The Crusadesmyfreedomlibrary.com/images/book/America_Chap2.pdf · the Far East. ˚e old overland...

Chapter 2 The Discovery of a New World 19

CHAPTER TWO

The Discovery of a New World

PRELUDE TO DISCOVERY

THE DISCOVERY of America may have seemed to be an incidental event that occurred during a time when great expansion by Europeans and other coun-tries was already taking place, but that incidental discovery changed the world forever by in�uencing nations around the globe. Because of the many brave men who risked their lives and fortunes, we are able to call America home. As this chapter is studied, a number of these courageous explorers will be introduced and discussed.

�e three great motivations that prompted the discovery and explo-ration of America are summarized in the phrase “Gold, Glory and God.” Gold indicates that many came for riches hoping to become wealthy. Glory de�nes the desire for fame as well as fortune. A desire to please God drew forth many of the explorers and settlers who were seeking a new place to live and worship according to the desires of their hearts and minds; they risked everything in the belief that it was what God wanted them to do. Simply put, they wanted the space

to worship God according to his plan. Few enjoyed the fortune or the fame they sought during their life-time. Only through history did glory �nd them.

It began hundreds of years ago with the arrival of Christopher Columbus. Columbus’ life was dedicated to what he felt was a “heavenly inspired mission to �nd a western route to the far-east coun-tries.”1 Columbus’ journey came as a result of others whose heroic e�orts made a measurable di�erence to the future of man. Many changes had taken place in

Europe by 1492 to make Columbus’ timing ideal for the discovery of the “New World.”

When European explorers began to settle the New World, some brought with them a form of dicta-torial government, which for this present study will be known as “Ruler’s Law.” As we study the history of America, we will discover the introduction of “People’s Law,” which was brought to this land by the English, whose inspiration and motivation for freedom came from their Anglo-Saxon roots. Since this study requires the student to be familiar with these terms, an expla-nation of “People’s Law”—the Founder’s formula for a successful

When the Crusaders returned with beautiful items like jewelry, fabrics, spices and other fascinating goods,

desire for trade increased.

The

Cru

sade

s


government of the people—is found in the Appendix. It is suggested at this juncture that the readers of this book turn to Appendix I and familiarize themselves with “Learning to �ink Like America’s Founders, �e Search for the Balanced Center.”

EUROPEAN CHANGES BRING ABOUT EXPLORATION

The Crusades (A.D. 1000–1300)During the Middle Ages (A.D. 500–1500) Europe was primarily dominated by the Roman Catholic Church. �e church encouraged kings and noblemen of Europe to lead crusades (holy wars) to drive the Muslims out of their conquered land in the Middle East. �e cru-saders’ goal was to reclaim the Holy Land and return it to its Christian inhabitants. �ese “holy wars” were not successful in driving out the Muslims, but they did bring about renewed interest in trade with the East—or the Orient, as the Europeans called Asia. When the crusaders returned with beautiful items such as jewelry, fabrics, spices and other fascinating goods, desire for trade increased. A new social class devel-oped from this desire for trade.

Before the Crusades, most of the people in Europe belonged to either the wealthy upper class of kings and noblemen or the poorer class of peasants and servants. As a result of the renewed trade interest, the middle class arose. �is new class was considered neither rich nor poor and consisted of merchants and traders. �is middle class would play an important role in the development of America.

Marco Polo (c. 1254–c. 1324)Marco Polo, the son of an Italian merchant, accompanied his father and uncle on a trip to China during the time the Crusades were taking place. Polo became one of the �rst Europeans to

travel the length of Asia, spending nearly twenty years in the service of the great Kublai Khan [kū' blī kän']. In 1295, Marco Polo wrote the book Travels about his experiences and adventures through-out the great cities of the Orient, with their vast wealth, and strange products. Polo’s writings gave birth to a new European interest in Asia and the opportunity for Europeans to engage in trade.

Renaissance�e early 1300s ushered in the Renaissance (rebirth) period. In many ways this period helped to set the stage for the discovery of the New World. As this rebirth spread throughout Europe, the motivation for travel and exploration increased. �e Renaissance brought about a revival of learning, beginning in Italy and spreading throughout Europe. Interest in classical

Marco Polo

22 America, Land of Principles and Promises • America’s History From Discovery to Reconstruction

literature reignited, and scienti�c ideas of ancient Greece and Rome regained the world’s attention. While great music and art came to life, curiosity about the world around them encouraged many Europeans to expand and explore the unknown.

Johann Gutenberg [gōō ten·bĕrk] (1400?–1468)In Germany around 1440, Johann Gutenberg was responsible for introducing perhaps the most impor-tant invention in history: the movable-type printing press. �e �rst book Gutenberg printed on his press was the book considered by many as the most impor-tant and in�uential book ever written—the Bible. Now books of all subjects could be printed in great quantities, and common people were eventually able to obtain their own Bible and other written materials.

�e availability of inexpensive books created an opportunity for learning among a greater public, and literacy spread throughout Europe. Moveable-type printing did more than any other invention to bring Europe out of the Dark Ages and into the Modern Age. For that reason, many scholars feel this is the greatest invention of all time.

Protestant ReformationOne more major series of events would take place to open the way for the colonization of America: the Protestant Reformation. The Reformation was a religious movement in the 1500s that included Martin Luther (1483-1546), a German Catholic priest. Luther challenged many practices of the Catholic Church, believing it had become too worldly, greedy and indulgent. In protest, Luther wrote the “Ninety-five Theses” and is said to have nailed them to the door of his local church in Wittenberg. Others believed as he did and followed in his footsteps. The thought of religious freedom was new and exciting to many. The newly invented printing press helped Luther and other reformers to spread their ideas widely.

EXPLORATION BEGINS

Portugal Leads the World in ExplorationEuropeans wanted new, all-water trade routes to the Far East. �e old overland routes were danger-ous, slow and di�cult. �e Italians had laid claim to the routes between the East and West, and robbers made the routes very risky. �e need for better trade routes brought about another important movement during the Renaissance: the search for all-water trade routes, which would shorten travel time and provide a safer journey.

As a result of the increased interest in all-water trade routes, the science of navigation was greatly Painting showing Johann Gutenberg inspecting a press proof.

Early

Eur

opea

n Ex

plor

ers


improved. Prince Henry the Navigator of Portugal founded a navigator training school and sent several ships to explore the western coast of Africa. By 1488, Bartholomew Dias [dē´ sh] had sailed as far as the Cape of Good Hope, located at the southern tip of Africa. Shortly a�er that, in 1498, Vasco da Gama [d gă´ m ] became the �rst European to sail all the way around Africa to India.

Now there was an all-water route to the East, bring-ing greater trade between Europe and the Far East. In addition, sailing became easier due to the creation of more accurate maps and the development of advanced rudders to improve the steering of ships.

Two other important inventions during this age of sailing were the astrolabe [ăs'trō·lāb], an instrument used to �nd a star and to determine latitude, and the compass, used to determine direction.

Advances in navigation and the exploration of sailors like Dias and da Gama proved to be just what the Europeans needed. Trade had increased and the middle class expanded, bringing comfort and wealth to more people. Exploration of new waters was on the rise.

Check Ups 2/1VOCABULARYastrolabe, Crusades, middle class, Orient, Renaissance, Protestant Reformation

PEOPLE TO KNOWMarco Polo, Johann Gutenberg, Prince Henry the Navigator, Bartholomew Dias, Vasco da Gama, Martin Luther

Write answers in complete sentences. Be sure to answer all of the parts of each question.

1. What were the four major events that opened the way for exploration?

2. What was the goal of the Crusades?

3. Who laid claim to the trade routes between the East and West? What made the trade routes very risky?

4. What invention brought Europe out of the Dark Ages? What do many scholars feel about this invention?

5. How did the science of navigation encourage the exploration of unknown waters?

6. Why was having an all-water route to the Far East important?

7. Where did Martin Luther write his protest and what did he do with it?

An astrolabe


His son, Ferdinand, described an inci-dent that occurred to his father during his youth. Columbus was on a ship as a young sailor, returning from Flanders, when the ship engaged in battle with a foreign ship. �e two ships grappled and men crossed from boat to boat; the slaughter on both sides was without mercy. �e �ght lasted most of the day until the ships began to burn. To keep from being burned alive the survivors had to jump overboard, even though for many this meant certain death. An excellent swimmer, Columbus was able to swim to shore although land was more than two leagues away (equivalent of six miles). He found an oar �oating in the water, which, his son writes, “fate provided to pre-serve his father for greater things.”6

Years of PreparationColumbus made his home in Portugal and worked as a map maker. It was here that he prepared himself for what he felt was a divine calling to create a western route to the riches of the East. Columbus found many mariners at Lisbon, Portugal, “intelligent observing-who had explored all known seas. From them he heard about dri�wood and plants di�erent from any

DISCOVERY OF A NEW WORLD

Natural Ability for Maritime LifeCristoforo Colombo, as his name is written in Italian, or as we know him, Christopher Columbus, was born in the city of Genoa, Italy, about the year 1451. His father was Dominico Colombo, a weaver, and his mother was Susannah Fontanarossa. Columbus was the oldest of four children, with two brothers and one sister. At an early age he discovered his “natural incli-nation and ability �t for maritime life.”

Columbus’ education included reading, writing, grammar and arithmetic; he also learned Latin and was pro�cient in drawing and design. While still fairly young, he also studied geometry, geography, astron-omy and navigation at the University of Pavia. At the age of fourteen, he entered into nautical life.

People who knew Columbus described him as one who “…had blue eyes and a freckled fair complex-ion,”2 “…was thoughtful, studious, pensive; of a deeply religious nature; ever pondering the mystery of this, our sublime earthly being.”3 Columbus was further described as a young man of “strong natural genius.”4 “He appears to have been bold and adventurous; ready to �ght in any cause, and to seek quarrel wherever it might lawfully be found.”5

Christopher Columbus (1451-1506)

MORE OF THE STORYThe precise year of Columbus’ birth is unknown, although several dates have been suggested by various writers of history. At this time, scholars generally accept the date of 1451.


Gradually the idea seemed to have dawned and expanded in the mind of Columbus: there must be other vast realms on this globe not yet discov-ered by Europeans. Columbus became greatly excited as he examined the maps of those days. With pen in hand, he sketched the familiar shores and the little known coast of Africa. �en he

stopped; beyond the Azores was unknown and unex-plored water. “What is there?” he asked, “in that vast ocean, extending, limitless, to the west?”

Columbus knew the world was a sphere.9 He spent a great amount of time sailing in every direction of the known waters, stretching to see beyond the explored boundaries. However, the North and South American continents were unknown to Columbus and to the world at that time. Using the best information avail-able to him, Columbus charted a course to sail west to what he thought were the shores of Asia.

“�ese vast realms,” said Columbus, “are peopled with immortal beings. It is the mission which God has assigned to me to search them out.” �is explains his primary motivation, to take Christianity to the people of Asia. “�e wealth of the Indies is well-known. I shall �nd boundless riches there,” Columbus wrote.

vegetable growth known in Europe. Rude carvings had been picked from the waves, evidently cut by some primitive tools. And the strangest of all, two corpses had been washed upon the Azores shores, presenting an appearance very unlike any of the known races of Europe or Africa.”7

With this wealth, he thought that Christianity could be spread throughout the world.10

Time to Approach the KingMarco Polo’s travels to the Far East had spurred enough interest in distant travel and exploration that Columbus felt it was time to approach the king of Portugal with his idea of sailing west to reach the rich trade lands of Asia. �e king, however, referred Columbus to a board of “learned men” who disagreed with the possibilities of such a voyage.

Columbus wrote to Italian physician and well-known astronomer, Paolo Toscanelli, in hopes of support. Columbus received letters in return from Toscanelli supporting his desire to sail westward. According to Ferdinand, his son, Columbus was greatly encouraged in planning his voyage of discovery.

“�is is a noble country and ought to be explored by us on account of its great riches, and the quan-tity of gold, silver, and precious stones, which might be obtained there,”11 wrote Toscanelli, even though

�e Geographer, by Johannes Vermeer

MORE OF THE STORYRecent discoveries lead some historians to believe that as early as 1421 the Chinese sailed the world including the Atlantic Ocean, mapping their discoveries as they went. Is it possible that Columbus was aware of these maps, and even may have had access to them? This knowledge of the open seas may have encouraged his determined idea that he could reach the Orient by sailing west.8


he was not aware that an entire new continent lay between Europe and Asia. Toscanelli’s charts and maps, as complete as anyone had in those days, totally miscalculated the distance to the East Indies by thou-sands of miles.

Few Supported His Desire to Voyage WestColumbus discovered that few, if any, supported his desire for a voyage west. A�er he �rst approached the king of Portugal in 1482, where he was coldly received, King John II was su�ciently impressed by Columbus’s arguments and he sent a vessel secretly out into the Atlantic, but the sailors returned in a few days to report that there was nothing to Columbus’s crazy project. So when “God closed the eyes and ears and senses of the King,” Columbus shook the dust of Portugal from his feet and began an eight-year quest for support elsewhere.12

Since his wife had died and he no longer had any reason to stay in Portugal, he took his young son Diego and returned to Genoa, Italy. �ere he approached the government to give him aid in his voyage, but was once again criticized and turned down. Here he was looked upon as just the “weaver’s son” with no wealth or position or honor. He could not even obtain a respectful hearing.

Now in deep poverty, hope and inborn energies alone were le� to sustain Columbus. A�er going over many plans in his mind, he �nally decided to try his fortune in the court of Spain. Spain, however, was in the midst of a war with the Moors (Arabs) and they were not ready to commit themselves to such a venture.

As before, he was referred to a group of “learned men” who once again rejected his idea as impossible and sco�ed at him. His views were denounced, not only as impossible, but as against the scriptures. �e Bible stated that all inhabitants of this world were

descended from Adam. It was impossible, they rea-soned, that any of Adam’s descendants could have wandered so far from the center of Europe. Still, Columbus did not give up. Unable to obtain an audi-ence with the queen, he earned a frugal living by designing maps, charts and plans. He tried time and again to gain support among the recognized wise and learned men of the day. As the years lingered on and no support came, he �nally decided to send his brother Bartholomew to seek support from England.

Support from SpainFor seven years, Columbus spent time in the royal court of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain seeking the support he needed. Before leaving for

Queen Isabella of Spain. She had faith in Columbus and �nanced his voyage.


the court of France, he went to the monastery of La Rabida, Spain to pick up his son who had been resid-ing in and attending school at the monastery. It was at La Rabida that Columbus would �nally receive the support he needed, not only from the church, but also from a noble, learned man.

Prior Perez (who had been the Queen’s confessor) and his good friend Dr. Garcia Hernandez became fully convinced that the views of Columbus were ratio-nal, and merited the immediate and earnest attention of the Spanish court. A�er hearing Columbus out, Perez went to Queen Isabella, convincing her that she must listen to Columbus.

As Columbus began his journey to France, a messen-ger from Queen Isabella overtook him and asked him to

return to her court to discuss the adventure to the west. Columbus returned and presented himself to Queen Isabella. In respectful words, he said to the queen:

“I wish only for a few ships and a few sailors, to traverse between two and three thousand miles of the ocean to the west. I will thus point out to your majesty a new and short route to India that will reveal hitherto unknown nations, majestic in wealth and power. In return I ask that I may be appointed Viceroy over the realms I may discover, and that I shall receive one-tenth of the profits which may accrue.”13 Many people in court still did not believe Columbus’s theory and felt that he was greedy in asking for “title and tenths.” But Isabella believed him, and the voyage was finally sponsored by Spain.

�e four voyages of Christopher Columbus to the New World, 1492-1503.


First VoyageColumbus was sent to Palo, Spain, to purchase the necessary ships and supplies. He was also introduced to the Pinzon brothers who would be the captains of two of the ships. �e three ships, Nina, Pinta and Santa Maria, and crews totaling seventy men set sail in the early morning hours of August 3, 1492. �is would become the most momentous voyage ever recorded in the history of this world.

�e voyage was not an easy one for Columbus, his captains or the crews. Within days the men became fearful and were on the verge of mutiny. �e voyage seemed endless. As they sailed, the days passed without sight of land and the sailors feared the worst–that they may never return home.

Columbus was on deck, carefully watching

everything, until the last rays of the evening twilight had disappeared. And again, with the earliest dawn of the morning, he was at the bow of his ship, on watch. Signs would appear in the water such as a branch with berries, or land birds �ying above or landing on the ship. But the days passed without land being sighted.

�e signs did not pacify the crew’s fear. Once again they raised their voices against Columbus and wanted to turn back. On October 10, the other captains met with Columbus in his cabin and expressed their concern over being able to hold the men back from mutiny. Columbus asked for three more days, and the two captains agreed.

His journal does not re�ect what happened a�er the men le� his cabin, but Columbus knew they could not turn back as he felt they were so close to victory.

Columbus lands at what was to be known as San Salvador.


It seems he received some sort of reassurance of his destiny. In a journal entry he said that his name was now to be Christo-feren, meaning Christ bearer.14

Miracle at Sea; “Land! Land!”On the night of October 11, around 10:00 o’clock

at night, as Columbus was walking the deck, he sighted a light in the distance. �e light moved along the horizon and then turned and disappeared. Soon it appeared again, moving along and disappearing. Columbus called to others who came to the rail and, looking out across the water, saw the light. Excitement rushed through the ships as crew members watched in fascination. About two o’clock on the morning of October 12, 1492, a sailor named Roderigo de Traina, climbed to the crow’s nest on board the Pinta, and shouted, “Tierra, tierra!” (Land, land!). At daylight they dropped anchor on an island which Columbus named San Salvador [sān săl'v ·dôr] meaning “Holy Savior.” �ey had found land! Columbus and his men approached the land where Columbus immediately fell to his knees, kissed the sand and thanked God.

Return to SpainOn his way home, Columbus wrote an account of his voyage of discovery. �e letter was addressed to the treasurer of King Ferdinand. “Knowing the pleasure you will receive in hearing of the great victory which Our Lord has granted me in my voyage, I hasten to inform you, that a�er a passage of seventy-one days, I arrived at the Indies, with the �eet which the most illustrious King and Queen our sovereigns committed to my charge, where I discovered many islands inhab-ited by people without number, and of which I took possession for �eir Highnesses by proclamation with the royal banner displayed, no one o�ering any con-tradiction. �e �rst which I discovered, I named San Salvador, in commemoration of our Holy Savior, who has, in a wonderful manner, granted all our success.”15

On February 15, 1493, on his return voyage, Columbus was sailing just o� the Azores Islands. While on board the ship he was writing about his experiences when a great storm came upon them. He had to pull into port at Lisbon, Portugal where he said, “I escaped by the greatest miracle in the world.” He continued to write his letter saying, “I made the passage thither in seventy-one days, and back in forty-eight, during thirteen of which number I was driven about by storms. �e seamen here inform me that there was never known a winter in which so many ships were lost” (March 4th). 16

As he traveled from Portugal to Spain on his return journey, people wanted to see him and the natives or “Indians” that he had brought back. He was given a hero’s welcome and his return was the most excit-ing event ever to happen to these people. Even then, Columbus did not realize what he had done, that he

Christopher Columbus


actually had discovered a new world. Upon Columbus’s return to Barcelona (Spain), he was greeted as though he himself were royalty.

An Unfortunate End�ree times more Columbus returned to the islands which he called the “Indies,” or land of the East. Each time he carried more people, more ships and more goods. For a dozen years he labored to prove his faith that he had found the way to the treasure lands of the East, but he experienced only misfortune and dis-grace. Spain lost con�dence in him, jeered and called him “the Admiral of the Mosquitoes.”

In 1504 Columbus returned to Spain and found Isabella, his most faithful supporter, dying. Columbus discovered his friends, fortune, and reputation were all gone. He died in poverty and obscurity two years later on May 20, 1506, little dreaming that he had opened the way to a new and mighty world which would be called by another man’s name. Columbus never believed he had actually discovered a new world, an unknown continent.

First Europeans to Reach the New WorldColumbus was not the �rst European to reach the shores of this new world. Before the year 1000 AD, the Norsemen of Scandinavia, in their long open boats with the head of a dragon at the prow, had sailed to Iceland, then to Greenland, and then to Labrador. Leif the Lucky (Leif Ericson), son of Eric the Red, explored the coast perhaps as far south as Cape Cod, and even spent a winter somewhere on the bleak coast of North America. Medieval Europe was not aware of the voyages of these rude and remote people of the north.

Why We Celebrate Columbus�e stories of Eric’s and Leif ’s adventures remained hidden from Europe. �e real discoverer was

Columbus, whose voyage of 1492 linked America with the awakened Europe in a continuous and per-manent way. �e credit for that daring act, which �rst tested the theory that the Indies could be reached by a westward route, belongs to Columbus.

Amerigo Vespucci (1451–1512)Columbus realized that he had not landed in India, but he still believed he had landed just o� the coast of China (Cathay). It was the Italian scholar and sailor, Amerigo Vespucci who �rst wrote of his belief that Columbus had actually discovered a “New World.” Vespucci wrote about four trips that he made to the New World.

Vespucci, an Italian merchant, caught the fever of adventure and joined the company of navigators who followed Columbus in the search of the Indies

�e Italian scholar and sailor Amerigo Vespucci wrote of his belief that Columbus had actually

discovered a “New World.”


by the western route. On his voyage of 1501, in the service of the King of Portugal, Vespucci sailed down the coast of Brazil for more than two thousand miles. �en he steered southeast in the Atlantic until he reached an ice-clad island below the ��ieth degree of latitude. �is voyage added two important pieces of knowledge to the new geography. First, it revealed an Antarctic region of cold, corresponding to the known Arctic north. Second, more important still, it showed that not a mere island but a large conti-nent opposite Africa lay in the southern Atlantic Ocean. Vespucci was a good advertiser. He wrote long letters describing the “New World” which he had “discovered,” though in reality it was the same South American continent whose northern shore Columbus had touched three years earlier.

A German map maker, Martin Waldseemüller, published one of Vespucci’s letters in a geographi-cal journal. Waldseemüller made the suggestion that “Since another fourth part of the world (besides Europe, Asia, and Africa) has been discovered by Americus Vespucius, ….” I do not see what fairly hinders us from calling it Amerge or America.”17 Waldseemüller’s idea was adopted. When it was later found that Vespucci’s America was not a separate con-tinent lying southeast of Cathay, but was joined by an isthmus to another large continent to the north, the popular name “America” was extended to cover both continents.

So it came about that our country was named by a German professor in a French college for an Italian navigator in the service of the king of Portugal. Was this a foretelling of the “melting pot” of nations the United States of America was destined to become?

Check Ups 2/2VOCABULARYCathay, mariners, “melting pot,” mutiny, nautical,New World

PEOPLE TO KNOWAmerigo Vespucci, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, Leif Ericson, Paolo Toscanelli

Write answers in complete sentences. Be sure to answer all of the parts of each question.

1. What did Columbus discover about himself at an early age?

2. What did Columbus’ son Ferdinand say about what “fate” did for Columbus?

3. What did Columbus know about the world?

4. What are the countries Columbus approached to support his voyage?

5. Who �nally sponsored his voyage and what country were they from?

6. Who were the captains of the Nina and Pinta?

7. What happened on October 10, 1492? What did Columbus ask for?

8. What date did Columbus land on San Salvador? How many more trips did he make to the New World?

9. Why is Columbus given credit for the discovery of America?

10. What did Vespucci discover that Columbus did not know?

11. Where did America get its name?Snap this QR code for more resources.


Chapter 2 ReviewPEOPLE TO KNOWKnow the following individuals and be able to explain their importance to American history.

1. Christopher Columbus2. Leif Ericson3. Marco Polo4. Johann Gutenberg5. Ferdinand and Isabella6. Amerigo Vespucci7. Prince Henry the Navigator8. Vasco da Gama9. Martin Luther

10. Paolo Toscanelli

PLACESKnow the following places and their signi�cance.

1. Portugal2. Spain3. San Salvador4. New World

TERMSDe�ne the following terms.

1. Crusades2. middle class3. Renaissance4. movable-type printing press5. Protestant Reformation6. �e Nina, Pinta, and Santa Maria

CRITICAL THINKINGOn a separate sheet of paper, answer the following questions using complete sentences.

1. How did the Crusades revive interest in exploration?

2. Describe how the Renaissance helped set the stage for the discovery of the New World.

3. Who invented the movable-type printing press and when? How did it help to bring Europe out of the Dark Ages?

4. Why was America named for Amerigo Vespucci and not for Christopher Columbus?

5. Why is Columbus and not the Vikings given the credit for the discovery of America?

RULER’S LAW vs. PEOPLE’S LAW 1. List �ve ways to identify Ruler’s Law in action

taken by a government or group of people.

2. List �ve ways to identify People’s Law in action taken by a government or group of people.

3. Identify three ways in which Columbus practiced People’s Law.

Endnotes 1. Pauline Mo�tt Watts, Prophecy and Discovery On Spiritual Origins

Christopher Columbus’s Enterprise of the Indies, (American Historical Review, 1985), 95.

2. Irving Washington. Early Life of Columbus, America, Great Crisis in Our History Told by its Makers, vol. 1, (Issued by Americanization Department, Veterans of Foreign Wars of the United States), 61-62.

3. Ibid., 61-62. 4. Vicki Jo Anderson, History Reborn, vol. 1, (Cottonwood: Zichron

Historical Research Institute, 1994), 114. 5. Irving Washington, Early Life of Columbus, America, Great Crisis in

Our History Told by its Makers, 65. 6. Anderson, History Reborn, 114. 7. John S. C. Abbott, �e Life of Christopher Columbus, (New York:

Dodd & Mead, 1875). 8. Gavin Menzies, 1421 �e Year China Discovered America, (Great

Britain: Transworld Publishers, 2002). 9. Abbott, �e Life of Christopher Columbus, 1510. Ibid., 19.11. Letters From Toscanelli Approving Columbus’ Project, America,

Great Crises In Our History Told by Its Makers, vol. 1, (Issued by Americanization Department, Veterans of Foreign Wars of the United States), 96.

12. David Saville Muzzey, A History of Our Country, (Boston: Ginn and Company, 1936).

13. Abbott, �e Life of Christopher Columbus, 41.14. Peter Marshal, �e Light and the Glory, (New Jersey: Fleming H.

Revell Co., 1940), 39.15. Columbus’s Own Story of His Voyage of Discovery, America, Great

Crises In Our History Told by Its Makers, vol. 1, 159.16. Ibid., 169.17. David Saville Muzzey, A History of Our Country, 25.

The Crusadesmyfreedomlibrary.com/images/book/America_Chap2.pdf · the Far East. ˚e old overland...

Documents

Transcript of The Crusadesmyfreedomlibrary.com/images/book/America_Chap2.pdf · the Far East. ˚e old overland...