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THE CENTRALITY OF THE BUDDHIST TEACHER

GURU-YOGA IN THE TIBETAN TRADITIONS

Georgios T. Halkias (University of Hong Kong)

ABSTRACT

The centrality of having a ‘spiritual teacher, or friend’ (Pāli kalyanamitta; Skt.

kalyānamitra Tib. dge ba’i bshes gnyen) has been emphasized in Buddhism since the times

of Buddha Śākyamuni himself. In the Meghiya Sutta of the Pāli canon the Buddha stressed

the necessity and advantages of having a spiritual friend to “ensure success in the Buddhist

path.” Throughout the history of Buddhism, the requirements of a spiritual friend shifted

to reflect the concerns of the tradition without their being any doubt as to the importance

of a qualified teacher to guide disciples in the path of meditation and ensure an unbroken

continuity of the lineage. In Vajrayāna Buddhism, the centrality of the guru (Tib. bla ma)

takes the form of a particular type of meditation known as ‘guru-yoga’ (Tib. lha ma rnal

’byor), or the practice of uniting one’s awareness with that of the teacher. In this paper, I

will introduce this meditation practice shared by all schools of Tibetan Buddhism, discuss

some of the techniques and stages of visualization whose ultimate aim is to identify with

the inner teacher, our buddha-nature that is the ultimate goal of Buddhist practice.

KEYWORDS

Buddhist Teacher, Spiritual Friend, Kalyānamitra, Lama, Guru-yoga

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I. INTRODUCTION

མྱ་ངན་མ་བྱེད་ཀུན་དགའ་བོ། །སྱེ་སྔགས་མ་འདོན་ཀུན་དགའ་བོ། །ང་ཉིད་ཕི་མའི་དུས་ཀི་ཚེ།

།དགྱེ་བའི་བཤྱེས་གཉྱེན་ཉིད་སྤྲུལ་ནས། །ཁྱེད་ལ་སོགས་པའི་དོན་བྱེད་འགྱུར།།

Don’t be sad Ānanda, don’t sob Ānanda,

In future times I will emanate in the form of spiritual teachers,

To benefit you and others.

Great Drum Sūtra

Following a religious teacher or guru is a general characteristic of Indian culture

that goes back to the Vedic period.1 For Buddhism the importance of a teacher or ‘spiritual

friend’ (Pāli kalyanamitta; Skt. kalyānamitra Tib. dge ba’i bshes gnyen) varies from one

tradition to another. In hagiographical narratives of Śākyamuni’s life we read that

Siddhārtha Gautama studied with several guides before becoming a Buddha – like the well-

known master Ārāda Kālāma with whom he was trained to enter into the ‘sphere of

nothingness,’ and Udraka Rāmaputra who taught him how to meditate on the ‘sphere

beyond consciousness and unconsciousness.’2 Tradition has it that Siddhārtha found his

mentors lacking in penultimate understanding and proclaimed his awakening by relying on

his own efforts. He spent the rest of his life taking disciples and teaching them the dhamma

that he had discovered. It is said that a few days before entering parinibbāna he instructed

his close disciple Ānanda, “the Doctrine-and-Discipline, which I have taught and enjoyed,

is to be your teacher after my passing.3 And also “be islands unto yourselves, refuges unto

yourselves, seeking no external refuge; with the dhamma as your island, the dhamma as

your refuge, seeking no other refuge” (DN 16.33).

The parting instructions of Śākyamuni to his disciples would seem to imply that one

should rely on the dhamma as one’s refuge and teacher. Hence, throughout the history of

Buddhism the sangha served as the preserver and transmitter of the dhamma and the notion

of a ‘religious teacher’ came to occupy different levels of importance shifting from a

relatively secondary position (that of a ‘spiritual friend’ on the path) to a place of paramount

importance for one’s spiritual progress (equal to the ‘Buddha himself’) in the tantric phases

of Indo-Tibetan Mahāyāna Buddhism.

In the following study, I will briefly trace the visibility of this concept in some early

and later Buddhist sources and outline the significance of the mentor for the Buddhist

contemplative life. Specifically, I will examine how an understanding of the ‘teacher’ came

to inform central contemplative perspectives and meditation practices in Tibetan

Buddhism. As we will see, the guru or lama (Tib. bla ma), which serves as a surrogate of

the Buddha and a living example of the dhamma, provides the conducive circumstances

and contributory causes for realization during the path of meditation. It is a means to an

1 Padoux (2000: 41). References to the significance of the guru abound in the literature of the Upanishads with

the following often-cited verses from the Advaya-Tārakopaniṣad: “The syllable ‘gu’ indicates darkness, the

syllable ‘ru’ means its dispeller. Because of the quality of dispelling darkness, the Guru is so termed” (16); “The

Guru alone is the transcendent Brahman; the Guru alone is the supreme goal; the Guru alone is the transcendent

wisdom and the Guru along is the last resort” (17); and “The Guru alone is the ultimate limit; the Guru alone is

the highest wealth. For the reason that he teaches THAT, therefore is the Guru greater than all else” (18); see

Ayyangar (1938:8). 2 Frauwallner (1973: 139). 3 Quoted in Karunadasa (2013: 1, n.4).

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end and not as an end in itself.

II. THE ‘SPIRITUAL TEACHER’ FOR ŚRĀVAKAS AND BODHISATTVAS

He who seeks eloquence should have devotion for his guru.

Śūraṅgamasamādhi-sūtra

In Pāli canonical sources there are discernible advantages for seeking out a ‘spiritual

friend’. In the Meghiya Sutta (AN 9.4), one acquires spiritual or admirable friendships for

the sake of being virtuous, for hearing the “advantages of an austere life that opens the heart

and brings forth the knowledge and vision of liberation,” for abandoning unwholesome

qualities, and eventually for coming to possess the “wisdom that discerns arising and

passing away and leads to the complete destruction of suffering.” In the Dīghajāṇu Sutta

(AN 8.54) we read an explanation of ‘admirable friendships’:

There is the case where a lay person, in whatever town or village he may

dwell, spends time with householders or householders' sons, young or old,

who are advanced in virtue. He talks with them, engages them in discussions.

He emulates consummate conviction in those who are consummate in

conviction, consummate virtue in those who are consummate in virtue,

consummate generosity in those who are consummate in generosity, and

consummate discernment in those who are consummate in discernment. This

is called admirable friendship.4

Similarly, for the Itivuttaka (1.17):

With regard to external factors, I don't envision any other single factor like

admirable friendship as doing so much for a monk in training, who has not

attained the heart's goal but remains intent on the unsurpassed safety from

bondage. A monk who is a friend with admirable people abandons what is

unskilful and develops what is skilful.5

The significance of relying on spiritual friendships is made explicit in the dialogue

transpiring between Ānanda and Śākyamuni in the Upaddha Sutta (SN 45.2):

[Ānanda] “Venerable Sir, this is half of the holy life, that is good friendship,

good companionship, good comradeship.”

[Śākyamuni] Not so, Ānanda! Not so, Ānanda! This is the entire holy life,

Ānanda, that is good friendship, good companionship, good comradeship.

When a bhikku has a good friend, a good companion, a good comrade, it is

to be expected that he will develop and cultivate the Noble Eightfold

Path…by relying upon me as a good friend, Ānanda, beings subject to birth

4 http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an08/an08.054.than.html, translation by Thanissaro Bhikkhu,

accessed on March 20th, 2017. 5 http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/kn/iti/iti.1.001-027.than.html#iti-017, translation by Thanissaro

Bhikkhu, accessed on March 20th, 2017.

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are freed from birth; beings subject to aging are freed from aging; beings

subject to death are freed from death…by this method, Ānanda, it may be

understood how the entire holy life is good friendship, good companionship,

good comradeship.6

Thus relying upon a ‘spiritual friend’ who possesses virtuous qualities and has

knowledge of the dhamma is an essential factor for leading a holy life on the path of

liberation. This view seems to have prevailed among śrāvaka-s up to the 5th century. The

Indian Buddhist commentator and scholar Buddhaghoṣa explains that it constitutes a

serious fault if one is not able to “find a good friend as a teacher or the equivalent of a

teacher or a preceptor or the equivalent of a preceptor” (Visudhimagga, 2.18).

With the development of Mahāyāna ideals, the notion of a ‘spiritual friend’ acquired

prominence and came to include anyone (lay person or monastic) that has the qualifications

to guide bodhisattvas on the path of awakening. In the final section of the Avataṃsaka

Sūtra, the Gaṇḍavyūha (Tib. Sdong po bkod pa’i mdo), we read:

It is from spiritual friends that bodhisattvas learn the practice of

bodhisattvas; it is through spiritual friends that all bodhisattvas’ virtues are

perfected; spiritual friends are the source of the stream of all bodhisattva

vows; the roots of goodness of all bodhisattvas are produced by spiritual

friends; the provisions for enlightenment are produced by spiritual friends;

the purification of all ways to enlightenment derives from spiritual friends;

the accomplishment of all studies of bodhisattvas are based on spiritual

friends.7

In the same work we read that “spiritual guides…born within the Buddha’s wisdom

clan” are like eldest children of a universal monarch.

Because they engender in you the positive qualities of the enlightened

heritage, they are like mothers. They accomplish wide ranging helpful acts

like fathers. They protect you from wrongdoing, like mothers. They possess

all forms of training like masters. They have entered the path of the

transcendent perfections, like guides. They cure the mental afflictions’

sicknesses like healers. They protect you from dangers like warriors. They

liberate you from the river of the round of rebirth, like boatmen. All conduct

of bodhisattvas depends upon spiritual guides.8

With the centrality of the mentor on the Buddhist path, discoursing on the

qualifications that a Buddhist guide ought to possess became necessary for a number of

Mahāyāna treatises. Before we look at some of these we should note that investigating the

qualities of teachers are also found in early Buddhism. In the Vīmamsaka Sutta (III.4) the

Buddha presented instructions by which a monk can test the Tathāgata “to evaluate his

claim to be perfectly enlightened.” And if a monk is not able to see directly into the

Buddha’s own mind, he can observe the Buddha’s physical deeds and words and indirectly

infer whether or not the Buddha is free from defilements, and whether, his mental states

6 See Bhikkhu Bodhi (2012:1523); italics mine. 7 Cleary (1987:34). 8 ibid., 63.

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“are exclusively pure, uninfluenced by greed, hatred and delusion.” While, the Buddha

encouraged his disciples to approach him and directly inquire about his mental states, the

ultimate test is to enter the practice of the dhamma and thereby gain invincible faith through

one’s own realization (Bhikkhu Bodhi, 2005: 86-87).

In the 4th century, the Indian Mahāyāna scholar Ārya Asaṅga discusses the

characteristics that a Buddhist guide ought to possess:

(1) a virtuous way of life adhering to [the precepts of] a bodhisattva;

(2) extensive learning of the three baskets;

(3) virtuous qualities that derive from meditation of quiescence and insight;

(4) compassion and dedication for the welfare of others;

(5) self-confidence when teaching the dharma;

(6) patiently forbearing unwelcome and undesirable remarks and wrongful

behaviour carried out by others;

(7) being tireless and with careful consideration teaching Dharma to the fourfold

following (i.e., monks, nuns, laymen and laywomen);

(8) skilful qualities of speech.9

In another influential work of Indian Buddhism, Maitreya’s Ornament for the Great

Vehicle Sūtras (Skt. Mahāyanāsūtrālamkāra; Tib. Mdo sde rgyan), we read that a

practitioner who needs a teacher should seek a bodhisattva “who has vast learning, who has

seen the truth, who is a wise philosopher, who is loving and indefatigable” (Chapter XIII,

p. 168). One should serve a spiritual friend “who is disciplined, tranquil, serene,

outstanding in good qualities, energetic, rich in (knowledge of) scripture, awakened to

reality, skilled in speech, compassionate, and indefatigable” (Chapter XVII, p. 224). The

equal emphasis on the synthesis of scriptural learning and contemplative experience gave

rise to the model of the ‘scholar-siddha’ (Tib. mkas-sgrub). In Indian Buddhism this model

of the spiritual master who possesses the ‘qualities of a guru’ (Tib. bla ma’i thugs rgyud

kyi yon tan), i.e., having ‘correct view and genuine compassion’ (Tib. bla ma mtshan nyid

dang ldan pa), and who has deep knowledge of the Buddhist scriptures and mastery over

different kinds of meditation, prevailed also in Tibet and became the highest ideal in many

schools.10

A notable Buddhist scholar from Eastern Tibet, Choying Tobden Dorje (Chos

dbyings stobs ldan rdo rje, 1787–1848), describes eight different kinds of Buddhist masters:

(1) spiritual guides; (2) supreme wish-fulfilling spiritual masters; (3) spiritual masters

whose qualities are naturally complete; (4) spiritual masters liberated from existence; (5)

spiritual masters of vast sublime insight; (6) spiritual masters who hold the blessings of the

successive lineage; (7) spiritual masters who compassionately lead on the path; and (8)

spiritual masters who reveal the ultimate essential meaning.11 In the same work he explains

that one should rely on genuine Buddhist masters because they have the ability to provide

lasting and useful advise; to teach correct conduct; to accelerate the development of

9 Bodhisattva Stages (Skt. Bodhisattvabhūmi; Tib. Rnal ’byor spyod pa’i sa las byang chub sems dpa’i sa), Asaṅga

(2016: 396-397). Butön, quoting Śākyaprabha’s Advice for Novice Monks in three hundred verses, states that

“one is acclaimed as a spiritual master if he/she keeps the vows, knows the formal procedures of monastic

discipline, is caring towards the sick, is surrounded by pure individuals, strives to be of spiritual and material

aid, and gives timely counsel” (2013: 60). 10 The emphasis on learning is seen during the time of Buddhagosa (c. 5th cent.) where guru qualifications entailed

taking an accomplished scholar of Buddhist doctrine, an ācārya, as the spiritual friend. 11 Choying Tobden Dorje (2014: 47).

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wisdom and goodness; to provide protection from suffering; to assist in the flourishing of

our spiritual qualities; and lastly, because they give us profound teachings (2014: 58).

Teachers bearing these attributes and qualities the ‘spiritual offspring’ of the Buddhas who

assist their pupils in five ways: “they are themselves well-instructed; they cause them to

learn everything; they make them learn quickly; they have a pleasing countenance like

those who are compassionate; and they have no concern for material wealth.”12

For the contemporary Bhutanese Buddhist teacher and film-maker Dzongsar

Jamyang Khyentse (1961–present), the chances of being led astray by a guru are slim if he

is devoted to the three jewels and always tries to “cultivate the atmosphere of paramitas,

the perfect attributes of a bodhisattva.” “Such a guru is more likely to influence you to

meditate and practice, to lead you onto the path of liberation and not side-track you by

encouraging you to be a ‘good person’ with vegetarianism, environmentalism, simple

living, relaxation techniques, mindfulness, ahimsa (nonviolence), and so on.”13

In the Bodhisattva’s Garland of Jewels and in the Eight Verses of Mind Training

we read that one should serve with devotion and respect their master or preceptor. “Those

who possess enlightened vision, and those first setting out upon the path—regard them both

as your spiritual teachers.” The Bengali scholar Atīśa Dīpaṃkara Śrījñāna (982–1054 CE)

said: “Even when someone I have helped, or in whom I have placed great hopes mistreats

me very unjustly, I will view that person as a true spiritual teacher.”14 So while it is clearly

part of the bodhisattva’s career to become a spiritual mentor and adopt the means for

converting others (Skt. upāya-pāramitā),15 it is also part of his own mental training to see

his enemy or adversary as his spiritual mentor. One should grant antagonistic persons the

highest position of respect and gratitude since they provide us with the opportunity to

reflect on forgiveness, loving kindness, and the six pāramitā-s.

To summarize, in Mahāyāna Buddhism the notion of the spiritual teacher serves a

number of functions including but not limited to facilitating the continuity of the Buddha’s

lineage, inciting a certain kind of reverential attitude towards the dharma and its

application, and last but not least serving as a ‘field of merit’ (Skt. puṇyakṣetra; Tib. tshogs

zhing) for Mahāyāna aspirants who receive the bodhisattva vows (Skt. praṇidhāna) from

their teachers. This resonates with the wide-spread doctrine that a bodhisattva must declare

his praṇidhāna “in the presence of a living Buddha, who then predicts his future success in

attaining enlightenment” (Skt. vyākaraṇa)16 – as in the case of the bodhisattva Sumedha

who was granted the prophesy of his enlightenment by Buddha Dīpankara.

Exaggerated and picturesque accounts of the religious teacher that contributed to

the development of the bodhisattva doctrine, need to be tempered by the understanding that

the teacher ought to be a living expression of the dharma and in no way distinct or higher

than the ‘perfection of wisdom’ (prajñāpāramitā). Hence, we read in the Large Sūtra on

12 Maitreya’s Ornament for the Great Vehicle Sūtras, Ch. XIX, p. 298. The famous Tibetan polymath and scholar

Butön (2013:61) attributes five qualities to the teacher: (1) extensive education, the quality of scriptural

transmission; (2) perception of the truth, the quality of realization; (3) verbal eloquence; (4) kindness, paying

no attention to material gain; and (5) lack of discouragement, not complacent in attitude and conduct. 13 Dzongsar Khyentse (2016: 100-105) further explains that a genuine spiritual mentor has tamed his body, speech

and mind and abides by the Buddha’s rules; he is generous, gentle and soothing; brings one to virtuous

surroundings; has pure perception; is non-judgmental; fears wrongdoing; is forgiving and skilful. 14 Above quotations are from the Bodhisattva’s Garland of Jewels and Eight Verses of Mind Training, Rigpa

Translations 2012; see lotsawahouse.org, accessed on 03/20/2017. 15 Dayal (1999: 248) notes, “The Mahayana was a ‘revival’ movement and attached great importance to successful

propaganda. The Bodhisattva-Bhūmi declares that it is the bodhisattva’s duty to be an effective

preacher…Preaching and teaching are known as the bodhisattva’s ‘gift of the doctrine of truth’ (dharma-dāna).” 16 For a discussion on this practice see Dayal (1999: 67-68).

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Perfect Wisdom (p.484): “To cut it short, Ananda, just as I am your Teacher, so is this

perfection of wisdom.”17 From a Madhyamaka perspective the ‘conventionally designated

teacher’ (Tib. kun rdzob bla ma) is seen as the basis and method for realizing the ‘ultimate

teacher’ (Tib. don dam bla ma). The distinction between the two is critical in our

exploration of mind-training meditations pursued in Vajrayāna wherein the individual guru

is exonerated of his personhood and is viewed as the Buddha (Tib. bla ma sangs rgyas

dngos su gsungs pa yin te). As stated by the 7th century Indian scholar Chandrakīrti in his

Entering the Middle Way, (Skt. Madhyamakāvatāra; Tib. Dbu ma la ’jug pa),

“conventional truth is the method, and the ultimate its outcome. Not knowing how the two

truth differ, your thoughts will go astray.” (VI, 80).

III. TEACHER-STUDENT ENGAGEMENTS IN VAJRAYĀNA

The foundation of all the perfections is the kind guru. Having seen that

proper reliance on him is the root and basis of all the paths, inspire me to

relate to him with every effort.

Tsongkhapa (Yon tan gzhir gyur ma)

The spiritual mentor, not unlike the Buddha, is compared to a physician that cures

us of our ignorance with his medicine the dharma.18 For the early Kadam master Potowa

Rinchen Sal (Po to ba in chen gsal, 1031–1105) in order to reach liberation there is nothing

more important than a lama.

Even in simple things of this present life, with things that you can learn just

by sitting down and watching someone, you can’t get anywhere without a

person to show you. So how on earth are you going to get anywhere without

a lama, when you want to go somewhere you’ve never gone before, and

you’ve only just arrived from a journey through the lower births?19

It is essential to the practice of esoteric Buddhism, or Vajrayāna (the vehicle of the

Vajra) to cultivate ‘clear-minded faith’ (Tib. dang ba’i dad pa) and a ‘sacred outlook,’ or

‘pure perception’ towards the guru. In the Jewel Ornament of Liberation the Kagyu scholar

Gampopa (Sgam po pa, 1079–1153) argued that a living master is a contributory cause for

one’s realization of the dharma. One develops clear-mind faith when one’s mind is clear

with “regard to relying with devotion and without doubt to the three jewels and the lama”:

17 The Buddha explains: “One would expect him to have found the ‘teacher’, or a succession of preceptors who

represent him and who lead a spiritual life. And why? For this very perfection of wisdom should in this context

be regarded as the ‘teacher’, nor is the teacher one thing and the perfection of wisdom another, but just the

perfection of wisdom is the teacher and just the teacher is the perfection of wisdom. And why? Because those

who have trained in this perfection of wisdom will appear in the world as the Tathagatas of the past, future, and

present;” the Large Sutra on Perfect Wisdom Conze (1975: 271), italics mine. 18 This recalls the famous saying from the Gaṇḍavyūha sūtra: “Noble one, think of yourself as someone who is

sick, of the dharma as the remedy, of your spiritual teacher as a skilful doctor, and of diligent practice as the

way to recovery.” 19 Quoted in Tsongkapa (1988: 40).

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Clear faith is relying on the three excellent and rare objects, then giving rise

to them. It is a clear mind having respect and devotion for the excellent rare

objects: the jewel of the Buddha who shows the path; the jewel of the dharma

as being the path; and the jewel of the sangha as being the [spiritual] friends

who accomplish the path.20

In India it was customary for the ‘Vajrayāna master’ (Skt. vajrācārya) to be viewed

as the embodiment of the refuge jewels; his mind conceived as that of the Buddha, his

speech no different from the dharma, and his body as an expression of the sangha.21 In the

Tantra of the Secret Community (Skt. Guhyasamāja Tantra; Tib. Gsang ’dus rtsa rgyud)

we read: “Child of good family, all the bodhisattvas and tathāgatas look on [the guru] as

the Vajra mind of enlightenment. Why? Because the master and the mind of enlightenment

are the same – they are not divisible into two.”22

From a Tibetan Buddhist perspective, the role of guru is very important because it

is only after the initiatory empowerment, elucidating instructions, and personal guidance

that the disciple is ready to commence with tantric practice. There are many people who

are suspicious of Vajrayāna because of the intensity of the guru-disciple relationship and

the force of projections that occur in the interactions between mentors and students. Ray

(2002: 175) nicely sums this when he writes that one cannot deny the “dangers in this as in

all other intimate human relationships.” And although there can be no “complete guarantee

against mistakes and abuses,” the best defence against potential misunderstandings and

misuses is having sound knowledge and understanding of teacher-disciple relationships. 23

To begin with, the cultivation of a sacred outlook towards one’s Buddhist guide should not

be maintained if he goes against the precepts of the Buddhist dharma. The Tibetan tradition

advises prospective Vajrayāna students to carefully examine their teacher’s conduct,

reputation and activities and ascertain if he or she possesses the necessary qualifications to

serve as a religious guide. In the Fifty Verses of Guru Devotion attributed to Aśvagosha, a

text held definitive in Tibetan tantric Buddhism, we read that we can be devoted to a guru

who is “steady and calm, intelligent, patient, forthright, without craft or falsehood,

knowledgeable in the practice of mantra and tantra, kind and well-read, proficient in the

ten principles, skilled in the drawing of the mandalas, knowledgeable in the practice of

explaining the mantra, possessed of great faith and calm senses.”24

For the Tibetan ‘treasure-discoverer’ (Tib. gter-ston) Jigme Lingpa (’Jigs med gling

pa, 1729–1798) there are four kinds of gurus to be avoided. Those who constantly talk

about their family, lineage, history and monastery—they are compared to a ‘wooden

millstone’ that is very noisy but doesn’t do the job. Those who are like ‘frogs in a well’

because they think they are special for being born in good and influential families, because

they are powerful, charismatic and good-looking but do not possess any enlightened

20 Quoted in Jamgön Kongtrul (1999: 75). 21 In addition to going for refuge to the three jewels, a tantric practitioner takes refuge to the three roots of

Vajrayāna practice: the lama, the meditational deity (Tib. yi dam), and the sky-goers or ḍākinī (Tib. mkha’ gro).

In this arrangement, the guru serves as the root of blessings, the yidam as the root of spiritual accomplishments,

and the ḍākinī as the root of activities. 22 In other words, the ‘outer guru’ (the living teacher) and the ‘inner guru’ (one’s enlightened awareness) are

meant to be understood as one and the same; see Tsongkhapa (1999:59). 23 The chapter on the guru in Chögyam Trungpa’s Cutting through Spiritual Materialism (2008) makes for an

informative introduction to this topic, as is Rig’dzin Dorje’s Dangerous Friend: The Teacher-Student

Relationship in Vajrayana Buddhism (2013). 24 Tsongkhapa (1999:41).

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qualities. They are like proud frogs who live in a well boasting about their home without

being able to fathom frogs which live in a lake. The third kind to be avoided are ‘mad

guides’ who though may have had good teachers and may possess some knowledge indulge

in reckless activities without care about benefiting beings. And lastly, they are those who

are characterized as ‘blind captains’ referring to mentors who guide beings that are at a

higher level than them and can’t advance them further.25

The ecumenical Tibetan scholar Jamgön Kongtrul (’Jam mgon kong sprul blo gros

mtha’ yas, 1813–1899), explains that there are different kinds of Buddhist masters with

corresponding qualifications: ‘Prātimokṣa Vow Masters’ (Skt. Prātimokṣa-ācārya; Tib. so

sor thar pa’i slob dpon) whose qualifications ought to relate to the vows of monastics;

‘Bodhisattva Vow Masters’ (Tib. byang chub kyi slob dpon) whose qualifications have

been discussed in the previous section;26 and ‘Vajrayāna Vow Masters’ (Tib. sngags kyi

slob dpon) who should have ideally reached the first bodhisattva bhumi and possess

characteristics as so listed in Aśvaghoṣa’s Fifty Verses of Guru-Devotion (Skt.

Gurupancasika; Tib. Bla ma lnga cu pa). Furthermore, they should be able to visualize and

construct the mandalas of the various deities, know the essential points for performing

mudras for the various tantric rituals (Tib. cho ga), recite mantras, maintain one-pointed

concentration, know the ten essential points of suchness (Tib. de kho nan yid bcu) and the

ten secret essential points (Tib. gsang ba’i de nyid bcu) (1999: 40-47).

Just as one should not accept a teacher without carefully examining if he possesses

the qualifications to serve as a mentor (Tib. bla ma brtags par bya ba; lit. to examine a

teacher), it is just as necessary for the prospective students to possess certain qualities and

be ‘suitable vessels’ for the level of training they aspire to engage in. The qualifications of

prospective students are discussed in several texts. According to Jamgön Kongtrul (1999:

55-62), a student set on engaging in prātimokṣa training ought to be disciplined physically

and mentally (i.e., be diligent with his studies and in possession of meditative concentration

to subdue negative habits); have ‘devotion and esteem for the lama’ (Tib. bla ma bsnyen

bkur); and maintain ethical conduct and patience with others. For bodhisattva training the

student ought to have: (a) faith in his wisdom teacher and the Mahāyāna sūtra-s and śastra-

s; (b) compassion for all sentient beings without exception; (c) intelligence to understand

the instructions on emptiness (Skt. śūnyatā); and (d) willingness to engage in the practice

of the six perfections (Skt. pāramitā), namely, generosity, moral discipline, tolerance,

diligent effort, meditation, and wisdom. In short, he should be inspired by the teachings on

emptiness, be joyfully in his wish to bring beings to liberation, and possess uninterrupted

effort for the practices of bodhisattvas. Lastly, the student who aspires for Vajrayāna

training he ought to possess devotion for all enlightened ones and compassion for all

sentient beings. He should have confidence in the efficacy of tantric practice and the ability

to understand the tantric view and keep the tantric commitments.

According to the Net of Illusion Tantra (Skt. Māyājāla-mahā-tantra-rāja; T. Rgyud

kyi rgyal po chen po sgyu ’phrul drab ba) a disciple is someone who is virtuous and always

reverent towards the guru, enjoys meditation and makes offerings to the devas.27 And just

as there are clear explanations concerning the qualities and qualifications of Mahāyāna

25 See Dzongsar Khyentse (2016: 114) who summarizes: “If a fresh banana leaf is wrapped around a piece of old

fish, the leaf will acquire that fishy smell. Likewise, if you follow a nonvirtuous friend, you will acquire

nonvirtuous tendencies. Negative habits are contagious”. 26 For the Bodhisattva Vow Masters Jamgön Kongtrul draws a list of qualifications from the

Mahāyanāsūtrālamkāra and from Nāgārjuna’s Letter to a Friend (Skt. Suhṛllekha; Tib. Bshes springs). 27 Tsongkhapa (1999: 47).

50

teachers and their disciples, there are also clear instructions on the kinds of people one

needs to avoid as they will hinder one’s Buddhist practice. These are listed as the fools, the

faithless and apathetic, those of the lesser way, those without view, meditation and

meditative states, those with the five poisonous mental afflictions, those who feel no

disengagement from the round of rebirths, and those who purposeful mislead others for

their own benefit.28

Unlike other Buddhist traditions, training in Vajrayāna commonly presupposes

having received initiation or empowerment (Skt. abhiṣeka; Tib. dbang) often through “a

complex ritual, involving detailed visualizations, prayers, and supplications, offerings,

special ritual instruments and substances.” Powers (2007: 269) explains that the purpose of

initiation is “to establish the initiate in the proper frame of mind, forge a karmic bond with

the lama and meditational deity, purify defilements, grant permission to practice a

particular tantra, and give instruction concerning how this should be done.” Traditionally,

prior to receiving tantric initiations the aspirant ought to have completed the ‘prerequisite

practices’ (Tib. sngon ’gro) comprising prostrations, mantra recitations and visualizations

of the Vajrassatva deity, mandala offerings, and guru-yoga practices. Hopkins (1977: 47)

clarifies that it might be ruinous if one assumes an advanced practice inappropriate to his

capacity. For this reason, one’s mental continuum ought to have been ripened by the

practices common to both “Sūtra and Tantra Mahāyāna” that include: realization of

suffering and impermanence, love and compassion, altruistic mind, and the emptiness of

inherent existence.

IV. THE GURU-YOGA MEDITATION

The master's words, having entered your heart,

are like beholding a treasure in the palm of your hand

Saraha (c. 8th cent. CE)

To feel no devotion whatsoever for your guru is like being a stone on the

floor of the deepest part of the ocean. There is a whole ocean above you,

and there you are, a round pebble that can’t absorb even one drop of

water.

Dzongsar Khyentse, The Guru Drinks Bourbon

Vajrayāna scriptures differ from other Mahāyāna texts in their use of diverse

contemplative methods and techniques aimed at accumulating merit, purifying negativities

and obscurations, and realizing wisdom. Aspirants of the tantric view are introduced to a

new vision of reality not bound by ordinary conceptuality but based on an understanding

of emptiness as manifestation. Essential to this training is the ability to transform, like a

magician, ordinary appearances (that are not fixed, permanent, or independent) into

something extraordinary. This is said to be an efficacious technique for lessening our

attachment to concretized notions of ‘place, self, and other.’ For this reason, during the

reception of Vajrayāna teachings one does not consider the place where the dharma is

taught as impure, and the teacher and the teachings as ordinary. One visualizes oneself as

28 For a detailed discussion see Choying Tobden Dorje (2014: 71-78).

51

a perfect being aspiring for awakening in a retinue of male and female bodhisattvas and

surrounding deities, the mentor as a perfect Buddha (like Samantabhadra, Vajradhara, etc),

the teachings as pure dharma, and the environment as the perfect place, a buddha-field or

pure land.29 Guru devotion is essential to this sacred outlook and method of transforming

our ordinary negative emotions into their inherent enlightened aspects.

The past Kalu Rinpoche (1905–1989) explained how in early Buddhism we respect

the teacher and have immense gratitude for his kindness in giving us the dharma, whereas

in Mahāyāna we consider him to be a spiritual friend and “a counsellor at the inner level.”

For Vajrayāna he is the root lama, or the lama who personally guides us and we regard him

as the Buddha Vajradhara, “the essence and union of all the buddhas of the three times and

the ten directions.”

He is the Buddha’s equal in his qualities, and even more esteemed than any

other aspect of Buddha because of his kindness in transmitting the teaching

to us. It is this essential relationship that allows the transmission of the

blessing and provides the spiritual direction at deepest level, the Vajrayana

level (1977:178).

Said in a different way, if we understand not “just in mere words, the way in which

Buddhas and bodhisattvas of the past help the beings of the present age, it comes down to

the qualified gurus.”30 Ray (2002: 164) explains that in Vajrayāna we approach our teacher

“initially with only a dim awareness of a world beyond our samsaric version” and

eventually it is he who introduces us “to the mystery, the power, and the magic of the

phenomenal world.”

Through our Hinayana and Mahayana practice, we begin to slow down, soften, and

become more sensitive to the world beyond thought. When we enter the Vajrayana, we are

being introduced to and reconnected with this true, naked, raw reality…the Vajra master is

like a magician, not in the sense of contravening the basic order of the universe, but rather

in his ability to tap the self-existing magic that exists.

Arguably, the essence of all contemplative-cum-ritual practices in tantra is the

meditation known as ‘guru-yoga’ (Tib. lha ma rnal ’byor), the practice of uniting one’s

awareness with that of the guru.31 The aim of this essential Vajrayāna meditation shared by

all schools of Tibetan Buddhism is to visualize the merging of one’s mind with the teacher’s

mind and receive the blessings of his lineage.32 The ultimate aim of this practice is for one’s

‘realization to become identical with that of the guru’ (Tib. bla ma dang dgongs pa mnyam

par gyur ba). Other benefits associated with this practice entail receiving inspiration along

the Buddhist path, purifying our awareness by visualizing the lama as an embodiment of

the pure and exalted wisdom of the Buddha, and cultivating and trusting in our own inner

qualities.

According to the tathāgatagarbha doctrine, every sentient being possesses the seed

of enlightened awareness or buddha-nature. In other words, each one of us naturally has

29 For an elaboration of this visualization see Patrul Rinpoche (2011: 9-10). 30 Tenzin Gyatso (2009: 48) 31 In fact, guru-yoga is so widespread in Tibet and so central to Tibetan Buddhist praxis that there are many

manuals exclusively devoted to this practice. Other practices centred on the lama include lama-chöpa (Tib. bla

ma mchod pa), guru-puja or a liturgy of offering real and visualized offerings to the guru and his assembly, and

zab-tën (Tib. zhabs brtan), long life rituals performed for one’s master. 32 In some ways the transmission of the lineage blessings resonates with the importance that Chan Buddhism

places in direct mind-to-mind transmission between master to pupil.

52

the qualities of awakened consciousness. The fact that we don’t have this realization is the

reason for wandering in saṃsāra. As said in the Tathāgatagarbha section (I.27) of

Maitreya’s Treatise on the Sublime Continuum (Skt. Mahāyānottaratantra Śāstra; Tib.

Theg pa chen po rgyud bla ma’i bstan bcos): “Because the perfect ‘buddha-kaya’ (Tib.

sangs rgyas sku) is pervasive, because reality is without differentiation, and because they

all possess the ‘lineage’ (Skt gotra; Tib. rigs), ‘embodied beings’ (Tib. lus can kun) always

have the ‘buddha essence’ (Tib. sangs rgyas snying po”. In Vajrayāna there are many

different methods for recognizing this buddha essence. Of these, it is said that the quickest

and easiest way is having been ‘accepted as a disciple by a spiritual-friend lama’ (Tib. bla

ma dge ba’i bshes gnyen gyi rjes su gzung ba) and ‘recollecting the lama’s kindness’ (Tib.

bla ma’i bka’ drin dran pa). Finally, one comes to recognize and identify with the inner or

absolute lama, one’s own ‘buddha-nature’ (Skt. tathāgatagarbha; Tib. bde gshegs snying

po) that is the ultimate goal of Buddhist practice.

In order to understand the significance of this contemplative practice in a candid

way we need to be acquainted with the different meanings behind the term lama.

Traditionally, there are four different kinds of gurus, or religious mentors. There is the

individual teacher who is the holder of the lineage (Tib. gang zag brgyud pa’i bla ma), the

living human guru who belongs to an established lineage of masters (Tib. bla ma brgyud

pa). There is the transmission teacher (Tib. rgyal ba bka’ yi bla ma) that refers to the

teachings of all enlightened beings. There is the symbolic teacher of all that appears (Tib.

snang ba brda yi bla ma), and finally there is the ultimate teacher (Tib. rig pa don gyi bla

ma), the enlightened intend of our awareness, the nature of our awakened mind. Mullin

(1999: 62) clarifies that by relying upon these four types of gurus; i.e., the living master,

the sacred words of transmission one’s ordinary experiences and one’s ultimate nature, one

attains enlightenment quickly.

According to the level of tantric practice, guru-yoga is usually divided into the

‘outer and inner forms of the lama’ (Tib. bla ma gnyis). As explained by Dilgo Kyentse

(1995: 9-10), “technically guru-yoga is part of the so called preliminary practices, but in

fact it is the heart of the main practice,” for on the absolute level the teacher is one with the

“very nature of our own mind, which is itself the essence of Buddhahood, the

tathagatagarbha.” The method for realizing the inner lama and bringing this awareness

within ourselves is by following our outer or conventional ‘teacher’s pith instructions’ (Tib.

bla ma’i gdams ngag). Hence, the practice of guru-yoga entails remembering the lama “in

all our activities, whether in meditation or in postmeditation periods…it is appropriate for

all occasions and circumstances, as well as for practitioners of all levels.”

For the success of the practice of guru-yoga one should be able to generate ‘faith

and devotion towards one’s guru’ (Tib. bla ma’i mos gus) and with uncontrived faith think

that the teacher’s mind is realized and equal in all aspects to the Buddha. This is expressed

in the saying that the lama is the Buddha and the lama is the dharma (Tib. bla ma sangs

rgyas bla ma chos) recalling a passage from the Vakkali Sutta (SN 22.87) where the Buddha

said to Vakkali: “He who sees Dhamma, Vakkali, sees me; he who sees me sees Dhamma.

Truly seeing Dhamma, one sees me; seeing me one sees Dhamma.” Tibetans often say that

if we envision our guru as an ordinary individual we receive the blessings of an ordinary

person, if we see him as a bodhisattva we receive the blessings of a bodhisattva, and if we

see him as a Buddha we receive the blessings of a Buddha. It is also said that our teacher

is kinder than all the Buddhas because we can meet him in person in this life time and

receive precious instructions, while though the blessings of Buddha Amitābha, for

example, are great, because of our obscurations we cannot meet him face to face. Thus,

53

‘the lama occupies a unique position’ (Tib. bla ma kho na gal che ba yin pa) for the success

of our practice. Tenzin Gyatso (1988:15) shares similar sentiments when he writes:

Although meditational deities have great power, and also the buddhas have

high qualities, we do not have the ability to see them and they are not directly

accessible to us. But the complete transmissions of both the profound and

vast practices have been given to us in an unbroken lineage, which starts

from Lord Buddha himself, by our root gurus. Among the root gurus that we

have, there might be ordinary beings, bodhisattvas, and so forth, but

irrespective of what they might be from their side, on our part we have to

view them as actual Vajradharas, and the source of inspiration.

V. THE CONTEMPLATIVE PRACTICE

All beings are Buddhas

But this is concealed by adventitious stains.

When their stains are purified, their buddhahood is revealed.

Hevajra Tantra

At the highest level of training, the practice of guru-yoga meditation presupposes

that one has received initiation into the mandala of a particular deity so that one is ripe to

generate from emptiness and dissolve back into emptiness a Buddhist deity (yidam) and its

retinue. During the stages of visualization, practitioners train to project all enlightened

qualities to their lama who is perceived as the embodiment of the Buddhas of the three

times (Tib. bla ma dus gsum gyi sangs rgyas), and conceive themselves as something

extraordinary, as a bodhisattva or a tantric deity based on their state of practice and

understanding. Generally speaking, the full technique involves a series of preliminary

practices that may incorporate going for refuge to the ‘four jewels’ (namo gurubhyah, namo

buddhaya, namo dharmaya, namo sanghaya), generating the mind of enlightenment (Skt.

bodhicitta), setting the altruistic motivation to engage in the practice of guru-yoga for the

sake of placing all sentient beings into the supreme state of the guru-deity. 33 After

consecrating the surrounding environment and the offerings, one invokes the guru’s

wisdom mind and generates the meditational guru-deity in front of oneself surrounded by

a succession of teachers belonging to the lineage of one’s Buddhist teacher (the field of

merit). At last one dissolves the guru-deity into oneself. The Tibetan Buddhist master Lama

Thubten Yeshe (1935–1984) described the process in the following way:

We then meditate upon the feeling that our guru, who in essence is identical

with the deity, and our own subtle consciousness have become

indistinguishably one. The essence of the guru is wisdom, the perfectly clear

and radiant state of mind in which bliss and the realization of emptiness are

inseparably unified…By visualizing in this way and thinking of the personal

33 Tenzin Gyatso (2009: 56) states the motivation as follows: “I shall liberate all mother sentient beings from

suffering And lead them to the great bliss of buddhahood. To this end I now shall practice the profound path

of guru-deity yoga.”

54

kindness shown to you by your guru, a powerful connection is established...

The purpose of seeing the guru in an exalted aspect…is solely to speed your

own spiritual evolution.34

With conviction in the efficacy of the process, we envision the central deity and ‘the

succession of transmission of lineage masters’ (Tib. bla ma brgyud pa’i rim pa) merging

into one another and dissolving in the form of light into our body through the aperture at

the crown of our head. During this practice we are encouraged to develop a feeling of close

connection with our mentor who is identical with the deity and with our own primordial

awareness.

The guru-yoga meditation may include additional elements like the ‘seven-branch

offering’ (Tib. yan lag bdun pa). The seven-branch offerings comprise methods for

accumulating merit and wisdom starting with prostrations as the antidote to pride. As stated

in the Sūtra of Great Liberation: “I join my hands above my head, like an opening lotus-

bud, and with countless bodies amassed in clouds I prostrate to the Buddhas of the ten

directions” (Patrul Rinpoche 2011: 318). Following this one sets out as many offerings as

resources as one’s imagination permits to the three jewels and proceeds to confess harmful

actions with intense shame and regret, promising never to repeat them again. After that one

rejoices at the turning of the wheel of dharma and the activities of bodhisattvas as well as

with virtuous activities one has done in the past, is currently doing, and will be doing in the

future. The next two branches comprise exhorting the Buddhas and bodhisattvas to turn the

wheel of the dharma of the three vehicles for the śrāvaka-s, the pratyekabuddha-s and the

bodhisattvas, and requesting the Buddhas not to enter nirvana but remain in this world for

the benefit of all sentient beings. Finally, one performs the practice of dedicating the merit

that has been generated by this practice. The dedication of merit prayer may go something

like this: “I dedicate the collection of white virtues thus createdto sentient beings that

they may be inseparably cared for in all future lives by venerable gurus kind in the three

ways, and may attain the Vajradhara unification.”35

To conclude, the objective of guru-yoga meditation practice should not aim to

contribute to the making of cult-figures and exaggerate the charisma of individual Buddhist

teachers. Neither should it be used to support institutional agendas or cultivate distorted

and unhealthy forms of dependency between practitioners and persons of clerical authority.

The living guru is an outward projection of our own innermost awakened nature, and guru-

yoga ought to be used as the skilful means of contemplative training for the sake of

experiencing the pure dimension of the guru within our own embodiment of awareness and

within the presence of all phenomena and other beings. This view of all pervasive purity

and continuity of awareness is at the heart of Tantra whose aim is a direct experience of

non-duality arising at all times, with everything and with everyone.

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BIOGRAPHY

Georgios T. Halkias (DPhil Oxon, Oriental Studies), is associate professor and

undergraduate programme director at the Centre of Buddhist Studies at the University of

Hong Kong and author of several works on Buddhism including, Luminous Bliss: A

Religious History of Pure Land Literature in Tibet (2013), Religious Boundaries for Sex,

Gender, and Corporeality (Routledge 2018), and Pure Lands in Asian Texts and Contexts:

An Anthology (2019).