THE COMMUNICATION OF EMOTIONAL MEANING

AMONG CHINESE STUDENTS IN HONG KONG

by

Anthony Chan Yuk Cheung

A thesis submitted to the

School of Education of the

Chinese University of Hong Kong

in partial fulfilments of

the requirements for the

Degree of Master of Arts in Education

June 1978

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The researcher wishes tc acknowledge the generous help given

directly or indirectly by many people to this work.

He is particularly grateful to Dr. Leo Yam who introduced the

researcher to this topic, wrote to the appropriate person for further

information, allowed the researcher to use his personal library of books

on communication, and gave valuable advice and guidance throughout the

year; to the school principals of Maryknoll Convent School, Ying Wah

College and St. Francis Canossian College, who allowed the videotaping

of the students; to the students who participated in the research.

He is indebted, too, to Mr. T.C. Cheng, the Director of the

School of Education, Dr. P.K. Siu, Dr. S.C. Cheng, Dr. J.F. Lew, Dr.

H. Pierson, Dr. B.Y. Chan and Mrs. Betty Yau for suggestions and revisions,

and to Mrs. Patricia Lo for her secretarial work, without them this work

might never have reached completion.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

LIST OF TABLES,

LIST OF FIGURE,

CHAPTER

1I. INTRODUCTION AND QUESTIONS

II. METHOD

Videotape Recording

Subjects: Senders and Receivers

Emotions

Alphabets

Sender Procedure and Instructions

Receiver Procedure and Instructions

III. RESULTS

Modes of Communication

Sex Differences and Interaction with Mode

Emotions and Interaction with Modes and Sexes

IV. DISCUSSION

Differences among Modes of Communication

Differences between the Sender and Receiver Sexes

Rank Order of Emotions

Error Choices

Intervening Variables

Additional Suggestions for Further Research

V. SUMMARY

REFERENCES

APPENDICES

I

III

V

S

20

41

54

57

61

LIST OF TABLES

PageTable

1. Distribution of Occupations of Parents of Senders

Receivers

2. Means and Standard Deviations for the Responses of

Receiver Mode Groups to the 38 Senders

3. Analysis of Variance for Receiver Mode Differences

4. Means and Standard Deviations for the Responses of

162 Receivers to Sex Groups of Senders

5. Analysis of Variance for Sex Differences of Senders

Across All Modes of Communication.,

6. Meats and Standard Deviations for the Responses of

the Accuracy with Sex Groups of Senders Within Each

Mode of Communication

7. Analysis of Variance for Interaction of Mode and

Sender Sex

8. Means and Standard Deviations for the Responses of

Receiver Sex-Groups to the 38 Senders

9. Analysis of Variance for Sex Differences of Receivers

Across All Modes of Communication

10. Means and Standard Deviations for the Responses of Sex-

Mode Groups of Receivers to the 38 Senders

11. Analysis of Variance for Interaction of Sex of

Receivers and Mode of Communication

12. Means and Standard Deviations for the Responses of

Receiver Sex Groups to Sender Sex Groups Across AllModes of Communication

13. Means and Standard Deviations for the Responses of

Receiver Sex Groups to Sender Sex in each Mode ofCommunication

14. Analysis of Variance for the Interaction of Sender and

Receiver Sexes within Each Mode of Communication

15. Means and Standard Deviations for the Responses

Within Each Emotion

12

22

22

24

24

25

25

26

26

27

27

28

29

29

31

16. Analysis of Variance for Emotion Differences of Senders

17. Means and Standard Deviations for the Accurate Responses

of Emotion Within Each Mode of Communication

18. Analysis of Variance for the Interaction of Emotion

Mode

19. Means and Standard Deviations for the Accurate Responses

of Sender Sex to Each Type of Emotion

20. Analysis of Variance for the Interaction of Emotion

Sender Sex

21. Means and Frequencies for the Accurate Responses of

Receiver Sex to Each Type of Emotion

22. Analysis of Variance for the Interaction of Emotion

Receiver Sex

23. Percentages of Accurate and Inaccurate Responses Given

by Facial, Vocal, and Facial-Vocal Receivers to

Expressions of

24. Most and Least Frequent Error Choices of Each Category

of Emotional Meaning Across All Modes of Communication

25. Percentages of Accurate arid Inaccurate Responses Given

by Receivers for the Male Female Senders of All Modes

to Expressions of

31

32

32

34

34

36

36

38

39

40

LIST OF FIGURE

Figure Page

1. A Cross-section of the Emotion-solid 49

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION AND QUESTIONS

During the five years of the author's counselling experience in

Hong Kong, he became more and more aware of the importance of nonverbal

communication especially in the recognition of emotions of the counselees.

In order to be sensitive, a counsellor should be perceptive to all the

cues sent out by the counselees through the different channels of

communication, be they verbal, paralinguistic or kinisic. In the ti.'aining

of undergraduates in counselling classes, as well as in the training

programmes of peer counsellors by the author, it was noticed that most

student trainees were able to understand the verbal content of the students.

Often they could give verbatim reports of their interview sessions. What

was missing seemed to be the nonverbal aspects of the student communication.

They should emphasize how a student said something rather than what

was said because emotional meanings were mostly carried by the form of

speech and facial expressions rather than by its content. This seemed

to cause the primary difficulties in the communication between the trainee

counsellors and the students. Joel Davitz (1964) in his book The Communi¬

cation of Emotional Meaning mentioned this interest in training his graduate

students to be more sensitive, emphatic and understanding on how the

other person felt that it led him to a whole series of research in this

area.

Much research on the recognition of emotional meaning has been

published, but few of them were concerned with Chinese because the studies

were using mostly American subjects and were conducted within the American

culture. How many of these rules may be applied in Hong Kong is uncertain,

unless, and until, comparative studies have been made. It is with this

intention that this study is made as a first attempt to establish some

links between foreign researches and the local usage. Are there basic

differences in the communication of emotional meaning among the Chinese

and the Americans?

This is therefore a study of the nonverbal communication of

emotional meanings. The purpose is to investigate the variables of modes

of communication, sex and emotions as well as their interactions. The

groups studied consist of an approximately equal number of male and

female Chinese students attending the Grant Schools of Hong Kong. The

three modes of nonverbal communication were facial, vocal and facial-

vocal. The five emotions used were happiness, sadness, disgust, fear

and anger, two short of the seven basic emotions mentioned in the Li Tze

of the Chinese Classics. 禮 禮 運 何 謂 人 情 喜 怒 哀 懼 愛 惡 欲 。

Davitz (1964) reported that previous research in the area of

nonverbal communication of emotions has shown that feelings can be

communicated among white Americans by facial as well as by vocal

expression. Cross-cultural investigation of communication between

national groups has been limited and had mixed results.

It is true that Starkweather (1961) summarized his review of a

series of studies and stated that voice alone could carry information

about the speaker. Judges could identify the emotions being expressed

accurately. He pointed out that judgments appear to depend on significant

changes in pitch, rate, volume and other physical characteristics of the

voice but untrained judges cannot describe these qualities accurately.

Three years later Levy (1964) found sex differences for the white cr

black adults in the ability to express emotions vocally and in the ability

to perceive vocal communication of feelings. In 1968 Kretsch used the

native alphabet to express the emotions made by the Israeli, Japanese and

American subjects. His results indicated that vocal expressions can be

communicated with considerable accuracy even across language and cultures.

Overall differences in the accuracy of communication within and between

national groups were found but these differences were not uniform.

As early as 1872, Darwin in his book The Expression of the

Emotions In Man and Animals, pointed out certain similarities in the

expressive behaviour of men with different backgrounds. He proposed

that universal facial expressions of emotions are inherited. This concept

was supported by studies made by Thompson (1941), Tomkins (1963), Eibl-

Eibesfeldt (1970), Frijda (1968) and Izard (1969).

However this concept was rejected by Klinebergs (1938) who

described that the facial expression of emotions in Chinese Literature

were different from the facial behaviour of the West. Labarre (1947)

demonstrated that facial meaning has different meanings across cultures,

while Birdwhistell (1970) rejected the universality of facial expressions

stating that facial behaviour is a language.

Ekman and Friesen (1971) postulated the Neuro-cultural Theory of

Facial Expressions of Emotions that universal emotions occur through the

operation of a facial affect programme which specifies the relationship

between distinctive movements of the facial muscles and particular

emotions, such as happiness, sadness, anger, fear, etc. They combined

the two schools of thought by pointing out that there were two different

sets of determinants of facial expressions, one which is responsible for

universals and the other for cultural differences. This was backed up

by numerous research such as the FAST (Facial Affect Scoring Technique)

the elaborate system of scoring still photographs, the videotaping of

the pleasant and unpleasant movies, the cross-cultural studies of literate

and pre-literate cultures. Finally the findings of Zuckerman (1976)

showed that female subjects were more accurate encoders in facial

expressions. These are similar to those findings of Vinackes (1948)

and Buckman (1972).

The present research focuses on facial and vocal communication

taken together and also analyzed separately. As mentioned earlier, most

of the work on facial expressions had used still photographs. Still

photographs, however, are artificial and are biased by the experimenter's

selective power (Birdwhisteil, 1970). In addition, still photographs

show only a static position of the face. Davitz (1964) and Ekman and

Friesen (1967) pointed out that the importance of body acts rather than

positions (i.e., the importance of change in facial expression over time)

for cues to the emotion being expressed. Other studies tried having the

senders communicate feelings in person to judges. Thompson and Meltzer

(1964) followed in a replication by Drag and Shaw (1967), had each of

their fifty subjects portray ten emotions in person. They found that

the women in their study were more effective in expressing several of

the emotions to judges via facial expressions than were the men. Levitt

(1964) in a study of facial and vocal communication, found no differences

in expressive ability between the males and females of his sample. He

also found a positive relation between abilities to express emotions non-

verbally in the two modes. Communication was significantly more accurate

by facial rather than vocal expression. The result was similar to those

of Mehrabian and Ferries (1967, 1971).

Buchman (1972) used videotape to explore the variables of lace,

sex and mode of communication by using black, white and Puerto Rican

students in a New York City Community College. Each student expressed anger,

anxiety, happiness, love or sadness via the alphabet to a similar group

of communication receivers who were equally divided into three modes of

nonverbal communication: facial, vocal, and a combined facial-vocal mode.

There were significant differences among the non-verbal modes of communi¬

cation with the bi-modal communication being more effective. The females

in this study were the more effective senders. Interactions were found

for mode of communication and sender sex, sender sex and sender culture

mode and sender sex-culture groups.

In light of limited research in the area of non-verbal communica¬

tion of emotions among Chinese, especially studies using both facial and

vocal modes of non-verbal communication, it would seem useful to replicate

the above study (Buchman, 1972) for the Hong Kong situation by studying

students of Chinese origin with the following questions rather than with a

specific hypothesis.

A. Modes of Communication

1. Are there differences among the three non-verbal modes of

communication for communication accuracy?

B. Sex Differences and Interaction with Modes

2. Are there differences in non-verbal communication

accuracy between the sender sexes? Do sender sex

differences depend on which mode of non-verbal

communication is used?

3. Are there differences in non-verbal communication

accuracy between the receiver sexes? Do receiver

sex differences depend on which mode of non-verbal

communication is used?

4. When communication receivers representing the two

sexes are judging non-verbal messages from communication

senders who also represent both sexes, are differences

in accuracy of judgments found depending on particular

sender-receiver sex combinations? Do the differences

depend on which mode of non-verbal communication is

used?

C. Emotions and Interaction with modes and sex

5. Looking at the specific emotions that were given as

answers, are there differences among the emotions in

accuracy of communication.

6. Are accuracy differences among the emotions dependent

on the mode of non-verbal communication which is used?

7. Are accuracy differences among the emotions dependent on

the sex of the senders?

8. Are accuracy difference among the emotions dependent on

the sex of the receivers?

9. What are the most and least frequent error choices

for each emotion vithin each mode group and sender

sex groups?

CHAPTER TWO

METHOD

In this study forty communication message-senders, who equally

represented both sexes, were videotaped expressing the alphabet twice:

the first time in their normal conversational manner (which served as a

baseline for each sender); and the second time in an emotional manner

in which they portrayed one of the five emotions through facial and vocal

means. The videotape consisting of forty senders was then shown to the

162 communication message-receivers of approximately equal number of

males and females, who were to indicate which one of the five emotions

was portrayed non-verbally by each sender in the second alphabet. Fifty

four of the receivers heard the tape (vocal mode of communication), 54

saw the tape (facial mode of coiamunication) and 54 heard and saw the tape

(facial-vocal mode of communication) at the same time. In order to

standardize receiver responses and thus to assure reliability of scoring,

the receivers were required to limit each response to one of the five

categories of emotional meaning, The data of the study consisted of

receiver judgment in the form of emotions which were scored for accuracy.

An experimental study was preferred over a naturalistic one in

order to control what emotions rhe senders were expressing and when they

were expressing them. Thus, the basis for inducing emotional expressions

was experimental instructions and not actual emotional states. It was

noted that Kramer (1963) pointed out that studies like these could not

confirm whether the speakers would use the same tonal codes when

expressing the emotions in real situations. However with the assertion

by Davitz (1964), the method used in this experiment assumes that the

portrayals reflect conventional stereo-typical expressions, so patterns

similar to spontaneous expressions are expected. The following conclusion

by Davitz (1964) affirms the validity of the method:

It is possible, of course, that this artificiality of inducing

emotional expression might have mitigated the validity of our

generalizations about everyday emotional communication, but the

substantial number of consistent findings that make psychological

sense would seem to provide ample evidence for validity of our

techniques, (p. 189).

Videotape Recording

Since there vere forty senders for the study (20 males, 20

females), and each sender expressed one of five emotions, there were 40

possible items. The emotions were randomized by sex and the senders were

videotaped in random order. All senders were taped under identical

audio and visual conditions (e.g. same type of classrooms, same equipment,

same lighting, same position of equipment, same cameramen) with the

exception of lens adjustments for bringing the face of each sender into

focus. The position of the senders was full face: the camera focused

above the shoulders (see Sender Procedure and Instructions for details).

The original experimental videotape is one hour twenty minutes

(continued on two reels). A second recording of the original videotape

was made so that equal time periods could be edited in between alphabets

and in between senders (approximately ten seconds). This interval between

senders served as the time period during which receivers wrote down their

answer in a manner similar to that of Kretsch (1968). Tape portions

consisting of sitting down, focusing, and getting up were edited cut of

the videotape.

Subjects: Senders and Receivers

All the subjects were students taken from the Grant Schools of

Hong Kong. These students were used because of the roughly comparable

intellectual and social-economic level among the male and female

students. Detailed socio-economic information for further analysis

can be obtained from the questionnaires (Appendix B). Measures of

intelligence were net obtained but the students from the Grant Schools

were assumed to have roughly comparable intellectual levels.

The twenty male senders were obtained from Ying Wah Boy School.

They were selected from the Form 4 classes at random by the principal.

The twenty female senders were obtained from the Maryknoll Convent

School. They were also selected at random from the Form 4 classes by

the principal.

The 162 receivers were obtained one month later from the Ying

Wah Boy School and St. Francis Canossian College (the Maryknoll girls

were not available due to some technical difficulties raised by the

principal). These students were obtained from two Form 4 classes in

both schools.

Before participating, all senders and receivers filled out a

release form (Appendix C) and a background questionnaire (see Appendix

B) requesting the following information: age, sex, education, birth

place of self and parents, occupation of both parents, dramatic and

language training, speech or hearing difficulties. The following

categories of subjects were eliminated from the sample: those senders

who filled out the questionnaire, but indicated that they had no interest

in participating in the study; those subjects with sensory, speech or

hearing difficulties; those with dramatic training beyond high school

clubs and plays; those who identified themselves as of mixed culture?-

those who were not born or whose parents were not born in Hong Kong or

China.

Of the forty senders all were born in Hong Kong and all had no

dramatic training at all. Most of them had their native village in

Kwang Tung except two. The male subjects were slightly older with an

average age of 16.5, while the female subjects liad an average age of 15.5. Table

1 shows the distribution of occupations of the parents of both senders

and receivers. It can be noted that there are differences between the

occupation types of the parents of the male and female senders. Twelve

parents (30%) of the female senders were involved in education and

Government jobs and none from the male sender group. Forty percent of

the female senders' father were involved in commerce compared with a

mere 15% of the male senders' father. On the other hand some 45% of

the male senders' father were involved in service job compared with the

15% of the female group. Another 25% of the male senders' parents were

employed in industry compared with a 10% of the female group. Further¬

more none of the mothers of the male senders work while 7 of the mothers

of the female senders work. It can be seen from the above that the

social-economic background of the female subjects is somehow better

Table 1

Distribution of Occupations of Parents of Senders Receivers

Senders Receivers

Mala

Parents

F M Total

Female

Parents

F M Total

Male

Parents

F M Total

Female

Parents

F M Total

1. Education

2. Government

3. Commerce

4. Industry

5. Services

6. Housewife

7. No

occupation

8. Others

0 0 0

0 0 0

3 0 3

5 0 5

9 0 9

- 15 15

3 4 7

0 11

4 5 9

2 13

8 0 8

2 0 2

2 13

- 13 13

10 1

10 1

112

2 0 2

10 0 10

30 10 40

24 3 27

- 63 63

10 0 10

0 0 0

3 4 7

14 1 15

19 2 21

20 4 24

19 6 25

- 68 68

10 0 10

85 85 170

Total 20 20 40 20 20 40 77 77 154 85 85 170

than those of male se:nders.

Although all the 40 senders were included in the tape for the

final test, subject number 27 and subject number 40 were excluded in

the final data computation. During the experimental session of the

group using only the vocal mode in the boys school, there were sudden

disturbances which the experimenter could not control. This disrupted

the reception of subject number 27. Thus the valid results from the

other five groups were also excluded. This is a female subject

displaying the emotion happiness. Sender number 40 was also rejected

because he was suffering from a mild form of stammering. He was to

display the emotion of fear. Thus altogether only 38 senders were

used in the final data analysis.

As a further safeguard, these 38 senders were screened by a

team of expert judges. They included the author, two psychology

lecturers from the School of Education and one lecturer in human

communication. Based on the following criteria they decided if

any senders should be eliminated from the research.

1. Any student who does not follow the instruction, for

exampleby omitting more than four alphabets in the recitation.

2. Any student who rearranges the order of the alphabets

during the recitation.

3. Any student who turns away from the camera so that the

full face cannot be seen.

4. Any student whose voice is so soft that it is not

audible for the task of emotional differentiation.

The judges finally agreed that all 38 senders were acceptable for the

experiment.

The 77 male receivers were obtained from Ying Wah Boys School

while the 85 female receivers were obtained from St. Francis Canossian

School. Like the senders, all of them were born in Hong Kong. The

average age was 16.4 for the male receivers and 16.49 for the female

receivers. The occupation distribution can be regarded as similar to

those of the senders. There is a similar difference between the male

and female receivers group. More of the parents of female receivers

work in the education, Government, and commercial sectors, while the

majority of the parents from the male receivers work either in the

industrial service sectors. Once more, it can be said that the female

group has a slightly higher soci.al-econom.ical status than those of the

male receiver group.

Emotions

Six emotions were used in the experiment by Levitt (1964)

namely, joy, surprise, fear, disgust, anger and contempt. He found

that the percentage of correct judgment for contempt, surprise and

disgust were low. Buchman (1972) used the same five emotions of the

Kretsch (1968) study, namely, anger, anxiety, happiness, love and

sadness. She found that anxiety was a frequent error choice for

anger; happiness and love were frequent error choices for each other.

Ekman reported that there are six basic universal facial expressions

of emotion in the 1971 Nebraska Symposium on Motivation. He developed

an elaborate system of scoring the emotions of happiness, sadness,

surprise, fear, anger and disgust (Ekman and Friesen, 1975).

Seven emotions which are said to be inborn have been reported in the

Chinese Classic Li Tze (206 BC) namely, happiness, sadness, anger,

fear, disgust, love and lust. The researcher thinks that the last

emotion lust should be grouped under the study of passions rather

than with emotion as it has seldom been used in studies of emotions.

Thus this emotion was dropped from the current study. The

emotion of love is not commonly used in studies in emotion and evenvhen

it is used, it is frequently confused with sadness as shown in the Buchman

(1972) study. Thus, five emotions were used for this study namely

happiness, anger, sadness, fear and disgust.

Alphabets

The Buchman (1972) studv found that she could not use the

content-standard neutral paragraph as the standard verbal content

with which to communicate the emotions. This Beodoch paragraph (1964)

is as follows

I'm going out new. I wont't be back all afternoon. If

anyone calls, tell him to call back tomorrow.

Buchman found that the students were more concerned with the accuracy

of the recitation than with the emotional communication. This study

would use the alphabet as a more equitable sequence of standard verbal

content. Furthermore Leathers (1976) reports that this method used by

Davitz as being popular, detailed and enlightening.

Sender Procedure and Instructions

The senders were videotaped individually in a different room

from the one in which they were given the questionnaire, release form,

and general instructions. The following were the general instructions

given to the sender by the experimenter:

Hi! Thanks for coming. Here is a background questionnaire I

would like you to fill out. Also here is a release form

authorizing me to use your videotape recording in the study

while keeping your identity confidential.

As we all know, people communicate not only by what they say

but by how they say it. Therefore, by the way you change

your facial expressions and tone of voice, for example, you

can get across different feelings as you are communicating.

In this study, I am going to ask you to communicate the

alphabet twice: first in your normal conversational manner

and second trying to get across one feeling by your tone of

voice and facial expressions. When you go inside the taping

room, the instructions will be on posters. Before you

communicate the second alphabet, you will be told which

feeling it is that you are to portray by your tone of voice

and facial expressions. The feeling could be anger, disgust,

fear, happiness or sadness. You will be given a chance to

think of a situation when you felt this way to get in the

mood.

Any questions? O.K. So, basically, two alphabets: the first

one is normal, and for the second one you will be given one

feeling to express non-verbally.

There were three people in the taping room: a cameraman, a

technician, and an instruction poster-holder. Two of them were male

while the poster-holder was a female student for the female group

and a male student for the male group. There were no verbal inter¬

changes in the taping room. So as not to damage the videotape

equipment, the recorder often remained on between senders but the

students were told in advance that only the alphabet segments were

to be used in the research studv.

Once inside the taping room each sender in turn was seated

on a chair in front of the camera. After lens adjustment were made,

the first poster was held up and it read Express the alphabet in

your normal conversational manner. (Nod to the cameraman when ready.)

A sign on the camera read Wait until cameraman points to you. The

cameraman covered the lens and after uncovering it, ha pointed to the

sender to begin. After the sender finished the alphabet, the cameraman

covered the lens until the sender nodded that he or she was ready for

the second alphabet. The second instructional poster was held up and

it read Try to remember an experience when you had a feeling of anger

(disgust, fear, happiness, sadness.) The procedure was taken because

of an earlier study by Buchman (1972) which showed that more highly

differentiated emotional expressions (in this case, written) were

influenced by the mood that an Experimental tape recording put the

subjects in. The third poster read Now express the alphabet while

trying to show this feeling of anger (disgust, fear, happiness,

sadness) by your face and voice. (Nod when ready.) Again the

sender nodded, the cameraman uncovered the lens and pointed, and the

sender expressed the second alphabet. After the cameraman covered

the lens, the sender saw the final poster which read Thank you!

Please leave quietly. This procedure was identical for all senders.

Receiver Procedure and Instructions

Two classes of Form 4 boys with 77 students and another two

classes of Form 4 girls with 85 students were randomly assigned to

three separate groups each for a specific mode of communication. Each

of the three modes was run twice, one for the boys and one for the

girls. There were 24 male and 30 female subjects for the vocal mode,

25 male and 28 female for the facial mode and 28 male and 27 female

for the facial-vocal mode.

In advance, all receivers were given a brief description of

what the study was all about and were then invited to participate.

The following instructions were given to all receivers:

Hi! Thanks for coming. Here is a background questionnaire

I would like you to fill out. Also here is a release form

authorizing me to use your answer sheet in the study while

keeping your identity confidential. In general, people

communicate not only by what they say but by how they say it.

Therefore, by the way you change your facial expressions and

tone of voice for example, you can get across different

feelings as you are communicating.

In this study, students on the tape are all reciting the

alphabet twice but changing the way they express it the

second time. The first time I asked them to express it in

their normal conversational manner so you can get an idea

of each person's unique style. The second time I gave them

one feeling to get across non-verbally. The feeling was

either anger, disgust, fear,, happiness, or sadness.

I would like you to (listen to, look at, both listen to and

look at) the tape and after (hearing, seeing, hearing and

seeing) each student express the alphabet the second time,

guess which emotion they tried to express and put a tick in

the appropriate boxes on the answer sheet (see Appendix D).

To summarize, you will (listen to, look at, both listen to

and look at) the tape and after each person's second alphabet,

you will write down the one feeling that it seemed to be:

anger, disgust, fear, happiness or sadness.

At times, you will find it very difficult to figure out which

feeling is being communicated. It is your first intuitive

answer that is probably right and has been shown to be so in

previous research. Once moving on to the next person on the

tape, please do not change your previous answers.

Any questions? Let us try the first person on the tape. You

will have 10 seconds after the second alphabet in which to

write down your answer. This is the first alphabet, his

normal one. This is his second alphabet. Guess whether he

(sounds, looks, looks and sounds) angry, disgustful, fearful,

happy, or sad. Now the person you just (heard, saw, heard

and saw) was one of the most difficult on the tape. Others

are much easier to guess. Any questions? We will go ahead

now and stop for a moment after the first 15 people.

(After 15) Now we are up to the first alphabet of number 16.

Any questions?

(After 30) Now we are up to the first alphabet of number 31.

Any questions?

(After 40) Thanks very much for coming. Please make sure all

answer sheets and questionnaires are turned in in order for

you to get your results.

For the facial mode, only the visual stimulus was presented

by keeping the T.V. picture on While turning the sound off. For the

vocal mode, only the audio portion of the tape was presented by

keeping the sound on while turning the T.V. picture down to complete

blackness. For the facial-vocal mode, the stimulus material was the

combined audio-visual presentation of the videotape.

CHAPTER THREE

RESULTS

The raw data of this study consist of the judgments made by

the three groups of receivers (facial, vocal, facial-vocal) to the

videotape composed of 38 senders. For the research questions in

sections A and B, a dichotomous accuracy score was used: accurate, if

the answer matched the emotion that the sender was instructed to

coramunicace; inaccurate, if the answer was one of the four erroneous

emotions, if the line was left blank. For the questions in section C,

the inaccurate responses and the emotions per se were analyzed.

For the quantitative analysis (section A, B and part of C), a

full-factorial design was used to test the effects of mode, receiver

sex, sender sex, emotions and their interactions (see Appendix E).

Myers (1966) indicates that this is a more conservative type of

analysis of variance than the repeated measure design. This more

conservative analysis was needed because of the small number of

subjects in each cell.

It should be noted that all but one receiver accuracy scores

in responding to the communications of the 38 senders were greater

than chance (chance= 7.6 correct). One receiver scored 7 correct.

The range of receiver accuracy scores was from 7 to 28. The mean

accuracy score per receiver was 18.70 with a standard deviation of

4.48. In term of percentages (all subsequent means in this study

reflect proportions of the total which are rounded off t o

two decimal places and then multiplied by 100), the grand mean was 46

percent with a standard deviation (square root of the overall error

term, expressed in a percentage) equal to 11 percent. Frequency

distributions of the receiver accuracy scores in response to a breakdown

of sender groups shovzed that the scores were normally distributed. The

results will be presented in accordance with the questions of the study.

A. Modes cf Communication

The first question asked in this study was as follows:

1. Are there differences among the three non-verbal modes of

communication for communication accuracy?

Table 2 presents the means and standard deviations for the

responses of receiver mode groups to the 38 senders. Inspection of the

data shows that the mean number of senders guessed accurately by receivers

in the facial mode was highest (54 percent) while the mean number of

senders judged accurately by receivers in the vocal mode of communication

was the lowest (38 percent). The results cf the analysis of variance

summarized in Table 3 indicate significant differences among mode means

(p= 0.003). Results of Scheffe contrasts indicated a significant

difference between the facial-vocal and vocal means (p 0.10) and a

significant difference between the facial and vocal means (p 0.10).

No difference was found between the means for the facial and facial-

vocal modes of communication.

Table 2

Means and Standard Deviations for the

Responses of Receiver Mode Groups to the 38 Senders

(expressed in percentages)

Mode of Receivers Mean SD F. Significant

Vocal

Facial

Facial-Vocal

38

54

52

27

34

33

0.0031

Table 3

Analysis of Variance for Receiver Mode Differences

Source of Variation D.F. Sum of Squares Mean Square F Ratio

Between Groups

Within Groups

2 11702 5851

5.931

225 221976 986

B. Sex Differences and Interaction with Mode

The first question within the next section of the study is as

follows:

2. Are there differences in non-verbal communication accuracy

between sender sexes? Do sender sex differences depend on

which mode of non-verbal communication is used?

The means and standard deviations for the responses of the 162

receivers to sex groups of senders are presented in Table 4. An

examination of the means reveals that males are more accurate senders

than females (51 percent versus 45 percent)'. The results of the analysis

of variance summarized in Table 5 reveal no significant differences

between the sexes of senders (p= 0.1234).

Table 6 presents the means and standard deviations for the

responses of the facial, vocal, and facial-vocal receivers, respectively,

to sender sex groups. Inspection of the table reveals that the means

for the males are larger than are the means for the females except for

the vocal mode which indicates an about equal performance. The analysis

of variance summarized in Table 7 reveals no significant interaction

among sender sex-mode groups (p= 0.406).

The next question to be investigated follows:

3. Are there differences in non-verbal communication accuracy

between the receiver sexes? Do receiver sex differences

depend on which mode of non-verbal communication is used?

Table 8 presents the means and standard deviations for the

responses of the receiver sex groups to the 38 senders. The analysis

of variance data summarized in Table 9 indicate no differences between

Table 4

Means and Standard Deviations for the

Responses of 162 Receivers to Sex Groups of Senders

(expressed in percentages)

Sex Groups of Senders Mean SD F. Significant

Male

Female

51 31

45 32

0.1234

Table 5

Analysis of Variance for Sex Differences of

Senders Across All Modes of Communication

Source of Variation D.F. Sum of Squares Mean Squares F Ratio

Between Groups

Within Groups

1 2447 2447

2.392

226 231230 1023

Table 6

Means and Standard Deviations for the

Responses of the Accuracy with Sex Groups of

Senders Within Each Mode of Communication

(expressed in percentages)

Mode of Receivers

Female Senders Male Senders

Mean SD Mean SE

F. Significant

Vocal

Facial

Facial-Vocal

38

49

46

27

34

34

37

59

57

27

33

31

0.406

Table 7

Analysis of Variance for

Interaction of Mode and Sender Sex

Source of Variation D.F. Sum of Squares Mean Squares F Ratio

Interaction of mode

and sender sex

Error

2 1774 887

222 217751 981

0.905

Table 8

Means and Standard Deviations for the

Responses of Receiver Sex-Groups to the 38 Senders

(expressed in percentages)

Sex-Groups of Receivers Mean SD F. Significant

Male (115)

Female (113)

49 33

50 31

0.6815

Table 9

Analysis of Variance for Sex Differences of

Receivers Across All Modes of Communication

Source of Variation D.F. Sum of Squares Mean Squares F Ratio

Between Groups

Within Groups

1 174 174

226 233503 1033

0.169

Table 10

Means and Standard Deviations for the

Responses of Sex-Mode Groups of Receivers to the 38 Senders

(expressed in percentages)

Mode

Receiver

Male

Mean SD

Female

Mean SD

Vocal

Facial

Facial-Vocal

37

54

55

27

35

34

38

55

48

27

33

32

Table 11

Analysis of Variance for Interaction of

Sex of Receivers and Mode of Communication

Source of Variance Sum of Square Mean Square D.F. F Ratio

Interaction of Mode

Receiver Sex

Error

887

220971

443

995

2

222

0.691

means for the sexes of receivers.

Table 10 presents the means and standard deviations for the

responses of the male and female facial, vocal and facial-vocal receivers,

respectively, to all 38 senders. The analysis of variance summarized in

Table 11 reveals no significant differences among the means.

The next question which deals with patterns of sex differences

is as follows:

4, When communication receivers representing che two sexes are

judging non-verbal messages from communication senders vho

also represent both sexes, are differences in accuracy cf

judgments found depending on particular sender-receiver

sex combinations? Do the differences depend on which mode

of non-verbal communication is used?

Table 12 presents the means and standard deviations for the

responses of receiver sex groups to sender sex groups across all modes

of communication. Table 13 presents the means and standard deviations

for the responses of receiver sex groups to sender sex groups in each

mode of communication. As shown by Table 14, no significant differences

among the means were evident for the interaction.

Table 12

Means and Standard Deviations for the Responses of Receiver Sex Groups

to Sender Sex Groups Across All Modes of Communication

(expressed in percentages)

Sex of Sender

Sex of Receivers

Male

Mean SD

Female

Mean SD

Male

Female

51

46

33

32

51

42

30

32

Table 13

Me£ins and Standard Deviations for the

Responses of Receiver Sex Groups

to Sender Sex in each Mode of Communication

(expressed in percentages)

Mode Sender Sex

Receiver Sex

Male

Mean SD

Female

Mean SD

Vocal

Facial

Facial-Vocal

Male

Female

Male

Female

Male

Female

35

40

56

51

62

53

28

26

36

35

32

30

39

37

61

48

49

43

27

28

31

35

36

33

Table 14

Analysis of Variance for the Interaction of

Sender and Receiver Sexes within Each Mode of Communication

Sources of Variance Sum of Square Mean Square D.F. F Ratio

Interaction of Mode

Sender Sex and

Receiver Sex

Error

346

216401

155

1002

2

216

0.242

C. Emotions and Interaction with Modes and Sexes

The first question to be considered in this section is as

follows:

5. Looking at the specific emotions that were given as answers,

are there differences among the emotions in accuracy of

communication?

The means and standard deviations for the responses of the 162

receivers to the senders of the different emotions are presented in Table

15. An examination of the means reveals that the emotion happiness can

be more accurately communicated followed by sadness and fear. Disgust is

the emotion that can be communicated least accurately The results of the

analysis of variance summarized in Table 16 reveal a significant difference

(p 0.001) between the types of emotions being communicated. Results of

the Scheffe contrast indicated a significant difference between the mean

of the emotion happiness and the means of the other four emotions; the

mean for the emotion sadness is significantly higher than that of disgust

but it is not significantly different from the means of the emotions anger

and fear; no significant differences were found between the means of the

emotions anger, disgust, and fear.

The next question to be considered is as follows:

6. Are accuracy differences among the emotions dependent on which

mode of non-verbal communication is used?

The means and standard deviations for the responses of the 162

receivers of the facial, vocal and facial-vocal groups classified according

to the types of emotions are presented in Table 17. Inspection of the

table reveals that the means differences are similar to those of Table

Table 15

Means and Standard Deviations for the

Responses Within Each Emotion

(expressed in percentages)

Emotion Sex Groups of Senders Mean SD F. Significant

Anger

Disgust

Fear

Happiness

Sadness

Total

40

31

46

73

52

5

4

4

5

4

0.0001

Table 16

Analysis of Variance for Emotion Differences of Senders

Source of Variation D.F. Sum of Squares Mean Squares F Ratio

Between Groups

Within Groups

4 44715 11179

223 188965 847

13.192

p< 0.001

Table 17

Means and Standard Deviations for the

Accurate Responses of Emotion

Within Each Mode of Communication

(expressed in percentages)

Type of Emotion Vocal

Mean SD

Mode

Facial

Mean SD

Facial-Vocal

Mean SD

Anger

Disgust

Fear

Happiness

Sadness

36

31

46

36

41

35

19

21

27

28

47

28

49

93

58

36

26

26

7

29

39

33

44

90

57

38

29

25

10

24

Table 18

Analysis of Variance for the Interaction of Emotion Mode

Sources of Variance Sum of Square Mean Square D.F. F Ratio

Interaction of

Emotion Mode

Error

21281 2660 8

155976 722 213

3.63

p < 0.001

15 in question 5 except for the vocal mode which indicates an equal

performance. The analysis of variance summarized in Table 18 reveals

a significant interaction between emotions and modes of communication

(p 0.001). Results of the Scheffe contrast indicated that there is

a significant difference at 0.10 level between the means of the emotion

happiness and the rest of the emotions in the facial and facial-vocal

modes. The means of the emotions in the vocal mode indicate no signifi¬

cant difference according to the Scheffe contrast. The mean of the emotion

sadness is significantly higher than the mean of disgast in the facial

mode only (p 0.10). It should be noted that the means of the emotion

happiness in the facial mode (M= 93) and the facial- ocal mode (M= 90)

are significantly higher than the mean of the emotion happiness with the

vocal mode (M= 36) according to the Scheffe contrast (p 0.10).

The next question to be considered is as follows:

7. Are accuracy differences among the emotions dependent on the

sex of the senders?

The means and standard deviations for the accurate responses of

sender sex to each type of emotions are presented in Table 19. Inspection

of the table reveals that the means of emotion happiness are high in both

sexes and the emotion disgust has the smallest means for male and second

last for female. The mean for the emotion anger ranks second with the

male sender (M= 65) but ranks last for the female senders. The analysis

of variance summarized in Table 20 reveals a significant interaction

between the sender sex and type of emotions being sent (p 0.001).

Results of the Scheffe contrast indicated that the means of the emotion

happiness are significantly higher than the means of the emotions disgust

Table 19

Means and Standard Deviations for the

Accurate Responses of Sender Sex

to Each Type of Emotion

(expressed in percentages)

Type of Emotion

Sender

Male

Mean SD

Female

Mean SD

Anger

Disgust

Fear

Happiness

Sadness

65

38

37

71

41

34

21

19

33

32

16

23

53

76

62

18

26

25

30

18

Table 20

Analysis of Variance for the Interaction of Emotion Sender Sex

Source of Variance Sum of Square Mean Square D.F. F Ratio

Interaction of

Emotion Sender

Sex

Error

36818

150629

9204

691

4

218

13.321

and fear for both sexes, anger in the female senders and sadness in the

male senders. The Scheffe contrast showed that the means for the emotion

disgust are significantly lower than the means of anger in the male sender,

and the means for fear and sadness in the female senders. The mean for the

emotion anger (M= 65) in the male senders is significantly higher than the

means in the female senders (M= 16). It is also higher than the mean of

the emotion fear in the male senders but lower than the mean for the emotion

fear in the female sender at 0.10 level according to the Scheffe contrast.

The next question to be considered is as follows:

8. Are accuracy differences among the emotions dependent on the

sex of the receivers?

The means and frequencies for the accurate responses of each type

of emotions according to the receiver sex are listed in Table 21.

Inspection of the table shows that once more the means for the emotion

happiness are highest and the means for the emotion disgust are lowest

for both sexes. The mean for the emotion sadness (M= 56) ranks second

with the male receivers and third with the female receivers, and the

mean for the emotion fear ranks second with the female receivers, but

fourth with the male receivers. The analysis of variance summarized in

Table 22 reveals no significant interaction between the type of emotions

and receiver sex.

It should be noted that from the summary table of the analysis of

variance that all the three way and four way interactions between modes

of communication, sender sex, receiver sex, and types of emotions are

not significant (see Appendix E). No further description for these

variables will be needed from this point onwards.

The last question to be considered is as follows:

Table 21

Means and Frequencies for the Accurate Responses of

Receiver Sex to Each Type of Emotions

Type of Emotion

Receiver

Male

Freq. Mean(%)

Female

Freq. Mean(%)

Anger

Disgust

Fear

Happiness

Sadness

271

187

220

409

342

45

31

41

77

56

255

210

307

421

330

37

31

51

70

48

Table 22

Analysis of Variance for the Interaction of Emotion Receiver Sex

Source of Variance Sum of Square Mean Square D.F. F Ratio

Interaction of

Emotion

Receiver Sex

Error

2035

186814

508

857

4

218

0.668

9. What are the most and least frequent error choices for each

emotion within each mode group and sender sex group?

This section deals with a post hoc analysis of error choices.

Table 23 shows the number of accurate and inaccurate responses (in

percentage) given by the facial, vocal and facial-vocal receivers to

expressions of each emotion (including blanks). Table 24 presents a

summary of the most and least frequent errors for each category of

emotional meaning. E-ata from the present sample suggests that disgust

is a frequent error choice for anger; sadness and fear are infrequently

chosen for anger. Fear and happiness are frequent error choices for

disgust; sadness and anger are infrequently chosen for disgust. Sadness

is frequent error choices for fear; anger is infrequently chosen for

fear. Anger is a frequent error choice for happiness; sadness and fear

are infrequently mistaken for happiness. Disgust is a frequent error

choice for sadness and happiness and anger are infrequently mistaken for

sadness. In sum, it appears that sadness, disgust, and fear seem to

cluster together, while sadness is seldom mistaken for happiness and

fear seldom mistaken for anger. The patterns of error choices hold for

all modes of non-verbal communication in the present sample. Exceptions

to the patterns are evident only in the vocal mode of communication

where happiness became a frequent error choice for anger and an

infrequent error choice for both disgust and fear.

Table 25 presents the accurate and inaccurate responses in

percentages made by each sex group of senders to each category of

emotional meaning. There do not appear to be any obvious differences

between the sexes in the kind of errors they make when responding to

Table 23

Percentages of Accurate and Inaccurate Responses Given by

Facial, Vocal, and Facial-Vocal Receivers to Expressions of

Mode of

Receivers

Anger Disgust Fear Happiness Sadness Blanks

ANGER

Vocal

Facial

Facial-Vocal

Total

35

46

38

25

24

30

10

16

13

24

7

14

2

7

25

4

0

0

40 27 13 15 44

DISGUST

Vocal

Facial

Facial-Vocal

18

12

11

31

28

33

24

28

26

11

22

21

10

10

9

6

0

0

Total 14 31 26 20 9 6

FEAR

Vocal

Facial

Facial-Vocal

5

1

2

14

11

15

46

49

43

9

18

17

24

21

22

2

0

1

Total 3 13 46 15 22 1

HAPPINESS

Vocal

Facial

Facial-Vocal

29

0

1

27

1

1

17

4

6

36

93

90

14

1

2

3

0

0

Total 15 10 9 73 6 1

SADNESS

Vocal

Facial

Facial-Vocal

6

6

4

23

26

29

17

8

8

12

1

2

40

58

59

1

1

0

Total 6 26 11 5 52 1

Table 24

Most and Least Frequent Error Choices for Each Category of

Emotional Meaning Across All Modes of Communication

Category of

Emotion

Error

Most Frequent Least Frequent

Anger

Disgust

Fear

Happiness

Sadness

Disgust

Fear, Happiness

Sadness

Anger

Disgust

Sadness, Fear

Sadness, Anger

Anger

Sadness, Fear

Happiness, Anger

the emotions of disgust, happiness, and sadness. For the emotion anger,

happiness and fear are frequent errois for the females, but infrequent

errois for the males. For the emotion fear, happiness is a frequent

error for the female senders, but an infrequent error for the males;

disgust is a frequent error for the male subjects, but an infrequent

error for the female subjects.

Table 25

Percentages of Accurate and Inaccurate Responses

Given by Receivers for the Male Female Senders

of All Modes to Expressions of

Anger Disgust Fear Happiness Sadness Blanks

Sex of

Senders

ANGER

Male

Female

42

16

20

34

7

19

6

24

2

5

1

1

Total 40 27 13 15 4 1

DISGUST

Male

Female

22

5

38

23

20

31

8

32

11

8

1

0

Total 14 31 26 20 91

FEAR

Male

Female

5

1

23

7

37

53

5

22

30

17

1

1

Total 3 13 46 15 22 1

HAPPINESS

Male

Female

2

1

12

7

10

8

71

75

4

8

1

1

Total 2 10 9 73 6-1

SADNESS

Male

Female

11

0

27

24

11

11

9

19

41

62

1

0

Total 6 26 11 5 52 1

CHAPTER FOUR

DISCUSSION

In general, the results of the study indicate that in accounting

for accuracy of non-verbal emotional communication, mode of expression,

sex of the sender, and particular emotion expressed are far more

important than sex of the receivers who are involved in the communication.

Receiver sex as a factor must be considered in terms of the other three

variables, since in itself, it makes no consistent difference in the

accuracy of communication.

Differences among Modes of Communication

Descriptively, the means of accurate communication for the modes

are 38 percent for the vocal mode, 54 percent for the facial mode, and 52

percent for the vocal-facial mode. The differences between the facial

and vocal-facial modes are minimal (two percent only) when the values

for the standard deviations are as high as 34 and 33 percent respectively.

These results are not totally similar to those found by other researches

with multidimensional channels. For example, in describing multidimen¬

sional channel capacities, Slak (1969) found that the addition of

unidimensional channels increases the channel capacity, but at a

decreasing rate. The relationship falls short of a simple additive

one (p. 224). It should be expected that the vocal-faciaf mode mean

be the highest among the means since two channels of communication are

used. Further discussion on this point will be presented later.

It should be noted that: the facial mode and the vocal-facial

mode are significantly higher than the vocal mode. This result is

congruent with the results of the Silvan Tomkins1 Theory regarding the

superiority of facial expression over vocal expression. Tomkins views

the face as a communication center for the sending cind receiving of

information of all kinds... and as the organ of affect expression and

communication (Tomkins, 1968, p. 327). In sum, the face is seen as

the primary site of affect (Tomkins McCarter, 1964, p. 121); and

thus affect is primarily facial behaviour (Tomkinst 1968). Because of

the visibility of the face and the sensitivity of the; complex musculature,

Leathers (1976) states that the face can be used to communicate more

emotional meaning more accurately than other modes.

One of the most important outcomes of this study i the demons¬

tration of the effect of combining non-verbal communication channels.

With the present sample, the bi-modal communication of facial-vocal mode was

more effective than the uni-modal communication of vocal mode. This result

occurs with Levitt (1964) who used sound motion pictures to capture his

subjects' facial and vocal expression while they were expressing emotions

via a content-standard paragraph. As with Levitt and Buchman (1972),

the combined communication was not more effective than communication via

facial expressions alone. Perhaps one reason for a differential effect

only with the vocal mode is that the vocal mode was the most difficult

channel for accurate communication of non-verbal messages. There is a

suggestive evidence from a study comparing the amount of learning when

stimulus codes are presented by uni-sensory channels (visual, cutaneous)

and bi-sensory channels (visual and cutaneous together) that bi-sensory

stimulation influences the rate of acquisition and final achievement onl

when the codes to be learned are inherently difficult (Anton Stern,

1966, p. 18). Thus, by being a difficult channel, the vocal mode is

less effective than the combined facial-vocal mode, yet, by the same

token, it does not help the combined mode. It may be that fewer

relevant cues are available in the vocal mode.

The lack of significant difference between the facial and vocal-

facial modes may be explained by the fact that the efficiency of a

combined communication channel over a unidimensional channel with low

communication value can be accounted for by the concept of redundancy

in information processing. Redundancy, as postulated by Smith (1966),

improves the accuracy with which signals are transmitted (p. 365).

Redundancy can occur through using several communication channels

simultaneously (Miller, 1951). Specifically relevant to the type of

communication used in this study, Birdwhistell (1970) says that kinesics

can operate in a redundancy role (p. 107). In any study, the nonverbal

messages communicated by the combined facial and vocal channels should

be said to be redundant and therefore should be more accurately identified

theoretically. Thus, the concept of redundancy can explain the insigni¬

ficant differences between the facial and the vocal-facial modes and why

the combined mode effect is not a simple addition of the vocal and facial

modes effects. The superior performance of the facial mode alone over

the combined mode seems to present a contradicting effect to the above.

As stated earlier, the slightly higher score of the facial mode

(only more than 2 percent), uiay be explained by the sampling fluctuation

since the standard deviations are quite big in both cases. The concept

of inconsistency might also help to clarify the present situation.

Mehrabian (1972) described that in the case of inconsistency of messages

communicated by the different channels, the facial sub-system of non¬

verbal communication is the most important source of meaning. He found

that inconsistency communication of attitude frequently relied on facial

expressions. It was found in the Buchman studies (1972) that the subjects

were so conscious of the T.V. camera that more emphasis was placed on the

facial expression while the vocal mode was not expressed with

deliberation. This might explain some of the differences. Furthermore,

the experimenter variable might explain some of the differences. In

retrospect, there were more disturbances and disorderly conduct with

the bi-modal groups. For example, there were more laughs, remarks on

the faces of the senders, etc. The experimenter found it more difficult

to keep the class discipline for these groups than uni-modal groups.

Differences between the Sender and Receiver Sexes

Research evidence about sex differences in sensitivity to facial

expression is consistently contradictory both with static pictures and

videotaping. Allport (1924) and Guilford (1929) found no reliable

differences between men and women in judging the Rudolph pictures, but

subsequent replication by Jenness (1923) found women to be significantly

more accurate. Similarly Buzby (1924) reported women as slightly better

judges, while subsequent replications by Jarden and Fernberger (1926)

and by Fernberger (1927) found no consistent differences. Using the

videotape, Levitt (1964) found no differences in expressive ability

between males and females, Buchman (1972) and Zuckerman and others

(1976), Drag and Shaw (1967), found reliable differences in favour of

the female senders. However, the present study, which is a replication

of the Buchman study, revealed no reliable differences in favour of the

sexes.

Further analysis according to modes of communication indicated the

surprising result that the males score consistently higher for both the

facial and vocal-facial modes and about equal for the vocal mode. This

difference may be explained by the fact that males were slightly older

(1 year older) and came from a school with a different atmosphere and

background. Both Gates (1927) and Diroitrovsky (1964) found age to be

significantly related to sensitivity to emotional expressions. Perhaps

the lack of sex differences in the vocal mode with the present sample

(similar to those of Buckman, 1972), is a consequence of the low

communicative value of the vocal mode altogether.

Similar to the above results, the females did not differ from

the males in accuracy of receiving. There is some contradictory

empirical evidence about differences in sensitivity. Staiman (1932)

found no sex differences in the judgments of photographs by white and

black subjects. Diraitrovsky (1964) found that girls were more accurate

judges of vocal expressions than were boys. Dusenberry and Knower (1939)

found that women were better judges of vocal expressions of emotions

than men. Jorgense and Howell (1969) found no sex differences in the

accuracy of judgment.

That there were no differences between the sexes of the receivers

and senders in emotional communication contradicts folklore beliefs.

Levy (1964) says that there is a notion popular among laymen that women

are more 'intuitive' and more emotionally expressive than men (p. 54).

The slightly better performance of the males even contradicts this

general belief even further. In addition to the earlier explanation

of the effects of sampling and age, the cultural factor might come into

play. It is the old Chinese custom that the females should be reserved,

shy, withdrawn, etc. In spite of the fact that the girls school we

selected is considered to be more open, the girls were still slow to

come out of their shell to manifest their emotions freely in front of

the camera. Further evidence ought to be collected in future.

Rank Order of Emotions

The present study indicates that certain emotions may be easier

to communicate non-verbally than others. With the present sample,

disgust was the least accurately communicated while happiness and

sadness were communicated with relatively greater accuracy. There

were some interactions between modes of communication and sender sex.

The facial and vocal-facial modes had a similar results with the above,

but the vocal mode had fear as the emotion which could be communicated

more accurately. Happiness could be communicated accurately with 93

percent accuracy with the facial mode but only a mere 36 percent with

the vocal mode.

Comparisons of the rank order of emotions with other studies is

difficult and sometimes not valid since the results found for each study

are relative to the particular methods, modes, and emotions used in that

study. There is some corroborating evidence from other studies for the

relative ease with which happiness and sadness are communicated.

Facially, Woodworth (1938) indicated that happiness could be communicated

with as much as 94 percent accuracy, while Ekman (1971) reported a 97

percent accuracy. Dimitrovsky (1964) found that children identified

vocal expressions of sadness more frequently than those of anger or

love. Beier and Zautra (1972) found that Japanese students identified

American vocal expressions of sadness more accurately than anger and

fear. The result of Davitz (1964) put further light on the differences

between the vocal. Facial modes like happiness were found to be least

accurately communicated in the vocal mode. The differences between the

facial and vocal modes may be further explained by the fact that each

mode employs a different set of criteria for emotional identification.

For example, Harrison (1974) reported that vocal cues include voice

qualities of range, resonance, tempo, control and vocal qualifiers of

intensity, pitch height and extent. According to the Facial Affect Scoring

Technique of Ekman, Wallace and Friesen (1975) there are 8 identification

items for the brows-forehead, 17 for the eyes-lids, and 59 for the lower

face. Leathers (1976) said that with the facial mode some types of

meaning (emotional) were more difficult to communicate than others

(p. 24) and with the vocal mode, emotions such as contempt is communi-

cated at very high levels of accuracy,... and fear and love are extremely

difficult to identify by relying solely on vocal cues alone (p. 123)

With the female sample, anger was the least accurately communi¬

cated while happiness, sadness and fear were communicated with relatively

greater accuracy. With the male sample, disgust and sadness were

communicated with relatively greater accuracy. Is it due to the peculiar

Chinese culture of Hong Kong that the male was able to communicate

anger with ease (65 percent accuracy) as compared with the female score

of 16 percent. On the other hand, the Chinese girls could communicate

sadness (62%) and fear (53%) which are characteristic of the obedient

and timid female, required of all women folks by the older generations

of Chinese.

Error Choices

Errors in interpreting non-verbal communications were essentially

consistent across modes of communication, sender sex, and receiver sexes.

In general, it appeared that sadness, fear, and disgust clustered together

while happiness and anger were grouped together. The pattern of most

frequent errors and least frequent errors can be explained by the concepts

of polarity and similarity reported by Plutchik (1970).

The adjacent emotions were frequent error choices with each other,

while emotions at the opposite poles were seldom mixed up with each other.

Female senders on the emotion anger were least accurate and the emotion

was misjudged as disgust and happiness. These emotions were adjacent to

anger in figure 1. Once again the adjacent emotions of fear, namely,

sadness and happiness, were frequent errors for the female senders.

HAPPINESS

ANGEI (LOVE)

DISGUST FEAR

SADNESS

Figure 1

A Cross-section of the Emotion-solid

(Adapted from M.B. Arnold, p. 11)

Intervening Variables

One of the most unfortunate by-products of the 80 repetitions of

the alphabet for the receivers was fatigue. Fatigue served as an uncon¬

trollable intervening variable with an unmeasured effect on receivers.

Two outcomes of fatigue could be an increase in work inhibition or an

increase in relaxation, intuition, and sensitivity as the receivers

approached sender number 30. Whatever the effect, it would seem to

apply across the board. Future research could attempt a less repetitious

task and compare the results.

The context of the study had ramifications for other intervening

variables. The basis for inducing emotional expressions was experimental

instructions and not actual emotional states. There are by-products of

using emotional enactments. Another intervening vari£±le that was

uncontrolled with the present sample, but which affected senders across

the board, was the influence of anxiety about acting in front of a camera

Certain extraneous problems (forgetting the alphabet) which affected

some senders' composure could have led to misinterpretations of their

emotional expression in a uni-modal communication channel. Another

intervening variable may have been the length of time senders were on

the air, though this has not been substantiated as a valid effect in

other research of this nature. No time limit was set since it could have

disturbed the pattern of communication. Still, some senders ran through

the alphabet quickly and were on the air for less time than others.

Another intervening variable whose effect is unknown, but which was

constant for all receivers, was the presence of a first neutral

alphabet. Comments from some receivers indicated that in some instances

this first information was difficult to use because it seemed more

expressive than the second alphabet.

There is another variable involving the sex of the technicians

and the cameraman. The same sex poster holder was used but only male camera¬

man and technician were used. This might influence the performance ofI

the female senders across the board. A final intervening variable is

the visual emphasis of the use of videotaping. The subjects were all

familiar with the use of the tape recorder both at home and in the

school. Videotaping is a novelty for most of them. In spite of the

specific instruction to the senders to communicate the emotions by their

face and voice it was noticed that most of them were more concerned•

with the facial mode rather than the vocal mode. This was first noticed

by Buchman (personal communication). Although the experimenter under¬

lined the words face and voice and he stressed this point during the

explanation, the same effect could still be observed. This might have

the effect of lowering the significance of the vocal mode.

Additional Suggestions for Further Research

This study emphasizes the continuing use of a technique that

utilizes the videotape rather than still pictures to capture the

emotional expression.

When modes can be investigated separately as well as together,

and when emotion can be a variable in the statistical analysis, one

can investigate the interaction of emotion and mode to see whether

emotion errors per s'ibject occur in any one mode or whether emotion

errors across subjects occur in any one mode. One can thus study

whether any emotions lend themselves particularly to channel conflict

or non-congruency. This type of approach would tie in with the studies

of Bugental, Kaswan and Love (1970) and Bugental, Love, Kaswan and April

(1971) who could link non-congruent communications of emotions to

disturbed children. The application of this work could be used as

training in self-awareness. Counselees and counsellors, for example,

could be taped, and then could view their portrayals of emotional

expressions both to see for themselves how they actually come across and

to learn from each other how their non-verbal messages actually come across

to others. Channel non-congruencies could be pointed out in the self-

awareness training. In training of this type, reinforcement techniques

could be used.

It will be an added advantage if this method could be corroborated

by a naturalistic study, especially if the same subjects could be used

in the experiment. It may also be worthwhile to find out the

relationship of the subject groups to each other before the study. A

drawback of the present study is the lack of measurement of the dispo¬

sition of the sender groups to one another before the study. With such a

measure, one can be sure of the equality of the groups or even inves¬

tigate the differential effects of whatever variables that could be found.

Instead of students one could use professional groups or mothers and

children. One could also manipulate experimentally the variables of age

and socioeconomic status to compare the findings with the present study.

For example, Izard (1971) found that emotional recognition and emotional

labelling are not a function of race or culture but they are influenced

by socioeconomic status. Since five basic emotions have been used, it

might be good to add the emotion love to form three pairs of bi-polar

emotions and see if the emotional-solid pattern proposed by Plutchik (cf

p. 49) is confirmed or not.

In order to obtain a better comparison between the results

obtained by the different methodologies used in non-verbal research both

in the facial and vocal mode, an inclusion of professional actors will

help to assess the sensitivity of the receivers. Expert judges should

be invited to assess the performance of the senders in both the vocal

and facial modes. Standardised methocte of scoring could be used, for

example the FAST (Facial Affect Scoring Techniques) technique of Ekman

(1975) for the facial mode, the TES (Test of Emotional Sensitivity)

technique of Davitz (1964) or even the electronic method thereby giving

a more reliable assessment of the accuracy score of the senders.

Though the Lasswellian statement of Who says what through what

channels to whom with what effect Smith (1966) can carry a long way in

non-verbal communication research, it may not be the most realistic

communication model because it appears to be uni-directional. Bird-

whistell (1970) points out that an action-reaction formula for

communication may not be enough (p. 12). It is the complex interrelation

of people within a context that seems to be the better model one should

move into for future communication research.

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY

This was a study of nonverbal communication of emotions among

Chinese students in Hong Kong. The purpose was to investigate three

major variables: sex, mode of communicatiory and emotions. In this

study, the communication messages were emotions enacted through video¬

tape by communication senders upon instruction. Forty males and females

students of two grant schools in Hong Kong (equally divided by sex) each

expressed anger, disgust, happiness, fear or sadness via the alphabet to

a similar group of 162 communication receivers who were approximately

equally divided into three modes of non-verbal communication: facial,

vocal and a combined facial-vocal mode. The dependent variable was

accuracy of communication, which was operationally defined as a receiver's

correct judgment of the emotion that the sender was instructed to portray.

A neutral alphabet was first expressed by each sender so that a baseline

for each sender could be established. Rather than having hypotheses

reflecting specific emotion, sex, or mode biases, empirical descriptive

data on the three variables and their interactions were obtained. A

full-factorial design was used. Part of the emotion differences were

analyzed post hoc.

The results indicated a high degree of overall accuracy (grand

mean =48) in judging the non-verbal emotional communication. Signifi¬

cant differences were found among the non-verbal modes of communication

(p 0.001). Specifically, the bi-modal communication of facial-vocal modes

and the facial modes were found to be more effective than the uni-modal

communication of the vocal mode. No differences were found for the

facial mode with the facial-vocal mode. No significant differences

were found for sender and receiver sexes. Thus, in accounting for

accuracy of non-verbal emotional communication, mode of expression and

particular emotion expressed were found to be far more important than

the sexes of those involved in the communication. Sex, as a factor,

must be considered in terms of the other two variables;, since in itself,

it makes no consistent difference in accuracy of communication.

Interactions were found for mode communication and pmotion (p

0.001), sender sex and emotions (p 0.001). Among the interesting null

findings were the following: no differences between male and female

senders in the vocal mode; no significant differences between the male

and female senders in the vocal-facial mode, and the facial mode with the

male scoring higher than the female; between male and female of the

receivers of the different modes; between male and female receivers of

the different emotions.

Qualitatively, disgust was the least accurately communicated

emotion, while happiness was the most accurately communicated emotion.

Errors followed the proximity of the emotions as placed in the emotional-

solid proposed by Plutchik (1970): disgust was a frequent error choice

for sadness; happiness and anger were frequent error choices for each

other. Among the specific qualitative findings were the following:

females had difficulty communicating anger, while male had dijfficulty

communicating fear.

The results of this study were discussed in relation to observa¬

tions from other studies of a similar nature. The mode effect was

explained by the information processing concept of redundancy and

inconsistency. Particular sex-emotion outcomes were dealt with by

cultural explanations. Intervening variables and implications for

further research were discussed.

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LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix

A.

B.

C.

D.

E.

Order of Senders of the Experimental Videotape

Background Questionnaire

Release Forms

Answer Sheet

Summary Analysis of Variance Table

Page

62

64

65

66

67

APPENDIX A

Order of Senders of the Experimental Videotape

1. Male

2. Female

3. Male

4. Female

5. Male

6. Female

7. Female

8. Female

9. Female

10. Female

11. Female

12. Male

13. Female

14. Male

15. Female

1G. Male

17. Male

18. Female

19. Female

20. Female

Anger

Disgust

Happiness

Sadness

Disgust

Happiness

Disgust

Sadness

Disgust

Sadness

Sadness

Happiness

Fear

Sadness

Anger

Happiness

Disgust

Anger

Disgust

Fear

21. Male

22. Female

23. Male

24. Female

25. Male

26. Female

27. Female

28. Male

29. Male

30. Female

31. Female

32. Male

33. Male

34. Male

35. Male

36. Male

37. Female

38. Male

39. Male

40. Male

Sadness

Anger

Happiness

Happiness

Fear

Happiness

Happiness

Sadness

Disgust

Anger

Fear

Sadness

Anger

Fear

Disgust

Fear

Fear

Anger

Anger

Fear

APPENDIX B

Background Questionnaire

The research I am carrying out with your help has to do wUth how people

communicate feelings. The following questions are being asked for

background material for my project. Answers are STRICTLY CONFIDENTIAL.

NAME: AGE: SEX:

SCHOOL: FORMGRADE:

PLACE OF BIRTH: DATE OF BIRTH:

NATIONALITY: Please mark any of the following types of background that

you feel pertain to you.

A. Chinese Native Province (Please specify)

B. American 1) White 2) Black 3) Oriental

4) Others (Please specify)

C. Other Nationality (Please specify)

Mother's Place of Birth (Country, State City)

Father's Place of Birth (Country, State City)

Father 1s Occupation Mother' s Occupation,

Length of time you have been living in Hong Kong

What is your native language?

Languages spoken at home (Please specify)

If you have had any dramatic training, state how much

If you have had any training in nonverbal communication (how much)

Do you have any speech or hearing difficulties?

APPENDIX C

Release Forms

For Senders

This is to permit Anthony Chan to use this videotape in his research

project. I understand that the tape I am on will be shown to other

students who will try to guess the emotions portrayed. Identities

will be kept confidential.

Name

Mailing Address

(check one) Personal Results General Both

For Receivers

This is to permit Anchony Chan to use this videotape answer sheet in

his research project, Identities will be kept confidential.

Name

Mailing Address

(check one) Personal Results General Both

APPENDIX D

Answer Sheet

名

1 2 3 5 6 7 8 9 10

1. ANGER

2• DISGUST

3o FEAR

4. HAPPINESS

3. SADNESS

( 憤 怒 〉

( 厭 惡

( 恐懼：)

〔 歡 喜 ）

( 悲 哀

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

1. ANGER

2. DISGUST

3. FEAR

4. HAPPINESS

3. SADNESS

愤 怒 〕

( 厭 惡 〕

( 恐 懼 〕

( 歡 喜 〕

( 悲 哀 〕

21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

1. ANGER

2. DISGUST

3. FEAR

4. HAPPINESS

5. SADNESS

( 憤 怒 〕

( 厭 惡 〕

( 恐 懼 〕

( 歡 喜 〕

( 悲 哀 〕

31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

1. ANGER

2. DISGUST

3. FEAR

4. HAPPINESS

5. SADNESS

， 憤 怒

( 厭 惡 〕

恐 懼

( 歡 喜 〕

( 悲 哀 ）

APPENDIX E

Summary Analysis of Variance Table

(based on percentages)

Source of Variation Sum of Squares D.F. Mean Square F Ratio

Main Effects

Mode

Sender Sex

Receiver Sex

Emotions

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)

2-Way Interactions

A X B

A X C

A X D

B X C

B X D

C X D

3-Way Interactions

A X B X C

A X B X D

A X C X D

B X C X D

4-Way Interactions

A X B X C X D

58079

11682

1521

148

43765

62034

1037

886

20534

12

36691

2050

4909

310

3202

918

435

858

858

8

2

1

1

4

21

2

2

8

1

4

4

22

2

8

8

4'

8

8

7259

5841

1521

148

10941

2954

518

443

2566

12

9172

512

223

155

400

114

108

107

107

11.315

9.104

2.371

0.232

17.053

4.6C4

0.809

0.691

4.000

0.020

14.296

0.799

0.348

0.242

0.624

0.179

0.170

0.167

0.167

p < 0.001