THE CITY AS SUBJECTThe Media and Constitutive Rhetoric in President Obama’s “You Will Run

Again” Speech after The Boston Marathon Bombings

December 2014Liza Greenberg

Furman University3300 Poinsett Highway Box 28318

Greenville, SC 29613

Email: liza.greenberg@furman.edu Phone: (617) 633-3686

The Marathon Bombings

Living history was made in America with the Boston Marathon attacks on

April 15, 2013. A pair of cooker bombs detonated in the crowd watching the race,

killing three people and injuring over two hundred and sixty. The marathon is

traditionally held on Patriots’ Day, a public holiday in Massachusetts that

commemorates the American Revolutionary War Battles of Lexington and

Concord. Every year, the festive atmosphere draws thousands of spectators to the

twenty-six mile, two hundred eighty-five yard route from Hopkinton,

Massachusetts, to Boston’s Back Bay neighborhood. More than 26,000 runners

participated in the race in 2013, marking the 117th time that the world’s oldest

annual marathon had been contested.1 Five hours into the race, the first bomb

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exploded less than half a block from the finish line, on the north side of Boylston

Street. Roughly twelve seconds later a second bomb exploded six hundred feet

from the first. It too was planted on the north side of Boylston Street amid a

crowd of onlookers. First responders reacted immediately, and a medical tent that

had been erected to treat runners was turned into an emergency medical facility.

Three bombing victims died of their injuries, and more than one hundred of the

seriously injured were transferred to area hospitals as local police and federal

investigators surveyed a crime scene that covered fifteen square blocks.2 On April

16, government officials solicited the public for photographs and video footage to

further the investigation. On April 18, the Federal Bureau of Investigation

released images of two men identified as suspects in the attacks, including one

photograph that showed one of the men placing a package at the location of the

second explosion.3

The Manhunt

Following the Marathon bombings, the Federal Bureau of Investigation

identified Tamerlan and Dzhokhar Tsarnaev as the suspects. The Tsarnaev

brothers killed a Massachusetts Institute of Technology police officer, carjacked

an SUV, and engaged in a shootout with the police in the Boston suburb of

Watertown.

There still remains confusion as to which sequence of events led to the

death of Tamerlan. In the early hours of April 19, 2013, police fired over two

hundred rounds in the span of five minutes at Tamerlan.4 However, according to

police, Tamerlan’s younger brother Dzhokhar ran him over with an SUV and

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dragged him with the vehicle for over six miles.5 Authorities rushed Tamerlan to

Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, where, despite efforts to revive him,

doctor’s pronounced Tamerlan Tsarnaev dead.

With one suspect dead and the other on the run, police launched a massive

house-to-house manhunt that covered the surrounding area. At 6:00 pm on April

19, authorities executed an unprecedented standstill as officials requested that

residents remain inside their homes and keep their businesses closed.6 During the

search for Dzhokar, Watertown resident, David Henneberry, had noticed that the

cover on his boat was loose and when the “shelter in place” order was lifted, went

outside to investigate. He lifted the tarp, saw a bloodied man, and immediately

called 9-1-1. Police quickly arrived at the scene to arrest Dzhokhar. On April 22,

2013, federal prosecutors took Dzhokar Tsarnaev into custody, where he remains

today.

Boston: The City as Subject

The social and political impacts of the investigation into the bombing

attacks on April 15, 2013 are perhaps a key cultural marker for Boston and the

next generation of Americans. Prominent historian’s, such as Samuel Eliot

Morison, identify Boston as an icon. Referring to the 1630 establishment of the

Bay Colony he quotes, “New England was founded consciously, and in no fit of

absence of mind.”7 That self-conscious presence of mind has endured for four

centuries. Boston is shaped and sustained by observation, imagination, and

interpretation.

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This scholarship explores how identity is defined in the wake of tragedy.

How a society talks and reacts to catastrophe defines who we are and how we

have changed over time. In the midst of the Boston Marathon bombings, chaos

reigned. Social media perpetuated the madness, with every tweet, post, and status

update that flooded our newsfeeds. It took the agency of our president to

reconstruct Boston’s identity and to restore faith and optimism in our community.

My study endeavors to bring clarity to the practical concept of constitutive

rhetoric, to challenge the ways it benefits and blinds our understanding of identity,

and to provide scholars with concrete evidence to propagate further examination

in these matters. Specifically, I argue that the media’s portrayal on the April 15,

2013 Boston Bombings offer rhetorical critics only a fraction of interpretation. It

is essential that, in addition, we study President Obama’s ‘You Will Run Again’

speech delivered on April 18, 2013, to understand how Boston became a

community through the unifying force of resilience. The Boston Bombings is a

momentous and unique event, and must be preserved in American history. How

we continue to tell this story defines whom we are, how we have changed, and is

a testament to our restoration of community.

Exceptional institutions of higher education, cutting-edge research, and

globally acclaimed hospitals give Boston its international trademark. Even more,

Boston’s die-hard sports fans represent an exciting culture. “It’s in my blood,”

Jim Amore says. “You’re raised here in Boston, and that’s who you cheer for.”8 In

demonstrating the spirit of the city, Paul Dimaggio merits Boston as “the hub of

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America’s cultural life.”9 There is no question; Boston is one of the brightest and

most respected cities in the nation.

As a result, the evolving vision of Boston yields a compelling literary

record. Shaun O’Connell studies a generous sampling of those who have

recorded, revised, and redefined the vision of Boston.10 Anne Bradstreet,

Nathaniel Hawthorne, Henry James, W. E. B. Du Bois, Mary Antin, Edwin

O’Connor, John Updike, and many others eloquently evoke and illuminate

Boston. From John Winthrop’s “City Upon a Hill” sermon, delivered aboard the

Arbella before his followers landed in 1630 in the place they would call Boston,11

to Robert Lowell’s “For the Union Dead,” a poem delivered in Boston’s Public

Garden in 1960,12 writers have continued to invoke the high purposes for which

the city was founded, sometimes in praise of the city, but often in what Robert

Frost named a “lover’s quarrel,” in works that called attention to the city’s failures

to fulfill its promises.13

In the twenty-first century many writers continue to celebrate, but also

castigate the city, gathering information from various media sources. Very little,

however, look back to Boston’s origins and influential speeches to reassess its

founders and renew its covenant of high purpose. Therefore, we should study not

only where, but also how Boston is represented.

Boston native and scholar, Jon Marcus paints “Boston [as] a dry museum

display, despite its wealth of history. Its living landmarks, bustling economy,

institutions, culture and sports, parks, waterfront, and neighborhood life are

chapters in a story that continues to be written: living history.”14

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Constitutive Rhetoric

Boston’s living landmarks, bustling economy, and acclaimed institutions

perhaps are best described through the lens of constitutive rhetoric. Constitutive

rhetoric, the activity and art “of constituting character, community, and culture in

language,”15 is the problem of identity. Through the nature of language, self, and

community, James Boyd White says, “the character of literary and political

action, is the way in which culture is defined and transformed.”16 To call rhetoric

“constitutive” is to say that it defines and makes real a culture in language and its

performance. A spoken word is a definition of a character, for the speaker and the

audience form a community through a language provided by culture and shaped

by routine. The audience, subsequently, lives inside the rhetoric as a part of the

discourse.

At its core, constitutive rhetoric allows us to study narratives, including

political communication, public debate, critical journalism and most types of

public addresses bearing on contested issues. Constitutive rhetoric addresses an

audience, in the moment where a person experiences “interpellation”,17 is made

into a subject and is therefore being spoken to as part of a collective identity. An

identity is a constantly evolving concept that exists within discourses and texts.

Within social media, stories are often manipulated and can be misconstrued. In

particular, Facebook and Twitter give us the ability to change the time, edit an

opinion, or erase, moving us from a participatory culture to a culture of

connectivity.

In the past, constitutive rhetoric has been discussed in relation to

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conceptualizations of ethnicities grounded in geography, racial identities, and the

identity of cancer patients. This research centers on the creation of a communal

identity that serves to unite different individuals. Through identifying with this

new subjection position, we adopt the ideals ingrained within a collective identity.

Social Media and its Value during Crisis

Immediately following the Boston Marathon attacks, individuals near the

scene posted an overflow of information on social media. Social media in the

twenty-first century is used to share information, to participate in collaborative

sense making, and to contribute to medical response efforts. Mass General

Hospital received an early indication of the bombings when an anesthesiologist

saw a tweet from a fellow physician at the finish line, just a minute after the

explosions. Dr. Alasdair Conn, chief of emergency medicine, was then prompted

to hold off on his surgeries to allow ample time to attend to the marathon

victims.18 Boston public health officials at The Massachusetts Emergency

Preparedness Bureau relied on Twitter to inform major news stations, such as

ABC and WCVB.

ABC News tweets:

“@MassGeneral: At least 4 patients have been received and expecting more. No more details offered on condition of patients. #BostonMarathon.

A WCVB tweets:

“UPDATE from Mass General: 22 patients, six critical; four of them are amputations of legs. #WCVB #Boston #Marathon Explosion.”

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Figure 1 illustrates the timeliness of Twitter postings and social media data on

April 15, 2013.19 In this sense, social media acts as a valuable resource for both

affected people and emergency responders.

The Diffusion of Misinformation and Sentiment

Coding on Twitter

As the events surrounding the marathon bombings continued to unfold, the

source Bostonians relied on most for information were the social media. But

social media provided an abundance of inaccurate evidence, fracturing Boston’s

living identity and preventing the Boston from restoring it. Twitter, for instance,

took on a two-fold role: providing immediate access to medical trauma, as well as

an outlet to express feelings and opinions. Thousands of individuals directly

witnessed the bombings, but millions more viewed the attacks and their aftermath

through the media. Many of the observed messages were from the immediate

vicinity of the finish line (Figure 220).

Fig. 2: Public Twitter messages in the immediate vicinity of the Boston Marathon finish line from the first 20 minutes after the bombings. Source: OpenStreetMap

Fig. 1: Time series of tweets from within a 35 mile radius of the Boston Marathon finish line after the bombings at 2:49 pm.

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While social networks feed society with relevant updates, they often breed

false information. Social media is a major contributor to the false rumors in the

aftermath of the marathon bombings. An important aspect of the misinformation

on social media relates to the diffusion of information. On Twitter, the retweets

(RT @username) functions as a forwarding mechanism. During crisis events, a

large percentage of tweets are retweets, which spread rapidly and elicit mixed

messages.

Boston Twitter users misidentified a 22-year-old Brown University

student as a bomber. Within a few hours of the FBI releasing surveillance

photographs of the suspects, a handful of Twitter users claimed that the student

looked like the second suspect. In the most notable example, a former high school

classmate posted a tweet observing the resemblance.21 Shortly after, a Reddit

thread became focused around speculation of a connection between the student,

Sunil Tripathi, and the suspect. The rumor continued into the early morning

hours, during the Watertown shootout. The following tweets fueled the spread:

@ghughesca (April 19. 2:43pm): BPD has identified the names: Suspect 1: Mike Mulugeta. Suspect 2: Sunil Tripathi.

@KallMeKG (April 19. 2:50pm): BPD scanner has identified the names: Suspect 1: Mike Mulugeta Suspect 2: Sunil Tripathi. #Boston #MIT

Neither statement was true, but within minutes many Twitter users,

including traditional media outlets, retweeted this information. Just before 6:40

am, the FBI and news outlets released the Tsarnaev brothers’ names, effectively

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resolving the confusion, and the Boston Bombing conversation veered away from

Tripathi. By 4:10 pm, more than 300,000 mentions appeared of “Boston

Explosions” appeared on Twitter and 700,000 mentioned “The Boston

Marathon.”22 The first tweet is labeled “Explosion at Copley” and was sent by a

Boston resident. Three minutes after this tweet, the news of the bombings had

gone viral. Among the 2,028 retweets, a second Boston resident responds:

“I think a bomb just went off in Boston. Can’t tell. Can smell smoke. Emergency vehicles everywhere.”14

The Boston Globe released the first official report and tweets:

“BREAKING: A witness reports hearing two loud booms near the Boston Marathon finish line.”

Similar to the September 11, 2001 attacks, reporters and spectators fixated

on the victims. Collectively, Twitter users participated in a “blame the victim”

game by offering empathy to those affected, and by creating a cult against the two

bombing suspects. However, as this communication circulates, it loses connection

to its original author, time, and the context in which it was shared, an effect that

complicates verification. In the wake of the marathon bombings, social media

exists as a vehicle for our natural, desperate negative emotions. The messages on

Twitter provide instant information, but its content is questionable. In the

aftermath of the Boston Bombings, expressions of horror and outbursts of shock

dictate how the city reacts during crises. Three days after the attacks, President

Obama sought to restore unity, power, and strength, as he addressed Boston as

Boston Strong.

Obama and Community

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On April 18, 2013 President Obama conveyed his condolences at an

interfaith service held at Boston’s Cathedral of the Holy Cross. The service took

place while investigators continued to search for the victims. Earlier in the day,

Obama met with the family of Krystle Campbell, one of the three people killed in

the attack. After the service, Obama walked across the street to a high school gym

and thanked volunteers, and later to Massachusetts General Hospital to visit

patients.23

Obama used the power of the presidential office in effort to reconstruct a

sense of community in the wake of destruction. Quoting the author and poet E.B.

White, Obama noted, “Boston’s not a place…but a state of grace.” He spoke

before the physically and mentally impaired victims during the week’s scarring

events. The service was both an emotional rally for the city and an opportunity for

Obama to speak to the nation. In his speech titled, “You Will Run Again,” Obama

strives to create a common identification between Boston and its citizens.

President Obama did not speak in Boston to remember, to mourn or to

commemorate. Instead, he came to rally the city in an upbeat and uplifting speech

about the incapability of the marathon bombings to disrupt or destroy the spirit of

the country.

That’s why a bomb can’t beat us. That’s why we don’t hunker down. That’s why we don’t cover in fear, he said at the peak of his speech, during an interfaith service at the Cathedral of the Holy Cross. We carry on. We race. We strive. We build, and we work, and we love.

Presidential addresses at commemorative events after national tragedies

have become a forbidding routine for Obama. He spoke in Newtown,

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Connecticut, in December of 2012; in Aurora, Colorado, in July of 2012; in

Tucson, Arizona, in 2011; and at Fort Hood, Texas, in November of 2009. His

Boston address, however, differs dramatically from the previous mass-shooting

events. His approach is less somber, less policy-focused and less reflective, in

order to perpetuate Boston’s interminable spirit.

You will run again. Because that is what the people of Boston are made of. Your resolve is the greatest rebuke to whoever committed this heinous act. He told the crowd, which interrupted his address several times with standing ovations.

President Obama instills faith in Boston to work as a democratic team and to rise

up from the threats that have tested their city. Obama adopts a constitutive frame

and uses this opportunity to reconstitute a character in community for Boston, out

of social media’s fragmented ashes.

Pathos and Constitutive Rhetoric

Obama’s appeal to pathos is very closely connected to the use of

constitutive rhetoric and rhetorical devices, such as metaphor and repetition. He

evokes various emotional responses of fear and anger by mentioning the

inevitable threat of the terrorist attack, praises God for his power to retain faith in

humanity. He promised that whoever planted the bombs would be brought to

justice.

Yes, we will find you. And, yes, you will face justice. We will find you. We will hold you accountable, but more than that our fidelity to our way of life, to a free and open society, will only grow stronger – because Scripture teaches us God has not given us a spirit of fear and timidity but one of power and love and self discipline.

Here he is offering a solution, his persuasive goal of promoting faith to restore

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community. Obama repetitively turns to scripture and uses faith as the core to

ignite Boston’s resilient community.

Our faith in each other, our love for each other, our love for country, our common creed that cuts across whatever superficial differences there may be, that is our power. That’s our strength. That’s why a bomb can’t beat us. That’s why we don’t hunker down. That’s why we don’t cower in fear.

He strikes a tone between remembrance and optimism, calling for justice and

compassion. Through repetition and amplification he emphasizes our strengths

and demonstrates his confidence in our ability to overcome. Obama applies

epizeuxis to further cultivate a sense of community throughout his speech. In

particular, he repeats the words “we” and “us” to bond society under a single,

unifying identify.

This doesn’t stop us. And that’s what you’ve taught us, Boston. That’s what you’ve reminded us — to push, to not grow weary, to not get faint, even when it hurts. We finish the race. And we do that because of who we are and we do that because we know that somewhere around the bend, a stranger has a cup of water. Around the bend, somebody’s there to boost our spirits. On that toughest mile, just when we think we’ve hit a wall, someone will be there to cheer us on and pick up.

Obama also uses metaphor to unite Boston as one community. He forces us to

connect with all who were involved in the attacks. In particular, he employs the

word “run” to connect the Boston Marathon runners with their city. It is his effort

for runners, victims, and common citizens, alike, to rise against defeat as a

collective community.

Your country is with you. We will all be with you as you learn to stand and walk and, yes, run again. Of that I have no doubt. You will run again. You will run again because that's what the people of Boston are made of.

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Personification and Obama’s Identification with Boston

In the past, Obama has spoken to comfort communities in shock and

mourning. He spoke after the mass murders at Fort Hood in 2009, Tucson in

2011, and Aurora, Colorado and Newtown, Connecticut, in 2012. Obama’s “You

Will Run” speech is exceptionally unique, as he distinguishes his personal ties to

Boston. The president attended law school at Harvard University and received his

political prominence by a speech at the Boston 2004 Democratic National

Convention. Boston, for Obama, is a second home.

Boston may be your hometown, but we claim it, too.  It’s one of America’s iconic cities.  It’s one of the world’s great cities. And one of the reasons the world knows Boston so well is that Boston opens its heart to the world.

Furthermore, Obama parallels Boston sport’s team’s success to characterize its

resilience in the past and for the future. He instills confidence and pride, to

celebrate Boston’s spirit and to sustain our focus on community.

We come together to celebrate life and to walk our cities and to cheer for our teams when the Sox, then Celtics, then Patriots or Bruins are champions again, to the chagrin of New York and Chicago fans. The crowds will gather and watch a parade go down Boylston Street. And this time next year on the third Monday in April, the world will return to this great American city to run harder than ever and to cheer even louder for the 118th Boston Marathon. Bet on it.

Conclusions- Towards a New Boston

When violence of any kind splashes across our TV, computer, and

smartphone screens during the news, what is our reaction? If it hits close to home,

we are afraid and overwhelmed by the thought that tomorrow, it may be our own

spouse, sibling, or friend. No matter how marginal, the media consistently

perpetuates those feelings. Our sense of identity when violence strikes erodes, not

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just by the marathon bombings like Boston. Our reaction to violence is on a timer.

How long do we grieve before another bombing takes place? Another death? Our

emotions have desensitized towards violent occurrences across the country. The

media often over embellishes tragedy, fragmenting our sense of community, and

fixates on the victim bombings. Today, perhaps, the agency of a president is what

is requisite to reconstruct identity and reconstitute community.

On the morning of April 18, 2013 President Obama vows, “We will run

again,” in front of all Boston citizens. Obama not only rallies the city,

emotionally, but also speaks to the nation with a tone calling for justice and urges

us to utilize the Bostonian identity to unify as one, Boston Strong. The Boston

tragedy may seem like a trivial commemoration, especially to those who are not

Boston-bred, but the bombing warrants continued scrutiny is a pivotal event to

this generation. It was, after all, the only major terror attack in the United States

since September 11, 2001. With its gruesome scenes of severed limbs and

benumbed bodies, it shook Americans profoundly. Nonetheless, most news

organizations and social media networks simply accepted the trauma, at face

value, providing thin accounts of the sudden events.

The media offers information about the timeline of events. The media also

act as a coping mechanism, representing a “praise-blame” game between the

affected victims. What the media fails to address is the nature of Boston’s civic

representation. We are just beginning to understand the role of the media in

shaping our early responses to collective trauma and defining our country. We

need to do more to figure out how best to protect people who might be vulnerable

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to the negative impact of media exposure in the aftermath of disasters. It is crucial

to study how Obama utilizes the power of his office to unite the nation in the face

of threat. Obama represents Boston in its true nature by challenging citizen’s to

unite as a community. Today few give the still-unfolding saga even the most

minimal attention. After all, as Marcus expresses, “Boston is living history. Its

story needs to continue to be written.”24

17

18

1 Michael Ray. “The Boston Marathon Bombings.” Britannica Book of the Year 2014 (2014): 370.2 Ray, “The Boston Marathon Bombings,” 372.3 Nicholas Croce, Anarchism, Revolution, and Terrorism (New York: Rosen Publishing Group, 2014), 192.4 Mark Arsenault and Sean P. Murphy, “New details on wild shootout with bomb suspect in Watertown.” Boston.com, 2013. <http://www.boston.com/metrodesk/2013/04/21/new-details-wild-shootout-with-bomb-suspects-watertown-chief-believes-older-brother-was-killed-younger-brother-desperate-getaway/jaIyrXr8fSnf5Pu4xnRbvM/story.html. >5 Arsenault and Murphy, “New details on wild shootout with bomb suspect in Watertown,” 2. 6 Jason Sickles and Liz Goodwin, “Boston Marathon bomber manhunt: Police nab suspect alive.” Yahoo News, 2013. <http://news.yahoo.com/blogs/lookout/boston-mit-shooting-explosion-suspect-watertown-064355149.html. >7 Shaun O’Connell, Boston Voices and Visions (Boston, MA: University of Massachusetts, 2010), 263.8 Kimberly Blanton, “Sports Fans in Boston,” The Boston Globe, 2014, <http://www.frontdoor.com/places/sports-fans-in-boston. >9 Paul DiMaggio, Media, Culture and Society 4 (1982), 33-50. 10 O’Connel, Boston Voices and Visions. 11 Laurence W. Kennedy. “Planning the City upon a Hill: Boston since 1630.” The New England Quarterly 66, no. 3 (1993): 498-500.12 Robert Lowell. “Freedom and Style.” Poetry 106, no. 5 (1965): 358-360.13 William James Parker, Robert Frost: A Lover’s Quarrel With the World (Boston, MA: Harvard University, 1942): 28-42.14 Jon Marcus, Our City (Minneapolis, MN: MBI Publishing, 1998): 15 15 James Jasinski, Sourcebook on Rhetoric (New York: Sage, 2001), 106.16 James Boyd White, Heracles’ Bow (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin, 1985), 37.17 Ronald Walter Greene. “Another Materialist Rhetoric.” Critical Studies in Mass Communication 15, no. 1 (1998): 161.18 Tovia Smith, “Boston Hospitals Share Lessons from Marathon Bombing.” Npr.org, 2013. <http://www.npr.org/blogs/health/2013/09/19/224049730/boston-hospitals-share-lessons-from-marathon-bombing. >19 Christopher A. Cassa, “Twitter as a Sentinel in Emergency Situations: Lessons from the Boston Marathon Explosions.” PLOS Current Disasters, 2013. <http://currents.plos.org/disasters/article/twitter-as-a-sentinel-in-emergency-situations-lessons-from-the-boston-marathon-explosions/. >20 Casa, “Twitter as a Sentinel in Emergency Situations: Lessons from the Boston Marathon Explosions,” 2.21 Amram Shapiro, “Book of Odds Looks at the 2014 Boston Marathon.” Huffington Post, 2014. <http://www.huffingtonpost.com/amram-shapiro-/book-of-odds-looks-at-the_b_5063792.html. >22 Joanna Stern, “Boston Marathon Bombing: The Waves of Social Media Reaction.” ABC News, 2013.23 Stephanie Condon, “Obama tells Boston: You will run again.” CBS News, 2013.24 Jon Marcus, Our City.

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