The Artist Handbook

7/30/2019 The Artist Handbook

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paint, the individual artist is somewhat atproperties of the acrylic resin binder chosen. H

is prepared by hand and used within a sreasonable results can be achieved. This is considers the comparative working propertacrylic binders available and adjusts the painaccordance with those properties. For examplepossesses a different amount of solid resindispersion/emulsion form with water. In thcommonly available resins (in water-borne form), the solid resin content is indicated by tsolids content is high, it follows that the resulinclude a smaller amount of water, which upo

to cause less shrinkage of the paint film thanwith high-water content acrylic resin consequence, such dispersions, which typicallpaint paste, are more often applicable to madegree of impasto is required. It follows thahigher water content are better suited to makingbe used brushed flat into glazes.

Typical Acrylic Resin Dispersions aCharacteristics

This is by no means a comprehensive list: indeand availability of these dispersions is alwaytypes of dispersion that are commonly availabl


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404 THE ARTISTS HANDBOOK

Plextol B-500 MFT 7CGood pigment binder for acrylic paints, low-tac

Plextol D-498 MFT 5C

Clear, medium gloss. Thicker consistency than

All these acrylic dispersions have different qusome are soft, some hard, some are more glossmanufacturer takes the raw acrylic polymervarious agents to aid its flow and brushing qualspoiling; prevent it from freezing in cold clima

There are many ways to prepare acrylic pain

supplier of the raw materials required may be information. The processes outlined represent prepare colour into paint form. It is intendepaint pastes are prepared and then used wsession, rather than stored for a longer periodbecause the raw materials may separate or coagleaving a paint with a poor viscosity.

A supply of clean plastic pots or air-tight glassthe prepared paint paste into. It is usually bette

ilk i fl id i t t th th

Hand-Preparation of Acrylic Paints


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Zinc white

Hansa yellow*

Yellow iron oxideNickel titanium yellow

Intensive yellow

Cadmium orange

Transparent orange-red oxide PR

Permanent red*Paliogen maroon*

Caput mortuum (violet iron oxide) P

Phthalocyanine blue*

Ultramarine blue

Chrome oxide green

Irgazine yellow (green shade)* P

Iron oxide black

Zinc white is not stable in acrylic dispersio

murals, where the paint film may break docommon practice among acrylic paint manuzinc white with an addition of titanium white (help stabilise the paint mixture.

The following basic procedure can be follopaint:

Prepare dry pigment with distilled water, in a be stiff. Each particle of pigment is requir


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slab, using a flat, long bladed palette knife. Onabsorbed into the water to form a wet pas

mulled, with a glass muller, using a figure of eigbe the case with oil colour). This process pigment particles from each other and encourawater. The longer this is done, the smoother should be. If the water dries off during this prmore to re-wet. It is best to keep a supply of din a dispenser bottle, so that small droplets cwhen the pigment-water paste becomes too water-pigment paste, a small addition of Mowis slowly added to gain a slightly smoother, riresoluble acrylic resin helps to stabilise the con

but has minimal binding power. It is possible toresoluble paint using mowiol as the binding dried paint film will remain water-solublpreferable to use mowiol as an additive rather thInto the water-pigment-mowiol paste, a smalmaterial may be added to provide a shorter (stifthis purpose, aluminium hydrate can be combwhich show transparency, whereas for opaqueis used. Overuse of such filler will make an unmay cause cracking. No more than 5-10% fillerto provide optimum results.

To the resultant paste, the binder is added to credry to form a cohesive, insoluble film. The already indicated, depends on the intended ucreate a flowing, easy to brush-out paint, an acr


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water is added to an acrylic dispersion, it may dworst case, forming some kind of cracks or spl

matting agent to an acrylic dispersion wiltransparency and in some cases may cause tslight yellow appearance. One can see thamaking, the smallest thing can upset the balanc

The exact quantity of acrylic resin dispersion

additives) needs to be judged on a pigment-to-pigments will need a larger quantity of bingeneral, those with a larger particle size willthan those of a very fine particle size. Howevtation is required prior to application on to the should also be borne in mind that the drying

layer may be variable, compared with mespecially when the original paint paste is diluSome care should be exercised when paintingeach layer to dry off before overpainting.

The hand-preparation of pigment into an acry

allows the artist to judge the intensity of the reenables them to prepare colours that are not noacrylic paint ranges. For example, it is difficultuse earth pigments in their colour ranges, beinclude impurities, may have a degree of grparticle size. In particular, the particle size, andwater can make paint making nigh on impocommercial acrylic paint. Some earth pigmcontact with water, and will only form a sgently coaxed by hand-mixing As a resu


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silver glitter, marble dusts and chips, colourewith crystalline mineral pigments such as azuri

fact any dry material that does not readily mpaste will benefit from being prepared in this w

Additives for Acrylic Paint Systems

When using dry pigments to make acrylic padditives may be useful. They are all commonEurope, but their specification/properties are adevelopments within the paint and coatings ithey are formulated. Exact use of these addit

the context and type of work undertaken. Checfor further details.

Disponil 286 (Wetting Agent)

When making acrylic paints from dry pigmento the water used to make the pigment paste. Thagent helps to saturate the pigment particles, the binder (e.g. Plextol D-498) to combinesmooth paint paste. Some acrylic binders msimilar wetting / flow agents: check with the su

Orotan 731 K (Dispersing Agent)


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how well it dries. It follows that incorporatimpasto will be more successful, where the

additive(s) are dispersed into a viscous, fat pcould be done by incorporation into a mimpasto gel, or by thickening a basic acrylicalready indicated.

Glass BeadsGlass beads in a variety of sizes, from 0.5mm davailable and can be incorporated into acrylisuch inclusions create some texture/granulatiothe painting, they also act to encourage light light is bounced around between the pigment cobeads, causing a more brilliant effect. This is efluorescent colours and with the synthetic oboth cases, exaggerated luminosity results.

Scotchlite - Hollow Plastic Bubbles

Can be used in very small additions, to incrpaint film. In larger quantities, it can belightweight texture pastes when combineddispersion with a high solids content. However,imperative in such combinations to ensure no dunbound. It is best to do this by combining the acrylic dispersion in some kind of food blendina thorough mixing. However, the apparatus mbe used for food preparation again!


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properties of each component material prior tomaking. Some acrylic dispersions (and acrylic

very small solvent additives, to speed drying/e

Dust Masks

All pigments in dry powder form can be assu

dusts. As a consequence, while workingappropriate dust masks should be worn. The exdust masks change according to new reseaprotective dust masks are accorded a P rating, wsuitability to specific tasks. For example, maskbe adequate for use with small amounts of nuicheck with the supplier and read product informin a given situation. Remember that a mask ddry powders may not be suitable for use with wspraying paint). The information relating to chin constant flux and it would unwise to recomm

for a specific situation. The dust mask manufacrecommend the most suitable one for a particu

Gloves

Protective gloves are appropriate when workinCaution is advised when choosing these itemlatex type) may cause a skin reaction fomanufacturer of the equipment should be abl


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rates of flexibility in the paint film. Acrylic paiopt to make any of the following types of pain

1. A fluid paint (i.e. same consistency as the remulsion).

2. A gel paint, with a thick buttery paste consisof oil paint.

3. A modified fluid paint (can be thinner, as wi

In order to make a fluid acrylic paint, the mmixes the pigment into the binder. To providpaint (i.e. where the pigment is evenly distribut

medium), the mixture is put through a triple rmixture is re-milled and sometimes sieved toetc. This process may be different for differenon the nature of the pigments used.

Many acrylic paint ranges employ the syntheti

which may be bought by the manufacturer pastes. These pastes, or pigment dispersions mfor milling (mixing) with the binder, therefore cost of production.

To make a gel consistency paint, the acrylic po

to be made fat by the addition of a thickening aand pigment may already be mixed together, btakes place. The resultant paint is short in cothat when manipulated with a brush or palette k


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Sometimes, the acrylic polymer emulsion is dilution so that it has a consistency which is

that when colour is introduced, an ink-like pai

Modified Paint Ranges

There are many different types of acrylic pain

it is impossible to describe them all here. acrylics contain good pigment, finely disperseacrylic polymer elusion binder. Extenders, or rbe employed, so that the resultant paint brushexact use of extender, or filler material can hewith a high chroma; overuse of them can levalues and a weaker paint film. Some comaximum pigment content to acrylic resin, withIn theory, this gives a paint with maximum practice, each colour in the range has a sligSome pigments require more binding medium

the result that the paint film is either saturate(dull) in appearance. This system provides thcolour: the finish can be further manipulatedgloss or matt mediums for coherence. Alternpainting can simply be given a unifying coat o

Acrylic Painting Mediums


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a medium instead of water to dilute acrylic paconsistent paint finish. Sometimes, if water i

paint can dry too matt, or uneven in areas of mmatt mediums tend to be slightly cloudy mediums dry water-clear.

2. Gel medium, thick impasto pastes, available together for a satin finish. These fat pastes are mbuild impasto and remain flexible upon dryingtend to be slightly cloudy upon drying, givilittle like wax. By contrast, good quality gloss clear when dry. The addition of gloss gel to aproduce a very heavy glossiness. Although thto help impart impasto to the paint surface, a

they have their limitations. Impasto is best bmultiple layers of gel, rather than one thickapplications of gel may dry to show some shcontent evaporates. In the worst cases, this leavolume in the paint film (the gel when first ahigh impasto but on drying levels down). Duprocess, it is possible that the gel will split ormising the paint film.

For each manufacturers product, the extremeby their gel will differ. Some companies prodhigh solids content which hold better whHowever, such gels may cause applications onto sag considerably. It may therefore be advisabon to rigid supports only. Normal practice is toquantity of colour before application This is be


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The variety of gels available may appear confartists. It is vital when working with a brand o

gels that are formulated for use with that scompanies now offer information sheets or chaand where a gel can be used to best advantagegels have a high gloss sheen, while others mais normal to presume that acrylic colour can beany ratio (unlike oil paint mediums, where

medium to paint is advised), although referencinformation may give clearer guidelines. By ada large volume of paint can be achieved. Altwill be weaker in colour strength (according to added), it may be a useful shortcut, when work

Hand-made gel (i.e. acrylic dispersions, plshould be used with great caution. They shohand-made paint formulations that are based resin dispersion as that which has been thickwork well with brand acrylic paints, due to difIn the worst case, admixtures of different brandpaint/medium may cause blistering, craformation. Intermixed brands, or brand paipaint may also begin to smell when the compcompatible.

3. Texture pastes can be added to colour, or with primer. These are often based on mixtquartz, marble dust, or synthetic materials suchscotchlite (hollow plastic bubbles). All shouldcan be mixed into paint or laid down on top o



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next. Many oil painters have used these texturecreate an impasto underpainting (in acrylic), wbe safely overpainted with oil colours. Whilehave reduced absorbency compared with normally have enough texture to allow oil-basthe surface adequately.

4. Varnishes are available for acrylics in two d

i) Water-thinnable varnish, which can be mixegive a harder finish (scratch-proof), or as a finaor homogenise the appearance of the final pavarieties of these varnishes tend to dry to givematt or satin varieties may slightly frost the surso altering the sheen appearance: in some casesdelicate parts of the painting are obscured. Wvarnishes, care should be taken to avoid the incinto the varnish film. This is because the varnthat any air bubbles will tend to form and drybrushed out. An addition of water (perhaps 20%

the varnish wet on the surface while being bruswater-based acrylic varnishes, dilution wnecessary because the neat varnish is too successfully. Testing is wise in such instances, tproperties of the chosen varnish. Use soft hog hwith gently shaped tips (rather than cut tips), wvarnish in one direction across the painting spossible to brush out any residual hairs or oththe varnish is still wet, by changing direction brushing technique for varnish application wi


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ii) Solvent-based varnishes are only ever uspaint. A final protective coat of varnish canacrylic paintings with such varnishes. These vby solving acrylic resin (sometimes a combininto an active high polar solvent (e.g. toluene, bare many resin types on the market, and someresin performs best over time. Each manufinformation relating to the relative qualities o

formulations used in their varnishes.

To follow are some examples of acrylic resin(where information permits, the solvent type is this is not a guarantee of the formulation, as change constituents without notice). Such com

used by conservators, although the exact foaccording to the designated use:

MS2-A resin in Shellsol A

Paraloid B-72 in Shellsol A

Paraloid B-72 in ethylacetate

Regalrez 1094 in Shellsol D 40, with addition

softening agent (e.g. 2g Kraton to 100g Regal

Regalrez 1126 in Shellsol A, with addition of

softening agent (e.g. 2g Kraton to 100g Regal

Paraloid B-67 in white spirit

Plexisol P 550-40 in white spirit

Mowilith 35/73 in ethylacetate



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418 THE ARTIST S HANDBOOK

product containing solvent. If the painting (cured), the solvent in the varnish may disturbance in the paint film. In such cases, it i14 days after the painting has dried, so that anis emitted from the paint surface and it is thoro

When preparing raw acrylic resin into solvagitate the mixture at the beginning of the proceresin to dissolve. If the contents are simplycontainer, little or even no solving may take plresin/solvent mixture container into a warm wencourage the resin to dissolve more readily. Frecommended that a proprietary brand of svarnish is used, because the types of solvents

the resin are usually too noxious to useconditions.

The chosen resin is dissolved to form a colourlviscosity (according to the solids content). Ivarnishes are further diluted by using miner

another appropriate solvent as a thinning agesolvent additions tend to evaporate at a slowertype, thereby providing a balanced drying timtime for the varnish to be brushed out over thLow odour thinners (odourless mineral spiriused for such varnishes, because they are not ato combine with the varnish properly.

A common procedure in the varnishing of an abe to apply a coat of water-based acrylic va


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are exposed to strong sunlight. They may aoxidisation of metallic acrylics (those containpreventing tarnishing of the dried paint film.

Some of the acrylic resin examples may be binding agent for pigment, when prepared witacrylic paints followed this idea. Paraloid Bspirit provides a simple acrylic resin solupigmented as required. In order to incorporate tacrylic resin solution, it is advisable to wet thespirit, to form a stiffish paste. This paste is careviscous acrylic resin solution. If the acrylic resi(too much solvent), the resultant paint control. This type of acrylic resin-pigment

applied in flat layers, with the colour being brpainting surface. Subsequent coats will tend to the first layer, especially if the surface is agproperty could be used to produce interesting acrylic resin-pigment applications are made multiple layers, cracking may result. Howevpainting could be very useful, in so much as thwith white spirit once dry. This means that dcolours can be re-worked by stirring white container in which they are kept. This re-soleasy over time, but is not usually problematic

months of preparation.

Some proprietary brands of acrylic resin in solvarying forms: as a viscous syrup; free-flowingor in aerosol form Particular care needs to be t



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number of artists are worried that these claimstiated, because acrylic paint has not been arArticles have appeared from time to time in tthe deterioration of old acrylic paintings. Ahysteria about acrylic paint: is it really trustwouse it? After all, we know what happens to oil defects, oil paint is still preferred by many arti

There is a danger that acrylic paint is being utrue that some acrylic paintings have not lastedto be the case that this is more to do with bad pof the artists, than with the drawbacks of the with the premise that artists intending to pworks use only the best materials, it follows th

last the longest. In some of the most celebratedpaint has been seen as the cause of deterioratiothe artist may have used poor quality materialsacrylic painting, often, the cheaper polyvincorrectly assumed to be just the same as trucheaper and simpler material than true acrylwere, and are still, widely used to make hovinyl emulsion) and as the binder for some chilconfusion over what acrylic really means, paoften made by using a white vinyl emulsion This type of paint is not designed to be flexib

painting walls) and it is quite absorbent. In assumed that people redecorate their houses econsequence, some of their products are drelatively short periods. It therefore follows th


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painting leads to problems. This is still an resources for students and practising artists, ocheapest materials are used. While this may bgreat sadness. Not only does this lead to artisthat have a short life-span, it also encourages aand a bad understanding of technique. Part ostate of affairs lies with education, but it couldmanufacturers should have drawn more

distinctions between true acrylic paint andpaints. The main distinctions are as follows:

Acrylic PaintPaint film remains very flexible, regardlapplicationLong term: acrylic paint remains flexibleLong term: acrylic paint does not yellow or darLong term: acrylic paint does not become trremains constantDilution: water, non-hazardous

PVA/Vinyl ColoursPaint film becomes brittle with agePVA/vinyl colours have less binding strength thaLong term: PVA/vinyl colours lose their flexibiLong term: PVA/vinyl colours can yellow with

One of the intentions of this text is to persuaany PVA-based materials. Often, artists useb ild d h i d d l f



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made with the minimum of fuss, using a true acthe addition of an excess of fillers. Instead of mpigment on a triple mill, costs are cut byingredients together, so that they form a paint bsubtlety of consistency and colour. Cheaper pminimal quantities. Some of the modernpigments can be extended a long way and stillof colour saturation. However, when such col

instead of giving good mixtures, colour values taddition, these economical paints dry quicklyremain soft at the core for long periods. Ideally,dry right through to the core at an even rate.

Of course, price is always important to the

students will find these cheaper colours idpaintings in acrylic. However, the author wouthose new to acrylic should at least try a high qthey can judge the differences. Often an expepaint can be extended by addition with mediumgive much more colour in terms of volume, thbulk quantity, cheaper acrylic paint.

The choice of priming material for acrylic paiGenerally, acrylic primer can be applied to anysurface. Typically, boards that have been cut a

Priming Information for Acrylic Paint Systems


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comfortably on the paper surface. In general, psizing are desirable, because the acrylic paint dfibres of the paper. However, it is dangerous tabout this, because the choice of papers availabrelative absorbency is also great.

The quality of priming materials for acrylic pgreat deal from brand to brand. It is impossbrand as being the best, because that descripthe judgement of the artist. For example, a pvery absorbent ground may be exactly whaartist, while another may need a primer with only way to assess these qualities is to purchadifferent brands and carry out tests. As w

discussed in this text, the same process can be ais for each individual artist to choose which material for the work in hand.

Generally, acrylic primers fall into two distinc

1. Non-absorbent primer.2. Absorbent primer, or gesso.

Both types tend to be manufactured using white pigment, calcium carbonate (whitingemulsion. The exact absorbency of a primer is ratio of pigment to calcium carbonate. For primer, typically, a greater amount of calciumThe term gesso* usually refers to a pabsorbency However this is not a standard



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As already stated, the choice of the best materthe artist. By comparing brands, one can finmaterial. Ideally, within the painting workshopselection of examples of primers should be avaipaint-outs can be made.

The quality of an acrylic primer can be relatmanufacture. Economical primers tend totogether, and may not be suitable for further dilis essential for the artist to obtain as much technpossible about these materials before using toften produce information sheets about thguidance on their use. Some brands are labinstructions not to be further diluted with water

to-use/pre-diluted). Similarly, check that the pthe chosen support. Some primers are labelled for stretched canvas, indicating that they maysuch supports. The wording on the label msupports for which the primer is suitable, but nfor which it should not be used. If in doumanufacturer: most have technical support, eveto more than one person to ascertain the infIdeally make a note of the answer given for fu

The process of manufacture often governs materials. The longer a material is worked on,it may be. For example, some primers are millthan once, sieved, milled again, then re-sremoves lumps of material and provides a smpaste Other primers may be mixed crudely and


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brush is used, which gives out a distinct martend to shed hairs badly, contributing to a bahair varnish brushes can be used, where the htip, so that primer is released slowly from the cut flat brushes tend to retain brushmarks surface. By diluting the priming materiaconsistency where it flows off the brush tip,application of primer can be realised. Typic

water of the primer by 25-30% may give a singwhich flows from the brush tip evenly. Asmaterial used, as with each support chosen, proportions may be necessary due to variations

In some instances, primer can be applied and

between each coat, or after the final coat. Beadvisable to test a number of different psuccessfully they sand down. Generally, the mgesso will sand down with greater ease than strSome artists use a mixture between acrylic primmodelling paste, as this helps fill the pores of give an even surface, and can also be gently smooth finish. Each manufacturer of acrylic mthe best type of light modelling paste to use fo

In principle, the best acrylic primings stay flcushion for subsequent paint layers. Some coloured acrylic primer or gesso. However, admix white acrylic primer or acrylic gesso, achieve a tinted ground.


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Acrylic and oil-based primers do not havesurface to allow the wax layers to grip on to th

The support panel must be rigid enough to larger paintings would need to be braced on ththis.

Heat is essential for encaustic painting. The psolid lump form, which needs to become molteto the support.

Specialist suppliers of encaustic painting matebasic equipment, including:

Thermostat controlled hot plate. Beeswax bearound 62-66 C. A thermostat controlledthis temperature to be reached easily and kewithout over-heating. This is vital, as the temremain constant but never rise above 93temperature, beeswax gives off potentially ncertain pigments (e.g. cadmiums) when stroalso the case that some pigments are sensitiv- the ochres and raw siennas are especially p

(changing from yellow to red) when stronglycase, a controlled temperature is advised, sodanger of fire. It is advisable to keep a fire eeasy reach when working with encaustic, as

Equipment for Encaustic Painting


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Once softened into a molten, liquid state, the e

then be applied to the surface using hog brisspatulas.

Encaustic paints rely on a fusion of pigment iand dammar resin. The dried paint film is rethus providing a very stable final painting. Thfinished encaustic paintings is that they be stor

heat sources such as radiators or open fires. kept away from sources of strong (hot) sunlighmonths.

Beeswax is available in both lump and pellet fnatural beeswax has some flexibility, but this i

in refined products. With the artists matbeeswax can be considered as being refined refined product is sold in a yellow or bleacheda white colour and is seemingly more useful wpigment. In practice, the colour of the wax is as the bleached wax will revert to the same yellow wax over time. Raw natural beeswax, pkeeper, will be more plastic (flexible) and higthan the refined forms. The raw product is a

Composition and Use of Encaustic Paints



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the enamel pan are stirred to ensure fusioingredients. When adding pigment to colour advisable to take the pan off the heat, stir in thestill hot) so that all the dry powder is incorporesin, then place back onto the heat sourcepigment is freely distributed in the wax-restirring can continue, the better the mixing of be. Some pigments with larger particle size,

earths, will take longer to mix in than those wgrain size.

When the ingredients are thoroughly combinebe poured into small empty bread tins or cupccool and harden. When each colour is requi

melted in its tin and used. It is possible to mixthe required colours, then combining while sreceptacle. It is much easier to mix colours thismix colours on the painting surface. Once thebeen decided upon, it may be appropriate to tints with white, or perhaps neutral tints towaddition of a transparent black such as lamp bl

Beeswax is the most useful wax for encaustic, band easy to melt and re-melt. The other waxes cwith, but may cause more problems than th

Wax Types


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adding this higher melt-point wax to beeswasold in a grey (natural) form, or a pale (refined).

Paraffin Wax

Paraffin wax melts at around 50-60C. It ispetro-chemical industry. Paraffin wax is toencaustic paints and, with a low melt point, woupaint surface very susceptible to change in war

Microcrystalline Wax

Microcrystalline wax is related to paraffin whigher melt point, according to the grade selectmay be more flexible than paraffin wax, howgrades may be even more inflexible!

A special grade of microcrystalline wax, calhas a higher melt point (around 80-100C), wbut only when used in relatively thin layers anddont give off noxious fumes at high temperatu

Other waxes are available (none of which arencaustic technique):

Candelilla wax (melt point, 67-71 C). Ahardness to carnauba wax.I t ( lt i t 79 83 C) Y ll



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making or cosmetics.

Spermaceti wax (melt point, 41-44 C). Bsperm whale.

It is vital that the pigments used in the comppaint are not heated to high temperatures. As pbeeswax must never be heated beyond 93C, t

It is also crucial to keep the temperature consta93C, because some pigments can a) give ooverheated (e.g. cadmiums) and b), change coheated (e.g. natural earths). If kept at a stable(around 66C), the following list of pigments c

Cadmium lemon

Cadmium yellow light

Cadmium yellow medium

Cadmium yellow deep

Cadmium orange

Cadmium red light

Cadmium red medium

Cadmium red deep

Suggested Palette for Encaustic Painting


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Paliogen maroon

Quinacridone red, pink, violet

Manganese violetUltramarine violet

Ultramarine blue

Prussian blue

Phthalocyanine blue

Phthalocyanine greenUltramarine green

Viridian

Chrome oxide green

Green earth

Natural earths: raw sienna, burnt sienna, raw umIvory black

Lamp black

Titanium white

Zinc white

N.B. Avoid all lead-based pigments in encaust

In the soft, molten state, encaustic can be appsurface in a number of ways. From the h

ti h b lt d th t t b

Painting Techniques



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controlled by admixture with more beeswax andone by preparing a block of colourless encausonly melted beeswax and dammar resin. The remade molten with heat and poured into tinscolour, as a kind of diluent or extender. If toocontained in a paint mixture, the resultant painta frosted/obscured appearance, where the thresin in comparison to the pigment conte

resonance. Some experimentation is called stances. Of course, once cool, any difficult overpainted, or re-melted and removed as requ

Never add solvents into encaustic paints: thesolvents such as white spirit and turpentine

distinct possibility. Encaustic is best used acombination with other media. However, an 18for working with wax involved the coveringwith a thick (3cm plus) layer of beeswax, pouand worked over with heat to gain a flat, levecooled wax surface, gouache paint is applied (wwater), to create an image. Once dry, the finishpainting is taken close to a heat source and efew moments. This can be done by hovering o(laid flat) with a heat gun. The heat gently megouache paint is quickly absorbed into it. O

found that the paint layers have become embeproviding a stable and durable paint surface. too quickly, the painted image may separate oabstract painting terms, this may be of some


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Wax has a frosting effect on paint films, when

thickness. By contrast, when encaustic is appllayers, translucency within the paint film consequence, pigments that are normally trbinding media, will retain their transpareapplied in relatively thin layers of encaustic,opaque, solid presence when applied thickly.

When applying multiple layers of encaustic, it the whole painting gently after completion, tolayers bond together. This gentle heating is begun, held perhaps 40-50cm from the paintingently warms the paint surface until it bemolten. This process (known as fusing) softe

so that they all fuse together, ensuring correlayers. The painting is laid flat during this prolayers do not start to run. If the painting is noeither upon completion, or while working, it layer may shear off from another.

As with most paint systems, encaustic is besthin layers rather than thick wodges. Howevencaustic when applied to a rigid support ddegree of impasto and indeed, applied paint la

Glazing with Encaustic

Working in Layers



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glazing, indeed, putting encaustic paintingssomewhat detract from the paints inherent qua

As already indicated, some precautions are nectechnique. Aside from the use of a thermostat ca fire extinguisher should be kept close at hanresistant gloves should be worn when handlingUsed brushes can be cleaned by rinsing in a tin should free the encaustic paint from the brushpractice it may be better to nominate each colo

so that cleaning is unnecessary. In this case, there-dispersed in the same colour in the molpossible to clean brushes by rinsing in a (cheaper) synthetic wax, such as paraffin synthetic waxes are never used for encaustic pathey generally have a lower melt point andcracking/splitting upon cooling.

Safe Clean-Up of Encaustic Paint


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Fresco (literally fresh) refers to the pract

pigments dispersed into water, on to a base of w

fresco ( buon fresco ) is applied in this way,properties of lime to capture pigment particle

lime plaster ( intonaco ) surface.

Lime is calcium oxide, prepared by burning ca

limestone, marble, etc) in a brick kiln. Not all

suitable for use in fresco painting. Ideally,

magnesium and not tinted by iron oxides.

limestone concur with these requirem

commercial suppliers of lime deal almost

building trade and building restoration trade,

very finely sieved, high white colour lime mayas it is for fresco painting.

When lime is introduced to water, it provoke

Lime-Fresco Paintin


i f h li Th k l b


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properties of the lime. The tank must also be

prevent frost from developing.

In the traditional use for lime - the white-wasthe preparation of lime plaster - the slaked lim

uniform consistency. However, for use as an

the smoother the lime paste, the better, in term

results.

When applied on to the correct substrate, the shydroxide) changes back to calcium carbon

carbon dioxide in the air. As the applied slaked

evaporation of the water content, it gradu

calcium carbonate, in reality, a chemical ch

original material (e.g. limestone, marble, etc). Udried lime layer becomes as hard as rock; the in

lime being strongly bonded to each other. It

pigments are mixed with distilled water to form

applied to the fresh lime layer, the pigme

trapped within the structure of the re-formingthereby resulting in a hard-set and durable pain

Lime is a caustic, alkaline material, which can

especially dangerous when in contact w

consequence it is advised that at all times pr

Health and Safety Precautions


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The wall structure is prepared so that it will ta

of mortar. Preparation will vary according

question. For example, an old, aged plaster co

be simply hacked all over to provide a grip coat

is clean, aged brick, the bricks themselves

porosity to allow the first scratch coat to form

case of walls they must be free from any mi

residues. Preferably, the wall should be s

including an air cavity between the wall to be

structural wall of the building. It is advised th

designed to allow air to circulate (i.e. it is n

trapped air, there are holes that allow the air sp

is also advisable to ensure that any wall structu

and does not contain any residual moisture pri

Once the wall is prepared, before application

the wall is soaked with cold water, the purpos

the porous wall, so that the scratch coat partia

wall itself to form a coherent bonding. Th

soaked, as evenly as possible, until it will n

water. At this point, the scratch coat is applied

For portable panels, the procedure is simpler,

this section

Supports for Lime: Preparing Walls and Other Sfor Application of Lime


Middle 90


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Middle 90

Coarse 200

Extra coarse 150-300

Marble chips, sold in a variety of colours and g

for mortar layers):

Sand texture 0.7-1.2mm

Grit texture 1.8-2.5mm

Gravel 2.5-4.0mm

(In practice, a mix between marble chips and dus

but experimentation is called for at all stag

painting.)

Quartz chips (white river sand, free of mica)

0.15mm to 0.5mm.

These aggregates are presented in different gr

(particle size format). In true fresco, the

combining coarse aggregates into lime put

followed by subsequent coats that may contain

of lime, and increasingly less-coarse inclusions

is some evidence that in the first coats (

coarse and medium grind aggregates is adva

provides a relatively gritty and coarse str


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Mortar Layers for Fresco Pa

Trulisatio - coarse base

coat (scratch coat)

Arenato - sand coat

Arricio - brown coat

Intonaco - painting coat


lime putty the wall structure of the mor


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lime putty, the wall structure of the mor

smooth, relatively even finish.

Arenato - consolidation coat, or sand c

trulisatio layer: a mixture of 1 part lime to

chips, 0.7-1.2mm grind size.

Arriccio - underpainting coat, or brown c

arenato coat. It is composed of fine quartz sand

an equal quantity of lime putty.

Intonaco - the painting coat, usually made

While still damp, pigments mixed with distill

to the intonaco layer. The pigments are driven

the layer upon evaporation of the water conten

sically bonded into the structure. While the in

damp (but not saturated with wetness), colour c

and a bonding can be assumed. However, onc

is dry, applied colour will not form a reaction

little or no bonding will occur. As a consequen

is usually undertaken with some planning, the

being applied to an area that can be worked on

drying out.

The preparation of the previous mortar layers

way the intonaco layer operates. The morta

trowel is used if necessary to gently form a lev


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trowel is used if necessary to gently form a lev

In the first stages, the material is not compac

support structure: it is gently levelled, but not

against the support. This method of applicatio

to retain a little porosity. If the mortar w

compacted, too smooth a layer would result. T

be less liable to retain moisture, when the fin

applied.

The mortar is then left to dry for 20-30 minu

coat is applied. Allow this amount of time so th

slightly wet but not sopping. A good metho

stage is to press the thumb against the morta

should be able to leave a firmish thumb imp

mortar gives way (goes to a sludge), then

required. If the mortar coats are laid down

without complete drying between each coat), th

different coats are better bonded together. Ho

mentation may be required and it should be

different atmospheric conditions may cause t

dry out at variable rates.

However, with the final intonaco layer, the tro

by compaction of the surface, to gain a hard

avoid popping of the surface (the rising of athrough the final coat), it is worked over wi

chalk brush, which helps to free any residual po

so creating an even and unpock-marked surfac


There are two basic types of portable panel tha


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yp p p

1. Support layers on to wood panel.

2. Support layers on to plaster panel.

Wood Panel

MDF (medium density fibreboard), of at least

be used to make small panels, up to 50cm

formats will tend to warp and would require

The preparation of the panel gives a synthesis

is arrived at by the inclusion of casein (mibonding agent. The casein allows the

quartz/marble to grip on to the panel, and th

painted in lime only. Casein is a very strong

will enclose and grip larger particle aggregates

Because it is so strong, the intonaco coat of limfrom the mortar layers. Also, casein is a porou

moisture from the intonaco layer to percolate do

layers, as with traditional fresco. However, it is

that each layer of mortar is slightly weaker th

of the strength of the casein glue), to prevent tthe glue from shearing away from previous

done, by preparing the mortar coats with

additions of casein binder

emulsifying agent, allowing the casein and w


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paste. Leave to stand for 15-30 minutes, stir t

this paste, slowly add a further 8 parts of cold w

free from lumps. Sieve if necessary. It may be a

to stand for an hour or so, to allow the ammo

settle. It eventually effervesces out of the mixt

no part in the formation of the dried paint film

in a free flowing, but thick solution, the casein

this dilution it is added to the lime-aggrega

suggested.

Before applying to the panel, make sure that t

grease-free. If necessary, de-grease the surfa

alcohol. Leave to dry for at least 3-4 hours a

alcohol. The first mortar coat is then applied, by

A large round hog fresco brush ( muccino

the first coat contacts with the panel and that no

are left. While the mortar-casein mix is still

over the surface to give an even distributio

Leave this first coat to dry completely, perhaps

The second coat is applied in the same manner

of 2 parts marble chips (grit texture 1.8-2.5m

part of lime. To this paste, 30-40% casein binde

with this coat, the casein binder is diluted w

water, to make its glue strength relatively w

scratch coat.

O d h hi d i li d hi i i


this using a trowel and patting the surface of t


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compacted against the mortar coats. As

technique, the intonaco layer can also be sm

flat, this will eradicate any air or water trappe

best to leave the applied intonaco a few minute

to allow the surface to settle out. Into the da

pigment-water paste can be applied, and the pa

as expected, with the pigment particles bo

intonaco.

Plaster Panel

Plaster of Paris is a form of gypsum, where tcalcined so that a large portion of its inheren

sation has been eradicated. Upon mixing wi

plaster is driven to set extremely quickly. Durin

hardens before it loses all the water that has be

allowing a firm set, without undue shrinkagesuch plaster is used for casting in sculptural te

also be used to make a thick, flat panel, suitable

layers on to.

Choose a fine grade plaster, which is quick sett

hard white, finely and evenly divided powdslowly stirring it into the dry plaster, to form a

procedure must be undertaken quickly. In prac

strips, so that the plaster can be poured over t


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kept in this reservoir by the retaining walls

strips. Hold the strips in place by going arou

strong adhesive packing tape. Into this reservo

of polythene to act as a barrier between the p

panel and edge strips. Once the mould is s

freshly mixed plaster, quickly spreading it acr

mould using the hand, or a flat hog brush. The p

up to a thickness of between 6-8cm. As long a

to a fine slurry and free from air bubbles, it s

base panel. Such panels tend to take a long tim

as water is pushed out to the top of the mix

starts to harden. This process can be quicke

excess water as it collects on the surface, soaking the excess water on to an absorbent pa

Once completely dried, the mould is remov

ready for use. Before applying the mortar co

normal walls), the surface of the plaster panel c

very coarse glass paper, or even by grating usin

implement that will make many shallow incisi

It is vital to do this, to ensure that the mortar co

to grip to and bond with.

It is also possible to include some aggregate

although this does make the formation of a con

more difficult. Another possibility is to lay a c

of hessian, jute or linen into the setting plaster,


Pigments for Lime-Fresco


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The best pigments for use in lime-frescochemically inert, or at least not sensitive to al

the use of typically alkali-destroyed pigments s

The air in the environment may also cause

affected by acidity to become altered. Care sh

working on outdoor fresco paintings, to pigments that are stable in all conditions.

Basic Palette of Fresco Pigments

The following list of pigments provides a star

palette. Further information on use of pigmen

touched on in the pigment section. In truth,

guarantee the safe use of any pigment in lime-fr

to the possibility that during manufacture, e

pigments may have impurities or additive

reactions when in contact with lime. It is advi

manufacturers/suppliers of fresco materials

appropriate use in this technique.

On to a test panel (e.g. a panel prepared with described), make up small batches of pigment-

and apply these on to a layer of fresh intonaco

panel to dry for at least six months Duri

Pigments for Lime-Fresco

with water prior to use may be advised, so tha


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is not streaky. These water-pigment pastes are

connection with the synthetic organic pigments

fine particle size and can be difficult to dispers

This list is intended as a starting point and m

may be used, as confirmed by the relevant sup

White Bianco san giovanni (smoo

partially carbonised)

Slaked lime (always as a w

Zinc white

Titanium white

Yellow Synthetic iron oxide yellow

Natural yellow earths: och

Nickel titanium yellow

Permanent yellow (PY 154

Cadmium yellow (for inter

Red Synthetic iron oxide reds (m

Natural red earths: burnt si

Irgazine red (PR 254)

Paliogen maroon (PR179)

Blue Cobalt blue

C l bl


Black Synthetic iron oxide black (


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Spinel black

Manganese black

In the case of the synthetic organic pigment

name is given to aid identification.

The intonaco layer and the mortar layers are

using a good quality aged lime putty. For examp

been left to steep in water (slaked) for at leasthe best setting characteristics. New lime

months) will not set as quickly or as thoroughl

putties tend to form cracks or surface deposits

it may be impractical for individual artists t

lime, in recent years there has been a revivalpainting, and a number of specialist suppliers

putties. In practical terms, the longer the lime h

the better its setting qualities become.

The white colour of lime can be utilised as a col

Pigment-distilled water paste can be co-mixeachieve pastel tints. However, such applicat

slightly dull appearance, compared with very

l d h d l

Whites in Lime-Fresco

A more successful way of using pigment with


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the pigment-water paste into lime-water (som

milk of lime). Lime-water can be said to be th

forms on the surface of the lime putty. In the f

water tends to clarify readily once the lime ha

a few months. In practice, unless one has acc

lime, this lime-water is best obtained from age

is sold in large quantities (e.g. 25 litre, or

opening these buckets of aged lime, it will bewater settles out at the top of the mixture. T

drawn off and used as lime-water. Because lime

into cold water, even though the lime-wate

evaporation of the water content it will re

residue. However, this residue is minimal aaffect colours it is mixed with, especially lar

(e.g. earth pigments, synthetic iron oxides). If

water is introduced to an equal volume of lime-

to effect thin glazes of colour over the damp i

lime in the lime-water creates extra bonding the carbonised lime putty structure upon dryin

hard-wearing bond. In practice, the pigment

one with the newly formed calcium carbonate s

intonaco layer. Thus, the resultant painting i

resistant to a great degree.Bianco san giovanni is a form of lime that has

and is therefore closer to carbonisation than no


Titanium and zinc whites can be used in fre

h l (b i l i l l i f


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these colours (being relatively late in terms of

the painters palette) bear no relation to

traditional fresco painting.

It should be obvious that lead white can never b

techniques, as all lead-containing pigments are

upon exposure to air. This is especially true i

where the pigment particles are merely tr

calcium carbonate structure: air can still ac

particles and so it follows that atmospheric po

make their presence known. For this reason, fre

advised to work with inert pigments, especia

work is situated outdoors. There is some ev

containing pigments, such as the cadmiums, ca

indoor fresco painting but tests should be made

Bone ash is sometimes used as pigment in fres

soft grey colour in the dry state. It is also used

the consistency of water-pigment pastes: becatinting power, it can be used (add 10-20% bon

paste with pigments that have small sized par

organic pigments). This will make such pigm

out over the surface, without changing the colo

Application of Colours

The pigment-distilled water pastes are spread o

(top coat) wet/damp intonaco layer usually


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(top coat) wet/damp intonaco layer, usually

surface of the intonaco is gently absorbent and

colour to percolate down into the morta

preparation of the mortar and intonaco is there

it is advisable to make some test panels, keepin

recipes used for each mortar layer, prior to

paintings. As already suggested, the use of

pigment and distilled water pastes, will helpformation. Admixture with lime-water ma

particle size pigments (such as the historic, min

spread out over the surface, allowing the parti

rather than clustered together. With pigments

and azurite, this technique helps to show the cthe colour, as light catches on the exposed part

Because the intonaco layer is still damp during

is susceptible to disturbance. For this reason

pigment-distilled water paints is done with som

intonaco layer has been applied firmly, where th

compacted with a trowel and subsequent bru

described. Again, trial and error through exper

for. Another tip with fresco, is to remember to b

surface is only truly dry when all the water has

take many days. During this period, the surfanot always fixed (i.e. it may look dry, bu

dislodged with gentle rubbing). The complete


glue) and applied to the dried intonaco layer.

bears a close resemblance to true fresco but i


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bears a close resemblance to true fresco but i

age resistant. Fresco secco allows certain fr

applied, which would be destroyed by the cau

of wet lime. For example, plant based pigments

or madder, are quickly affected by lime. When

pigments do not react with the dried intonaco

colours, which would show as a tint only when

technique, may benefit from fresco secco appl

Casein is perhaps the best binder for this

prepared as follows:

Casein 2 parts

Cold water 16 parts

Ammonium carbonate 1 part

The casein powder and water are combin

carbonate added to aid emulsification. After sti

stand for 30 minutes or so, a solution is formewater is added to the basic solution, to f

consistency. It is advised that pigment is mixe

and then diluted further with water, to achieve

the thinner the better. If the casein is over stron

lime substrate and cause weaknesses in the mo

Other types of protein glue have been found paintings. For example, egg yolk, isinglass and

Protection of Fresco Paintings


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In the past, frescoes were often varnished with as beverone, a simple solution protein binder

glue, egg yolk, or egg white. This was used to i

to the surface of fresco paintings, with a look

paint. However, with age, such applications te

attract dirt and dust. So much so, that the visuaor takes on an aged brown appearance.

beverone is normally not associated with th

later generations who undertook to protect the

protein binder glue/varnish. Rather than period

replacing these varnishes, practice tended towthe original beverone with yet more of the

disastrous build up of dust-friendly varnish.

Removal of such varnishes is also difficult, b

binders tend to penetrate into the porous surfac

consequence, when such varnishes are removetake with them a portion of the fresco su

binders also become progressively harder and

with age, especially when multiple coats hav

top of each other.

In practice, if a fresco painting has been undert

trusted techniques, it should not require any

especially in the case of interior work. It can al


mortar. As with lime-fresco, the pigments use

possible, so that upon drying they are not affe


456/521

possible, so that upon drying they are not affe

pollutants. Painting with waterglass i

Stereochromy and became popular in the

Waterglass is sold as prepared paint, where the

bound in waterglass with the required filler

building decoration. For artistic purposes, it is

take a solution of waterglass (typically 28%

dissolved in water) and to combine this clear bdistilled water pastes to form a stiff paste. This

back to a solid form (sets hard) and then pul

powder. The resultant powder is then mixed w

of waterglass and can be applied to any clean p

any surface suitable for fresco painting. Perhaand easiest support would be the ground de

panels, using a blend of casein and lime putty,

order to gain a better working consistency

pigment mix, it is sometimes necessary to

material. Aluminium hydrate, finely ground fine marble dust may be used to achieve a

However, such additions will tend to show wh

or pale colours.

Prior to painting, the surface of the plaster in

with a very dilute solution of waterglass (10%and the waterglass-pigment combination i

wet/damp ground. This process aids adhesio

Acrylic


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Modern acrylic paint systems are sometimes

mural painting. These flow-formula acrylic p

brush out flat and have an equalised paint she

matt). Acrylic paints can be applied to any

support, but care must be taken in the case

plastered walls, to ensure that no moisture res

the wall. Unlike fresco, acrylic paints form a c

film, thereby trapping any residual moisture be

This can become a problem if the wall su

adequately prepared prior to painting. Also, if

wall at any time, it becomes trapped behind

can, in the worst case scenario, burst throu

causing cracking or blistering of the paint film

When preparing walls for use with acrylic paint

the manufacturers recommendations as rega

and priming. It cannot be overstated that th

primer is vital in this instance. For exampl

bound white emulsion paint as a priming for ac

recommended. Such emulsion paints have a m

strength than acrylic paints and may in fact

support if stressed (e.g. in contact with da

paints are also prone to chalking after a pe

indeed many are designed to do just that, so tha

overpainted (for house decoration). By co


environment. For example, a mural alongsid

may degrade more quickly when painted in


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y g q y p

carefully and correctly prepared with fresco

finds its way into the support wall will become

acrylic paint film. For the same reason, ac

advised for use in bathroom wall decorations.

Unlike fresco, acrylic-painted murals can be va

problems. The acrylic resin varnishes may

solvent-based. In both cases, they form con

which will render the dried paint film water

they can be used to seal the painting from atm

as well as change the gloss or mattness of the


459/521

One of the key tools for applying paint is the bin all manner of sizes, hair types and qualibrushes are required to have a finesse which

with household brushes. However, sommanufactured for the decorating trade may aartists and should not be overlooked. Brdifferent traditions according to the manufacture. For example, Italian and Frenchtend to be of a much higher quality than similathe United Kingdom. However, many artists and overlook the possibility of using such materials, a degree of experimentation is encoextend to trying out a range of brushes to achoice of brush for the type of work undertake

The manufacturing of artists quality brushes mand high standards exemplified in high qualityconsequence, many brushes have a high cos

Brushes


need to use soft hair brushes in oil painting, inexact mark required. The key to using brushes


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oil paint, is to clean and maintain them fastid

softer hair brushes will last longer.

Hog Bristle Brushes

The best quality bristle brushes for oil paintingfrom chinese hog. The hair is carefully selegrease and other residues or impurities, beforfitted into the metal ring (ferrule) that clamps tthe brush handle. The best quality hog bristle bfrom specially selected hair, and the brushm

brush tip, often by hand, to the required formatthe work of the brushmaker is a finely honed small teams of makers, or even individumanufacturers have in recent years given theirto mechanised production, which may havlowering of quality generally in the market.

The tips of good quality hog bristle brushes ato gain a better shape during use by the arminute tree (also known as flags) at its tiphairs tends to grip to adjoining hairs, formingcoherent point. With use, these trees (or flags)other more and more, giving the brush a charwhich should remain constant, provided thewashed after each use.

artist to stand away from the painting while woable to judge colour mixing and make observa


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etc. In most cases, the brush handle is lac

preferable if brush handles (for all media) wwood, as quite often the lacquer from the hatime and can fall into paint pots and on to palthe author has seen few examples of this tybrushes made for the ceramics industry.

Hog oil painting brushes are manufactured inflat, long flat, round, filbert (cats tongue) anround brushes are employed for detailed ar

Round hog Flat hog Filbert hog


Because hog brushes are relatively stiff, the mto be rather evident in the paint film. This ges


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may be required and has a certain aesthetic app

wants to lose brushmarks, softer hair brushes m

As with all brushes, the shape and size of thethe amount of paint which it can hold. Many around or filbert brushes to load up paint, for Similarly, many artists choose large round Ita

brushes when needing to apply large amountsthe larger the brush tip, the more cleaning neepainting. Typically, residual oil colour gets trthe hair, where it fits into the ferrule. Thitherefore requires particular attention when cleleft in this area, it will tend to clog up the brusmay also cause the hair to splay, or stick togeexpensive, often costing more than tubes of sense to clean them regularly and carefully.

Soft Hair Brushes

For detailed or subtle applications of oil coloumay be required. Included in this category, onmade with sable, ox, polecat or mongoose hair

Ox hair brushes, made from hair obtained frogive a degree of resilience yet possess great sooil painting. The hair behaves rather like sable,soft It has enough spring to re-form into the

and then further manipulated, without reveamarks, especially when the paint medium used

l) h l lf l ll


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oil) is inherently self-levelling.

Polecat and mongoose hair brushes tend to bwhen compared to ox, although this cmanufacturer to another.

Sable hair is often considered to be too soft foespecially when applied to linen canvas with atexture. Such brushes will tend to wear down paint is applied in loose glazes, where the painwith the addition of a paint medium, the paingently off the brush

The Artist Handbook

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