The Changing Social Characteristics of Skilled Manual Work: The ‘Longue

Durée’ in GB and the USA

Professor Roger Penn

Lancaster University

September 2010

The Nature of the Presentation

• An examination of the changing social characteristics of skilled manual work in Britain and the USA

• The primary focus will be on gender and ethnicity

• Census data form the cornerstone of the analysis

• The scope will be the ‘longue durée’

Previous Research

• Skilled manual workers have been a major component of the stratification systems in the advanced societies of Europe and North America

• There has been a longstanding debate about the overall trajectory of skilled work in the post-1945 period

The Sociological Debate about Skilled Work

• The pessimistic view ~ Marxist theory of deskilling: skilled work is disappearing

• The optimistic view ~ Human Capital/

Post-Industrialism theories: skilled work is increasing

• The compensatory theory of skill ~ developed at Lancaster: some skilled work is disappearing and some is increasing

The New Theory of an ‘Hour Glass’ Economy

Earlier Formulations

The ‘Hour Glass’ Economy/Society I

• This theory argues that a new structure of jobs is emerging

• This is captured by the metaphor of the ‘hour glass’ [egg-timer]

• Jobs are expanding at the top of the occupational hierarchy and at the bottom simultaneously

• Intermediate occupations are disappearing

The ‘Hour Glass’ Economy/Society II

• This model is particularly popular amongst researchers in the field of international migration in the USA

• They see some groups of international migrants [eg Latinos] locked into the lower end of the occupational hierarchy

• The traditional route for social advancement in the USA is seen as unavailable as a result of the disappearance of opportunities within ‘intermediate’ occupational strata

The ‘Hour Glass’ Economy/Society III

• What are intermediate occupational groups?• They refer to jobs which are neither

professional/managerial nor nonskilled• They include skilled manual work ~ these are

entered either via an apprenticeship or through a lengthy internal career ladder

• They also include technicians, semi-professions like nursing and supervisory occupations

• Have they declined in the contemporary era?

Figure 1: Occupational Structure of Jobs in the USA, 1980-2000

Source: US Censuses of Population 1980, 1990 and 2000

Figure 2: Occupational Structure of Jobs in the USA in 3 Groupings, 1980-2000

0 10 20 30 40 50

Managerial/Professional

Intermediate

Service/Operator/Transport& Moving Materials/Others

Year 2000

Year 1990

Year 1980

Source: US Censuses of Population 1980, 1990 and 2000

The ‘Hour Glass’ Economy/Society IV

• It is clear that intermediate occupations remain a central component of the American occupational structure

• It is also apparent that skilled manual workers also remain an important element within this occupational structure [changing definitions of categories make precise delineation in this area difficult]

Skilled Manual Workers I

• What have been the social characteristics of skilled manual workers historically?

• They have been overwhelmingly male and White since the onset of industrialization in the nineteenth century

• This began to change in the USA after the introduction of affirmative action in the late 1960s and throughout the 1970s

• No parallel change took place in Britain between 1951 and 1991

Skilled Manual Workers II

• In this presentation we will explore how these parameters have changed during the 1990s by the use of Census data from the USA [2000] and GB [2001]

Skilled Manual Workers III

• The two key questions addressed are:

1.Has the trend in the USA towards greater female and non-White participation in skilled manual work continued during the 1990s?

2.Has the pattern of gender and ethnic exclusivity changed in Britain during the same period?

• The answers to these two questions are situated within longitudinal cross-sectional Census data

Proportion of Skilled Construction Trades by Gender in USA: 1970-2000

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

Carpenters Painters Plumbers/Pipefitters Electricians

Occupation

Pe

rce

nta

ge 1970 Female

1980 Female

1990 Female

2000 Female

Skilled Manual Workers & Gender in the USA [1970-2000] I

• The increase in the proportion of female skilled construction workers in the USA has continued during the 1990s in three of the four skilled occupational groups

• The proportion of female skilled construction workers nonetheless remains low

Proportion of Skilled Metal Trades by Gender in USA: 1970-2000

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Machinists Welders/Cutters Tool & Die Makers Sheetmetal Workers

Occupation

Pe

rce

nta

ge 1970 Female

1980 Female

1990 Female

2000 Female

Skilled Manual Workers & Gender in the USA [1970-2000] II

• There has been an increase in the proportion of female skilled metalworkers during the 1990s in three of the four skilled trades

• The proportion of female skilled metalworkers workers remains low but is higher than for construction trades

Proportion of Other Skilled Trades by Gender in USA: 1970-2000

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Auto Mechanics Aircraft Mechanics Telephone LineInstallers

Telephone Installers Mining MachineOperators

Typesetters/Compositors

Occupation

Per

cen

tag

e 1970 Female

1980 Female

1990 Female

2000 Female

Proportion of Other Skilled Trades by Gender in USA: 1970-2000

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

Auto Mechanics Aircraft Mechanics Telephone Line Installers Telephone Installers Mining MachineOperators

Occupation

Per

cen

tag

e 1970 Female

1980 Female

1990 Female

2000 Female

Skilled Manual Workers & Gender in the USA [1970-2000] III• The pattern amongst these other six skilled trades is more

complex• Typesetters/compositors have been significantly

feminized over the period ~ although the trend reversed between 1990 and 2000

• Auto mechanics and mining machine operators remained overwhelmingly male

• Aircraft mechanics are proportionately more female than auto mechanics ~ this is probably due to the impact of the US military

• The proportion of female Telephone Installers and Telephone Line Installers both significantly increased between 1970 and 2000 but the trend reversed during the 1990s ~ the former trend was mainly the result of affirmative action suits during the 1970s

Skilled Manual Workers & Gender in the USA [1970-2000]: Summary of Changes

• TABLE HERE

Proportion of Skilled Construction Trades by Ethnicity in USA: 1980-2000

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Carpenters Painters Plumbers/Pipefitters Electricians

Occupation

Pe

rce

nta

ge

1980 Black

1990 Black

2000 Black

1980 Hispanic

1990 Hispanic

2000 Hispanic

Skilled Manual Workers & Ethnicity in the USA [1970-2000] I

• The proportion of skilled construction workers from Black and Latino backgrounds was much higher than the proportion of females in these occupations

• The proportion of Latino skilled construction workers had increased rapidly, particularly during the 1990s

• The proportion of Black skilled construction workers had not increased markedly: indeed in two instances it had fallen between 1970 and 2000

Proportion of Skilled Metal Trades by Ethnicity in USA: 1980-2000

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

Machinists Welders/Cutters Tool & Die Makers Sheetmetal Workers

Occupation

Pe

rce

nta

ge

1980 Black

1990 Black

2000 Black

1980 Hispanic

1990 Hispanic

2000 Hispanic

Skilled Manual Workers & Ethnicity in the USA [1970-2000] II

• The same pattern was evident amongst skilled metalworkers

• The proportion of Latino skilled metalworking workers had increased rapidly

• This was particularly the case during the 1990s for welders/cutters and sheetmetal workers

• The proportion of Black skilled metalworkers had not increased in most instances: indeed in three of the skilled metalworking trades it had fallen between 1970 and 2000

Proportion of Other Skilled Trades by Ethnicity in USA: 1980-2000

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

Auto Mechanics Aircraft Mechanics Telephone LineInstallers

Telephone Installers Mining MachineOperators

Typesetters/Compositors

Occupation

Perc

en

tag

e

1980 Black

1990 Black

2000 Black

1980 Hispanic

1990 Hispanic

2000 Hispanic

Skilled Manual Workers & Ethnicity in the USA [1970-2000] III

• A similar pattern was evident amongst the other six skilled trades examined

• In all cases the proportion of Latinos increased over the period between 1970 and 2000 and in most cases [5] it accelerated during the 1990s

• The proportion of Blacks increased during the period between 1970 and 2000 in five of the skilled trades

• But in two cases [aircraft mechanics & mining machine operators] it fell during the 1990s

Skilled Manual Workers & Ethnicity in the USA [1970-2000]: Summary of Changes

Skilled Manual Workers & Ethnicity in the USA [1970-2000] IV

• Overall it is clear that skilled manual workers remained predominantly White and overwhelmingly male during the period between 1970 and 2000

• Affirmative action in the USA has had a greater impact upon ethnic exclusivity than on gender exclusion

• There is strong evidence that skilled manual work offers considerable opportunities for Latinos in the USA ~ many of whom are international migrants or the children of international migrants

• It offered less opportunities for Latinas

Skilled Manual Workers & Ethnicity in the USA [1970-2000] V

• Nonetheless, the proportion of Latino skilled workers in 2000 only exceeded their percentage in the overall population [12.5%]* in four cases ~ carpenters, painters,welders/cutters and auto mechanics

• The proportion of Black skilled workers never exceeded their overall percentage in the overall population in 2000 [12.3%]

Gender and Skilled Work in GB, 1951-2001

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001

% F

EM

AL

E

C arpenters & joiners

P ainters & decorators

S heetmetal workers

Toolmakers

Welders

E lectric ians

Motor mechanics

Gender & Skilled Work in GB, 1951-2001

• Most skilled manual workers have been male throughout the post-war period in Britain

• The proportion of carpenters/joiners, toolmakers and motor mechanics who were female has risen slightly between 1951 and 2001 but remains less than 2% in all three cases

• The proportion of female sheetmetal workers fell significantly during the period ~ the 1951 figure was a residue from World War II when women were allowed entry into this previously ‘male’ occupation

• The proportion of female painters/decorators, welders and motor mechanics fell during the 1990s

Skilled Workers x Ethnicity:1991 GB Census [Two Measures]

White Black SouthAsian

Chinese

Total 95.8 1.3 2.2 0.3Social Class:

Skilled Manual 96.4 1.3 1.8 0.2Socio-Econ Group:

Skilled Manual 96.7 1.3 1.7 0.03Source:1991 Census Ethnic Group and Country of Birth Table 16

Ethnicity and Skilled Work in GB [1991]: I

• In 1991 almost all skilled manual workers in GB were White

• Skilled work was disproportionately White ~ Blacks were not under-represented but South Asians were

Ethnicity x Skilled Groupings: 1991 GB Census [%]

Black Caribbean

South Asian

Total 1.0 2.0

Construction 0.7 0.5

Metalworking 0.8 1.1

Electrical/ Electronic 1.4 1.5

Welding/ Metal forming 1.1 1.0

Vehicle 1.3 1.7

Printing 0.9 1.3Source: 1991 Census of Great Britain Table DGM2 ‘Ethnic Group by Occupation Minor Groups and Sex [10% Sample]

Ethnicity and Skilled Work in GB [1991]: II

• Afro-Caribbeans are somewhat under-represented in construction and metalworking trades but over-represented in electrical/electronic, welding/metal forming and vehicle trades

• South Asians are under-represented in all trades but this varied across the spectrum of skilled work

Proportion of Skilled Occupations by Ethnicity in GB: 2001

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

Occupation

Per

cen

tag

e

Black

South Asian

Ethnicity and Skilled Work in GB [2001]: I

• Blacks were under-represented* in most trades [apart from telephone engineers]

Ethnicity and Skilled Work in GB [2001]: II

• South Asians* were also under-represented in almost all areas of skilled manual work

• The exceptions was once more as telephone engineers

• This under-representation amongst South Asians was most marked in mining and painting & decorating

Overall Conclusions I

• Skilled manual workers remain an important element in the stratification systems of the USA and GB

• The ‘hour glass’ economy is a myth

• Skilled work remains overwhelmingly male and predominantly White in the USA and GB

Overall Conclusions II

• The trend towards greater female and non-White participation in skilled manual work in the USA has continued in some cases during the 1990s but not in others

• Around half the skilled trades had become less female during the 1990s

• The proportion of Latinos in skilled work had accelerated during the 1990s but the proportion of Black skilled workers had fallen in xxx cases

Overall Conclusions III

• There was a marked asymmetry between Latinos and Blacks

• These results indicate that skilled work continued to offer increasing opportunities for Latinos in the US labour market ~ many of whom are international migrants or their children

Overall Conclusions IV

• The picture in Britain was one of powerful structural inertia ~ skilled work remained overwhelmingly male and predominantly White

• South Asians were markedly more under-represented in skilled work than Blacks ~ a situation of marked ethnic asymmetry