the culture and spiritual values of

nature of indigenous or local people in Chinese World Heritage sites, I analysed the

official UNESCO World Heritage site documents to assess and compare their value types

and the related management activities of three Chinese World Heritage sites: Fanjingshan,

Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan. I analyzed the management of three sites using the

biocultural approach. The results show that the management of Fanjingshan is most

concerned about CSV through biocultural approach. While for Mount Wutai and Mount

Taishan, the involvement of indigenous or local people in the management insufficiently

meets the criteria of the biocultural approach. There are two common problems among

the three sites. First, all management committees pay much attention to the cultural and

spiritual values of all people in order to attract visitors. The cultural and spiritual values of

indigenous or local people appear not to be given much importance in site management.

Second, the notion of cultural and spiritual values included in the management plans is

quite general without the use of classification and according management planning. In

order to better protect the full spectrum of cultural and spiritual values of three sites, the

role of indigenous or local people has to be further emphasized.This study recommends

the integration of a value typology for cultural and spiritual values in site management as

well as the application of the biocultural approach in their implementation.

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Table of Content

1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 5

Problem definition ...................................................................................................................................... 5

Objective and Research question .......................................................................................................... 7

Introductions of the research sites ........................................................................................................ 8

2. Theoretical Framework ......................................................................................................................... 9

Cultural and spiritual values .................................................................................................................... 9

Biocultural diversity and Biocultural approach .............................................................................. 11

Conceptual framework .......................................................................................................................... 12

3. Research methodology ..................................................................................................................... 13

4. Data collection ..................................................................................................................................... 13

5. Results ..................................................................................................................................................... 15

General situation and management of three WHSs .................................................................... 15

The Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic value ....................................................................................... 16

The Recreational and therapeutic value .......................................................................................... 18

The Artistic, traditional and contemporary value .......................................................................... 19

The Information, knowledge and educational value ................................................................... 21

The Historical, ethnological value ...................................................................................................... 23

The Linguistic traditions, both written and oral value ................................................................. 26

The Religious and spiritual value ........................................................................................................ 27

The role of cultural and spiritual values ........................................................................................... 32

Analysis based on eight principles of biocultural approach ...................................................... 33

6. Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................. 36

7. Discussion .............................................................................................................................................. 37

The relations to other research ........................................................................................................... 37

Discussion of the theoretical framework and research methodology ................................... 39

References .................................................................................................................................................. 40

Appendix 1 ................................................................................................................................................. 44

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Outline of tables and figures

Figure 1 Locations of the research sites .............................................................................................. 7

Figure 2 Guizhou Snub-nosed Monkey .............................................................................................. 8

Table 1. One possible classification of values that make up the cultural and spiritual

significance of nature in protected and conserved areas. ......................................................... 10

Table 2. The coded values based on Table 1 (Verschuuren et al. in press).......................... 14

Table 3.1 The Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic value of three WHSs as well as relevant

governance and management ........................................................................................................................ 18

Table 3.2 The Recreational and therapeutic value of three WHSs as well as relevant

governance and management ............................................................................................................ 19

Table 3.3 The Artistic, traditional and contemporary value of three WHSs as well as

relevant governance and management ........................................................................................... 21

Table 3.4 The Information, knowledge and educational value of three WHSs as well as


Table 3.5 The Historical, ethnological value of three WHSs as well as relevant governance

and management .................................................................................................................................... 25

Table 3.6 The Linguistic traditions, both written and oral value of three WHSs as well as


Figure 3 Pilgrim Trackway of North Terrace, Mount Wutai ....................................................... 28

Figure 4 Pilgrim Trackway of South Terrace, Mount Wutai ....................................................... 28

Figure 5 Stone steps of Mount Taishan ........................................................................................... 29

Table 3.7 The Religious and spiritual value of three WHSs as well as relevant governance

and management .................................................................................................................................... 31

Table 4 The certain groups that influence the management plan of three sites ............... 33

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1. Introduction

Problem definition

After World War I, the idea of creating an international movement for protecting heritage

emerged. In 1972, The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

(UNESCO) developed the World Heritage Convention to bring such concept into official

existence. The Convention aims to protect the World Heritage sites (WHSs) that have

outstanding universal value and meet at least one out of ten selection criteria. Criteria (i)

– (vi) are cultural criteria and criteria (vii) – (x) are natural criteria (see Appendix 1).

According to the criteria they meet, WHSs are divided into three types: cultural, natural

and mixed properties (WHC, 2019a). Though the Convention claims that it “recognizes

the way in which people interact with nature, and the fundamental need to preserve the

balance between the two and introduce the cultural landscapes” (WHC, 2019b), This

framing has been influenced by the culture-nature dichotomy which developed in the

Western countries from the 17th century (Byrne et.al, 2013). Based on this ontological

model, culture is radically separate from nature, arising partly because of the human

desire to dominate nature (Pretty et.al, 2009). So, the sites are nominated for isolated

cultural or natural criteria without considering the interactions between culture and

nature. Even for the mixed properties, their cultural and natural aspects are assessed

completely separately (Lilley, 2013). Such dichotomy brings various conflicts to heritage

protection. For example, to build the protected area for Borobudur (inscribed on the

World Heritage List in 1991), at least 381 households who had lived there for centuries

were forced to resettled with minimal compensation and work opportunities. They also

lost access to the monuments of Borobodur, which they perceive as their heritage. Facing

financial and cultural abuse, it was no surprise that local people protest the governance

of Borobudur (Tanudirjo, 2013).

Nowadays, culture and nature increasingly come to be viewed as interconnected and

indivisible. Human societies have already interplayed with nature for thousands of

generations (Pretty, 2009). Nature is more than a series of physical attributes, it is actually

subjected to and impacted by culture. So, “bridging the divide” is required to create a

holistic way to global heritage protection (Verschuuren & Brown, 2018). Since 1992,

significant interactions between people and the natural environment have been

recognized as cultural landscapes (WHC, 2019). This new category of heritage under the

World Heritage Convention stemmed from the discussion of how to protect heritage with

various environments and cultures. The new category was intended to overcome evident

conceptual and practical difficulties with the culture-nature dichotomy recognized in the

original World Heritage Convention (Fowler, 2013). This new category was thought to

improve consideration of the non-material and indigenous cultures (Inaba, 1998, cited in

Jimura, 2007). Indigenous knowledge systems often contain detailed information about

diversity and environments (Gadgil et al., 1993; Drew & Henne, 2006). There is no doubt

that indigenous cultures can contribute to contemporary World Heritage protection.

“Cultural and spiritual values (CSV)” is an important part of indigenous culture which

require to be recognized and taken into consideration. With the development of this topic,

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CSV takes on broader meanings from mostly applied to indigenous people to including

local people. In some cases, CSV of certain sites or species is important enough for

indigenous or local people to give up economic benefits to conserve the ecosystems

containing them (Verschuuren, 2012). So, it is also a matter of social justice and human

rights to understand CSV of indigenous or local people and give them equal weight to

make decisions for the heritage that is meaningful for them. If their voices are ignored,

indigenous and local people, as well as WHSs, would suffer by the dominant Western

cultures while the conflicts would continue to emerge. The participation of indigenous or

local people has been emphasized and discussed by the World Heritage Convention

recently. In 2007, the World Heritage Committee recognized “the critical importance of

involving indigenous, traditional and local communities in the implementation of the

Convention” (Decisions 31 COM 13A, 2007). So, the committee adopted a “Strategic

Objective” to enhance the role of communities in the implementation of the World

Heritage Convention. In a 2011 Decision, the Committee also encouraged States Parties

to involve indigenous and local people in decision making, monitoring and evaluation of

the conservation of WHSs while respecting the rights of indigenous and local people. The

theme of the Convention’s 40th anniversary in 2012 is “World Heritage and Sustainable

Development: The Role of Local Communities”. However, the Convention’s Operational

Guidelines were entirely inadequate for the implement of participation of indigenous and

local people (Disko & Tugendhat, 2014). The World Heritage Convention still lacks a

framework to preserve the WHSs for the benefit of the world and its people (Verschuuren,

2016). In 2017, another step was made by indigenous delegates of the 41st session of the

UNESCO World Heritage Committee. They created The International Indigenous Peoples’

Forum on World Heritage (IIPFWH) as a standing global body aiming to engage with the

World Heritage Committee during its meetings.

Objective and Research question

Though the protection of indigenous and local people’s rights is increasingly talked about,

only if we understand CSV of indigenous or local people who are most familiar with the

sites can we make the most appropriate plan to protect heritage.

This thesis intends to explore the role of cultural and spiritual values of nature in three

WHSs inscribed respectively for natural, cultural and mixed properties. The aim is to help

understand the indivisible connection between culture and nature and their implications

for the management and governance of these sites. Fanjingshan (Natural property),

Mount Wutai (Cultural property) and Mount Taishan (Mixed property) are chosen as

examples. These three sites are all sacred mountain sites located in China (Figure 1),

enabling a comparison of the effects of the nomination under the different criteria.

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Figure 1. Locations of the research sites (Map data: 2019 Google, INEGI, ORION-ME)

It should be noted that because of the division between nature and culture, most

governments around the world make different policies for natural and cultural heritage

protection and implement them through various departments, administrative systems

and methods (Mallarach et.al, 2018), so is China. Based on the study of these three sites,

we can have some understanding of CSV in three sites. After the comparison, we can see

whether and how they play a role in governance and management. I conjecture that CSV

in cultural and mixed WHSs will be better integrated into governance and management

than in natural WHSs. So, the results might be used for the further governance and

management plan that natural WHSs should consider more about CSV and learn from

cultural and mixed WHSs. The research question and sub-questions are listed in the

following:

Research question:

1. What is the role of cultural and spiritual values of indigenous or local

people in three World Heritage sites inscribed respectively for natural,

cultural and mixed properties?

Sub-questions:

a) What are the cultural and spiritual values of indigenous or local

people in three sites?

b) How do cultural and spiritual values of indigenous or local people

influence the governance and management in three sites?

c) In respect of the role of cultural and spiritual values, what are the

similarities and differences between three sites?

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Introductions of the research sites

Fanjingshan located within the Wuling mountain range in southwest China. Fanjingshan

is a distinguished representative of a subtropical humid mountain ecosystem. Its relatively

independent living environment provides the most favorable conditions for the

reproduction of animals and the evolution of plants. There are 64 plant and 38 animal

species of Fanjingshan listed as Vulnerable, Endangered or Critically Endangered on the

IUCN Red List of species (requires a reference). The most notable one is the endangered

Guizhou Snub-nosed Monkey (Rhinopithecus brelichi, see Figure 2), which only

distributes in Fanjingshan. So, Fanjingshan is inscribed on the World Heritage List on the

basis of Criterion (x) (Decision: 42 COM 8B.6, 2018). Meanwhile, it is a sacred mountain

in Chinese Buddhism that attracts a large number of pilgrims. Local people even consider

Fanjingshan as the center for Buddhist Maitreya worship (Zhang, 2006; Jiang, 2013).

Figure 2 Guizhou Snub-nosed Monkey. Reprinted from Fanjingshan gallery, by

Chuandong Yang, 2015, Retrieved from whc.unesco.org/en/documents/165884.

Mount Wutai, which means “the five-terrace mountain”, locates in Shanxi province. It is

one of the four sacred Buddhist mountains in China that is seen as the global center for

Buddhist Manjusri worship. Mount Wutai reflects how religious belief and Chinese

philosophical thinking on the harmony between man and nature blend in the natural

landscape. The overall natural landscape illustrates the exceptional effect of imperial

patronage over one thousand years with the development of a religious temple

landscape, including buildings, statuary, paintings and steles. The survived religious

natural landscape and the tradition of pilgrimage to the Mount Wutai are still very much

alive. However, among the Criteria (ii) (iii) (iv) (vi) (vii) Mount Wutai nominated for,

Criterion (viii) is not met because Mount Wutai is of no exceptional significance for its

geological values (Advisory Body Evaluation of ICOMOS, 2009). So, Mount Wutai is

inscribed on the World Heritage List under cultural Criteria (ii) (iii) (iv) and (vi) (Decision:

33 COM 8B.7, 2009).

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Mount Taishan, located in Shandong province, is one of the most beautiful, sacred and

worshipful mountains in China. Mount Taishan has experienced complicated geological

and biological processes during a period of three billion years, contributing to a majestic

and gigantic mountain covered with dense vegetation. Mount Taishan is an important

cradle of oriental East Asian culture dating back to the Neolithic period and has been

worshipped throughout the last three millennia. Thousands of artistic monuments built

in different dynasties in Mount Taishan have witnessed the cultural and religious

development of human. Mountain Mount Taishan is a magnificent combination of a

beautiful natural landscape dominated by the cultural influences of long-time human use

(WHC, 2019c). It is the first mixed property worldwide under Criteria (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi)

and (vii) (Decision: CONF 005 VII.A, 1987).

2. Theoretical framework

Cultural and spiritual values

The phrase “cultural and spiritual values” can be seen as an output of the IUCN 2003

World Parks Congress. It is coined with specific reference to the values held by indigenous

and traditional people. So, “cultural and spiritual values” was the central part of the

IUCN’s work in recognizing “the role of, and engaging with, people in the governance

and management of protected and conserved areas”. Besides the emphasis on material

culture attributes of indigenous heritage like objectives or modified landscapes, CSV tries

to incorporate both material and non-material dimensions (Brown& Verschuuren, 2018).

CSV attributed to nature was highly context and culture-dependent and can change over

time. It was necessary to classify values clearly for further comparison and study. For this

purpose, this study made use of a CSV typology in protected and conserved areas, see

Table 1. The table came from the guidebook “Cultural and Spiritual Significance of Nature:

Guidance for its role in Protected and Conserved Area Governance”. It elaborated the

categories of CSV, which can be used to classify the values of different stakeholders. In

my thesis, I would identify the values as well as the relevant governance and management

of different stakeholders. According to the results, it was easy to recognize which kinds

of values were well understood and protected. Then, I would focus on the CSV of

indigenous or local people to see their role in the WHSs.

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Table 1. One possible classification of values that make up the cultural and spiritual

significance of nature in protected and conserved areas. (Verschuuren et al. in press).

Values Tangible and intangible attributes and qualities that convey those

values

Aesthetic-Perceptual

or Scenic

- Beauty, silence, tranquility, harmony

Recreational and

therapeutic

- Mental and physical well-being

Artistic, traditional

and contemporary

- Performing arts; music and dance

- Literature, poetry and prose

- Decorative arts

- Visual arts; landscape painting, installation and landscape

art, nature photography, movies and television show

etc.

Information,

knowledge and

educational

- Scientific knowledge

- Educational value

Historical,

ethnological

- Traditional knowledge, customs, law and governance

- Traditional practices and trades

- Festivals, fairs and historical events

- Gastronomy and food-cultures

Linguistic traditions,

both written and oral

- Languages or dialects

- Vocabulary related to nature; place names and their

etymologies

- Traditional folk-tales, legends, proverbs, epics and songs

Religious and spiritual - Natural elements considered holy, sacred, magical or

mythical (sacred natural sites and species);

- Built and living religious heritage set in a natural

environment

- Rituals, ceremonies and pilgrimages

Biocultural diversity and Biocultural approach

To better connect nature and culture, I also introduced the theory of biocultural diversity

and biocultural approach. Since the 1990s, the concept of “biocultural diversity” has been

emphasized to bridge the gap between nature and culture. The findings of the links

between biological and cultural diversity, including their global overlapping distributions

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and the common threats they face came from the thought-provoking phenomenon that

the continuous worldwide biodiversity loss is paralleled by the extinction of cultural

diversity, especially the linguistic diversity (Harmon& Maffi, 2002; Maffi, 2001). With the

efforts of a group of social scientists and conservationists, it became clear that diverse

cultural knowledge, beliefs, practices and languages threatened by the socio-economic

and political processes. The survival of indigenous and local cultures as well as the

environment they depend was in peril, let along the integrity of them (Maffi, 2005). The

loss of biocultural diversity has long-term implications since we lose the opportunity to

explore the potential use of extinct species for future use as well as the traditional

ecological knowledge and management systems originated from other cultures that may

enlighten future conservation (Muller, 2004; Zhang, 2004; Rudd et al., 2003; Pretty et.al,

2009). So, it was necessary to bring all these elements together and to protect the

diversity of life in all its form. The biocultural diversity includes biological diversity at all

its levels from genes to ecosystems as well as cultural diversity in all its manifestations

ranging from individual ideas to entire cultures. More importantly, there are interactions

among all of these (Loh& Harmon, 2005). In general, according to Maffi (2010), the central

tenet of biocultural diversity was that “the diversity of life is diversity in both nature and

culture and that the two diversities are co-evolved and interdependent”.

Biocultural diversity has significant implications for conservation practice and policy-

making. Based on the reorganization of biocultural diversity, the biocultural approach

takes both biological and cultural aspects into account to conserve the certain sites with

local knowledge, practices, and ontologies (Caillon et.al, 2017). Through the biocultural

approach, conservation discourse and policies increasingly promote the active and

effective participation of Indigenous and local people (Maffi, 2010). Davidson-Hunt et al.

(2012) pointed out that enhancing the participation and capabilities of indigenous and

local people could promote innovation and co-evolution of biocultural diversity. Also, in

a time of global change, the protection of WHSs based on biocultural approach should

pursue more interactional and inclusive approaches according to not only local but also

national and international contexts (Apgar, 2017). According to Gavin et. al (2015), there

are eight principles of biocultural approaches to conservation:

1. Acknowledge multiple objectives and stakeholders in conservation;

2. Emphasize intergenerational planning and institutions for long-term adaptive

governance;

3. Dynamic cultures shape resource use and conservation;

4. Tailored interventions to the specific social-ecological context;

5. Create diverse and nested institutional frameworks;

6. Nurture partnership and relationship;

7. Incorporate the diverse rights and responsibilities of all parties;

8. Respect and combine different worldviews and knowledge.

Though the principles also left room for other stakeholders, I mainly focused on the

indigenous and local people in my thesis. Based on the data I collected, I could verify

whether these principles are followed in the protection of three sites. Then, I would

compare the governance and management of three sites to see which heritage

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emphasized more on CSV of indigenous or local people.

Conceptual framework

The biocultural approach was used to guide the analysis of conservation of a certain site,

reminding decisionmakers and governance actors of the importance of both biological

and cultural aspects. So, indigenous or local people were stimulated to participate in

conservation. The CSV typology could further help to analyze which kind of values were

most important, which values already have been included in the plan and which values

still needed more attention. The results could be used to make specific plans to study and

protect certain values that were less emphasized. Otherwise, if the protection of CSV was

too general, the CSV typology and principles of biocultural approaches were useful to

deepen the understanding and management of CSV.

The principle “1. Acknowledge multiple objectives and stakeholders in conservation”

could relate to each type of CSV, the multiple objectives could be the protection of any

tangible or intangible attributes and qualities that convey the CSV.

The principle “2. Emphasize intergenerational planning and institutions for long-term

adaptive governance” more connected to traditional knowledge, customs, law and

governance of Historical, ethnological value. The traditional customs, law and governance

of indigenous or local people were possibly included in the planning and governance.

The principle “3. Dynamic cultures shape resource use and conservation” referred to each

value because CSV closely connected to natural resource no matter for recreation, study,

make a living or other use.

The principle “4. Tailored interventions to the specific social-ecological context” generally

protect the rights of indigenous or local people depending on specific situations.

The principle “5. Create diverse and nested institutional frameworks” more related to

traditional knowledge, customs, law and governance of Historical, ethnological value. The

traditional institutions, traditional forms of organization might be adapted to the modern

institutional frameworks, involving indigenous or local people into management systems.

The principle “6. Nurture partnership and relationship” and principle “7. Incorporate the

diverse rights and responsibilities of all parties” generally protected the CSV and

promoted the participation of indigenous or local people.

The principle “8. Respect and combine different worldviews and knowledge” was

concerned more to Artistic, traditional and contemporary; Historical, ethnological;

Linguistic traditions; Religious and spiritual values. These values showed the special

worldviews and knowledge created by indigenous or local people in different forms.

The principles 4, 6, 7 did not directly relate to certain values. They were more like the

basis for other principles, while the principles 1, 2, 3, 5 could be used immediately to

protect certain value.

3. Research methodology

This qualitative research offers a comparative case study, mainly using the method of

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documents analysis. As mentioned before, all three sites are mountain sites in China but

inscribed for different types of heritage. With relatively similar mountainous features and

political conditions, it was possible to compare these three sites. After analyzing them

separately, I identified similarities and differences between the three cases and discussed

possible reasons behind.

Comparing to other methods in a qualitative study trying to collect the raw data,

document analysis relied more on the description and interpretation of existing data. It

was an efficient and effective way to gather data because many documents were in the

public domain (Bowen, 2009), especially in the field of the WHSs.

The iterative process of document analysis consisted of content analysis and thematic

analysis. Content analysis was the process of organizing data into categories related to

the research questions (Bowen, 2009). Thematic analysis was a process involves focused

re-reading and review of the data to recognize pattern based on emerging categories

(Fereday &Muir-Cochrane, 2006). In this thesis, I focused on the CSV of local people in

three WHSs. Since I decided to use Table 1 as categories, I organized data based on Table

1 during the content analysis. Meanwhile, I was objective and sensitive to identify whether

there were some other values. Then in the process of thematic analysis, I checked the

categories and explored the patterns of CSV. The back-and-forth interaction with the

data continued throughout the study.

4. Data collection

The data was mainly collected from the official website of UNESCO, including the

nomination, decision, evaluation, management and other documents of three sites. Since

Fanjingshan, Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan were inscribed as WHS in 2018, 2009 and

1987 respectively, the relevant of Mount Taishan was much less and behind the times

than other two sites. I also searched for other articles relevant to the three sites, especially

management plans and other grey literature from websites of three sites and Chinese

WHSs, like the “Regulations on the protection and administration of Mount Taishan scenic

area” (2018) from the website of The Management Committee of Scenic Spots and

Historic Sites of Taishan. Other relevant literature was an important resource as well.

The data analysis has mainly focused on the category of CSV (Table 1). I focused on the

way of coding. The values of Table 1 were coded from 1-7 as initial top-level codes.

Tangible and intangible attributes and qualities of each value could be seen as sub-codes.

Sub-codes were coded as well start from a to x. For example, Value 3 Artistic, traditional

and contemporary had four attributes and qualities, which can be coded from 3a to 3d

(See Table 2). Then, I went through all the resources I collect and marked CSV of local

people at each site with codes. According to what emerged from the data, no codes had

to be changed and no new codes were developed. After reviewing all the documents, the

CSV of each site and relevant governance and management were synthesized and

concluded. A short description of each value was listed in the Table. Finally, I compared

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the results of CSV as well as governance and management between three sites, discussing

the possible reason.

Table 2. The coded values based on Table 1 (Verschuuren et al. in press).

Values Tangible and intangible attributes and qualities that convey those

values

1.Aesthetic-

Perceptual or Scenic

- 1a. Beauty, silence, tranquility, harmony

2.Recreational and

therapeutic

- 2a. Mental and physical well-being

3.Artistic, traditional

and contemporary

- 3a. Performing arts; music and dance

- 3b. Literature, poetry and prose

- 3c. Decorative arts

- 3d. Visual arts; landscape painting, installation and

landscape art, nature photography, movies and

television show etc.

4.Information,

knowledge and

educational

- 4a. Scientific knowledge

- 4b. Educational value

5.Historical,

ethnological

- 5a. Traditional knowledge, customs, law and governance

- 5b. Traditional practices and trades

- 5c. Festivals, fairs and historical events

- 5d. Gastronomy and food-cultures

6.Linguistic traditions,


- 6a. Languages or dialects

- 6b. Vocabulary related to nature; place names and their

etymologies

- 6c. Traditional folk-tales, legends, proverbs, epics and

songs

7.Religious and

spiritual

- 7a. Natural elements considered holy, sacred, magical or

mythical (sacred natural sites and species);

- 7b. Built and living religious heritage set in a natural

environment

- 7c. Rituals, ceremonies and pilgrimages

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5. Results

I first introduce the general situation and management of three sites. Then, the

differences between each type of values and managements between three sites are

discussed separately. Finally, I make an analysis of management based on the biocultural

approach principles.

General situation and management of three WHSs

Fanjingshan was once seen as a barren wasteland where the indigenous people and

migrants were referred to as barbarians by the Central Dynasties of China. However,

Fanjingshan was the sacred mountain for residents all the time. It was the spreading of

Buddhism from the Song Dynasty through which Fanjingshan gradually attracted the

attention of the Central Dynasties. The natural WHS, Fanjingshan currently focuses on the

development of ecotourism. From 2014 to 2019, the main goal is protecting abundant

forest resources and natural ecological environment of Fanjingshan according to the

Master Plan of Ecotourism Development of Guizhou Fanjingshan National Nature Reserve

from 2014 to 2023 submitted to UNESCO. Meanwhile, multi-dimensional publicity and

educational system would be formed. The goal between 2020-2023 is promoting the

coordinated, sustainable development of nature, society and economy to create a

"Fanjingshan" as a model of ecotourism. It should be noted that the folk culture of

minorities is one of the emphases in the Master Plan. The property is managed by a multi-

level from the national to the local level government system. Otherwise, a co-operative

system involving various sectors of the government, technical institutions, research

institutions and local communities has been created. (Ministry of Housing and Urban-

Rural Development People’s Republic of China, 2016a; 2016b; 2016c; 2018)

Mount Wutai has fostered the world Buddhist Manjusri worship center for over 1600 years

based on the special landscape with cold climate. Mount Wutai is also a testimony to the

extinct Chinese royal religious civilization lead by emperors. It displays a unique and

dynamic cultural landscape. The Conservation and Management Plan for the Nominated

WHS of Mount Wutai from 2005 to 2025 aims at the restoration of the visual landscapes

and the overall environment of the Core Zone. The Ministry of Construction takes the

overall responsibility for the management of Mount Wutai. While several different

agencies of Shanxi Province directly participate in management. Otherwise, each

registered temple had an administrative/ management committee (People’s Government

of the Mount Wutai National Park, 2007). The Religion and Heritage Administration

Bureau of Mount Wutai National Park supervise religious activity inside the Park. The

Bureau subordinate to the Shanxi Provincial Administration of Religious Affairs which is

responsible to protect the rights of religious groups. The Mount Wutai Buddhist

association is a civil group consisted of representatives from the Temples. It works as a

bridge between the administrative agencies and devotees (Advisory Body Evaluation of

ICOMOS, 2009). As for the involvement of local people, the Master Plan of the Mount

Wutai National Park from 2005 to 2025 emphasized multi-stakeholder cooperation and

community coordination.

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Mount Taishan is a mixed WHS where cultural values were enhanced by the natural

setting, and the natural setting enables the expression of cultural values. It is a famous

Chinese sacred mountain, "a partial miniature of Chinese culture" like the scholar Guo Moruo

said. The Master plan of Mount Taishan scenic area from 2016 to 2035 (2016) focuses

more on strengthening monitoring, building a data platform and beautifying the

environment. The present administrative organization is the Management Committee of

Scenic Spots and Historic Sites of Taishan. The representatives of the National World

Heritage Office, the Bureau of Cultural Relics and Religions, the Bureau of Hygiene and

Environmental Protection, and other functional departments, administrative units also

play a role in the management (Decision 36COM 8E, 2012). Based on The Master plan of

Mount Taishan scenic area from 2016 to 2035 (2016), the Regulations on the protection

and administration of Mount Taishan scenic area (2018), there is no emphasis on multi-

stakeholder cooperation and local involvement. According to the research of Meng and

Jiao (2009) and Xiang (2009), local people are at the bottom of the heritage stakeholder

hierarchy. They shared little benefits comparing to the government and enterprises while

having very limited ways to involve in the plan and management of Mount Taishan.

Otherwise, to preserve the integrity and authenticity of properties, three sites have many

similarities between their management plans, for example, the restoration of vegetation,

relocation of residents inside the property, removal of the improper building and the

exclusion of mining. The visitors’ numbers and their behavior are also strictly controlled.

The carrying capacity of Fanjingshan, Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan are 8000, 10000

and 30000 visitors per day respectively.

In the next part, I mainly extracted each type of value and management from the

documents of UNESCO. The references about Fanjingshan mainly included Executive

Summary of Mount Wutai (2007), World Heritage Nomination Natural Heritage: China

Fanjingshan (2016a), World Heritage Nomination Natural Heritage: China Fanjingshan

Atlas (2016b), World Heritage Nomination Natural Heritage: China Fanjingshan

Management Plan (2016c), Supplementary Information to the World Natural Heritage

Nominated property: Fanjingshan (2018) and Advisory Body Evaluation of IUCN on

Fanjingshan (2018). The Reference about Mount Wutai mainly included The Nomination

file of Mount Wutai (2007), Advisory Body Evaluation of ICOMOS on Mount Wutai (2009),

Advisory Body Evaluation of IUCN on Mount Wutai (2009) and Decision: 33 COM 8B.7

(2009). The reference about Mount Taishan mainly included Advisory Body Evaluation of

ICOMOS on Mount Taishan (1987), Advisory Body Evaluation of IUCN on Mount Taishan

(1987), Periodic Reporting Cycle 1, Section II of Mount Taishan (2003) and Document 36

COM 8E - Adoption of retrospective Statements of Outstanding Universal Value (2012).

The contents from other resources were cited as usual.

The Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic value

Fanjingshan:

1a: Fanjingshan is distinguished by its typical subtropical mountain forest ecosystem and

numerous landscapes like peculiar peaks, pristine rivers, thick forest and stunning

17

wildflower. The variable meteorological phenomena like rainbows, cloud seas make

Fanjingshan even more attractive and mysterious. The stark seasonal contrasts also

contribute to the beauty of Fanjingshan. Every season, visitors can enjoy different scenery.

Meanwhile, the geological features, favorable climatic conditions combine with little

disturbance by human activities has made extremely rich biodiversity in Fanjingshan.

According to the nomination document, 7,161 species of wild animals and plants have

been recorded in the property. Based on the Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic value of

Fanjingshan, more trails and viewing platforms will be built to let visitors enjoy the beauty

of Fanjingshan. Since the quick development of tourism brings some pressures to the

aesthetic value presentation, the monitoring system will be used to study the tourists’

preference for the future plan to optimize tourists’ time, spatial distribution. Otherwise,

Fanjingshan’s beauty can also be presented to the public vividly by creative photography,

painting and specimen exhibitions of flora and fauna etc., which is connected to Artistic,

traditional and contemporary value- Visual arts (3d).

Mount Wutai

1a: The Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic value of nature in Moutain Wutai is closely related

to temples. In other words, the Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic value in Mount Wutai is

inseparable from Religious and spiritual value- Built and living religious heritage set in a

natural environment (7b). Its buildings are a record of Buddhist temples and are

harmonious with the surrounding landscape both visually and religiously. The high peaks,

snow cover, thick forests of pines, firs, poplar and willow trees and lush grassland of

Mount Wutai are attractive but usual. It is the temples make it unique. The management

of Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic value of Mount Wutai can be seen as the protection of

whole property, so I do not discuss it here.

Mount Taishan

1a: Mount Taishan has experienced nearly 3 billion years of natural evolution, it is formed

through complicated geological and biological processes that resulted in a gigantic rock

mass covered with dense vegetation. Thousands of years’ human use contributed to a

beautiful landscape dominated by humans, but there are substantial areas free of both

historic and modern features such as the Rear Rocky Basin. Mount Taishan is tall and

huge, so the climate changes apparently at the different elevation. Some well-known

natural sights scenery depends on the specific weather or season, like the sunrise, “golden

shining from the sky” and “icy cave in midsummer”. Some ancient trees also have

memorable meanings. In general, the beauty of Mount Taishan comprises the

characteristics of magnificence, seclusion and elegance. According to the Master plan,

Management Committee tries to construct a beautiful, special and balanced ecosystem

through natural and artificial restoration for Mount Taishan. While ancient trees are

registered and protect especially.

All three mountain sites have great Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic value because of their

natural environment and geological landscapes. Since they were WHSs, the management

all focuses on the protection and minimize the negative effect of keeping beauty. The

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management pattern of this value is different between Fanjingshan and the other two

mountains. Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan are distinctive because of the landscape

that showing the harmony between human and nature. In order to experience the best

Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic value of two mountains, natural elements and cultural

elements are inseparable. While for Fanjingshan, the best Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic

value comes from the natural landscape. Though the management might be similar to

three sites. The principle of management is different. Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan

focus on the harmony between natural elements and cultural elements. Fanjingshan aims

to keep the natural landscape as original as possible.

Table 3.1 The Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic value of three WHSs as well as relevant

governance and management

Values Fanjingshan (Natural) Mount Wutai (Cultural) Mount Taishan (Mixed)

1. Aesthetic-Perceptual

or Scenic

1a: Diverse mountain/

water/ forest/ climate

landscapes, geological

features and landforms;

Meteorological

phenomena; Seasonal

contrasts; Numerous

unique species

1a: Buddhist temples with

the surrounding

Landscape

1a: Diverse geological

landscapes; gigantic rock

mass covered with dense

vegetation; Meteorological

phenomena; Ancient trees

Management 1a: More trails and

viewing platforms; More

professional interpreters;

Optimize tourists’ time,

spatial distribution; Hold

creative photography,

painting, specimen

exhibitions-linked to 3d

1a: General protection 1a: Construct a beautiful,

special and balanced

ecosystem through natural

and artificial restoration;

Register and protect ancient

trees

The Recreational and therapeutic value Fanjingshan:

2a: Fanjingshan aims to develop the“Fanjingshan” model of ecotourism, which is suitable

for people who want to get close to nature. Abundant forest resources are appropriate

for forest bathing, hiking, camping and biking, while outdoor barbecues, cave expeditions

or mountaineering expeditions are not allowed. In the ecotourism zone, visitor tour

processes are monitored to study the satisfaction and duration of people’s stay. The

Monitoring system also helps to prompt and warn visitors.

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Mount Wutai:

2a: As a Buddhist sacred mountain, hiking is the only form of recreation mentioned in the

management plan. The relevant management is designing routes.

Mount Taishan:

2a: The situation of Mount Taishan is similar to Mount Wutai. However, Mount Taishan is

the easternmost mountain in China, so most Chinese people have a Mount Taishan

complex that they want to climb Mount Taishan, especially climbing to see the sunrise.

The magnificent sunrise also linked to The Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic value (1a). The

annual International Mountain Tai Climbing Festival started from 1987 is one of the most

important festivals in Mount Taishan (Jia, 2010), attracting a great number of visitors and

mountaineering enthusiasts.

Considering the Outstanding Universal Value of WHSs, the first principle of management

is protection. So, some recreation like hiking might be limited to a certain area and some

area might be closed when necessary. In general, the Recreational and therapeutic value

of all WHSs is to some extent limited. Relative to cultural and mixed heritages, natural

heritages often have more resource and activities for recreation and therapy, but the

activities have to be strictly managed. So, the patterns of Fanjingshan is different from

the other two mountains.

Table 3.2 The Recreational and therapeutic value of three WHSs as well as relevant

governance and management


2.Recreational and

therapeutic

2a: Ecotourism; Forest

bathing; Hiking; Outdoor

sports (biking)

2a: Hiking 2a: Climbing (Mount

Taishan complex, climbing

to see the sunrise)

Management 2a: Design walking route;

Monitor visitors’ behavior,

satisfaction and duration

of stay

2a: Design routes 2a: Organize annual

International Mountain Tai

Climbing Festival

The Artistic, traditional and contemporary value Fanjingshan:

3a: Fanjingshan area has its own tea culture which gave birth to the special song, dance

and performances of the Tang Dynasty (Xiao, 2018). The performances show scenes of

life that relate to picking tea-leaves. It has been listed as Provincial intangible cultural

heritage (The fifth representative of intangible cultural heritage in Guizhou province,

2019). The relevant management plan for this intangible heritage has not been found.

3c: Many different minorities have lived in Fanjingshan area since ancient time. The

custom and batik of Tujia, customs, silver jewellery and batik of Miao are famous all over

China. The decorative themes of their customs, jewellery are often plants and animals. As

20

many visitors are interested in folk culture, Tuanlong Folk Village of Tujia people is

developed to display the life of Tujia people including their customs, handiworks.

3d: The natural beauty of Fanjingshan attracts various photographers. For example, the

sea of azalea flowers is one of the most popular scenic sites. In this scenic site, the specific

photography site is going to be built. The Fanjingshan management organizations also

plan to provide an interactive platform to professional photographers, organize photo

shows and invite camera crew. Through such methods, Fanjingshan can become more

famous.

Mount Wutai

3b: Mount Wutai has been a classical subject of Chinese writers and historians since the

Tang Dynasty. Some Buddhist masters from India and Japan also write articles related to

Mount Wutai. Some historical records, travel notes, poetry and prose are published since

the Ming Dynasty.

3d: The beauty of the Wutai landscape with its temples has inspired many artists since ancient

time. In the Dunhuang Grottoes, there is a large landscape painting of Mount Wutai. It is

almost a detailed map of all the temples in their verdant surroundings. In addition, since 1990,

some documentaries have been made to propagandize Mount Wutai.

Mount Taishan

3b: Mount Taishan has been the inspiring resource for philosophers, writers and poets for a

long time. The traditional Chinese culture of Mount Taishan is so abundant that the status of

it is the highest among Chinese mountains.

3c: The folk crafts of Mount Taishan closely related to the religion, like phoenix robe and

embroidered shoes are the offerings to the goddess of Mount Taishan (Cui, 1989).

3d: Inspired by Mount Taishan, a model of mountain painting was raised in the Northern Song

Dynasty (BC 960-1127). The conceptual model of a mountain includes the traces of man,

graceful structures bridges, gateways or pavilions while contrasting with somber pine forests

or frightening rocky cliffs. It has influenced generations of landscape painters. The

documentary and TV show of Mount Taishan are also diverse.

All three sites have impressive traditional Artistic, traditional and contemporary value. With

technological development, modern visual arts like photography and film become

increasingly important for the three sites. The indigenous Artistic, traditional and

contemporary value of Fanjingshan is emphasized as well. However, the management of

traditional Artistic, traditional and contemporary value of three sites is less or even not

mentioned in the management plan. So, the only difference of this pattern between

Fanjingshan and other two mountains are the emphasis of indigenous Artistic, traditional and

contemporary value.

21

Table 3.3 The Artistic, traditional and contemporary value of three WHSs as well as

relevant governance and management


3. Artistic, traditional and

contemporary

3a: Song, dance and

performance of tea culture

3c: Tujia customs and

batik; Miao customs, silver

jewellery and batik

3d: Photographs and films

of the sea of azalea

flowers; Documentary and

TV shows

3b: Historical records,

travel notes, poetry and

prose since the Tang

Dynasty; Writings by

visiting Buddhist masters

from India and Japan

3d: A large landscape

painting of nearly whole

Mount Wutai in the

Dunhuang

Grottoes; Documentary

and TV shows

3b: Literature works of

famous Chinese artists and

scholars like Confucius,

Libai, Dufu, etc

3c: Folk crafts like

phoenix robe and

embroidered shoes

3d: The landscape painting

of depicting mountainous

landscapes; Documentary

and TV shows

Management 3c: Develop Tuanlong Folk

Village of Tujia people to

display customs,

handiworks of minority

3d: Provide photography

sites and interactive

platform to the

professional

photographer; Organize

photo shows and related

activities; Invite camera

crew to shoot

The Information, knowledge and educational value

Fanjingshan

4a: Typical subtropical mountain forest ecosystem, special geographical conditions and

great biological diversity of Fanjingshan is valuable for the scientific research. Fanjingshan

management institutions attach great importance to research. A series of projects are

carried out mainly contain regular basic research or special investigation of background

resources, long-term monitoring, application research on protection and management.

For further study, they plan to strengthen and enlarge the research team, establish and

improve the scientific mechanism of Fanjingshan. The cooperation with universities and

scientific institutes at home and abroad is also significant. Moreover, Panxi rare wildlife

ecological park is planning to be built as the wildlife protection and research center.

4b: Besides the exploration of new scientific knowledge, Fanjingshan management

institutions also have a detailed plan for education. They plan to build an ecological

popular science education center to introduce the scientific value of Fanjingshan. After

22

understanding the overview of Fanjingshan in education canter, visitors can choose

special trips to explore more about nature. The signs and interpretations of science

popularization education are also set in particular areas. Since the audio interpretation

on cable cars is the main way of interpretation for a long time, professional interpreters

will be trained to help visitors. As for local people, community education programs have

been compiled in the education center. Meanwhile, giving out handouts, calendars or

other awareness and publicity materials about natural protection content is

supplemented to guide residents to protect the environment spontaneously. Especially,

education for students could be more specific by cooperating with the educational

department.

Mount Wutai

4a: May experts and scholars both home and abroad have been making study tours to

Mount Wutai to research the geology, physiognomy, biological resources over the years.

The protection and management of Mount Wutai have been actively supported by

different scientific research institutions. The current goal of scientific research is

strengthening monitoring to collect and record data at different stages.

4b: Mount Wutai has long been a base of the field of geology, geomorphology and

biology research for universities and institutes. So, it is a great place to investigate for

students majoring in geology. The interpretation and education are not only about

natural elements but also closely connected to Buddhist culture. Mount Wutai has 8

themes in interpretation and education like typical ancient plantation surfaces and

cultural landscape. Otherwise, basic geology summer camps for primary and middle

school students in neighbouring areas are organized.

Mount Taishan

4a: Special geotectonic location, long geological evolution history and typical geological

remains of Mount Taishan are attractive for geologist home and abroad. For example, it

has been selected by the 30th International Geological Conference (IGC) and the 15th

International Mineral Assembly (IMA) as one of the after-meeting fields for investigation. It is

also a popular site for scholars specialized in palaeontology to visit and have field studies.

Mount Taishan management committee is now working on the establishment of a

monitoring system.

4b: Mount Taishan administration has cooperated with some internal geological, forestry

and agricultural universities to build teaching and research base. They also plan to set up

a Mount Taishan museums for presentation and education. The publicity through various

media is emphasized to improve the awareness of local people and visitors, especially the

Mount Taishan conservation day of June 9. The management committee also encourages

related education in schools.

All three sites pay much attention to the information, knowledge and educational value,

especially the Fanjingshan. It might because the Fanjingshan is during the early stage of

planning, so Fanjingshan management institutions have more work to do to develop

research and education of Fanjingshan like designing the education center. The pattern

23

of the Information, knowledge and educational value is different between Fanjingshan

and Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan. Fanjingshan has greater biological diversity and

unique species, so it has to pay much more attention to certain research and education.

Table 3.4 The Information, knowledge and educational value of three WHSs as well as



4. Information,

knowledge and

educational

4a/b: Original, special

ecosystem; Great

biological diversity; Typical

geographical conditions;

Specific species

4a/b: Great geology,

physiognomy, biological

resources

4a/b: Special geotectonic

location, long geological

evolution history, typical

geological remains;

paleontological resources

Management 4a: Strengthen and

enlarge the research team;

establish and improve

scientific mechanism

Multiple scientific projects

including long-term

monitoring, application

research etc.; Coordinate

with different scientific

research institutions; Plan

research region

4b: Delivery handouts;

Presentation and training;

Build museums,

education center; Species

information signs

4a: Coordinate with

different scientific

research institutions;

Study tours conducted by

experts and scholars both

home and abroad;

Strengthen monitoring

4b: Remained as a base of

the field of geology,

geomorphology and

biology research for

universities and institutes

since the 1930’s; Organize

Summer Camp for

primary and middle

school students

4a: Strengthen monitoring;

Attract geologists and

palaeontologist home and

abroad

4b: Cooperate with some

internal geological, forestry

and agricultural universities

to set up research base;

Build museums; Publicity

through various media;

Encourage related

education in schools

The Historical, ethnological value

Fanjingshan

5a: The property, its buffer zone and surrounding areas are mainly inhabited by ten or

more ethnic minorities including Tujia, Miao, Dong. In general, they are kindhearted,

believing in practiced animism and worship of ghosts, so they traditionally protect the

environment and sustainably use resource. Miao and Tujia people who live in surrounding

areas particularly cherish natural forests that they have formulated “village regulations

and folk laws” to protect forests. The well-preserved primary vegetation in the

Fanjingshan is closely bound up with the environmental cognition and cultural beliefs of

indigenous people. Nowadays, indigenous people are encouraged to participate in the

planning and management of Fanjingshan. The China Man and Biosphere committee

have organized various studies of this valuable ethnobotanical knowledge. Their

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traditional practices of environment and natural resources protection have been

preserved.

5b: Traditional mode of production of indigenous people have been maintained for a

thousand years and wood has been used as main materials for their building. Now

traditional farming, planting activities of indigenous people are permitted in the

community protection zone. Tourists can enjoy the residential landscape of indigenous

people and experience the process of producing tea in Tuanlong Folk Village.

5d: Tujia people have the custom of making glutinous rice cakes and drinking tea. The

Chinese herbal dietary therapy of indigenous people is also attractive. In Tuanlong Folk

Village, visitors can try the indigenous food.

Mount Wutai

5b: The surroundings of the temples have been traditionally managed as farmland. The

farmers make a strong contribution to the management of surrounding areas for

provisions for monks and residents.

5b: Now, the Management committees adjust the development of agriculture within the

appropriate area and guide the farmers to develop special ecological agriculture with

high science and technology content. The focus is shifted from production to protection.

Mount Taishan

5b: Traditionally, habitats made a living mainly by farming, supplementing by collecting,

hunting, husbandry and so on. Since Taishan has been the sacred mountain from ancient

time, the tertiary industry has developed for a long time (Cui, 1989).

5d: The water, Chinese cabbage, tofu, pancake of Mount Taishan is special and famous

all over China. Also, Mount Taishan area has a long history of brewing liquor. The liquor

made of Mount Taishan water is of great quality (Cui, 1989).

It is clear that the patterns of the three sites are different. Fanjingshan and Mount Wutai

pay more attention to the Historical, ethnological value. While for Mount Taishan, the

Historical, ethnological value might not important enough to be managed.

25

Table 3.5 The Historical, ethnological value of three WHSs as well as relevant governance

and management


5.Historical, ethnological 5a: The indigenous people

including Tujia, Miao,

Dong are kindhearted and

believe in practiced

animism and worship of

ghosts; village regulations

and folk laws; Indigenous

people continue

traditional environment

protection and sustainably

use resource

5b: Traditional mode of

production; Use wood as

main building materials

5d: Chinese herbal dietary

therapy; The custom of

making glutinous rice

cakes and drinking tea of

Tujia people

5b: The surroundings to

the temples have been

traditionally managed as

farmland for provisions

for monks and residents

5b: Traditionally, habitats

made a living mainly by

farming, supplementing by

collecting, hunting,

husbandry and the tertiary

industry

5d: The water, Chinese

cabbage, tofu, pancake of

Mount Taishan is special

and famous; Mount Taishan

has a long history of

brewing liquor

Management 5a: Encourage indigenous

people to participate in

conservation; Study

ethnobotanical

knowledge; Traditional

practices of indigenous

people have been

preserved

5b: Traditional farming,

planting activities are

permitted in the

community protection

zone; Tourists can

experience the process of

producing tea in Tuanlong

Folk Village

5d: Display Chinese herbal

dietary therapy, provide

tea in Tuanlong Folk

Village

5b: Adjust the

development of

agriculture within the

appropriate area; Guide

the farmers to develop

special ecological

agriculture

26

The Linguistic traditions, both written and oral value

Fanjingshan

6a: There are minority languages of indigenous people in the Fanjingshan area.

6b: Tea is of special meaning for people who live in the Tongren area (where Fanjingshan

located). More than 50 areas were named after tea in Fanjingshan region (Xiao, 2018).

6c: Because of the popularity of tea culture, there are many wide-spread folk-tales about

tea in Tongren (Xiao, 2018). Diverse legends of Buddha and celestial beings originated

from specific scenic spots are also popular.

Mount Wutai

6c: As a Buddhist sacred mountain, the legends of Mount Wutai mainly relate to

Buddhism. For example, there is a legend says that Mount Wutai is once a mountain with

a harsh climate, thanks to the help of Manjusri, the climate of Mount Wutai becomes

suitable.

Mount Taishan

6b: The god of Mount Taishan as the god of death is popular locally, so many local areas

are named after death.

6c: The folk literature of Mount Taishan is abundant, including folk-tales and legends of

celestial beings, anecdotes of famous people and proverbs of Mount Taishan. For

example, there is a famous Chinese story of Confucius in “the book of rites”, a collection

of texts. One day, Confucius passed by Mount Taishan and he found a woman weeping

at the grave. The woman’s families were killed by tigers in succession, but she did not

want to move because there is no tyranny in this place. Confucius educated his students

that tyranny was crueler than a tiger.

The pattern of Fanjingshan is different because of the indigenous culture. It is the only

site mainly lived by indigenous people, so there are minority languages in Fanjingshan

property. The long history of three sites all brings about abundant traditional stories.

However, the Linguistic traditions, both written and oral value seems not closely relate to

the outstanding values of three sites. So, there is no emphasis on the management of the

Linguistic traditions, both written and oral value.

27

Table 3.6 The Linguistic traditions, both written and oral value of three WHSs as well as



6. Linguistic traditions,


6a: Minority languages of

indigenous people

6b: More than 50 areas

were named after tea in

Fanjingshan region

6c: Many wide-spread

folk-tales about tea;

Legends of scenic spots

and buildings

6c: Buddhist legends

originated from

the natural scenery of

Mount Wutai

6b: Many areas were named

after death as the god of

Mount Taishan is the god of

death

6c: Folk-tales and legends

of celestial beings;

Anecdotes of famous

people; Proverbs of Mount

Taishan

Management

The Religious and spiritual value

Fanjingshan

7a: Fanjingshan has been the sacred mountain since ancient time for residents. “Sleeping

Buddha” consists of mountains is one of the most famous sceneries of Fanjingshan.

“Fengshui” greatly affect the indigenous people, most minorities define and protect

“Fengshui” forests to ensure a healthy environment and good luck. So, some oldest trees

of Cinnamomum and conifers are revered in such Fengshui forests. They also believe that

wild animals are the good spirits of the mountain, so they protect and respect wild

animals. The indigenous people in the property area are well aware of the co-existence

relationship between natural resource and human (Xing and Ma, 2004). The Buddhism

principles like “All living things are equal” are consistent with indigenous cultural beliefs.

So indigenous people tend to protect nature spontaneously (Zhang, 2014). The

management committee tries to make use of the positive effect of indigenous culture

and Buddhist culture to encourage indigenous people to involve in conservation.

7b: During the 17th and 18th centuries there were 5 Royal Temples and 48 Ordinary

Temples in Fanjingshan. Some temples and ruins have remained until now. Recently years,

management committee works on the repair and reconstruction of old temples. A

detailed study of the temple ruins in Fanjingshan is also going to be made on the premise

of authenticity.

7c: Besides international religious festivals of Buddhism like lunar June 19, there are some

local religious festivals related to nature like lunar February 1. The Zen tea culture derived

from Buddhism culture has remained in the temples. Zen tea ceremony is a great part of

Fanjingshan Buddhism. Visitors are permitted to partake in pilgrimage and related

activities on religious festivals. Zen tea ceremony will be developed as a high-quality

tourism project. So, a tea room will be built on the platform near the cliff.

28

Mount Wutai

7a: Mount Wutai is one of the four sacred Buddhist Mountains of China. It is identified as

the dwelling place of Manjusri by Dharani Sutra. The remarkable natural shape with

precipitous sides and five open rounded treeless peaks is closely connected to Buddhist

beliefs that top five peaks of Mount Wutai symbolizing the “Five Wisdoms” of Manjusri.

Many aspects of its landscapes around the five peaks have been deified sacred for

Buddhism as well. Another important characteristic is the fairly low temperature, which

meets the requirement for “a cool world” of the Buddhist sutras. Management committee

plans to change the road and roadside buffer zones and increase local vegetation cover

to keep the sacredness.

7b: Temples were constructed in Mount Wutai from 1st century AD, 53 monasteries

remained as well as other buildings like pagodas. As the global center for Buddhist

Manjusri worship, some temples also reflect ideas from Nepal and Mongolia. The

landscape and building ensemble of Mount Wutai as a whole become sacred. So, the

improper buildings are removed to keep the harmony between human and nature. Every

temple with the environment inside is protected by a sole committee.

7c: From the Northern Wei period (471-499), 9 emperors made 18 pilgrimages to pay

tribute to the bodhisattvas. The tradition of pilgrimage to the five peaks started by the

emperors is still alive. There are two types of pilgrimage: the grand Buddhist ritual of

Dachaotai (Big Pilgrimage) and Xiaochaotai (Small Pilgrimage). As a center of pilgrimage,

Mount Wutai is important for Han, Mongolian and Tibetan adherents. Management

committee tries to recover the important historical landscapes on the way along the

pilgrimage route and maintain the routes as original as possible (see Figure 3&4).

Otherwise, the management of pilgrimage during the period of religious ritual is

strengthened.

Figure 3&4 Pilgrim Trackway of North Terrace, Mount Wutai & Pilgrim Trackway of South

Terrace, Mount Wutai. By Shanxi Ancient Building Protection and Research Institute, 2007

Mount Taishan

7a: Mount Taishan is the spiritual home of the Chinese Nation consists of complex

religions. First, it is a place of worship for a faithful official cult called “the King equal to

Heaven" and the “Holy Emperor”. Second, the worship of God of Mount Taishan and the

29

Princess of the Azure Clouds play an important role for local people. Third, Mount Taishan

is the sacred mountain for national religion Taoists, Confucians. Fourth, it is also sacred

for Buddhists. So, Mount Taishan can be seen as the symbol of the Chinese nation. Other

less systematic worship like Mount Taishan Shigandang (Worship of Yaishan stone) is also

popular all over China. It even influences Japan, Vietnam and other countries (Cui, 1989;

Zhang, 2017). The whole Mount Taishan as a sacred place, the management focus more

on ecological restoration.

7b: Mount Taishan has extremely rich cultural heritage. There are 22 temples, 97 ruins,

819 stone tablets, 1018 stone inscriptions, 6660 steps between heaven and earth (see

Figure 5). The buildings are in harmony with the specific environment. All buildings are

strictly protected while the improper building is gonging to be removed.

7c: “Fengshan” sacrifice (The ceremony in homage to Heaven and Earth carried out by

emperors) shows the lost civilizations of imperial China. Multiple festivals of different

religions also attract many followers and visitors. The “fengshan” sacrifice area and

buildings along the route are under the key protection.

Figure 5 Stone steps of Mount Taishan. By Charlie Fong, 2008，Retrieved from

https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=5327850

30

According to the resource I find, the Religious and spiritual value is the most important

one among 7 values. All three sites are sacred mountains of great importance. Even for

natural heritage Fanjingshan, the Religious and spiritual value is emphasized. The pattern

of the Religious and spiritual value is similar among three sites. The Religious and spiritual

value has deeply twisted with the mountain itself. Since the whole mountains of three

sites are considered as sacred, the management of such value is actually the management

of the whole mountain.

31

Table 3.7 The Religious and spiritual value of three WHSs as well as relevant governance

and management


7. Religious and

spiritual

7a: “Sleeping Buddha”

consists of mountains;

“Fengshui” forests;

Worship for Mountain

Spirits and totems of

fauna and flora

7b: During the 17th and

18th centuries there

were 5 Royal Temples and

48 Ordinary Temples in

Fanjingshan, some

temples and ruins remain

7c: International religious

festivals like lunar June 19;

Local religious festivals

like lunar February 1; Zen

tea ceremony

7a: Top Five Peaks of Mount Wutai

symbolizing the “Five Wisdoms” of

Manjusri; Mount Wutai with fairly

low temperature meets the

requirement for “a cool world” of

the Buddhist sutras which is

regarded as the dwelling place of

Manjusri

7b: Temples were constructed in

Mount Wutai from 1st century AD,

53 monasteries remained as well

as other buildings like pagodas

7c: The grand Buddhist ritual of

Dachaotai (Big Pilgrimage) and

Xiaochaotai (Small Pilgrimage); As

a center of pilgrimage, Mount

Wutai is important for Han,

Mongolian and Tibetan adherents

7a: The mountain is a place

of worship for a faithful

official cult called “the King

equal to Heaven" and the

“Holy Emperor”; Worship of

God of Mount Tai and the

Princess of the Azure

Clouds; The sacred

mountain for Taoists,

Buddhists and Confucians;

the symbol of Chinese

Nation; Mount Taishan

Shigandang (Worship of

Yaishan stone)

7b: There are 22 temples, 97

ruins, 819 stone tablets,

1018 stone inscriptions,

6660 steps between heaven

and earth; the buildings are

in harmony with the specific

environment

7c: Fengshan sacrifice (The

ceremony in homage to

Heaven and Earth carried

out by emperors); Religious

festivals

Management 7a: Make use of the

the positive effect of

folklore culture and

Buddhist culture

7b: Repair and reconstruct

old temples; Make a

detailed study of the

temple ruins

7c: Visitors are permitted

to partake in pilgrimage

and related activities;

Build a tea room

7a: Change the road and roadside

buffer zones; Increase local

vegetation cover

7b: Relocate improper buildings

like hotels; Conserve, maintain

temples and environment inside

7c: Recovery the important

historical landscapes on the way;

Maintain the routes as original as

possible; Strengthen management

during the period of religious

ritual

7a: Ecological restoration

7b: Protect historical relics

and buildings; Remove

improper buildings

7c: Protect “fengshan”

sacrifice area and buildings

along the route

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The role of cultural and spiritual values

Though the three sites all have seven types of cultural and spiritual values, some types of

values are not included in the management plan. To understand the role of cultural and

spiritual values of indigenous or local people, seven types of values can be divided into

three sites in this research. First, the values of all people, whether they are indigenous

people, local people or outside people, these values are more or less the same for all

people. The first set includes 1. Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic, 2. Recreational and

therapeutic and 4. Information, knowledge and educational values. Second, the values of

indigenous or local people only, including 5. Historical, ethnological and 6. Linguistic

traditions, both written and oral values. The third set is uncertain values, including 3.

Artistic, traditional and contemporary and 7. Religious and spiritual values. They can be

either side or the combination of two sides. For example, a place with 7. Religious and

spiritual value can relate to either Buddhism or indigenous worship or the combination

of Buddhism and indigenous worship. According to this division, the first set- values of

all people make a difference in the management plan in three sites. For 6. Linguistic

traditions, both written and oral values, though each site has indigenous or local

attributes, no one influences the management. As for 5. Historical, ethnological value,

Fanjingshan has indigenous attributes which a difference in the management of

Fanjingshan. Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan have local attributes, but only the

management of Mount Wutai is influenced. Under 3. Artistic, traditional and

contemporary value, the indigenous attributes of Fanjingshan are included in the

management plan of Fanjingshan, but local attributes of three sites all make no difference.

Under 7. Religious and spiritual value, the value of all people and indigenous people

influence the management plan of Fanjingshan. The value of all people and local people

influence the management plan of Mount Taishan. The management plan of Mount

Wutai only affected by the value of all people. The results are listed in Table 4.

33

Table 4 The certain groups that influence the management plan of three sites

The management

plan of Fanjingshan

The management

plan of Mount Wutai

The management

plan of Mount

Taishan

1.Aesthetic-

Perceptual or Scenic

All people All people All people

2.Recreational and

therapeutic


3.Artistic, traditional

and contemporary

Indigenous people no no

4.Information,

knowledge and

educational


5.Historical,

ethnological

Indigenous people Local people no

6.Linguistic traditions,


no no no

7.Religious and

spiritual

All people

Indigenous people

All people All people

Local people

Analysis based on eight principles of the biocultural approach

After identifying the cultural and spiritual values in management, I use eight principles of

biocultural approaches of Gavin et. al (2015) to analyze the management of three sites:

1. Acknowledge multiple objectives and stakeholders in conservation.

According to the documents, the Master Plan of Fanjingshan and Mount Wutai

emphasizes multi-stakeholder cooperation. The Management plan of Fanjingshan

especially mentions the involvement of indigenous people from inscription to

management. Indigenous people are consulted to set their objectives. The objectives like

keeping the traditional lifestyle and improving the livelihood are satisfied. However, the

article of Wang et.al (2013) shows the problem of relocation program in Mount Wutai

area. According to the “The Master plan of Mount Wutai scenic area from 2006 to 2025”

(2006), six villages should move to the new community built for them in tourism service

base. Meanwhile, they could get the compensations and job opportunities offered by the

management committee of Mount Wutai. But, after the inscription of Mount Wutai, the

relocation program is less emphasized, so the relocation meets the problem lacking fund.

The villagers did not really move to the new community. They can only rent houses near

their original villages to live. The community involvement of Mountain Wutai is also

34

limited (Xiao and Wu, 2008). The research of Meng and Jiao (2009) and Xiang (2009) also

shows the predicament of local people that they share little in benefits derived from

World Heritage sites. There are limited ways for local people to get involved in the

planning and management of Mount Taishan.

2. Emphasize intergenerational planning and institutions for long-term adaptive

governance.

In Fanjingshan, village rules created by local residents make a great difference in protecting

the local ecosystem and environment. The management plan aims to improve the village

regulations and give full play to their role. Otherwise, the indigenous residents are organized

to participate in the nominated property’s protection. The Nomination Text (2016b) also

mentioned the long Buddhism Culture influences the belief systems of indigenous people,

ensuring folk groups to conserve nature in everyday life. Therefore, a more complete top-

down protection management system for heritage is built in Fanjingshan. In Mount Wutai,

very little involvement of local communities is mentioned apart from firefighting, but the

Community Regulation from Nomination file (2007) shows the principles of community

coordination. For example, the principle that the community shall take the responsibility

of monitoring and managing the environmental condition. So, there is the potential of

indigenous people to affect the intergenerational planning and long-term governance in

future for Mount Wutai. As for Mount Taishan, there is no relevant information about this

principle according to the data I found.

3. Dynamic cultures shape resource use and conservation.

Only Fanjingshan meets the situation of dynamic cultures. The management plan allows

traditional farming, planting activities. However, hunting, grazing, logging, harvesting,

fishing, mining (quarrying, sand-excavating), groundwater extraction and dam

constructing are prohibited.

4. Tailored interventions to the specific social-ecological context;

Based on the nomination document of Fanjingshan, all residents including indigenous

people lived in the property area are consulted. All residents agree for the inscription of

Fanjingshan. Indigenous people worry about whether their customs will be prohibited.

They get the promise that they can keep farming, planting and having custom festivals in

a certain area. Most counties inside the property are poor counties. They are promised

to locate to places suitable for living and be offered free training opportunities. The

relocation is voluntarily and compensated. The information on Mount Wutai and Mount

Taishan is not enough.

5. Create diverse and nested institutional frameworks;

For Fanjingshan, the property is managed by a multi-level (national to the local)

government system. Meanwhile, a co-operative system involving various sectors of the

government, technical institutions, research institutions and local communities has been

created. For Mount Wutai, the Ministry of Construction takes the overall responsibility for

the management of Mount Wutai. While several different agencies of Shanxi Province

35

directly participate in management. The Mount Wutai Buddhist association, a civil group

consisted of representatives from the temples, works as a bridge between the

administrative agencies and devotees. The Master Plan of Mount Wutai National Park

(from 2005 to 2025) emphasized multi-stakeholder cooperation and community

coordination. The present administrative organization of Mount Taishan is The

Management Committee of Scenic Spots and Historic Sites of Taishan. Other functional

departments and administrative units also take part in the management. In all three sites,

besides the government, other stakeholders are not directly involved in governance.

6. Nurture partnership and relationship;

Related to principle 5, in Fanjingshan and Mount Wutai, it is possible to nurture

partnership and relationship.

7. Incorporate the diverse rights and responsibilities of all parties;

The Management plan of Fanjingshan shows the rights of indigenous people that they

are aware of the nomination of Fanjingshan and their reasonable request could be

satisfied. So, indigenous people are allowed to keep their customs, traditional farming

and planting activities. Meanwhile, the management committee aims to improve the

social protection consciousness and the sense of responsibility, organize the voluntary

indigenous residents to participate in the protection and monitoring of field burning and

the illegal collection of plants and hunting. For Mount Wutai, the Community Regulation

from Nomination file (2007) lists the principles of community coordination. First, the

principle of resource and environmental protection that the community shall be

responsible for monitoring and managing the environmental condition. Second, the

community should benefit in terms of economy, environment and education. Third, there

should be a balanced share of rights, responsibilities and benefits. The Community

Regulation shows the intention to incorporate the right and responsibility of the

community. However, the relocation problem (Wang et.al, 2013) and low community

involvement of Mount Wutai (Xiao and Wu, 2008) I mentioned in the principle 1 reveals

that the implementation of Community Regulation is inadequate. The rights of the local

community are not respected. The Management Plan of Mount Taishan has no

information about the rights and responsibilities of different parties. The research of

Meng and Jiao (2009) and Xiang (2009) also shows that local community share little

benefits and it is hard for them to get involved in the plan and management of Mount

Taishan. The management committee does not recognize the right of the local

community.

8. Respect and combine different worldviews and knowledge.

As I discussed above, in Fanjingshan, Buddhism culture and indigenous culture of nature

are consistent with each other. In Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan, local people mainly

influenced by Chinese mainstream culture, especially in Mount Taishan. The Chinese

mainstream culture of Daoism and Confucianism recognize the value of nature. Referring

to the attitudes towards nature, Daoism emphasizes the harmony between human and

nature. Confucianism claims that human should be benevolent to nature. So, Chinese

36

people have an inherent tendency to protect nature. So, in Mount Wutai and Mount

Taishan, the worldviews and knowledge of Chinese mainstream culture and Buddhism

are also consistent with each other. So, respecting and combining different worldviews

and knowledge is not a problem for three sites.

In general, though the management of Fanjingshan only clearly relate to Historical,

ethnological value of indigenous people, it basically follows the eight principles of

biocultural approaches, ensuring the participation of indigenous people. However, for

Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan, the involvement of indigenous or local people in the

management insufficiently meets the criteria of the biocultural approach. The

management of Mount Wutai express the intention of local community coordination, but

a definite plan is absent. The relocation problem even reveals the disrespect of the local

community. The management of Mount Taishan nearly mentions nothing about local

community involvement.

6. Conclusion

Refer to the main research question: What is the role of cultural and spiritual values of

indigenous or local people in three World Heritage sites inscribed respectively for natural,

cultural and mixed properties?

Three WHSs all emphasized the cultural and spiritual values of nature that they take

natural and cultural elements into the account to make the management plan. However,

the management committee mainly concerned about the CSV of all people, the role of

CSV of indigenous or local people is not given specific importance.

The similarity is that the 1. Aesthetic-Perceptual or Scenic, 2. Recreational and therapeutic,

4. Information, knowledge and educational and 7. Religious and spiritual values of all

people are important for three sites. While 6. Linguistic traditions, both written and oral

value of indigenous or local people has no influence on the management of all three sites.

The differences are: For Fanjianshan, 3. Artistic, traditional and contemporary, 5. Historical,

ethnological and 7. Religious and spiritual values of indigenous people make a difference

in the management plan.

For Mount Wutai, 5. Historical, ethnological value of local people play a role in the

management plan.

For Mount Taishan, 7. Religious and spiritual value of local people influences the

management plan.

Contrary to my conjecture, the management plan of natural heritage Fanjingshan are

most concerned with CSV through biocultural approach, then cultural heritage Mount

Wutai and then mixed heritage Mount Taishan. The design of these two management

plans lacks community involvement which warrants a serious problem. The management

committee of Mount Taishan does not treat the local community as stakeholders. There

are two potential reasons behind the different importance of the three sites. First,

Fanjingshan, Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan were inscribed as WHS in 2018, 2009 and

37

1987 respectively. Maybe with increasing awareness of biocultural diversity and the WHC

focus on community involvement, aspects that testify of the biocultural approach were

more easily adopted in the more recent nominations. Second, Fanjingshan is mainly lived

by indigenous people. Comparing to local people, the protection of indigenous people

might be prioritized.

Though the management plans of three sites all seem to pay much attention to the CSV

of nature. There are several problems with the role of CSV of indigenous or local people.

First, the management plans mainly consider the CSV of all people. Especially in Mount

Wutai and Mount Taishan, the CSV of local people are not emphasized. Local people

nearly have no way to involve in the management. It might because CSV of all people is

easy to understand and accept. Second, the CSV included in the management is quite

general without the classification. Only Historical, ethnological value of indigenous people

in Fanjingshan is clearly emphasized in the management through the biocultural

approach. Probably because the attributes of Historical, ethnological value of indigenous

people, especially traditional knowledge, customs, law and governance is easy to be

implemented in the management. Other types of CSV have not connected to the basic

rights of indigenous or local people yet. The management of them is only a small part of

whole management and they are mainly managed for tourism rather than the protection

of themselves. So, it is impossible to have a detailed understanding and protection plan

of a certain type of values. Third, the involvement of local people in the management of

Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan insufficiently meets the criteria of the biocultural

approach. It distinctly shows that the role of CSV of local people is not important in the

management of Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan.

7. Discussion

The relations to other research

Globally, the studies of CSV of nature are increasing quickly (Programme des Nations

Unies pour l'environnement, 1999; Verschuuren & Brown, 2018). In China, such studies

are lacking, but community involvement has been emphasized in World Heritage

conservation recently and this acts a san example to China too. Scholars mainly focus on

the development of World Heritage tourism (Wang et.al, 2008; Zhang, 2010; Su, 2012)

through community involvement. It is consistent with the phenomenon that the

management committees mainly consider the CSV of all people to attract visitors. When

we mainly focus on the interests of prestige, tourism profits and economic development

that World Heritage sites can bring, the economic and political interests might override

all other concerns, including human rights principles and even conservation

considerations. This phenomenon runs contrary to the original intention of the World

Heritage Convention. However, it is a common problem among many States Parties to

the Convention, including many of those serving as Members of the World Heritage

Committee (Disko & Tugendhat, 2014).

My thesis could be used as an example of how to explore the CSV of world heritage in

38

detail. Based on the results I found, different World Heritage sites have different

stakeholders and management plans. In Fanjingshan, indigenous people’s rights play a

role in the management. While in Mount Wutai, Buddhist’s rights have been considered.

Though the three sites are all mountain sites located in China, they are quite different.

Considering Fanjingshan is the only site that covers the territory of indigenous people,

further comparative research can be done between World Heritage sites that all have

indigenous people. Also, there is a great difference between the inscription time of three

sites. It seems that the later the site is inscribed as WHS, the more it concerns about

biocultural diversity in management. Choosing the World Heritage sites inscribed in the

same year could help to understand the level of concern of CSV in a certain year.

Otherwise, it is possible to compare the period documents of a particular site to see the

development of the management of CSV.

The current management of Fanjingshan is a great start for the involvement of indigenous

people. The concern of CSV of indigenous people should be extended to the full

spectrum, then strengthening the collaboration of government and indigenous people

to combine them into a future management plan appropriately. The research of Mount

Wutai and Mount Taishan shows that there is a severe shortage of community

involvement in these two sites. The relocation problem in Mount Wutai and little benefits

for the local community of Mount Taishan both reveal that the management committee

does not respect local community enough. Such disrespect of local community is a

shortcoming that leads to increasing disparities between stakeholders needs and

management application. The disparities will, in turn, reduce the possibility of

implementing a biocultural approach. So, it is necessary to better understand the needs

of local people and adapt the management to take them into account. The current

management systems of Mount Wutai and Mount Taishan has implemented for years led

by governments. Most importantly, governments have to train and support local people

strongly and independently express their rights and needs through education and

sensitization. Access to information for local people also has to be improved. After

increasing the motivation of local community involvement, the comprehensive

assessment and consultation of CSV are necessary to understand the realities and

objectives of local people. Based on such objectives, better management plan and

mechanisms could be created following the criteria of biocultural approach.

It should be noted that with the increasing awareness of CSV in the World Heritage

Convention, nomination itself is an important opportunity for tentative properties to

resolve the problems refer to indigenous or/and local people. The evaluators will

undertake dialogue with State Parties to resolve on-going conflicts and unresolved issues

indigenous or/and local people (Larsen et.al, 2014). Now, indigenous or/and local people

possibly to be involved in the WHS management at the very beginning. Some CSV of

them even possibly be recognized as part of the outstanding universal value of the site

(Olenasha, 2014).

39

Discussion of theoretical framework and research methodology

Documents analysis is a great way to create an overview of the cultural and spiritual values

of WHSs and their related management activities. The CSV typology helps to identify the

different values, which is better for further study and management. The eight principles

of biocultural approaches of Gavin et. al (2015) is a useful tool to analyze whether the

management takes into account both natural and cultural elements. However, documents

analysis can only work well as the first step to understanding value-based management.

The interviews and surveys are needed to further verify the implementation of

management.

40

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Appendix 1. The Criteria for WHSs Selection

(i)

to represent a masterpiece of human creative genius;

(ii)

to exhibit an important interchange of human values, over a span of time or within a

cultural area of the world, on developments in architecture or technology, monumental

arts, town-planning or landscape design;

(iii)

to bear a unique or at least exceptional testimony to a cultural tradition or to a civilization

which is living or which has disappeared;

(iv)

to be an outstanding example of a type of building, architectural or technological

ensemble or landscape which illustrates (a) significant stage(s) in human history;

(v)

to be an outstanding example of a traditional human settlement, land-use, or sea-use

which is representative of a culture (or cultures), or human interaction with the

environment especially when it has become vulnerable under the impact of irreversible

change;

(vi)

to be directly or tangibly associated with events or living traditions, with ideas, or with

beliefs, with artistic and literary works of outstanding universal significance. (The

Committee considers that this criterion should preferably be used in conjunction with

other criteria);

(vii)

to contain superlative natural phenomena or areas of exceptional natural beauty and

aesthetic importance;

(viii)

to be outstanding examples representing major stages of earth's history, including the

record of life, significant on-going geological processes in the development of landforms,

or significant geomorphic or physiographic features;

(ix)

to be outstanding examples representing significant on-going ecological and biological

processes in the evolution and development of terrestrial, fresh water, coastal and marine

ecosystems and communities of plants and animals;

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(x)

to contain the most important and significant natural habitats for in-situ conservation of

biological diversity, including those containing threatened species of outstanding

universal value from the point of view of science or conservation.

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