THE CELTS

 Where did they come from?

The Celts came from central Europe.

Why? Because the population was increasing and they needed new

territories. So they expanded in France, Germany, Est Europe, Iberian peninsula and British isles.

SOCIAL STRUCTURE

Celtic social structure was based on classes and kingship.

The tribes were led by kings (Chieftanes). In areas which had closed contact with Rome there was an oligarchic republican

form of government. The society was divided into three groups: a warrior aristocracy, an intellectual class -

druids , poets and jurists and everyone else. Kings were elected

(system of Thanistry)

FAMILY LIFE The unit of Celtic life was the clan. 

Parents did not rear children, but they were actually raised by foster parents. 

The foster father was often the brother of the birth-mother. 

Othala, Celtic rune of family.

Agriculture was very important for the economy of the Celts. They barley, oats, potatoes and hay. Almost 80% of the land was used for agricultural activities. But in addition to these activities they went fishing which was an important food that they ate in daily life. They raised sheep and other cattle. They used metals for their industries these were iron, steel, limestone and slate productions.

ECONOMY

RELIGION The Celts practiced a polytheistic religion. Their gods were associated with naturals elements and there were deities of particular skills such as blacksmithing and doctors. The Celts used to do human sacrifices that sometimes were voluntary.

DRUIDS

They were priests, responsible for all sorts of religious ceremonies. They were educated and powerful members of the tribe and were well respected by the other Celts. The main centre of the druids in Britain was Anglesey. We know a little about the druids – only information from the descriptions written by the Roman historians. The Romans tried to limit the powers of the druids because they were very important in Iron Age society.

THE BARDS

In ancient times Bards were poets and storytellers.They were the keepers of tradition, of the memory of the tribe, the custodians of the sacredness of the Word. The training of a Bard was intense and lasted many years.

FESTIVALSThe most important festivals were:

Samhain - 31/11 - the veil between this world and the Otherworld becomes thin.Imbolc - 31/01 - celebration of the end of winter and new year's beginning. Beltaine - 01/05 - celebration of fertility. Lughnasadh - 31/07 - summer festival celebrated with competitions of skills. 

SEASONS and MONTHSThe oldest pre-Roman Celtic calendar was a lunisolar calendar of 355 days known as Coligny Calendar. The months, according to this Calendar, were: 

Samonios - "Seed fall". (October/November) Duman(n)(ios) - "Darkest depths". (November/December) Riuros - "Cold Time". (December/January)Anagantios - "Month in which One Does Not Travel" (January/February) Ogron(n)(i)(os) - "Ice Time". (February/March)Giamonios "Month belonging to Winter". (March/April) Simiuisonna (or Semiuisonna) - unknown etymology, probably connected to "sonna", Sun. (April/May) Equos - etymology unknown, probably connected to "horse". (May/June)Elembiu - "Month belonging to the Deer (hunt)". (June/July)Aedrini(os) - "Bright (or Hot) Month". (July/August)Cantlos - perhaps "Song month". (August/September) 

FOODTraditional food included: boiled pork, roast beef, bread, and fish; along with cheese, milk ,fat and butter. This, in turn, was followed by tankards of mead, beer and imported wines. Celts also ate plants and vegetables like leaves nettles, spinach, and wild animals like fox, beaver, boar and bear.

FOOD

Bread, stews, porridges and beer were probably what Celts ate and drank most of the time. Fresh meat roasted over a fire or cooked in stews would probably only have been eaten on quite rare occasions; most people probably ate little meat every day, and then it was possibly dried or salted meat, or sausages. Beef, pork and mutton or lamb were the most common types of meat eaten, but horse and dog were also eaten. Wheat and barley were two of the most common crops. They would have been ground into flour to make bread, using querns, or could also be used in porridges and stews. Beans were also a common part of the diet along with types of brassicas (probably cabbage or parsnip). Milk from cows and sheep was available at some times of the year, and was used to make cheeses. Direct evidence for how food was cooked comes from the pots, ovens, cauldrons and firedogs (iron supports for cooking meat over a fire).

Ingredients:8 oz oatmeal2 oz melted butter3 oz flourHot water Salt Baking soda

Preheat oven to 425°. Mix the oatmeal, flour and add a pinch of salt. Then add a pinch of baking soda. Next, add the melted butter and hot water. Add just enough hot water until you have a firm dough. Turn the dough out onto a board and roll the dough until it is about 3/8 inch thick. Use a glass to cut the dough into circles. Bake the circles on a greased baking pan for about 15 minutes. Cool and eat.

Note: oatcakes taste better by serving them with honey, butter or even cheese.

Preparations:

RECIPE – oatcakes

CLOTHINGThe Celts loved bright dazzling colours. They dyed their woolen trousers and tops bright colours.Clothes were made of wool, dyed with natural vegetable dyes (plants and berries) and woven by hand on a vertical loom. Then the pieces were sewn together using a bone or metal needle and wool thread.The Celts also loved jewelry made of bronze, gold, tin, silver, coral and enamel. Tunics were mainly worn by men. They were a simple 'T' shape and worn at any length from the knee to the ankle. They were worn with belts, cloaks and trousers.Women wore floor-length skirts or dresses made of wool or linen and wore shawls or cloaks. 

The Celts used to wear tight fitting pants, a tunic similar to a coat and shoes with upturned toes. Women used to wear highly decorated skirts or tunics with drawings and with checkered trim. Chieftains wore pants with a tunic and shoes with pointed toes and a decorated belt .

STONEHENGE

Stonehenge is a prehistoric monument in Wiltshire. It is the remain of a ring of standing stones set within earthworks. Archeologists  believe it was built anywhere from 3000 BC to 2000 BC.Probably it was a burial ground. 

The Romans referred to the Celts by the generic term, Gauls, and thought the Celts were uncivilised and lived like savages. They didn’t like them also because they hanged their enemies heads on their wall. To the Romans the Celts presented a terrifying sight because of their tall stature and their strange appearance. Although the Romans had heard about the barbarian Celts, they first encountered them as warriors, and it was in battle that their enormous size and strange appearance first struck them. The Celtic chiefs who advanced to challenge their opposing Roman leader to single combat were men of great physique, 'of stature greater than human'. 'the Gauls are tall of body, with skin moist and white; their hair is blond not only by nature but also because they practise to increase artificially the peculiar nature of their colouring. Some of them shave off their beards but others let them grow moderately: the nobles shave their cheeks but let their moustaches grow freely so as to cover their mouths. They had unusual styles of hairdressing; they used to smear their hair with lime water and then pull it back to the top of their head and over the neck to produce something like a horse's mane. All this elaborate hairdressing was intended to give them greater height and to terrify their enemies in battle. The colour of the hair is usually referred to as fair, red or flaxen coloured and even ginger.

How Romans saw Celts

There were three invasions in Britain by Romans. In 55 B.C. there was the first invasion by G. Cesar. He went there with two Roman legions and he won after several battles against the Celtic tribes in south-east of England. Then he returned to France. In 54 B.C. there was the second invasion; Cesar came to Britain with a lot of legions and cavalrymen. They crossed the River Thames and after more fighting the British promised to pay tribute to Rome. Nearly one hundred years later, in 43 A.D., Emperor Claudius organized the final and successful Roman invasion of Britain. They crossed the Channel in three divisions. Many tribes tried to resist the Romans. It took years for the invaders to finally gain control over southern England, and another 30 years for them to conquer all of the West Country and the mountains and valleys of Wales. The first Roman city was Camulodunum also called Colonia Vitricencis. It was the seat of Roman power and governance of Britain.

The Roman invasion

What Romans brought to Britain

The Romans imported many different types of food like grapes, pears, turnips, cabbages, carrots, peas. They brought materials and introduced new ideas, laws and inventions . The laws and ways we determine what to do with someone who is accused of breaking a law came originally from the Roman Empire.Here’s a list of some examples: -The calendar we still use today was started by Julius Caesar, a Roman ruler. It is based on the movement of the earth around the sun, and so is called the ‘solar calendar’. The names of our months are taken from the names of Roman gods and rulers -The census: the Roman Empire began the practice of taking a census, or a ‘count’, of all the people within its boundaries every so often. Today, many countries like ours take a census every 10 years.

-High-quality straight roads, cement, paved streets, bricks -Central heating -Aqueducts (water bridges), heated baths, indoor plumbing - Public libraries, public noticeboards, firemen, police -Language (Latin): Romans spoke and wrote in Latin and many of our words are based on Latin words.

The Anglo - Saxons

The Anglo-Saxons came from Germany, Denmark, Netherlands, and they migrated to the southern of Britain crossing the sea with their long ships. They made a series of attacks on different parts of the country over a period of years and under a number of leaders. The Saxons settled in the areas of Essex (East Saxons), Sussex (South Saxons), Middlesex (Middle Saxons), and Wessex (West Saxons).

According to some historians the Anglo Saxons came to Britain invited by the English to help keep out Scottish and Irish people. Another reason is because their land was often flooded and it was difficult to grow crops, so they were looking for new places to settle down and farm.

The social system was quite sophisticated.The main division was between slaves and free men. The most prominent ranks within the free society were the king, the noblemen and the ordinary freemen. Anglo-Saxon women enjoyed considerable independence: they could act as principals in legal transactions; married women had their own properties and some surviving wills show the joint names of husband and wife.

The Social System

A lot of people, included women and children, helped on the farm, while men cut down trees to clear land for pluoghing.Some people had specials skills:there were smiths, woodworkers, potters, shoemakers and jewellers.

Economy

The Anglo-Saxons had a polytheistic belief system. The most important god was probably Woden, so the religion was also called Wodenism. Other prominent gods included Thunor and Tiw. They also believed in a variety of other supernatural entities who inhabited the landscape, including elves, nicors (water spirits) and dragons.Demonstrations of devotion, included sacrifice of inanimate objects and animals, to this deities, during certain religious festivals the year.Pagan beliefs also influenced funerary practices, where the dead were either inhumed or cremated. There was also a magical component to the early Anglo-Saxon religion, and there are some theories that there may have shamanic aspects.

Paganism

The Christianization of the Anglo-Saxons began in about 7th century, when Ethelbert, a pagan, married Berta, a Christian. Ethelbert asked Pope Gregorio Magno to send missionaries, so Gregorio entrusted the task to the Benedictine monks; Augustine was a prior. He left in 597, but in Provence he was told that the Anglo-Saxon were dangerous tribes and he went back to Rome. The Pope insisted and convinced him to go back to Britain. He went to Canterbury where he was put in charge of the community. Here he canonized and reconstituted a church which became a cathedral: In a short time thousands of people were baptized, including the sovereign.

Christianity

Clothing

The primary garment consisted of a knee-length tunic. For the poor it was the only clothing, although some may have woolen trousers and shoes to wear. Over the tunic, they wore a cloak. They also wore headgears similar to helmets.

FOOD

Cooking was simple but wholesome and varied. There was wild fish and deer to eat. There were also eggs, milk and cheese. Nuts and fruit in season. Honey was used for sweetening food and for making mead to drink.

Chicken stew with herbs and barley

Ingredients50g butter1- 1.5 kg chicken joints450g leeks4 cloves garlic175g pot barley900 ml water (3 ¾ cups)3 tablespoons wine vinegar2 bay leaves, salt, pepper1 tablespoon dried sage

What to doWash, trim and slice the leeks.Chop up the garlic cloves.Melt the butter in a large saucepan and fry the meat with the leeks and garlic until the vegetables are slightly softened and the meat lightly browned.Add the barley, water, vinegar, bay leaves, salt and pepper.Bring to the boil, cover and simmer for 1 to 1½ hours, until the meat is tender and about to fall off the bone.Add the sage and cook for several minutes.Serve in bowls

BEOWULFBeowulf is an epic poem, written in old English, by an anonimus poet . It is dated between the 8° and the 11°century. It is a warrior’s story. The poem starts with the construction of a castle for king Hrotgar. An ogre attacks the castle but Beowulf defends it. Then also the ogre’s mum is fighted by Beowulf. After a long and pacific kingdom he has a battle with a dragon and in this last battle he dies