The Arizona Apaches and Christianization: A Study of Lutheran ...

The Arizona Apaches and Christianization; a study of Lutheranmissionary activity, 1893-1943

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Authors Brown, Lenard E.

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THE ARIZONA. APACHES AND CHRISTIANIZATION:

A STUDY OF LUTHERAN MISSIONARY ACTIVITY, 1893 - 1 9 l3 .

by

L enard E . Brown

A T hesis S u b m itted to th e F a c u lty of th e

DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY

I n P a r t i a l F u lf i l lm e n t o f th e R equirem ents F o r th e D egree o f

MASTER OF ARTS

In th e G raduate C o llege

THE UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA

1 9 6 3

STATEMENT BY AUTHOR

This th e s i s has been su b m itted in p a r t i a l f u l f i l lm e n t of r e quirem ents f o r an advanced degree a t The U n iv e rs ity of A rizona and i s d e p o s ited in The U n iv e rs ity L ib ra ry to be made a v a ila b le to b o rrow ers under ru le s of th e L ib ra ry .

B r ie f q u o ta tio n s from th i s th e s i s a re a llo w ab le w ith o u t s p e c ia l pe rm issio n , p ro v id ed t h a t a c c u ra te acknowledgment o f source i s made. R equests f o r pe rm issio n f o r ex tended q u o ta tio n from o r re p ro d u c tio n of t h i s m anuscrip t in whole o r i n p a r t may be g ra n te d by th e h ead of th e m ajor departm ent or th e Dean of th e G raduate C o llege when in t h e i r judgment th e proposed use of th e m a te r ia l i s in th e i n t e r e s t s o f s c h o la r s h ip . In a l l o th e r in s ta n c e s , how ever, pe rm issio n must be o b ta in e d from th e a u th o r .

APPROVAL BY THESIS DIRECTOR

This th e s i s has been approved on th e da te shown below :

DR. JOHN A. CARROLL P ro fe sso r o f H is to ry

Date

i

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . .............................................................................................................. ...... . i i i

DEDICATION . . . . .............................................................................................. iv

I . PROTESTANT MISSIONARIES TO TOE INDIANS OF THEFAR SOUTHWEST, 1850 - 1890.......................................................... 1

I I . THE PRIMITIVE APACHES: A GENERAL VIEW ............................................. 19

H I . A HERITAGE OF HATE: APACHES'VS. ANGLO-AMERICANS,1850 - 1890 ...................... 51

IV. THE LUTHERANS COME TO THE APACHES, 1892 - 1918........................... ?8

V. THE APACHES COME TO THE LUTHERANS, 1918 - 19U3........................... 92

EPILOGUE........................................................................................................................ 117

BIBLIOGRAPHY 120

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Ihe a u th o r w ishes t o exp ress h i s d eep es t g r a t i tu d e to D r. John

A lexander C a r r o l l f o r th e g u id an ce , p a t ie n c e , and u n d e rs tan d in g t h a t he

h as p rov ided du rin g th e w r i t in g of t h i s t h e s i s . I a l s o w ish t o thank

th e members of th e f a c u l ty of th e D epartm ent of H is to ry and ny p a re n ts

f o r th e adv ice and a s s is ta n c e th e y have p ro v id ed . The s t a f f s of th e

U n iv e rs ity of A rizona L ib ra ry and th e A rizona P io n e e rs1 H is to r ic a l S o c ie ty

have a ls o been most h e lp f u l du ring th e p re p a ra t io n of th e th e s is *

i i i

DEDICATION

D ed ica ted to f o u r L utheran m is s io n a r ie s — E. Edgar G uenther,

A lf re d U plegger, Henry R osin , and F ra n c is U plegger — each of whom de

v o te d more th a n f o r t y y e a rs t o C h r is t ia n work among th e Apache In d ian s

on th e San C arlo s and F o r t Apache R e se rv a tio n s .

iv

CHAPTER I

PROTESTANT MISSIONARIES TO THE INDIANS

OF THE FAR SOUTHWEST, 18$0 - 1890

The number o f P r o te s ta n t m is s io n a r ie s i n th e F a r Southw est who

l e f t e i t h e r w r i t t e n re c o rd s of t h e i r work among th e In d ia n s betw een

1850 and 1890, o r l a s t i n g monuments to t h e i r la b o rs can be coun ted on

th e f in g e r s o f b o th h an d s. D o u b tle ss th e re were many m is s io n a r ie s who

had c o n ta c t w ith th e In d ia n s o f t h i s re g io n , b u t most o f them l e f t p ro o f

of t h e i r work among th e "h ea th en savage* no more perm anent th a n r a in

f a l l on th e d e s e r t . I t may be re g a rd ed a s s tra n g e th a t th e re were n o t

more P r o te s ta n t m issions e s ta b l is h e d e a r l i e r i n th e p re s e n t s t a t e s o f

A rizona and New Mexico. This area: had th e one f e a tu r e t h a t sh o u ld have

a t t r a c t e d m is s io n a r ie s : a la rg e number o f "b en ig h ted and m isguided

p e o p le ." The rea so n s why so T i t t l e was done f o r th e In d ian s o f t h i s

re g io n were s e v e r a l . The re g io n was ex trem ely u n s e t t le d u n t i l a f t e r

1870, and even th e n was f a r from " c iv i l iz e d " j th o se w ith th e m issio n

a ry z e a l co u ld f i n d enough to occupy them in th e b ig c i t i e s o f th e

A t la n t ic seab o a rd and M iddle W est, among th e s e t t l e d In d ian s e a s t o f

th e 100th p a r a l l e l , and i n th e f e r t i l e m issio n f i e l d o f C hina; and, as

E . E . Muntz w rote i n th e N in e teen th C entury m agazine, " I t was e a r ly

d isco v e red t h a t th e c h ie f o b s ta c le to th e c i v i l i z a t i o n and co n v ersio n

1

2

of th e n a tiv e was to be found i n h is w andering h a b i t s , occasioned by

th e n e c e s s i ty o f co v erin g a la r g e t e r r i t o r y f o r h is su stenance*^

Die f i r s t P r o te s ta n t group to work among th e In d ia n s o f th e

re g io n were th e B a p t is ts , who, du rin g th e f i f t i e s h ad m is s io n a r ie s

among th e Pueblos and N avajos. Die B a p t is ts had been a c t iv e i n New

Mexico b eg in n in g i n 18U9, and in 1850 th e American Home M ission S o c ie ty

began to con tem plate e s ta b l i s h in g m issio n s among th e In d ia n s o f New 2

Mexico* Die same y e a r Rev. Hiram W alte r Read v i s i t e d th e f r i e n d l i e r

t r i b e s w ith th e id ea o f b eg in n in g a sc h o o l, and a s a r e s u l t Rev.

Samuel Goman came t o se rv e th e In d ia n s a t Laguna Pueblo i n th e f a l l o f

1852.3

Die Gormans w ere g iv en a d e la p id a te d home on th e c e n t r a l p la za

f o r which Gorman made m ost o f th e f u r n i tu r e . Because th e n a t iv e s were

r a th e r h e s i t a n t to work f o r th e wages o f fe re d them by Rev. Gorman, p lu s

t h e i r d e c rea s in g p ro v is io n s — w ith no p ro sp e c t of b e in g a b le to p u r

chase fo o d from th e In d ia n s i n any q u a n t i ty —■ a h a rd w in te r was i n

s to r e f o r th e t h i r t y - s i x y e a r o ld m issionary*^ Ry F ebruary 20, 185U,

•^E.E. Muntz, " C h r is t ia n i ty and th e Am erican In d ia n , 11 N ine teen th C entury , C l (Jan u ary , 1927), 5 8 .

^O laf S . O lsen, ”A H is to ry of th e B a p t is ts o f th e Rocky M ountain R egion, 18L9-1890," (U npublished RiD D is s e r ta t io n , D ept, o f H is to ry , U n iv e rs ity of C olorado, 1953)> li6 . C ite d h e r e a f t e r a s O lsen .

^See Lansing B. Bloom, “Die Reverend Hiram W alte r Read, B a p t is t M iss io n a ry ,” New Mexico H i s to r i c a l Review, XVII (A p r i l , 19lt2), 113-lii7 • Gorman b o rn in Chio i n 1818 jo in e d th e B a p t is t Church a t th e age o f 21. A t th e tim e of h i s a r r i v a l a t Laguna, th e r e were about 1 ,000 In d ia n s a t t h a t p u eb lo . O lsen, 5U»

^Die food t h a t was a v a ila b le was e x o r b i t a n t in p r ic e : t h i r t y to f o r ty c e n ts f o r a dozen eggs, tw elve c e n ts f o r a q u a r t of m ilk , tw elve c en ts f o r th r e e to f o u r pounds of c o m m eal and a m il l in g charge of one d o l l a r to g r in d te n pounds of co m in to m eal. L e t t e r o f Samuel Gorman, November 10, 1852 i n Home M ission R ecord , F eb ru ary , 1853 a s c i t e d by O lsen, 5 7 .

3

th e m iss io n fa m ily h ad been on a d i e t o f c o m b re a d and g ravy f o r over

a month and, because o f t h e i r f a i l u r e t o g e t t h e i r sch o o l o r ch ap e l

begun, were co n tem p la tin g g iv in g up th e m issio n a t L a g u n a T h e one

b r ig h t sp o t i n th e e n t i r e w in te r was t h a t th e need to beg and hagg le

w ith th e In d ia n s to buy fo o d and f u e l h ad g iven th e Gorman fa m ily th e

chance to become a cq u a in te d w ith most o f th e p eop le o f th e p u eb lo -

Gorman, r e a l iz in g t h a t he co u ld ex p ec t l i t t l e su ccess u n t i l he

co u ld communicate w ith th e p eo p le , began t o l e a r n S pan ish , and a f t e r

s i x weeks o f c o n c e n tra te d s tu d y was a b le t o h o ld s e rv ic e s i n th e pueb lo ,

u s in g an i n t e r p r e t e r to t r a n s l a t e th e Spanish in to K eresan . P erm ission

was g iv en by th e le a d e rs i n th e pueblo to h o ld re g u la r Sunday s e r v ic e s ,

b u t two days l a t e r a " v ic a r" o f th e Roman C a th o lic church a r r iv e d and

reprim anded th e head man f o r g ra n tin g Gorman t h i s p r iv i l e g e . As a

r e s u l t th e use of th e church was fo rb id d e n Gorman, b u t he d ec id ed t o

p reach in h i s home and th e le a d e rs ag re ed t h a t he would be a llo w ed to

do t h i s .

H o s t i l i t y a g a in s t th e m iss io n rem ained h ig h u n t i l J u ly of 1853*

when, i n a dram atic tu rn a b o u t, Gorman was adop ted a s a member o f th e

Laguna pueblo w ith a l l th e r ig h t s and p r iv i le g e s .^ From t h i s moment th e

p a th o f th e m iss io n ary was much s t r a ig h te n and sm oother, a s i t e f o r a

perm anent m iss io n was e s ta b l is h e d and p lan s f o r a sch o o l to educate

c h i ld re n from n e ig h b o rin g pueblos were made. The In d ian s gave a g re a t

^O lsen (p . 58) makes th e comment t h a t th e Gormans found ou t l a t e r t h a t t i i i s a tte m p t to s ta r v e them o u t h ad been th e work of th e n a t iv e shamans and Roman C a th o lic p r i e s t s , b u t o f f e r s no re fe re n c e o r document a t i o n .

^O lsen , 62-63 .

k

d e a l of la b o r to th e com ple tion of th e m iss io n b u i ld in g , and on

December 2$, 26, and 27, 1853, th ree o f th e fou r B a p tis t m iss io n a r ies7

i n New Mexico g a th e re d to d e d ic a te th e c h ap e l. S h o r tly th e r e a f t e r

Gorman opened a s to r e on th e a d v ice of th e a g e n t. C ap ta in Henry Dodge,

and th u s g a in ed more c o n ta c t w ith th e In d ia n s . By th e end of 1853 th e

p e r io d o f non-accep tance was o v e r.

I n th e f i r s t f iv e months of 185U th e m issio n ary t r a v e le d th rough

th e a re a around Laguna, a s w e l l a s working i n th e pu eb lo . I n May, Jose

Sanon, who had been a c t in g a s Gorman’s i n t e r p r e t e r , re q u e s te d a d d i t io n a l

in s t r u c t io n and became th e f i r s t n a t iv e c o n v e r t i n th e t e r r i t o r y . Sanon

was re v ile d by b o th th e p r ie s ts and th e o th e r In d ia n s f o r t h i s s te p . The

In d ian s were d is tu rb e d because th e p r i e s t s h ad re fu s e d to say mass a t

th e pueblo w h ile Gorman and Sanon were th e r e . I n August o f 185U Sanon 8

was b a p t iz e d , and became Gorman's h e lp e r , a id in g him as la y p re a c h e r ,

i n t e r p r e t e r , t r a n s l a t o r of r e l i g io u s docum ents, and c le rk i n th e s t o r e .

This in c re a s e d a c t i v i t y by th e B a p t is ts was m atched by a s tep p ed up

campaign b y th e p r i e s t s , who u rged th e f a i t h f u l to d riv e Rev. Gorman

from th e p u eb lo . The la rg e m a jo r ity of th e peop le were on ly confused

by th e p r i e s t ' s charges of h e re sy and th e co u n terch arg es of su p er

s t i t i o u s p ra c t ic e s b y Gorman. I n Ju n e , 1855, th e a tte m p t t o o u s t th e

B a p t is t m iss io n ary re a ch e d a c lim ax . The q u e s tio n was d ec id ed in

Gorman’s f a v o r because he had been adopted as a t r i b a l member, and such

a c t io n would be a b re a ch of t r a d i t i o n .

7I b i d . , 6 3 .

8I b i d . , 6 ? . 9I b i d . , 6 9 .

2

By 1855 th e c h ap e l which had been d e d ic a te d in 1853 h a d become

to o sm a ll, and a new c h ap e l s i t e was so u g h t. Over th re e y e a rs passed

b e fo re a c h ap e l of s to n e was com pleted and t h i s was a ls o u sed a s th e

sc h o o l. The e d u c a tio n a l work of th e Gomans h a d begun i n December o f

1852 when th e y h ad opened a sch o o l f o r those In d ia n s who would come. The

s tru g g le was co n tin u o u s , b u t M rs. Gorman, who h ad ta u g h t f o r f i f t e e n

y e a rs p r i o r t o h e r m a rria g e , r e p o r te d t h a t she h a d never see n p u p ils10

l e a r n so f a s t f o r th e amount o f tim e sp e n t i n sc h o o l. As w ith th e

m issio n i t s e l f , th e sch o o l f lo u r is h e d a f t e r th e accep tance o f th e m iss io n

fa m ily in to th e pueblo i n 1853 •

On March 1 , 1859, Rev. Gorman l e f t lag u n a to ta k e o v er th e

m in is try a t S an ta F e . One of th e c h ie f reaso n s f o r th e move was t h a t

th e la c k o f s o c ia l l i f e du ring th e work a t lag u n a made a change im

p e r a t iv e , e s p e c ia l ly f o r M rs. Gorman. Jose Sanon was l e f t i n charge a t11

laguna and g iv e n l ic e n s e t o m in is te r t o th e su rround ing p u e b lo s . In12

1861 Sanon d ie d , and by th e m id - s ix t ie s th e m iss io n c ea sed to e x i s t .

I n th e same y e a r t h a t th e Gormans took up t h e i r re s id e n c e a t

Laguna, Rev. M ilton J . Shaw was s t a r t i n g h i s work among th e Navajos o f

th e F o r t D efiance re g io n . Shaw 's p rim ary job was c h a p la in a t th e f o r t ,

b u t i n a d d i t io n h e a l s o m in is te re d to th e Nava j o s . I n th e f a l l o f 1852,

a tem porary l u l l i n th e h o s t i l i t i e s enab led Shaw to c r e a te th e ground

work f o r h i s p lan s t o c h r i s t i a n iz e th e N avajo. D uring t h i s uneasy tru c e

10I b i d . , 108.

• ^ I b i d . . 81.12R alph E . Twitch e l l , Leading F a c ts i n New Mexican H is to ry (2

V0I 3 Cedar R ap id s, Iowa: Torch. P re s s , 1912), I I , 35U.

6

of s ix m onths, Shaw made s e v e ra l t r i p s among th e In d ia n s , g a in in g t h e i r

co n fid e n ce , le a rn in g t h e i r custom s, and a tte m p tin g t o le a r n th e language .

O ccasio n a lly a few Navajos would v i s i t th e f o r t , b u t Shaw r e a l i z e d th a t

th e only way t o m in is te r t o th e se In d ia n s was t o move w ith them in t h e i r

nomadic w anderings, a s i t u a t i o n h e view ed w ith l e s s th a n en thusiasm . A

m issio n ary w ould have to " t r a v e l and s le e p i n th e w ild e rn e ss where no

human h a b i ta t io n meets th e eye . . . a s s o c ia t in g w ith a group of h a l f

c la d d i r t y savages w hile th e h ideous how ling of w o lves, and o th e r w ild

b e a s ts of p re y , m ingled w ith th e no l e s s d isa g re e a b le y e l l s and w ild13

songs of "the I n d ia n s .”

The c h ie f aim of th e m iss io n ary was th e e s ta b lish m e n t of schoo ls

f o r th e Navajo c h i ld re n , an d he u rged th e c h ie fs to encourage th e

send ing of c h i ld re n to s c h o o l . A lthough th e c h ie f s prom ised to do so ,

l i t t l e came of i t . I n th e sp r in g of 1853, h o s t i l i t i e s betw een th e

U n ited S ta te s and th e N avajo began a g a in , and Shaw 's p lan s t o s t a r t a

sch o o l were f r u s t r a t e d . 'While Shaw dep lo red th e p u n itiv e e x p e d itio n s

and b e lie v e d th e m a jo r ity of th e N avajos w e ll d isp o sed , he d id b e lie v e

th e charges made were v a l i d . By summer of 1853 h o s t i l i t i e s h ad su b sid ed

and Shaw resum ed h is work. By Septem ber i t was c l e a r t h a t th e m issio n ary

h ad g a in ed th e f r ie n d s h ip of th e Nava j o s , f o r he had now b een g ra n te d

s a fe conduct by th e c h i e f s . T h e s i t u a t i o n seemed so encourag ing th a t

Shaw was g iv en an a s s i s t a n t . Rev. F ra n k lin ToU hurst, in th e sp r in g of

■ ^ Q u o t e d from "The Jo u rn a l of J.M . Shaw," Home M ission R ecord, Jan u a ry , 385U, a s c i t e d by O lsen , U9.

• ^ L e t t e r of J .K . Shaw in Home M ission R eco rd , 185U, as c i t e d i n O lsen , 51 .

7

The two men a ttem p ted to expand th e m iss io n f i e l d , b u t f a i l e d , a s

d id an a tte m p t t o e s ta b l i s h a m iss io n a t Zuni. One reaso n f o r t h i s in

c re a se d a c t i v i t y was th e news t h a t th e famous J e s u i t from Oregon, F a th e r

P ie r r e de Smet, was coming to m in is te r to th e N avajos. VSien de Smet1<

d ec id ed n o t to come, th e c r i s i s p a sse d . The l a s t re c o rd s from th e

m iss io n to th e N avajos a re f o r th e summer o f l855>. I n th e autumn o f

1855 Shaw o b ta in e d a le av e o f absence because of h i s w if e ’s i l l h e a l t h .

S ince T o lh u rs t had l e f t th e p rev io u s f a l l to assume d u t ie s a t S an ta F e ,

th e m iss io n c lo se d a f t e r on ly th r e e y e a rs o f o p e ra tio n .

The B a p t is ts were th e o n ly A ro te s ta n t m is s io n a r ie s to th e

In d ia n s o f th e F a r Southw est d u ring th e l8 5 0 , s . W ith th e abandonment

o f th e m issions o f Gorman and Shaw, th e B a p t i s t Church w ithdrew from

t h i s f i e l d and d id n o t re a p p ea r u n t i l th e l a s t decade o f th e c e n t u r y .^

I n ih e in te rv e n in g y e a rs a d e f in i t e and w e ll re p o r te d amount of

P r o te s ta n t m iss io n work was c a r r i e d on in th r e e s p e c i f ic a re a s o f th e

re g io n : among th e Pueblo In d ia n s of th e Upper Rio G rande, among th e

Pimas and Papagos o f A rizo n a , and a t th e Albuquerque In d ia n S choo l.

I n 1868 th e P re s b y te r ia n s e s ta b l is h e d a m iss io n a t J e w e tt, New

Mexico T e r r i to r y , under Rev. James R o b e r ts ; b u t u n t i l 1895> th e n th e

M ethod ists took o v e r, th e work was sp o ra d ic a t t h i s p la c e . I n 18?6

Rev. John Menual, who h ad come to th e N avajo r e s e r v a t io n s i x y e a rs

e a r l i e r , was moved t o Laguna by R ev. S heldon Jackson . Menual to o k up

th e rem nants o f th e B a p t is t work, and by 1878 a church h ad been o rg an ized

# 0 1 s e n , 5 2 .

•^O lsen , 285-86.

8

and a sch o o l begun. Die sch o o l was of th e c o n tra c t ty p e , i n >iiich th e

government p a id a s t a t e d sum p e r p u p i l and th e r e l ig io u s o rg a n iz a tio n

su p p lie d te a c h e r s , b u i ld in g s , and equipm ent. A sc h o o l was a l s o opened

a t Jemez, b u t a com bination of governm ent and church c o n tr o l , p lu s

C a th o lic o p p o s itio n , fo rc e d i t t o c lo s e . A day sch o o l a t Zuni was

f lo u r is h in g by 18%>, and one a t I s le ta . l a s t e d te n y e a rs (IB8U -I89U)17under both government and church c o n t r o l . A l l o th e r a tte m p ts to open

day schoo ls among th e In d ia n s o f New Mexico f a i l e d , p a r t l y because o f

th e o p p o s itio n o f Roman C a th o lic p r i e s t s . I n 1893, i n l i n e w ith t h e i r

new p o lic y o f s e p a ra t io n of church and s t a t e , th e P re sb y te r ia n s sev e red18a l l co n n ec tions w ith th e governm ent and i t s conduct o f In d ia n s c h o o ls .

P r io r to 1890 th e most a c t iv e work among th e In d ia n s of A rizona

was t h a t of Rev. C harles Cook among th e Pim as. Cook was th e f i r s t

P r o te s ta n t m iss io n a ry t o th e Pim as, and u n t i l h i s coming, f e d e r a l a g en ts

19t o th e Pimas made c o n s ta n t r e fe re n c e t o th e la c k o f m issio n w orkers .

Cook (Koch) was b o rn i n Germany and confirm ed i n th e L u theran Church.

As a young man h e drew away from o rg an ized r e l i g io n and sp e n t s e v e ra l

■^Lucius Buck, "An In q u iry i n t o th e H is to ry o f P re s b y te r ia n E d u c a tio n a l M issions in New M exico,*' (U npublished M asters T h e s is , D ept, o f H is to ry , U n iv e rs ity o f S o u thern C a l i f o r n ia , 19U9), 27-28 .

l 8I b id . , 31 .

•^ "S in ce th e U n ited S ta te s came in to p o sse ss io n of t h i s c o u n try , th e re have been no a tte m p ts made . . . by any r e l ig io u s denom ination to e s ta b l i s h sch o o ls o r churches among any o f th e t r i b e s o f th e t e r r i t o r y . " See r e p o r t o f George W. Leahy, S u p e rin ten d e n t In d ia n A f f a i r s , A rizona T e r r i to ry i n th e "A nnual R eport o f th e Commissioner o f In d ia n A f f a i r s , 1867 .* House E x ecu tiv e Document 1 p a r t 2 (b o th C ongress, 2nd S e s s io n ) , 1^3* ~

9

y e a rs a t v a r io u s jobs b e fo re la n d in g a t Hew O rleans i n 1855• He worked20

two y e a rs a s a d ru g g is t and a p r i n t e r ’s h e lp e r , th e n s a i l e d f o r New

York where he e n l i s t e d i n th e T h ird U .S. C av a liy . He se rv ed in th e

Southw est du rin g th e C iv i l War and took p a r t i n th e b a t t l e s a t21V alverde and Apache Carbon. He was d isch a rg ed a t P a ra je , New Mexico

T e r r i to r y , b u t i n 186It r e - e n l i s t e d i n th e F i r s t Regim ent of New York

L ig h t A r t iH e iy . W hile w a itin g to go to th e f r o n t , Cook was moved by

th e p reach in g of a D r. Shaw and jo in e d th e P re s b y te r ia n Church.

On June 17 , 1865, Cook was d isch a rg ed an d , a f t e r over a y e a r of

d r i f t i n g , s e t t l e d i n Chicago and took work as a bank c le r ic . A t th e

same tim e he had charge o f th e H a ls tead S t r e e t M iss io n . Cook hoped to

be s e n t as a m iss io n ary t o C h ina , b u t i n 1868 he re a d an a r t i c l e i n th e

New York E v a n g e lis t by M ajor (B rev t B r ig a d ie r G enera l) Andrew J .

A lexander o u t l in in g th e need f o r m is s io n a r ie s to th e Pima and Papago 22In d ia n s . Cook a t t h i s tim e was a member of th e M ethod ist E p isc o p a l

C hurch. A y e a r a f t e r read in g G enera l A lexander’s l e t t e r he decided to

go to A rizona , and on Septem ber 1 , 1870, began h is t r i p , t r a v e l in g by

r a i l r o a d , s ta g e , ox t r a i n , m i l i t a r y v e h ic le , and p r iv a te t r a n s p o r ta t io n .

On December 30 he reach ed th e v i l l a g e s of th e Pima In d ia n s , over whom

th e Dutch Reform Church had b een a ss ig n e d j u r i s d i c t i o n by th e B ureau of

In d ia n A f fa ir s i n accordance w ith th e newly e s ta b l is h e d “Peace P o lic y ”

2 0 isaac W hite more and C harles Cook, Among th e Piroas o r The M ission to th e Pima and M aricopa In d ia n s (Albany: L ad ies M ission School A s s o c ia t io n ) , 19.

^ J d h n M. H am ilton, "H is to ry of P re s b y te r ia n Work Among th e Pima and Papago In d ia n s o f A rizona" (U npublished M asters T h e s is , D ept, of H is to ry , U n iv e rs ity of A rizo n a , 19U8), 19 .

^Among th e Fim as, 23 .

10

of th e G ran t a d m in is tr a t io n .

I n h i s a g e n t’s r e p o r t f o r 1870, C ap ta in F re d e r ic k E . Grossman

h ad c r i t i c i z e d th e la c k o f m is s io n a r ie s t o th e Fimas and M aricopas. He

welcomed Cook e n th u s i a s t i c a l l y , and on January 1 , 1871, Cook was

ap p o in ted a s governm ent te a c h e r a t 600 d o l la r s p e r y e a r . Grossman

doubted th e f e a s i b i l i t y o f a day sc h o o l, b u t ag reed to t r y i t . On

F ebruary l£ Cook began in s t r u c t io n , and on th e same day he le a rn e d th a t23

h is s a la r y h ad been r a i s e d to one thousand d o l la r s a year* Grossman

soon became an a rd e n t advocate of th e day sch o o l, and w ro te t o S u p e rin

te n d e n t B en d e ll l a t e i n March su g g es tin g t h a t th e governm ent su p p ly

books, s l a t e s , c h a lk , and copy books f o r th e sch o o l a s th e c h ild re n

showed a d e f in i t e tendency tow ard obedience and a d e s ir e to l e a r n . On

May 31 th e f i r s t sch o o l term c lo se d w ith an average d a i ly a tten d an ce2U

f o r th e th re e and a h a l f months o f t h i r t y - e i g h t p u p ils* The s tu d e n ts

had le a rn e d th e a lp h a b e t, a few E n g lish w ords, and c o u ld coun t, p r i n t and

s in g a few hymns.

Cook c o n tin u e d .to te a c h i n th e government sc h o o l and overcame

th e problem of p a re n ts who would n o t compel t h e i r c h i ld re n to a t te n d

sch o o l by o f f e r in g m a te r ia l inducem ents — such a s a noonday m eal which

was p a id f o r by Rev. Cook and Agent J . H. S to u t . I n J u ly , 1872, Cook

re tu rn e d to Chicago and m a rrie d Anna B a r th . M rs. Cook ta u g h t i n th e i.

s ch o o l f o r one y e a r and th e n r e t i r e d t o c a re f o r h e r fa m ily . During th e

f i r s t n in e y e a rs t h a t Cook was on th e Pima R e se rv a tio n , h e drew no

^ H a m ilto n , 23 .

% b i d . , 2ii.

12

s a la r y from th e m iss io n b o ard of th e Dutch Reform Church, su p p o rtin g

h im se lf a l to g e th e r a s a government te a c h e r and l a t e r a s a c le r k i n25

C harles T. H ayden's s t o r e .

D esp ite th e r e l a t i v e su ccess of Cook’s endeavors bo th a t th e

agency n e a r p re se n t S aca to n and a t th e M aricopa v i l l a g e o f H ol-chi-cum ,

h e d id e n co u n te r r e s is ta n c e from th e m edicine men. They th re a te n e d th e

m iss io n ary w ith death i f h e co n tin u ed to teach and preach th e g o sp e l.

Die c h ie f o b je c t io n o f th e se shamans was t h a t th e p reach in g o f

C h r i s t i a n i ty p u t an end to t h e i r p r o f i ta b le b u s in e ss o f s e l l i n g charms

to th e Fimas to ward o f f e v i l s p i r i t s . One of th e more common tech n iq u es

o f o p p o s itio n was th e d e c la r a t io n o f th e m edicine men t h a t an e v i l

s p i r i t i n th e shape o f a r a b b i t was lu rk in g in th e v i c i n i t y , and u n le s s a

h u n t was h e ld th e v i l l a g e was i n danger. Such h u n ts w ould reduce th e

a tten d an ce a t Sunday s e rv ic e s to n e a r ly z e ro .

By 1876 th e av erag e a tte n d an c e a t th e sch o o l was f i f ty - e ig & t ,

b u t d e s p i te such an in c re a s e Cook re s ig n e d as te a c h e r i n 18?8 and the

sch o o l was c lo se d f o r n e a r ly n in e m onths. From Septem ber o f 1878 u n t i l

mid-1880 h e worked as a c le r k and t r a d e r i n Hayden's s to r e and on

Sundays conducted r e l ig io u s s e r v ic e s f o r th e In d ia n s . Cook, how ever,

s t i l l d e s ire d to be a b le t o devote f u l l tim e to m issionszy work. I n

1879 Rev. Sheldon Jacks on v i s i t e d th e Pima re s e rv a t io n w ith th e id e a o f

p la c in g th e Fimas under th e c o n t r o l of th e P re s b y te r ia n C hurch. I n 1881

th e Dutch Reform Church tu rn e d i t s m issions over to th e P r e s b y te r i a n s .^

^Among th e Fim as, itO.

^ H a m ilto n , 3 0 .

12

Cook, w ith th e u rg ing of Jackson , now re s ig n ed from Hayden’ s employ and

became a m in is te r o f th e P re s b y te r ia n Church.

As a f u l l - t im e m issio n szy , Cook rode ab o u t ta lk in g to th e

In d ia n s i n t h e i r f i e l d s and hem es. I n 1881 th e day sch o o l became a

b o a rd in g sc h o o l, and Cook conducted r e l ig io u s in s t r u c t io n c la s s e s and

gave organ le s s o n s . I n 1885 th e f i r s t c o n v e rt t o C h r i s t i a n i ty , Manuel

R o b erts of B lackw ater, was b a p tiz e d and soon o th e r Pimas fo llo w ed

R o b e r ts ' exam ple. One of th e e a r ly c o n v e rts was th e c h ie f o f th e Pima 2?

p o l ic e .

U n fo rtu n a te ly , i n th e m id s t o f a l l t h i s su c c e ss . Cook c la sh e d

w ith th e In d ia n a g e n t, R osw ell W heeler, over a charge Ty th e ag en t t h a t

Cook was i n t e r f e r in g w ith h i s work by a d v is in g th e Pimas n o t t o l e t

W heeler ru n t h e i r ra n c h e s . On January 6 , 1886, W heeler re q u e s te d Cook

t o leav e th e r e s e r v a t io n , c i t in g a s th e re a so n * . . . h i s lo n g , con

t in u e d and c o n s ta n t in te r f e r e n c e w ith th e Agent and h i s work.* Cook

l e f t , b u t w ro te to th e Commissioner o f In d ia n A f fa i r s on January 8 t h a t

W heeler h ad n o t b ro u g h t h i s charges b e fo re th e U. S . In d ia n In s p e c to r ,

Mr. G. R . P ea rso n s, and t h a t W heeler was known to be a S p i r i t u a l i s t i c -

W ritin g Medium and a n avowed eneny of th e c h u r c h .^ A f te r s e v e ra l

o th e rs a ls o came to C ook 's d e fe n se , th e Commissioner o rd e re d W heeler

to a llo w Cook t o r e tu r n to th e r e s e r v a t io n , b u t th e m iss io n a ry was a l s o

warned n o t to i n t e r f e r e i n agency a f f a i r s and to ld to s t i c k t o p re a ch in g .

27 I b id . , 32.

^O ook to A tk in s , Casa Grande (Jan u ary 8 , 1886) No. 1651 i n c l a s s i f i e d f i l e of 1886, Land O ff ic e , O ffice of In d ia n A f f a i r s , N a tio n a l A rchives a s c i t e d i n H am ilton, 3U.

13

Three y e a rs p a ssed , and i n th e w in te r o f 1889 Cook was a g a in charged

w ith in te r f e r e n c e . B ut t h i s was m erely a m isunderstand ing r e s u l t in g29

from h i s o v e rly zea lous a t t i t u d e on b e h a lf o f th e P re sb y te r ia n s ♦

An a d ju n c t to th e work o f Cook among th e Pimas was th e a tte m p t

o f th e P re sb y te r ia n s t o e s ta b l i s h a sch o o l among th e Papago In d ia n s . I n

1881 th e Board of M issions began t o t a l k o f a s c h o o l f o r th e Papagos on

th e c o n d itio n th a t th e government would p rov ide a b u ild in g and some o f

th e m eals. B iree y e a rs l a t e r D r. F . J . H art was ap p o in ted te a c h e r -

p h y s ic ia n t o th e Papagos a t San X a v ie r . D e sp ite a debate o v er w hether

to e s ta b l i s h a day or b o a rd in g s c h o o l, H a rt began a sm all s c h o o l and soon

h ad g a ined th e confidence o f th e In d ia n s . C o n d itio n s , how ever, were poor

f o r le a r n in g , and o f te n no p u p ils w ould ap pear and H art w ould c lo se th e

San X av ier S ch o o l. H art a ls o began a r e l ig io u s and m ed ical program an d ,

a s a r e s u l t , he was fo rc e d to c a l l f o r an a s s i s t a n t i n 188?. B ut th e

Commissioner o f In d ia n A f fa i r s d en ied t h i s re q u e s t and , because he

b e l ie v e d H a rt was n o t spending enough tim e on h i s government jo b , r e

q u e s te d h i s r e s ig n a t io n . J . B. Douglas succeeded H a rt, b u t he made

l i t t l e p ro g ress and was removed i n January of 1888 because he was

d rin k in g and was su p p ly in g l iq u o r to th e I n d i a n s . ^ From January to

December o f t h a t y e a r e d u c a tio n a l work was a t a s t a n d s t i l l . J . N. W ilson

was th e n t r a n s f e r r e d to th e Papago re s e rv a t io n and a sch o o l was opened,

b u t a y e a r l a t e r i t was c lo se d f o r la c k of fu n d s . D iis was th e l a s t

^ H a m ilto n , 108.

3° I b id . , 111.

lU

a tte m p t by P r o te s ta n t m is s io n a r ie s t o work among th e Papagos u n t i l

1900 .31

I n 1878 M ajor B. M. ftiomas was u rg ing th e e s ta b lish m e n t of an

i n d u s t r i a l sch o o l f o r th e In d ia n s of th e sou th w este rn t e r r i t o r i e s a t

A lbuquerque. I n A p r i l , 1879, he re c e iv e d in s t r u c t io n s t o lo c a te a

s u i ta b le s i t e f o r th e p roposed sch o o l. I n December o f 1879 an o f f e r o f

ap p ro x im ate ly tw enty a c re s th re e m ile s from Albuquerque was made on th e

c o n d itio n t h a t th e sch o o l be C a th o lic , b u t t h i s was tu rn e d down because32’th e t r a c t o f la n d was to o s m a ll and th e c o n d itio n s to o s t r i c t . I n

F ebruary o f i860 M ajor Thomas re p o r te d t h a t no la n d was a v a i la b le and

su g g es ted s e v e r a l a l t e r n a t e p lan s a l l of which were r e je c te d . M ajor

Thomas now p e t i t io n e d th e c i t i z e n s o f A lbuquerque to purchase th e needed

la n d and seme s te p s were ta k e n , b u t t h i s p r o je c t was a l s o dropped b e fo re

th e end o f th e month.

A t t h i s p o in t m is s io n a r ie s o f th e P re s b y te r ia n Church le a rn e d

t h a t th e A lbuquerque B oard o f Trade was in te r e s t e d i n an In d ia n t r a in in g

sc h o o l. On A ugust £>, i8 6 0 , Rev. S heldon Jacks on a r r iv e d on th e scen e ,

o f f e re d t o s t a r t a s ch o o l i n th e f a l l , and c o n tra c te d f o r th e ed u ca tio n

o f th e In d ia n c h i ld re n . This o f f e r was accep ted by th e B ureau of In d ia n33A f f a i r s and th e sch o o l was opened in r e n te d b u i ld in g s . ^

^ "Ib id . 3 113. The Tucson In d ia n T ra in in g S chool opened in 1888 and by I 892. an a c t iv e i n s t i t u t i o n and was th e one e x c e p tio n to t h i s s ta te m e n t, b u t i t was l a r g e ly government sponso red .

^ L i l l i e G. McKinley, " H is to ry o f th e Albuquerque In d ia n School ( to 19 3 ll) ,w~ New Mexico H is to r i c a l Review, XX (A p r i l , 19W>), 110-11 .

33I b i d . , 111-12.

D uring th e n e x t two y e a rs s e v e ra l o f f e r s of la n d by th e C ity of

Albuquerque were d e c lin e d by th e f e d e r a l governm ent. I n th e f a l l o f 1882,

how ever, a t r a c t of la n d two and one h a l f m ile s n o rth w est of town was

purchased by th e c i t y and p re se n te d to th e governm ent. This la n d was

id e a l ly lo c a te d and w ith in easy reach of th e N avajo, P ueb lo , Apache, and

Ute r e s e r v a t io n s . M ills th e sea rc h f o r an a cc e p tab le lo c a t io n was under

way, c la s s e s f o r f i f t y p u p ils h ad been conducted a t th e nearby v i l l a g e

o f Duranes on a c o n tra c t b a s is of 1^0 d o l la r s per p u p il .^ S chool was

h e ld i n a co n v erted home w ith a n average a tte n d an c e of f o r t y .

I n J u ly , 1882, th e f i r s t su p e r in te n d e n t of th e s c h o o l, Mr. J .

S . S h e a re r , re s ig n e d and was re p la c e d by R. W. D. B iyan . M ajor Biomas,

tiie a g e n t, p ra is e d S h e a re r f o r h i s in d u s tr io u s and e f f e c t iv e w ork. In

O ctober Bryan and th e f a c u l ty and s tu d e n ts moved to th e new sch o o l s i t e .

Die b u ild in g s co u ld accommodate one hundred and f i f t y , b u t by 1885 th e y

had become in s u f f i c i e n t and a d d i t io n a l room was c re a te d w ith funds from

c h a r i ta b le so u rces i n th e E a s t . By 1885 th e re were f o u r c lassroom

te a c h e rs , s i x i n d u s t r i a l te a c h e r s , two m atrons, and th e su p e r in te n d e n t35

a t th e s c h o o l. S u p e rin ten d e n t B ryan w ished t o e n r o l l s tu d e n ts who

l iv e d n e a r th e sch o o l r a th e r th a n to t r a n s p o r t them from g r e a t d is ta n c e s .

He b e lie v e d i t was more im p o rtan t t o u p l i f t th e e n t i r e ra c e th a n sim ply

improve a few in d iv id u a ls and i n th e p ro cess d e s t r ty th e bond betw een

p a re n t and c h i ld . W ith t h i s i n m ind, h e encouraged th e c r e a t io n o f day

16

and board ing sch o o ls n ea r th e p u p i l s ' homes. One o f th e c h ie f re a so n s

f o r th e in c re a s e d a tte n d an c e a t th e sch o o l was i t s c e n t r a l lo c a t io n a s a

m eeting p lace f o r m ost of th e t r i b e s o f N orthern A rizona and New Mexico.

The work o f th e P re sb y te r ia n s ended i n O ctober, 1886, when th e govern

ment took com plete charge o f th e sch o o l and s t a f f e d i t w ith f e d e r a l

em ployees.

P r io r to 1890, l i t t l e o f permanence h ad been done f o r th e

N avajos, b u t i n August of t h a t y e a r th e M ethod ists became a c t iv e . R ev.

T. 1 . W ilts e e , a long w ith Rev. Thomas Harwood and Rev. A n tes, now v i s i t e d

th e re s e rv a t io n to s e l e c t p o s s ib le m iss io n s i t e s . In h i s r e p o r t f o r 1890

W iltsee c h a r a c te r iz e d th e Nava j os a s " i n t e l l i g e n t and in d u s tr io u s " and

p o sse ss in g some w e a lth . They w ere , he s a id , " f a r in advance o f m ost o f 37

our I n d ia n s ." Wien th e th re e m is s io n a r ie s reach ed W h ea tfie ld s , n e a r

Canyon de C h e lly , th e y o rg an ized a m issio n s e r v ic e , b u t were inform ed

by t h e i r guide t h a t th e Navajo "d o c to rs" w ished to h o ld a ceremony f i r s t .

These " d o c to rs " , who were p robab ly shamans, perform ed a long r i t u a l , a f t e r

which th e M ethod ists h e ld t h e i r m ee tin g .

H eadquarte rs o f th e M eth o d ist m iss io n were e s ta b l is h e d a t F o r t

D efiance under W ilts e e . By 1891 th e m is s io n a r ie s h ad p u rchased p ro p e r ty ,

e re c te d a parsonage , and made p la n s t o b u i ld a s c h o o l and ch ap e l du ring38

1892. The government gave th e M ethod ists an a c re and a h a l f o f la n d

36I b id . , 116.

Thomas J . Harwood, H is to ry of New Mexico S panish and E n g lish M issions o f M ethod ist E p isc o p a l Church from Itfej0-1910 (2 v o l . ; A lbuquerque: E l Abogado P re s s , 1908-1910), I I , 107.

38I b i d . , 267.

36

17

a t F o r t D efiance and 61|0 a c re s a t Red la k e f o r an i n d u s t r i a l i n s t i t u t e .

Die Women’s Home M issionary S o c ie ty was w orking on th e San Juan R iv e r

ab o u t 110 m ile s from F o r t D e fian ce . By I 89U th e work was p roceed ing

w e ll though th e re was a need f o r a ch ap e l, a second h o rse f o r th e

m in is te r , and money to h i r e an i n t e r p r e t e r . Die Women’s Home M issionary

S o c ie ty was a ls o making p ro g re s s and th e Navajos ap p eared e a g e r to a c c e p t 39C h r i s t i a n i ty . D iis m is s io n a ls o se rv ed th e H op is. Rev. J . A. R ig g in

c h a r a c te r iz e d th e two t r i b e s a s fo llo w s :

Die Navajo have im proved them selves to th e e x te n t of t h e i r a b i l i t i e s , b u t s t i l l a r e e s s e n t i a l ly pagan and no h e a th e n co u n try i s a s h e a th e n is h a s th e se Nava j o s . Diey a re polygamous, have s la v e s , and have a l l th e v ic e s of th e h ea th en p lu s th o se o f our c u l tu r e . Die Hopis a re id o la te r s and w orship th e snake . They a re p o o r, d a rk , b e n ig h te d p e o p le .4

Die work of th e P r o te s ta n t m is s io n a r ie s i n th e F a r Southw est

p r io r to 1890 was n o t rem arkab ly s u c c e s s fu l . W hile th e work was s p o t t i l y

r e p o r te d and d o u b tle ss much o ccu rred t h a t i s n o t known, th e perm anent

e f f e c t s of th e few P r o te s ta n t m issio n s canno t be re g a rd ed a s g r e a t . One

o f th e la rg e s tum bling b lo c k s fa c e d by th e P r o te s ta n ts was th e same th a t

fa c e d th e f i r s t C a th o lic m is s io n a r ie s th re e c e n tu r ie s e a r l i e r : th e

c o n f l i c t betw een C h r is t ia n th eo lo g y and p r im it iv e r e l i g i o n , t r a d i t i o n ,

^ I b i d . , 273. See a l s o H a r r ie t S . K ellogg , L ife of M rs. Em ily J » Harwood (A lbuquerque: E l Abogado P re s s , 1903).

k° I b id . , 268.

18

and h a b i t . Hie f a c t t h a t t h i s c o n f l i c t p e r s i s t s today i s ample re a so n

to a p p re c ia te th e d i f f i c u l t i e s ■which c o n fro n te d th e m is s io n a r ie s who came

in in c re a s in g numbers t o th e In d ia n r e s e rv a tio n s of th e Southw est i n th e

y e a rs fo llo w in g 1890. Of a l l th e p r im it iv e people of th e S outhw est,

none p re se n te d a more fo rm id ab le ch a llen g e to m iss io n a ry ‘endeavor th a n

th e A paches.

111

^ Die a n th ro p o lo g is t Gladys R e id ia rd has a n a ly zed th e p o in ts of c o n f l i c t betw een th e two sy stem s. A lthough w r it in g e x c lu s iv e ly on th e N avajo, h e r s ta te m e n ts ap p ly t o a g r e a te r o r l e s s e r e x te n t to a l l th e In d ia n s of th e S outhw est. A p r in c ip a l problem i s th e fram e of r e l ig io u s r e fe re n c e . The Navajos have a g r e a t f e a r o f death and th e dead, and th u s a re n o t a t t r a c t e d to a r e l i g io n which h as a m ajor d ie ty who has / d ie d and r i s e n a g a in . Die C h r is t ia n r e l i g i o n o f f e r s th e Nava j os th e concep t of g iv in g w ith o u t rew ard , where th e b e l i e f s o f th e se In d ia n s s t r e s s th e re a so n f o r g iv in g to b e th e achievem ent of an end — p la c a te th e gods t h a t th e co rn may grow. Polygany in d ic a te s economic su ccess i n Navajo eyes, f o r i f a man ta k e s th e r e s p o n s ib i l i ty o f su p p o rtin g two w ives h e must be s u c c e s s fu l , and th e more o f f sp r in g h e h a s , th e more h is name w i l l be re v e re d a f t e r d e a th . Die m is s io n a r ie s u s u a l ly a t ta c k polygany as soon a s th ey re a c h th e r e s e r v a t io n . A nother problem i s s e c ta r ia n ism , f o r th e In d ia n who i s beg in n in g to u n d e rs tan d a s tra n g e new r e l i g io n i s doubly confused when to ld t h a t only c e r t a in "b ran d s” a re a c c e p ta b le . F in a l ly th e N avajo en joys h is r e l ig io n : f e a s t in g , dancing ,and th e t e l l i n g of jo k es a re i n t e g r a l p a r t s of a ry observance. C h r is t ia n s on th e o th e r hand seem to endure r a th e r th a n en joy th e p ra c t ic e of t h e i r f a i t h . Gladys R e ich a rd , "Die Navajo and C h r i s t i a n i t y ,” American A n th ro p o lo g is t. I I (Januaiy-M arch , 191*9), 6 7 -7 0 .

CHAPTER I I

THE PRIMITIVE APACHES:

A GENERAL VIEW

Only in th e l a s t s e v e n ty - f iv e y e a rs h as th e re been any s c i e n t i f i c

i n t e r e s t i n th e Apaches and t h e i r c u l tu r e . P r io r to 18?0 most w h ite men

h ad only one i n t e r e s t i n th e se In d ia n s : t o remove them as q u ic k ly a s

p o s s ib le a s a b a r r i e r to th e s e t t le m e n t of th e American Southw est and

N orthw est M exico. For th e f i r s t th r e e h u ndred y e a rs a f t e r th e w h ite man

e n te re d t h e i r la n d , th e s e sem i-nom adic trib esm en succeeded n o t only i n

keep ing t h e i r b a r r i e r s r e l a t i v e l y i n t a c t b u t a l s o i n r a id in g and

p lu n d e rin g an a re a which com prised a l l o f A rizona and S onora, New

Mexico and Chihuahua, and p a r ts o f S in a lo a , C o h u ila , w e ste rn Texas and

S outhern Colorado."** A f te r 1870, how ever, th e re a ro se an in c re a s in g

i n t e r e s t i n th e nomadic Apache as a phenomenon of p r iv a t iv e c u l tu re ^2

r a th e r th a n as a p re d a to r to be "h u n ted to d ea th w ith f i r e and fam in e ."

John G. Bourke, "G enera l Crook in th e In d ia n C o u n try ," C entury M agazine, XLI (March, 1891), 651-52 . Bourke in d ic a te s t h a t th e Apaches r a id e d as f a r so u th as th e tw e n ty - f i f th degree n o rth l a t i t u d e o r th e T ropic of C ancer.

^G. W. Dent to L. V. Bogy, December 31 , 1866, I .O .D . 116 as c i t e d i n Ralph H. O gle, F e d e ra l C o n tro l of th e W estern A paches, 18U8- 1866 (A lbuquerque: Die U n iv e rs ity o f New Mexico P re s s , 19U0), 6 5 . Dent was S u p e rin ten d e n t o f In d ia n A f fa ir s i n A rizona from 1866 to 1869.

19

20

Among th e f i r s t c a r e f u l ob serv ers of th e Apache In d ian s a f t e r re d u c tio n

of th e l a s t w ild bands were th e m is s io n a r ie s who went among them i n th e

l a s t decade of th e n in e te e n th century* These m is s io n a r ie s found a people

whose h i s t o r i c a l e x p e r ie n c e , p h y s ic a l and m ental c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , s o c ia l

s t r u c tu r e and custom s, and r e l ig io u s b e l i e f s were so unique in th e

ag g re g a te as to c re a te a fo rm id ab le b a r r i e r to th e w h ite man’s way.

E x ac tly when th e Apaches came in to th e Southw est i s open to

deb ate among a n th ro p o lo g is ts and e th n o lo g is ts . Die Apaches a re an

A thapascan p e o p le , and b e lo n g to th e so u th e rn d iv is io n a lo n g w ith th e

N avajos and th e Kiowa.^ E th n o lo g is ts ag ree t h a t th e Apaches m ig ra ted

from th e n o rth a lo n g th e e a s te r n and p o s s ib ly th e w e s te rn s id e of th e

Rocky M ountains. The c h ie f p o in ts of c o n te n tio n among s c h o la rs a re

th e s e : when d id th e Apaches reach th e re g io n th ey in h a b ite d i n h i s t o r i c

t im e s , and how pow erfu l were th e y when th e S pan iards f i r s t e n te re d th e

American Southw est i n 15U0? F re d e ric k Webb Hodge, th e em inent e thno

l o g i s t , i s one of th e s t ro n g e s t exponents o f th e b e l i e f t h a t th e Apaches

were n o t r e s id in g w ith in th e p re s e n t co n fin e s of A rizona i n l^UO. Hodge

c i t e s as ev idence th e f a c t t h a t Coronado’ s c h r o n ic le r , C asteneda, d id n o t

in d ic a te th e p re sen ce o f In d ia n s i n th e a re a which l a t e r was t o becomeh

Apache domain. Hodge goes on to c i t e o th e r l e t t e r s and jo u rn a ls of

e a r ly e x p lo re rs t h a t in d ic a te th e absence of A p ach e -lik e people i n th e

^C lark W is s le r , In d ia n s of th e U n ited S ta te s (New York: Doubleday , 1 9 it l) , 192.

^F . W. Hodge, (E d .) , Handbook of American In d ia n s North of Mexico (2 v o l . j W ashington: Government P r in t in g O ff ic e , 1907), I , 6 3 . C ite d h e r e a f t e r a s Hodge Handbook.

21

a re a which in th e n in e te e n th c e n ttn y was to be marked on th e maps a s

A p ach e ria /* Die o p p o s ite v iew p o in t i s b ased c h ie f ly on th e acknowledged

f a c t t h a t th e Apaches were n o t prone to show them selves t o la rg e groups

of s t r a n g e r s u n t i l having determ ined t h e i r s tr e n g th and th e rea so n f o r

t h e i r p re sen ce . For example, G re n v ille Goodwin con tends t h a t th e Apaches

were p re s e n t in th e W hite M ountains of A rizo n a , b u t d id n o t make them-6

s e lv e s known to th e co n q u is tad o res* Which of th e se i s th e c o r r e c t

th e o ry , o r c lo s e r t o th e t r u t h , rem ains a moot p o in t . I t may be t h a t th e

Apaches were i n th e p rocess of moving in to th e W hite M ountains when th e

S p an ia rd s appeared in th e a r e a , and p o s s ib ly th ey reach ed t h e i r perm anent7

re g io n of s e tt le m e n t abou t 16$0.

By 16£0 th e Apaches w ere d iv id in g in to bands f o r purposes of8

h u n tin g and ra id in g * I t i s v e ry d e f in i t e t h a t by th e l a s t h a l f of th e

^A ccording to F . W. Hodge (She E a rly Apache and N avajo ," American A n th ro p o lo g is t, V IU ( J u ly , 1895) > 230-33), th e n a r r a t iv e o f th e Coronado e x p e d it io n m entions a group of nomads, th e Q uerechos, and th e se may have b een th e fo re ru n n e r of th e J i c a r i l l a and M escalero A paches.

^ G re n v ille Goodwin i n h i s c l a s s i c book. The S o c ia l O rg an iza tio n of th e W estern Apache (C hicago: U n iv e rs ity of C hicago P re s s , 19k2), 66- 67 . C ite d h e r e a f t e r as Goodwin, S o c ia l O rg a n iz a tio n .

? I b id . , 67 . Hodge Handbook, 63, su p p o rts t h i s assum ption . There a r e , however, n a r r a t iv e s which in d ic a te A p ach e -lik e people were i n th e a re a of Oak C reek Canyon and th e Verde V alley by 1580. B. P . Hammond and A gap ito Hey, E x p e d itio n in to New Mexico Made by A ntonio de E spejo 1582-83, a s R evealed i n th e J o u rn a l of D iego Perez de Luxan (Los A ngeles: O uivirai S o c ie ty , 1929), 107 a s c i t e d by Jack Forbes in h i s Apache Navajo and S p an ia rd (Norman: U n iv e rs ity of Oklahoma P re s s , i 960) , 6 0 .

®Hodge, American A n th ro p o lo g is t, V III ( J u ly , 1895)» 230. John G. Bourke, e a r ly m i l i t a r y e th n o lo g is t , w ro te e x te n s iv e ly on th e In d ia n s o f th e S outhw est. See Lansing B. Bloom ( e d . ) , "Bourke on th e S o u th w est," a p p ea rin g i n th e New Mexico H is to r i c a l Review in volumes 8 th rough 13 .

22

sev e n te en th c en tu ry th e Apaches h ad begun to r a i d and h u n t over th e

g r e a te r p a r t of th e t e r r i t o r y which was co n sid e red t h e i r domain i n th e

n in e te e n th c en tu ry . A d i f f e r e n ta t io n shou ld be made betw een th e a c tu a l

hom eland of th e Apaches and th e a re a i n which th e y r a id e d . In h i s book,

Ihe Apache In d ia n s , Frank G. Lockwood in d ic a te s th e approxim ate b o u n d aries

of tiie Apaches* homeland a s th e L i t t l e C olorado R iv e r on th e n o r th , th e

main l i n e of th e S ou thern P a c i f ic on th e so u th , th e R io Grande on th eo

e a s t , and th e C olorado R iv er on th e w e s t. Between 16^0 and 3B£0 th e

Apaches r a id e d a t w i l l i n what became th e American Southw est and i n t o

n o r th e rn Mexico. R aids i n to Mexico began abou t 1688, ^ and by t h a t tim e

th e Apaches had been r a id in g th e pueblos of New Mexico f o r s e v e n ty - f iv e 21

y e a rs o r more.

t 'h i l e th e o r ig in of th e word ’•Apache" i s f a i r l y c le a r , th e

nuirber of th e se In d ia n s l iv in g i n th e p re se n t s t a t e of A rizona in i860 i s

open to d e b a te . The te rm "Apache" i s a S panish m o d if ic a tio n of th e Zuni

word "Apachu", and was used o r ig in a l ly t o d e sc r ib e a l l h o s t i l e In d ia n s .

The Spanish added d e s c r ip t iv e a d je c t iv e s l a t e r on to d i f f e r e n t i a t e betw een 12

v a rio u s g ro u p s . No o f f i c i a l census of th e Apaches i n A rizona was ta k en

a f t e r th e U nited S ta te s a cq u ire d th e t e r r i t o r y ; b u t two men, both of whom

sp en t some tim e i n New Mexico and A rizo n a , d id e s tim a te th e approxim ate

^Frarik Lockwood, The Apache In d ia n s (New York: M acM illan, 19 3 8 ), •^Goodwin, S o c ia l O rg a n iz a tio n , 9 l|.

■^Hodge, American A n th ro p o lo g is t, V I I I ( J u ly , 1 8 9 # ), 23U. I n 1622, f o r exam ple, th e Spanish h ad saved Jemez from d e s tr u c t io n by th e A paches.

•^D onald E. W o rces te r, "The Navajo D uring th e Spanish Regime in New M exico," New Mexico H is to r i c a l Review, XXVI (A p r i l , 1 9 # l) , 102. See a ls o Hodge Handbook, 63 and 6 7 .

23

p o p u la tio n . John C. Cremoigr, "who l iv e d i n th e a re a f o r e ig h t y e a r s ,

e s tim a te d th e t o t a l number of Apaches to be 25*000, o r which o n e - f i f th ,13

he th o u g h t, were cap ab le of ta k in g an a c t iv e p a r t i n w arfare* J . Ross

Browne e s tim a te d th e number of Apaches a t 1 2 ,0 0 0 , o r which 3 ,000 were 111w a rr io r s .

Ihe Apaches lo o k ed upon th e S p an ia rd s , and l a t e r th e M exicans,

a s t r a d i t i o n a l enem ies; and r a i d s , acco rd in g to Goodwin, "were an

i n t e g r a l p a r t of th e c u l tu re and w ere co n sid e re d la w fu l and j u s t f o r15* d id n o t any people w ith enemies have th e r i g h t t o r a i d and k i l l them ?1 n

P r io r t o 1850 th e Apaches had only o c ca s io n a l c o n ta c t w ith Anglo-Americans

whom th e y c a l l e d "enemy*, and u s u a l ly p re fa ce d t h i s te rm w ith a d e s c r ip

t i o n such a s " b e a r enem ies” f o r t r a d e r s and tra p p e rs o r , i n l a t e r y e a r s ,

"b lack enem ies” f o r th e negro s o ld ie r s .* ^ The f i r s t c o n ta c t w ith A nglo-

Americans was o f te n u sed t y th e Apaches a s a b a se d a te f o r fu tu re even ts*

The W hite M ountain A paches, f o r exam ple, d a te d e v en ts from th e T rea ty

of Goodwin Springs i n 186It.

John C. Cremoiy, L ife Among th e Apaches (San F ra n c isc o : A. Roman, 1868), l l t2 .

• ^ J . Ross Browne, A Tour Through A rizona o r A dventures i n th e Apache C ountiy (New York: H arper B ro th e rs , 1869), 290^ In 1950 t h i s book was r e p r in te d by A rizona S i lh o u e t te s .

■^Goodwin, S o c ia l O rg a n iz a tio n , 9U*

• I b i d . Goodwin s t a t e s on page 95 t h a t "b ear enemy p robab ly r e f e r r e d to t h e i r d re ss o f s k in s or t h e i r h a i ry a p p e a ra n c e .”

17P h y s ic a l ly th e Apache was a s h o r t , s to ck y in d iv id u a l , b u t had a

18physique and endurance t h a t b e l ie d h i s s i z e . D esp ite a h e a lth y body, th e

19Apache co u ld n o t be c a l le d handsome, and h is speech was a to n e language20 21

i n ev e iy sen se of th e w ord. The Apache was i n t e l l i g e n t , w ith a complex

2h

^ In 1873 D r. John B. VJhite m easured one hundred men and one hundred women: th e men av erag ed 5 '6 n w ith th e t a l l e s t 6* and th e s h o r te s t

th e women ranged from 1V7” to w ith th e median h e ig h t b e in g S>*. See Lockwood, Apache In d ia n s , 1*2. Ralph B ea ls i n M a te r ia l C u ltu re of th e Pima, Papago, and W estern Apache (U .S. D epartm ent of th e I n t e r i o r , N a tio n a l P ark S e rv ic e , F ie ld D iv is io n of E d u ca tio n , B e rk e ley , 193b), 3 , s t a t e s th e VJhite M ountain Apache i s 6? .36 in ch es t a l l and th e San C arlo s Apache averages 66 .77 in ch es i n h e ig h t .

l% lo s t d e s c r ip t io n s o f th e Apache by o b servers i n th e p re - R e se rv a tio n p e rio d d e sc r ib e s a f i n e l y m uscled, su p p le body w ith a deep c h e s t and s tro n g le g s . C le a r ly a p ro d u c t of h i s environm ent of d e s e r t and rugged m ountains.

•^Lockwood i n th e Apache I n d ia n s . 1*1, d e sc r ib e s th e t y p ic a l Apache fa c e as h av in g h igh cheekbones, a w e ll form ed n o se , dark e y e s , a s tro n g jaw , f i r m l i p s and c o a rse b la c k h a i r . I n On th e B order w ith Crook (New York: S c r ib n e r ’s , 1891), 123, John G. Bourke d iv id e s th e Apache in to two f a c i a l ty p es — one h av in g f l a t f a c e s , open n o s t r i l s , la rg e n o ses , th in l i p s , and a p ro je c t in g ch in ; th e o th e r w ith a long f a c e , f i n e brow, a c q u il in e n o se , c h is e le d l i p s and c h in , and f l a s h in g eyes. E a rly w r i te r s o f te n d e sc r ib e d th e Apaches as b la c k due to t h e i r dark com plexion.

90S e v e ra l in d iv id u a ls have commented on th e Apache lan g u ag e , p robab ly one of the most e x ten s iv e s tu d ie s has b een by Rev. F. U plegger, a L u theran m iss io n ary on th e San C arlo s R e se rv a tio n s in c e 1920. On page 3 of th e Apache In d ia n s Lockwood q u o tes U plegger’s d e s c r ip t io n of Apache speech as one of ex p lo d en t sounds, f i n a l b re a th in g s , b re a th checks, a s p i r a t e s , and g l o t t a l s to p s — a l l of which makes i t ex trem ely d i f f i c u l t f o r Europeans t o l e a r n or u n d e rs tan d . Cremory, l i f e Among th e A paches, 237-39, in d ic a te s th e Apaches have a system of co u n tin g which en ab le s them to reach 10,000 or beyond.

^ J o h n Cremony sp e n t s e v e ra l months d u rin g 1862 w ith th e Apaches a t th e Bosque Redondo and re p o r te d th e v a r ie d q u e s tio n s p u t to th e o f f ic e r s by t h i r t y o r f o r t y of th e le a d e rs who came d a ily to le a r n about g ra v i ty , th e s p e r ic a l shape of th e e a r th , and th e cause of r a in . See Cremory, 11 The Apache R ace ," O verland M onthly, I (Septem ber, 1868),207-08. G en e ra lly th e c h i ld re n of le a d e rs and c h ie f ta in s were the most know ledgeable; Goodwin, S o c ia l O rg a n iz a tio n , $1*0.

22 23 tem peram ent, an e th ic t h a t d i f f e r e n t i a t e d betw een f r i e n d and fo e , a

2hdem ocratic concep t of le a d e r s h ip , and a b ra v e ry t h a t came to i t s z e n ith

i n th e f a c e of a d v e r s i ty .

Both th e d re ss and th e home of th e Apaches r e f l e c t e d t h e i r sem i-

nomadic l i f e . Die s ta n d a rd p ie c e of male c lo th in g was a b re e c h c lo u t of26

raw hide o r , a f t e r th e ad ven t o f A nglo-A m ericans, unb leached m u slin .

2$

22lhe em otions of th e Apaches were e a s i ly a ro u sed and o f te n th e y would a c t w ith o u t th in k in g o r e v a lu a tin g th e cau se s . T h e ir quarrelsom e n a tu re m ost o f te n appeared when in to x ic a te d . Among t h e i r own people th e Apaches were j o v i a l and in d u lg ed i n t a l e t e l l i n g , c o n v e rsa tio n , r a i l l e r y , and r i d i c u l e . Humor was of s e v e ra l ty p e s : 1 . d e sc r ib in g o r c a tc h in gsomeone in a humorous s i t u a t io n ; 2 . h in t in g a t p o sse ss io n o f r e l ig io u s powers n o t a t one’s d is p o s a l ; 3« punning; and U. p r a c t i c a l jo k in g . The Apaches frow ned upon d e cep tio n o f t h e i r own p e o p le . C ru e lty t o an im als o r to humans was n o t en joyed by sane Apaches. Die above tak en from Goodwin, S o c ia l O rg a n iz a tio n , 551-58 .

2 3 in c o n t r a s t t o h i s a t t i t u d e tow ard h is f r i e n d s , th e Apache b e l ie v e d any d e ce p tio n o r t r i c k e r y was p e rm issab le to g a in advantage over an eneuy. Cremony i n L ife Among th e Apaches. 86, sums up t h i s p h ilo sophy v e ry w e l l .

Die Apache was a "pure democrat® in h i s a t t i t u d e tow ard le a d e r s h ip . Leaders were s e le c te d on a b i l i t y t o p rov ide economic su ccess on th e r a i d and w ise dom estic c o n t r o l . An a b le c h ie f would b r in g d i s t in c t io n to h i s lo c a l group and a t t r a c t young w a r r io r s , th u s in c re a s in g th e prom inence cf th e l o c a l g roup . Both Lockwood, Apache In d ia n s , 5U, and Cremony, O verland M onthly, 203, ag re e on th e q u a l i t i e s of le a d e rs h ip adm ired by th e A paches.

^ G r e n v i l l e Goodwin, S o c ia l O rg a n iz a tio n , 559, p o in ts out t h a t i f an Apache was c o rn e red h e d ie d slow ly and took many of h i s enemies w ith him . Cremony i n L ife Among th e Apaches s t a t e s t h a t th e Apaches were capab le of b o ld p la n n in g , b u t t h e i r s t r a te g y c e n te re d on ta k in g advan tage of eV eiy fa v o ra b le c irc u m stan c e .

^ C h a r le s T. C onnell i n a Die Apache P a s t and P resen t,® Tucson C i t i z e n , F ebruary 17 , 1921, p o in ts ou t th e Apache wore a c a l ic o s h i r t when i n camp, b u t d isc a rd e d i t when on th e w arpath . A nother p ie ce o f a t t i r e c o n tr ib u te d by th e Anglo-Am ericans was a re d f l a n n e l band t o h o ld th e w a r r io r ’s h a i r i n p la c e .

2627

The women wore a s k i r t and b lo u se of raw hide o r , i n l a t e r tim e s , c a l i c o .

Die m occassins o f th e men reach ed t h e i r th ig h s and were fo ld e d down t o a

p o in t j u s t above th e k n e es . Those of th e women were only an k le h ig h and

n o t as d u ra b le a s th e man’s . Die homes of th e Apaches were c o n s tru c te d

of a s e r i e s o f p o le s s e t two and a h a l f f e e t a p a r t and la sh e d to g e th e r 28

a t th e to p . D uring th e summer most of th e fa m ily a c t i v i t y took p la ce

i n a sm all ramada n ea r th e w ick iup , and on ly i n th e w in te r was the

d w elling used e x te n s iv e ly . F u rn ish in g s i n an Apache w ick iup c o n s is te d 29

of some u te n s i l s and a few low couches o r b e d s .

Being a sem i-nom adic p eo p le th e Apaches f a i l e d to develop complex

a r t s o r c r a f t s , such as th e w eaving o r p o tte ry -m ak ing s k i l l s of th e Navajo

and Pueblo In d ian s Die one a re a i n th ic k th e Apaches of A rizona were

s k i l l e d was th e m anufacture o f b a s k e ts . These were o f tw in ed o r c o i le d

c o n s tru c tio n and th e c o i le d work i s a f i n e example of c ra ftsm an sh ip and 31

b e a u ty . Except f o r d e c o ra tio n o f gan masks o r dance s h i r t s , th e Apaches

showed l i t t l e p i c t o r i a l s k i l l .

27l'laiy of th e younger women wore s e v e ra l s t r in g s o f s h e l l b e a d s .See A. B. Reagan, Notes on th e In d ia n s of th e F o r t Apache R egion , A n th ro p o lo g ica l P apers o f th e Am erican Museum o f N a tu ra l H is to ry . XXXI (1931), 289. : “

2®Die co v ering o f th e p o le s v a r ie d w ith lo c a t io n and m ight be b ru sh , yucca le a v e s , ru sh e s o r g ra s s (B e a ls , M a te r ia l C u ltu re of th e W estern Apache, 2 0 ) . The w ick iup was ova l i n shape b e in g e ig h t o r n ine f e e t wide and te n o r tw elve f e e t lo n g .

2^Two o r th re e p o ts , a tu s o r p i tc h covered b a s k e t , s e v e ra l k n iv e s , a m e ta te , some g r in d in g s to n e s , and a few b a sk e ts were th e u su a l i te m s .

^Ales H rd icka , ’’Notes on th e San C arlo s A pache,” American A n th ro p o lo g is t, V II (Ju ly -S ep tem b er, 1905), U87* H rdicka in d ic a te s th e Apaches of A rizona made a crude p o t te r y t i l l ap p ro x im ate ly i8 6 0 .

^"Lockwood, Apache In d ia n s , 1*8.

27

As any ro v in g p eop le th e Apaches depended c h ie f ly on w ild p la n ts

and game f o r t h e i r su s te n a n ce , tiiougjti a l l b u t a few groups d id develop32

some a g r i c u l tu r a l a b i l i ty * Because cf th e r e l ia n c e on w ild p la n ts f o r

fo o d , th e movements of th e l o c a l groups o r fam ily c lu s t e r s were c o n tro l le d

by th e r ip e n in g of th e se p la n t s . I n A p r i l th e c e n te r s t a l k of th e m escal 33

was h a rv e s te d , J u ly was th e month th e Apaches h a rv e s te d th e aco rns o f3k

Emoiys Oak, w h ile o th e rs w ould go so u th of th e G ila to h a r v e s t Saquaro3< 36

f r u i t . M esquite beans were g a th e re d during A ugust and i n November37P inon n u ts and Ju n ip e r b e r r i e s were g a th e re d . Die Apaches u sed many

o th e r w ild p la n ts in c lu d in g v a r io u s g ra s s s e e d s , th e f r u i t o f c a c t i , ro o ts

of c e r t a in p la n t s , w ild b e r r i e s and su n flo w er s e e d s . Die two s t a p l e s ,

how ever, were m esca l and e i t h e r aco rns o f th e Emoiys Oak o r m esquite

b e an s . I n c o n t r a s t t o s e a s o n a l h a r v e s t o f w ild fo o d s , h u n tin g went on

■^Beal, M a te r ia l C u ltu re o f th e W estern Apache, 1 . Goodwin (American A n th ro p o lo g is t, XXXVTI, January -H arch , 1935>» 6 l ) d iv id e s th e d i e t of th e Apache in to th r e e c a te g o r ie s : M eat, bo th w ild and dom estic p ro v id ed 35>-UO p e rc e n t of th e d i e t ; w ild p la n ts su p p lie d th e same p e r c en ta g e ; and dom estic p la n ts p ro v id ed 20-25 p e rc e n t.

■30-'-'Die m escal was p la c e d i n a deep p i t and baked f o r s e v e ra l days

and th e n s to re d f o r f u tu r e u se . See P . E . Goddard, "Myths and T ales From th e San C arlos Apache, "A n th ro p o lo g ica l Papers of th e American Museum o f N a tu ra l H is to ry , XXIV (1920), h t-u S . A. B. Reagan d e sc r ib e s th e t a s t e as th e same as squash w ith a s l i g h t l y b u rn ed tin g e (N otes on th e In d ia n s o f th e F o r t Apache R egion, 2 9 3 ).

^^Reagan i n Notes oh th e In d ia n s of th e F o r t Apache R egion, 295 says th e acorns were ground up and m ixed i n a f iv e t o one r a t i o w i th f lo u r to make b re a d .

^ D ie f r u i t of th e Saquaro se rv ed a s a sw ee t, much a s we use f i g s or r a i s i n s . See B ouike, On th e B order w ith Crook. 131.

I b id . Die beans of th e m esqu ite were a l s o ground to make b re a d .

Die Pinon n u ts were s to r e d f o r f u tu r e u se . The J u n ip e r b e r r ie s were a llow ed to d ry , th e n were b o i le d t i l l s o f t , ground in to a p u lp which was made in to a b a l l , and s to r e d f o r w in te r u se . See Goodwin, "E xperiences of an In d ia n S c o u t," A rizona H is to r i c a l Review, V II (Ja n u a iy , 1936),3U .

28

y e a r round with, th e two peaks b e in g i n th e f a l l and l a t e s p r in g . The

Apaches h u n ted n o t mere3y f o r m eat, b u t f o r th e h id e which was co n v e rted

in to b u ck sk in . In a d d i t io n to w ild game th e Apaches a te th e f l e s h o f38

g o a ts , h o r s e s , m ules, sheep and c a t t l e ta k e n i n r a i d s . Die Apaches

were fo rb id d e n , however, by d ie ta r y taboos from e a tin g p o rk , f i s h , o r

any w a te r dw elling an im a l. A t h i r d fo o d so u rce were th e c u l t iv a te d30

c ro p s , n o tab ly co rn and b e a n s . When w in te r descended in e a r ly November,

th e Apaches were p rep a red w ith a supp ly of c u l t iv a te d and w ild p la n t foods

and m eat,b o th w ild and d o m estic .

Although th e term Apache was o r ig in a l ly a p p lie d t o a l l th e

A thapascan people i n th e S ou thw est, th e em phasis o f ' t h i s c h a p te r w i l l be

on th e group known e th n o lo g ic a l ly a s th e W estern Apache. Die re a so n t h i s

s t r e s s on th e w esternm ost segm ent i s t h a t th e L u theran m is s io n a r ie s to

th e Apache In d ia n s have done t h e i r work among W estern Apaches. The

d e s ig n a tio n "W estern Apache" h as been an a z b i t r a iy one, based c h ie f ly on

s im i l a r i t y of c u l tu r e and lan g u ag e . A ll Apaches co u ld converse w ith each

o th e r and th e b a s ic te n e t s of t h e i r c u l tu re were th e same, b u t -there were

s u f f i c i e n t d if f e re n c e s to p e rm it a n e th n o lo g ic a l d i s t i n c t io n to be made.

P robab ly th e c l e a r e s t d iv is io n s were c r e a te d by M orris O pler and G re n v ille

Goodwin and th e se a re c i t e d by Lockwood. Die Opler-Goodwin c l a s s i f i c a t i o n

covers f o u r m ajor groups of A paches: Die M escaleros lo c a te d i n th e a re a

^®Kbat was f r i e d , b o i le d , b r o i le d o r je rk e d .

^ S e e Goodwin, A rizona H is to r ic a l Review (Jan u ary 1936), 32-33 f o r a d e s c r ip t io n of c o n s tru c tio n of a dam by th e W hite M ountain Apaches and a d is c u s s io n of th e a g r ic u l tu r e of th e Apaches of A rizona . I n m id- Septem ber th e crops began to r ip e n and w ere h a rv e s te d f o r th e n e x t s ix weeks (S o c ia l O rg a n iz a tio n , 157)•

29

bounded by th e R io Grande, th e towns o f S an ta Fe and Hondo i n New M exico,

and n o rth w es te rn Texas; th e J i c a r i l l a s lo c a te d i n n o r th e rn and e a s te rn

New Mexico and s o u th e a s te rn C olorado; th e C h iricah u as who roamed from

th e Rio Grande to th e p re s e n t ro u te o f A rizona S ta te Highway 666, and

from th e G ila R iv e r to c e n t r a l S onora; and th e W estern Apache re s id in g

in th e a re a covered by th e San C arlos and F o r t Apache R ese rv a tio n and

w est t o th e Colorado R i v e r . ^

G re n v ille Goodwin, th e a cc e p ted a u th o r i ty on th e W estern A paches,

e n la rg e s t h i s d e f in a t io n :

By th e term W estern Apache a re in c lu d e d th o se t r u e , s im i la r Apache g roups, who i n th e p a s t have made t h e i r homes e n t i r e ly w ith th e p re s e n t s t a t e of A rizo n a , and who s t i l l r e s id e th e r e .

k ° lh e W estern Apache w ere composed of f iv e groups which were i n tu rn d iv id e d in to bands and a re l i s t e d by Goodwin in S o c ia l O rg a n iz a tio n , 2 , as fo llo w s :

A. W hite M ountain Group D. S ou thern Tonto GroupE a s te rn W hite M ountain Band M azalzal BandW estern W hite M ountain Band S ix sem i-bands 1-6

B. C ibecue GroupC arriz o Band Cibecue Band Cary on Creek Band

C. San C arlos GroupP in a l Band A ravaipa Band San C arlo s Band

E . N o rth ern Tonto Group Mormon Lake Band F o s s i l Creek Band B ald M ountain Band Oak Greek Band

Each band , j u s t a s th e g roup , had t h e i r own geograph ic a r e a and were bound to g e th e r by custom , c la n , and b lo o d r e la t io n s h ip s r a t h e r th a n p o l i t i c a l t i e s . Each band h ad s e v e ra l l o c a l groups which were made up of th r e e to s ix fa m ily c l u s t e r s . The fa m ily c lu s te r s co n ta in ed th re e to e ig h t househ o ld s which i n m ost cases were r e l a t e d by b lo o d . See Goodwin, Am erican A n th ro p o lo g is t. XXXVTI (Januaiy-M arch , 1935), 5 7 .

30

These s im i la r Apache Groups of A rizona were f iv e i n number and I c a l l them h ere th e "White M ountain, G ibecue, San C arlos S o u thern Tonto, and N o rthern Tonto Groups. These f i v e Groups . . . a r e more l i k e to each o th e r th a n to any o th e r Apache people and as th e d if fe re n c e betw een them and o th e r Apache D iv is io n s i s a p p a re n tly q u i te d i s t i n c t , th e y have b een d e s ig n a te d . . . “W estern Apache” to d is t in g u is h them from o th e r A thapascan p eo p les of th e Southw est.W -

Goodwin a m p lif ie s t h i s d e s c r ip t io n by p o in tin g o u t t h a t th e C h iricah u as

a re n o t in c lu d e d because th e y a re somewhat d i f f e r e n t and do n o t seem t oU2

belong w ith th e W estern A paches. Each o f th e f iv e g roups h e ld them

se lv e s to be d i s t i n c t and h o s t i l i t y betw een them was n o t unknown, b u t

th e v a rio u s bands w ith in each o f th e m ajor groups were f r i e n d ly tow ard10

each o th e r . There was c o n s ta n t f r i c t i o n , how ever, betw een th e groups

of th e W estern Apaches and o th e r d iv is io n s such a s th e C h iricah u a o rn bh

M escalero .

Each lo c a l group was dom inated by one c la n and m ost members o f

th e group belonged to t h a t c la n though o th e r c lan s m ight be re p re s e n te d

h iu G re n v ille Goodwin, "C lans of the W estern A pache," New Mexico

H is to r ic a l Review, V I I I (J u ly 1933)» 1?6 . On page 60 of S o c ia l O rg a n iz a tio n , Goodwin e s tim a te s th e p o p u la tio n o f each group as f a llo w s: W hite Mountain U1OO-I6OO; Cibecue 1000; San C arlo s 900;S o u th ern Tonto 900; and N o rthern Tonto 100.

^ S o c i a l O rg a n iz a tio n , 60 .

h3G re n v ille Goodwin, " S o c ia l D iv is io n s and Economic L ife of th e W estern A pache," American A n th ro p o lo g is t, XXXIX (Januaiy-M arch , 1937), 55•

likThe antagonism o f th e W hite M ountain Apaches tow ard th e C h iricah u a and Warm S prin g s Apaches was an im p o rtan t f a c to r i n b r in g in g th e Apache Wars to a c lo s e i n 1886.

by m a r r ia g e .^ Because a l l members o f a c la n were c o n s id e re d t o be b lood 1|6

r e l a t i o n s , th e o b l ig a t io n to a id and defend each o th e r i n tim e of need

was ta k e n v e ry s e r i o u s l y . ^ The lo c a l group was composed of th r e e t o

s ix fa m ily c l u s t e r s ^ which a c te d to g e th e r in th e h a r v e s t o f w ild p la n t s ,h9th e h u n t, and th e c u l t iv a t io n of c ro p s . Die le a d e r of th e fa m ily

c l u s t e r had m oderate a u th o r i ty i n m a tte rs such a s h i r i n g a shaman,

a rra n g in g a m a rria g e , o r , i n modern tim e s , s tan d in g b eh in d th e charges

made a t th e tra d in g p o s t by members of th e c l u s t e r .

The s o c ie ty of th e W estern Apaches was communal, f o r su ccess was

sh a re d by a l l and th u s th e u n f i t , lu c k le s s , o r la z y would be c a r r i e d

31

^ T h e c la n does n o t f i t i n to th e descending sequence of p o l i t i c a l o rg a n iz a tio n , r a t h e r i t s e rv e s to t i e th e s e p a ra te groups and bands to g e th e r . There a re s ix ty -o n e c la n s i n W estern Apache s o c ie ty acco rd in g to Goodwin (New Mexico H is to r i c a l Review, V II I (Ju ly 1933)» 1 7 7 ). The c la n name d e sc r ib e s i t s o r ig i n a l re s id e n c e o r some h a b i t of i t s fo u n d e rs : "Red W illows people" o r "They C o lo r Yellow People" ( I b id . , 1 7 8 ).

^ T h e Apache re c e iv e s h i s c la n a f f i l i a t i o n from h i s m other.

^ T h i s concep t of b lo o d r e l a t i v e s made th e m arriage o f two members of th e same c la n a r a r e o ccu rren ce . I n re g a rd t o c la n o b lig a t i o n s , see Goodwin, American A n th ro p o lo g is t, XXXVII (Januaxy-M arch 1935), 97.

^®The fa m ily c l u s t e r was o rg a n ised on a m a tr i lo c a l system and o f te n in c lu d ed th re e g e n e ra t io n s : an o ld coup le , t h e i r daugh ters andhusbands, th e g randdaugh ters and t h e i r husbands, and a ry unm arried sons o r daugh ters of th e l a s t two g e n e ra t io n s . Each fa m ily h ad i t s own d w e llin g u n i t , o f te n sane d is ta n c e from each o th e r . Goodwin, S o c ia l O rg a n iz a tio n , 127 .

U9Goodwin i n S o c ia l O rg a n iz a tio n , 158-59 o f f e r s th is r u le o f thumb to determ ine th e p r o b a b i l i ty of th e lo c a l group a c t in g a s a u n i t : th e c lo s e r to t h e i r home t e r r i t o r y th e l a r g e r th e number, th e f u r t h e r away th e s m a lle r th e s i z e . Lockwood s t a t e s t h a t one economic fu n c t io n which was c a r r ie d on Ty th e l o c a l group a s a u n i t was th e r a i d , f o r th e lo c a l group was a t h e a r t a community of i n t e r e s t (Apache In d ia n s , 53)*

32

a long by th e w e a lth y , lu ck y , and in d u s t r io u s • In Apache s o c ie ty

p ro p e r ty was in d iv id u a l ly owned w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f la n d and fo o d

s to r e s which were owned by th e l o c a l group though one man c o n tro l le d

them and a l l o t t e d p o r tio n s to th e in d iv id u a l f a m i l i e s . L a n d ownership

in c lu d e d n o t only p la n tin g r i g h t s b u t a l l t h a t was on th e la n d . P e rso n a l<2

p ro p e rty was nev er used w ith o u t th e owner’s c o n se n t. P ro p e rty was

lo an ed r e a d i ly and any p erson who re fu s e d to le n d h i s p ro p e rty was53c o n sid e red s t in g y .

B ie f t was uncommon. Die most f r e q u e n t was one woman s te a l in g

from a n o th e r , and such q u a r r e ls were co n sid e re d t r i v i a l . H ost a c tu a l

t h e f t s were by boys who would p i l f e r c o m from n e ig h b o rin g f i e l d s .

G en era lly th e y were whipped o r r e p o r te d t o t h e i r p a re n ts , b u t i n e i t h e r

case no sympathy was fo rthcom ing . S te a l in g of l iv e s to c k was in f re q u e n t5Uand any r u s t l e r s caugh t were e x ec u te d .

-^G oing hand in g love w ith t h i s g e n e ro s ity was th e g re g a rio u s ness of th e s o c ie ty of th e W estern Apache, f o r no Apache l ik e d to l i v e a lo n e . One o f Goodwin’s in fo rm a n ts , an In d ia n S co u t, s t a t e d t h a t he sp e n t h i s f i r s t n ig h t a lo n e when he was t h i r t y and was i l l a t e a s e . See Goodwin, S o c ia l O rg a n iz a tio n . 123-2U.

"^"Ib id . , lj?0 . Goodwin p o in ts out t h a t th e farm owned by a l o c a l group h ad d e f in i t e b o u n d arie s and t r e s p a s s was re s e n te d .

^ The p ro p e r ty o f an Apache was h i s t o do w ith a s he p le a s e d , and even th e w ishes of a c h i ld were observed i n d isp o s in g of p ro p e rty t h a t be longed t o him . I b i d . , 376.

5% hen p ro p e r ty was lo a n ed th e borrow er would e x p la in th y he needed i t , and upon i t s r e tu r n would in d ic a te how th e ite m h ad been u sed . I f th e le n d e r and borrow er were c lo s e no recompense would be g iv en , b u t an u n re la te d p erso n u s u a lly made th e owner a sm a ll p r e s e n t , such as in v i t in g him to have a d rin k o r doing him a fa v o r i n r e tu r n .

^ I f th e owner d isc o v e re d h i s l iv e s to c k b e fo re i t was s la u g h te re d , h e t r i e d t o g e t i t back and u s u a lly was s u c c e s s fu l . I n such cases no p e n a lty was evoked.

A main d riv e of W estern Apache s o c ie ty was " g e t t in g even", "which

33

p ro v id ed th e s tim u lu s f o r t u la p a i p a r t i e s , com pensation payments and55

f e u d s . The most b a s ic form of com pensation was payment f o r c rops

d e s tro y ed by l i v e s t o c k . ^ This same form of q u id p ro quo was u sed in

both a c c id e n ta l and in te n t io n a l death o r in ju r y . Com pensation was p a id

i n cases o f a c c id e n ta l in ju r y . I f th e re was no payment o f fe re d , one was57demanded by th e r e p re s e n ta t iv e s of th e in ju r e d p a r ty . In cases o f

a c c id e n ta l death th e most e lo q u en t of th e m a te rn a l b lo o d r e l a t i v e s o f

th e m urderer went to th e r e l a t i v e s of th e deceased and a rra n g ed th e "type58

and amount of com pensation . Upon payment th e in c id e n t was f o r g o t te n .59I n cases o f i n t e n t io n a l in ju r y th e procedure was much th e same. Feuds

60developed out of in te n t io n a l d ea th and c o n s is te d of a s e r ie s of revenge

' ’-’Goodwin, S o c ia l O rg a n iz a tio n . 550 .

-^ G en e ra lly th e an im al was h e ld u n t i l th e damage was p a id f o r and th en th e an im al r e tu r n e d to th e owner, ( i b i d . , 388) . Compensation payments f o r any re a so n were i n goods such as l iv e s to c k , b u ck sk in s , b la n k e ts , s a d d le s , e t c . On page lj.02 cf S o c ia l O rg a n iz a tio n th e re a re th re e exam ples of payment f o r i n t e n t io n a l d e a th i n which h o rse s were g iv en .

^ I f th e i n j u r e r re fu s e d to pay th e ag g rie v ed p a r ty , h e e i t h e r dropped th e s u i t o r aw aited a chance to g e t even . I b i d . , 395*

5 C o m pensa tion u s u a lly was p a id t o av o id a r e t a l i a t o r y k i l l i n g , though i f th e s u rv iv o rs c o n s id e re d th e dea th unavoidable no payment was demanded. I b id . , 397 •

^ C f t e n i f two men fo u g h t and one was in ju r e d b o th s e t s of r e l a t i v e s would c o u n se l to ig n o re i t . But i f a demand f o r com pensation was made i t was p a id f o r f r e q u e n t ly th e ag g rie v ed p a r ty would in ju r e th e a d v e rsa ry upon re c o v e ry .

60l f th e m urderer w ished to pay com pensation he and h is kinsm en would f l e e to th e m ountains u n t i l payment was a rra n g e d . I f th e indem nif i c a t i o n o f fe re d was i n s u f f i c i e n t , th e m urdered p e rs o n 's k in would r e p ly , "L et us f i g h t a s long as you l a s t . " Goodwin, S o c ia l O rg a n iz a tio n , 399*

3U

k i l l i n g s u n t i l one o r th e o th e r s id e p a id up o r was w iped o u t. I f

p o s s ib le th e m urderer was k i l l e d , b u t i f n o t , anyone of th e same sex as61

th e deceased from th e a s s a s s in 's fam ily and c la n was s l a i n .

The Apaches were n o t am ora l; in d eed t h e i r s e x u a l mores were on

p a r w ith our c u l tu re o r even h ig h e r . Hie s o c ia l c o n ta c t betw een th e

sexes p r io r to m arriage was v e ry r e s t r i c t e d . ^ A f te r th e g i r l s reached

p u b erty t h e i r i n t e r e s t i n boys in c re a s e d , b u t , a s w ith our s o c ie ty , th e

beys d id n o t ev ince a co rrespond ing concern u n t i l s ix te e n to e ig h te e n .

G ir ls m a rrie d ab o u t s ix te e n o r e ig h te e n , w h ile th e men d id n o t marry63

u n t i l th e y were tw enty to tw e n ty - f iv e . D e sp ite l im i te d s o c ia l c o n ta c t

th e re were numerous in s ta n c e s of p re -m a r i ta l in te rc o u rs e o r o th e r sex

c rim es . The A paches' a t t i t u d e tow ard those who in d u lg ed i n an ig h t

c raw ling" was t h a t th e y were secondhand o r d e sp o ile d . I n cases o f s e x u a l

a g g re ss io n th e man was made to p a y ^ I f i t was n o t ra p e a b la n k e t , h o rs e ,

6 l i f th e k i l l i n g had been e s p e c ia l ly b r u t a l o r in ex cu sab le and th e r e l a t i v e s of th e a s s a s s in had no sympathy w ith him , th e y m ight so lv e th e q u e s tio n by g iv in g him to th e fa m ily cf th e deceased to be k i l l e d on s ig h t as b e te n o i r e . I b i d . , 1|00.

^^G h ild ren p la y ed to g e th e r u n t i l e ig h t o r n in e y e a rs of a g e . By e lev en or tw e lv e th e y were a s s o c ia t in g only w ith members of th e same s e x . See Goodwin, S o c ia l O rg a n iz a tio n , 285.

^ I b i d . The c h ie f s o c ia l c o n ta c ts betw een young people came a t th e dances and o f te n th e young woman to d c th e le a d . The man f re q u e n tly would g ive th e g i r l of h i s ch o ice a g i f t , and accep tan ce would encourage h is s u i t . When a man had d ec id ed on a c e r t a in g i r l , he would ask an in te rm e d ia iy to speak t o th e g i r l ' s p a re n ts and make th e n ecessa ry a rran g em en ts» A f te r an exchange of g i f t s th e young coup le would s e t up housekeep ing . Goodwin in S o c ia l O rg a n iz a tio n , 288-327 h a s a d e ta i le d d e s c r ip t io n of c o u r ts h ip among th e W estern A paches.

^^R efusal to pay might be a basis for a feud.

65or some o th e r p iece of p ro p e r ty of th e o ffen d e r was destroyed* I f th e

charge was ra p e , he would be fo rc e d t o marry th e g i r l . Rape of a m arried

woman, o r even unwelcome advances, was re p o r te d to h e r husband who would

k i l l th e o ffen d e r and p u b lic o p in ion would su p p o rt h i s a c t io n s . Rape was

frowned upon, b u t in c e s t was looked on w ith com plete lo a th in g and th e66

c lo s e r th e r e l a t i o n s of th e two th e more unspeakable i t was.

M arriage among th e W estern Apaches was f o r e i th e r lo v e or money

and , i f one d isco u n ts th e a rra n g ed or fo rc e d m a rria g e s , love was th e6?

s tro n g e r m o tiv a to r . M arriage was c o n sid e red e s s e n t i a l i n th e s o c ie ty

of th e W estern Apaches f o r w ith o u t i t t h e i r s o c i a l and economic l i f e was68

h a lv e d . There was l i t t l e p u b lic d is p la y of a f f e c t io n among m arried

c o u p le s , y e t je a lo u sy of a t t e n t io n s p a id th e o p p o s ite sex was th e curse

of bo th p a r tn e r s . Each r e s e n te d th e o th e r dancing w ith a n o th e r , b u t th e

35

^G oodw in d e sc r ib e s tiro in s ta n c e s of abuse of th e se s o c i a l p rac t i c e s to g a in an end. The more o r ig in a l i s th e te m p ta tio n of a young man who owns a f a t h o rse by th e d iv o rced o r widowed d au g h ter of a fa m ily who needs to r e p le n is h t h e i r meat su p p ly . I f th e tem p tre ss was s u c c e s s fu l , th e p a re n ts would demand recompense and k i l l th e h o rse th u s g a in in g a f r e s h supply of m eat. Such scheming was frowned upon by th e com aunity as a w hole. Goodwin, S o c ia l O rg a n iz a tio n . 39ll»

^ P a r t i c i p a n t s i n such abnorm al a c ts m ight be d r iv e n from camp, b u t g e n e ra l ly were t r i e d i n p u b lic , a c c u sa tio n s made and co n fe ss io n s e l i c i t e d , and death fo llo w e d . Only when th e man cou ld convince the crowd th a t he co u ld bew itch them were th e y a llow ed to escape th e death s e n te n c e . I b i d . , l|17-20 .

Goodwin in S o c ia l O rg a n iz a tio n , 339, s t a t e s , " . . . th e Apaches m arry f o r love j u s t a s o f te n a s w h ite s do . . . . n

^®Both men and women had s p e c i f ic ta sk s t h a t th e o th e r cou ld n o t do or would n o t do. The women worked i n camp, ta n n ed h id e s , g a th e red w ild p la n ts , and c a re d f o r th e c h i ld re n . The men h u n ted , r a id e d , ten d ed th e s to c k , and perform ed any h a rd p h y s ic a l la b o r . Goodwin, American A n th ro p o lo g is t, XXXVII (January-M arch , 1935), 5 9 .

36

degree and e x te n t of such dancing de term ined th e r e a c t io n . Cases of

i n f i d e l i t y were t r e a t e d in one of s e v e r a l ways: husbands b e a t t h e i r

wives o r3 i n extreme c a se s , c u t o ff th e t i p of h e r nose; women would

throw ro c k s a t th e o f fe n d e r , a tte m p t t o k n ife him , d r iv e th e spouse from

th e w ick iu p , o r d e s tro y th e d w e llin g and leav e him to s h i f t f o r h im s e lf .

Ploygany was n o t v e ry common in p r e - r e s e r v a t io n tim e s , f o r i t was a r i c h69

man’s p re ro g a t iv e . • Hie ta k in g o f a second w ife in v o lv ed l i t t l e c o u r tin g

and o f te n was done to ease th e burden of th e f i r s t w ife , o r to improve th e

s ta tu s of th e second m ate’s fa m ily . Hie f i r s t w ife d ire c te d th e work of

a l l f u tu r e sp o u ses. D ivorces among th e Apaches of A rizona co u ld be

o b ta in ed upon v a r ie d grounds in c lu d in g la z i n e s s , m a ltrea tm en t, c o n tin u a l

q u a r r e l in g , f e a r of b o d ily harm by th e p a r tn e r , and , of c o u rse , i n f i d e l i t y .70

G en era lly one or th e o th e r member sim ply l e f t camp and never r e tu rn e d .

Among th e r e s p o n s ib i l i t i e s o f th e women was th e c o n tr o l of th e

fo o d s u p p l ie s , th e making of m arriag e a rrangem en ts , th e d i s t r i b u t io n o f71w e a lth , and th e d i s c ip l in e of th e c h i ld re n . C h ild ren among th e W estern

Apaches were t r e a s u r e d . Up to th e age of s i x th e c h ild re n d id v e ry l i t t l e ,

b u t from th e age o f s i x on th e y w ere in s t r u c te d by a p a re n t o r r e l a t i v e i n

^G oodw in i n h i s S o c ia l O rg a n iz a tio n . 3f>2, p o in ts o u t t h a t he h e a rd of o n ly tw elve p lu r a l m arriag es p r io r t o 1880 and e ig h t of th e se men had on ly two w iv es , two had th r e e , one had f our w iv es , and one h ard y s o u l was m arried to s i x women.

7^A11 p ro p e rty belonged to th e woman i f she was d e s e r te d . Cases of a woman d e s e r t in g h e r husband and c h ild re n were r a r e , b u t i n such c ircum stances th e c h i ld re n would be r a is e d w ith th e a id of fem ale r e l a t i o n s . See Goodwin, S o c ia l O rg a n iz a tio n , 3U3-14t.

^ D e s p i t e t h i s , a cco rd in g to Goodwin, S o c ia l O rg a n iz a tio n , 538, th e Apache male c o n s id e re d h im se lf s u p e r io r to th e women. Whenever husband and w ife went somewhere th e w ife g e n e ra l ly w alked or rode one o r two paces b eh in d , and th e men w ere always se rv ed f i r s t when a mixed group a t e to g e th e r .

37

th e s k i l l s th ey needed, and by age tw elve were a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f th e

ro u tin e of th e camp. The W estern Apaches seldom l o s t t h e i r tem per w ith

a c h i ld , f o r they b e l ie v e d a c h i ld a c ts th e way he does because o f

ignorance r a th e r th a n d iso b ed ien c e . Feigned a n g e r was sometimes used

to g a in obedience and even i f h e r e a l iz e d i t was n o t a c tu a l , th e c h i ld

would re sp o n d to av o id th e r e a l th in g .

The W estern Apaches h a d numerous c o n ta c ts w ith o th e r t r i b e s which

in h a b ite d th e a re a s su rro u n d in g t h e i r homeland i n e a s te rn and n o r th - 72

c e n t r a l A rizo n a . Of th e se t r i b e s th e y s u f f e r e d th e m ost from th e

N avajos, who were n o rth and e a s t of them. W arfare was n o t c o n s ta n t ,

how ever, and during tim es of p e ace , th e Apaches t ra d e d m esca l, h o r s e s ,

m ules, b u ck sk in , b a s k e ts , and bow s ta v e s f o r Navajo b la n k e ts , sh ee p sk in s ,

gun powder, le a d , c lo th , and B u ffa lo h id e s . The Gibecue and S ou thern

Tonto g ro u p s, and e s p e c ia l ly th e N orthern Tonto, had c o n ta c ts w ith th e

Hopis i n which th ey o f f e re d th e same a r t i c l e s a s o ffe re d i n th e Navajo

tra d e and re c e iv e d Hopi b la n k e ts , c o m , f ire a rm s and i r o n h o e s . The

Zunis t r a d e d w ith and ra id e d a g a in s t , th e W hite M ountain and Gibecue

groups f o r th e se same ite m s . R e la tio n s of th e W estern Apaches w ith th e

C h iiacahuas were f r i e n d ly p r io r to 1870, b u t only th e W hite M ountain and

San C arlo s bands h ad c o n tin u a l c o n ta c t w ith them . Trade was s l i g h t , b u t

72A ll th e m a te r ia l g iv en h e re on W estern Apache r e la t io n s w ith o th e r t r i b e s i s found i n Goodwin, S o c ia l O rg a n iz a tio n , 7 1 -9 6 . On page 65 th e re i s an e x c e l le n t map showing th e t r i b e s which su rro u n d ed th e W estern Apaches i n 1850.

38

s e v e ra l e lem ents of W estern Apache c u l tu r e came from th e G h iricah u as .

R e la tio n s of th e W estern Apaches w ith th e O patas, Apache Mans o s , Papagos,

Pim as, and M aricopas were h o s t i l e and th e W hite M ountain, San C a r lo s , and

S o u thern Tonto groups re c e iv e d th e b ru n t of t h i s a n t ip a th y . F r ie n d sh ip

w ith th e Y avapai, on th e o th e r h an d , was g e n e ra l , and b u ck sk in s , moccas-

s i n s , and b a sk e ts were exchanged f o r p rep a red f r u i t of th e g ia n t c a c tu s ,

and m eta l k n iv es to c u t th e m escal p la n t . C o n tac t w ith th e H avasupai

and W alapai t o th e n o rth w est and w est was h o s t i l e r a th e r th a n f r i e n d ly .

C o n tac t betw een W estern Apaches and Europeans began i n th e

sev en teen th c e n tu ry . Goodwin s t a t e s th e f i r s t r a id s in to Mexico by th e

W estern Apaches occurred ab o u t 2680. R aid ing p r iv i le g e s were d iv id ed

betw een th e v a rio u s g ro u p s . Die W hite M ountain Apaches moved down th e

A ravaipa and th e San Pedro V a lle y s , and th e n fan n ed o u t to th e e a s t an d

w est i n Sonora. Tucson, th e Pima and Papago v i l l a g e s , and o th e r p o in ts

so u th i n th e S an ta Cruz V alley were l e f t t o th e C ibecue and San C arlos

g ro u p s . Die dep th of th e W estern Apache in f lu e n c e in Mexico i s s a id by

Goodwin to ex tend a s f a r sou th a s H e im o sillo , a s f a r e a s t a s th e San

B ernadino R iv e r i n S onora, and w est a s f a r as th e G ulf o f C a l i f o r n ia .

R aids m ight l a s t e ig h ty d ay s, and th e b o o ty m ight in c lu d e l iv e s to c k ,

b la n k e ts , m e ta l k n iv e s , c lo th , and o c c a ss io n a l3y f ire a rm s an d l e a th e r -

. 7hgoods.

R e l ig io n p lay ed a la rg e p a r t i n th e d a i ly l i f e of th e W estern

^^Die m ost prom inen t o f th e c u l tu r a l c o n tr ib u tio n s was th e in tr o d u c t io n o f t is w in among th e W hite M ountain A paches.

^ M a t e r i a l on r a id in g p r iv i l e g e s , depth of p e n e tr a t io n in to M exico, and ty p e of b o o ty can be found in S o c ia l O rg a n iz a tio n , 93*

39

Apache. O pler c i t e s s e v e ra l in s ta n c e s •where H is in fo rm an ts have opened

a d is c u s s io n of th e r e l ig io u s l i f e o f th e Apache hy p o in tin g ou t t h a t the

Apache i s a v e ry r e l ig io u s p e rso n . U iis r e l i g io n of th e W estern Apache

m a n ife s te d i t s e l f i n th e seek in g of s u p e rn a tu ra l h e lp i n m eeting h i s76

problem s o r conducting h i s a f f a i r s . A d is c u s s io n of th e r e l ig io n o f

th e Apaches cf A rizona can be d iv id e d a s fo llo w s : b a s ic b e l i e f s , th e

ngrths r e l a t e d t o th e se b e l i e f s , s u p e rn a tu ra l powers, and th e m e of su p er

n a tu r a l power by th e sham ans.

Die r e l ig io n o f th e W estern Apaches was a m u l t i - d ie ty b e l i e f w ith

a supreme b e in g , a s e r ie s o f l e s s e r d i e t i e s , and a g r e a t number of

s p e c ia l iz e d d i v i n i t i e s . I n Charge o f T.ife o r G iver of l i f e was th e c h ie f

d iv in i ty and th e c r e a to r of l i f e on e a r th ; though h is name was f a m i l i a r ,

h e was in d e f in i te hav ing no ex ac t s e x , and a dw elling p la c e which was 77

"above” . Die sun was th e n e x t i n ran k , b u t th e g e n e ra l concep t was

th a t th e sun and th e supreme b e in g were th e same. Changing Woman

c o n tro l le d th e le n g th of l i f e o f th e W estern Apache and f e r t i l i t y , and

was th e m other o f S la y e r c f M onste rs , N aiyenezgani. who l iv e d on e a r th 78

a t one tim e . These th r e e were th e p r in c ip a l s u p e m a tu r a ls . There a re

o th e r l e s s e r d e i t i e s such a s P o lle n Boy. P o lle n G i r l , T urquoise Boy, T h ite

S h e l l G i r l , P lunder P eop le , and W ater O ld Man. The Cans were th e l a r g e s t

^ '’M orris B. O p ler, "Die Concept of S u p e rn a tu ra l Power Among th e C h iricahua and M escalero A paches,” American A n th ro p o lo g is t. XXXVTI (Januaiy -H arch , 1935), 6 ^ .

76 I b id .

77G re n v ille Goodwin, "M iite M ountain Apache R e l i g i o n , American A n th ro p o lo g is t, XL (Januaiy-M arch , 1938), 26.

78Ibid.

hogroup of s u p e rn a tu ra ls ; th e y had l iv e d on e a r th a t one tim e as p eo p le ,

b u t l e f t t o s e a rc h f o r e t e r n a l l i f e and now re s id e d in c e r ta in m ountains,79

th e c lo u d s , and b en ea th th e ground.

The Apaches a ss ig n e d a human fram e o f r e fe re n c e and sex to maiyr

n a tu r a l phenomena: th e e a r th was fe m a le , th e sky was m ale , th e sun was

m ale , th e moon fem a le , e a s t and w est were male and n o rth and so u th were

fe m a le . The Apaches had a h a rd and f a s t c o lo r code f o r each d i r e c t io n

b eg in n in g i n th e e a s t and re a d in g clockw ise th e a s s ig n e d c o lo rs were80b la c k , b lu e , y e llo w , and w hite* A nything a s s o c ia te d w ith a d i r e c t io n

was g iv e n i t s c o lo r and sex so t h a t th e so u th wind was fem ale and b lu e .

A l l th e s u p e ra a tu ra ls which in h a b i t th e s p i r i t w orld of th e Apache co u ld

do him e i th e r good o r e v i l depending upon w hether th e p a r t i c u l a r super*

n a tu r a l l ik e d him or n o t .

The n y th s of a peop le o f te n t e l l a g re a t d e a l ab o u t them , and

th o se of th e W estern Apaches a re no e x c e p tio n . Of e s p e c ia l i n t e r e s t a re

th e s e r ie s o f ny th s which d e a l w ith th e c r e a t io n of th e w o rld , th e f i r s t

p eo p le , th e c u l tu r e h e ro , and th e f lo o d . G en era lly th e f i r s t t a l e i n th e

Apache s e r ie s was #The E a r th i s S e t Up,” b u t a f t e r t h a t tiie o th e r s to r i e s

c o u ld be i n any s e q u e n c e .^ The n y th s c i t e d a re l a r g e ly from th e San

C arlo s o r W hite M ountain Group, b u t th e t a l e s of any W estern Apache

group would be much th e same. The n y th s and t a l e s were of two

c a te g o r ie s , th o se t o l d to th e g e n e ra l p u b lic (C re a tio n and N aiyenezgani)

79I b i d . , 27.

^G oodw in, American A n th ro p o lo g is t, XL (January-M arch, 1938), 25 .

® ^G renville Goodwin, Myths and T ales of th e W hite M ountain Apaches (New York: American F o lk lo re S o c ie ty , 1939), V H .

m

and th e h o ly t a l e s re s e rv e d f o r th o se who know th e cerem onies connec ted

w ith them*

The Apaches of th e W hite M ountain and San C arlo s groups g e n e ra l ly

c re d i te d th e c r e a t io n o f th e e a r th to s e v e r a l b e in g s , i n most c a s e s ,82

fo u r* These fo u r c re a te d th e e a r th , developed i t , and s t a b i l i z e d i t .

Ih e s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f th e e a r th was ach iev ed by p la c in g w hirlw inds w ith

m e ta l in s id e a t th e fo u r p o in ts o f th e compass; i . e . : B lack W hirlw ind

w ith b la c k m eta l t o th e e a s t . B lue "Whirlwind w ith b lu e m e ta l to th e so u th ,83

and so on . The v e g e ta t io n was p u t on e a r th a s h a i r t o keep i t warm,

rocks a c te d as b o n es, and r i v e r s a s v e i n s . ^ A f te r p la c in g th e sun and

th e moon, th e work o f c re a t in g th e e a r th was f in i s h e d . The t a l e s go on

to speak of p eop le in h a b i t in g th e e a r th , w ith o u t a tte m p tin g to d e sc r ib e85

th e o r ig in of th e p e o p le .

The "Western A paches’ acco u n ts of th e f lo o d a re much l i k e a

s im p l i f ie d form o f th e B ib l i c a l a c c o u n t, i n which th e e v i l in h a b i ta n ts

of th e e a r th were drowned in th e f lo o d and only a s e l e c t few were sav ed .

^G oodw in, Myths and T a le s , 1 , speaks of fo u r p eop le working on th e e a r th . P. E . Goddard l i s t s th e f o u r a s B lack M etal O ld Man. B lack Big S p id e r , B lack W hirlw ind, and M irage (Myths and T ales from th e San C arlo s Apaches, A n th ro p o lo g ica l Papers o f th e American Museum of N a tu ra l H is to ry , XXIV (1920), ? ) • J . G. Bourke ("N otes on Apache M ythology," Jo u rn a l o f A m erican .F o lk lo re , I I I (Ju ly -S ep ten iber, 1890), 209) speaks o f tw elve gods w ith tw e n ty -f our a s s i s t a n t s p lu s tw elve b la c k w inds, tw elve heav en s, tw elve su n s , and tw elve moons a s h av in g a p a r t i n th e c r e a t io n of th e e a r th .

^ O th e r t a l e s t e l l o f c r e a t in g f o u r f e e t on which to s ta n d th e e a r th o r u s in g f our ro p es to t i e th e e a r th down.

^G oodw in, Myths and T a le s , 1 .

^ M o s t n y th s re a d by t h i s a u th o r s im ply in d ic a te d th a t th e e a r th .

man was on

o r i n one myth on ly one p e rso n . Both of th e t a l e s re a d by t h i s a u th o r

s t a t e t h a t th e v e s s e l used to escape th e f lo o d f i n a l l y came to r e s t on a

f l a t , sancty- p la in and from t h a t p o in t on th e y d i f f e r ; one t e l l s of th e

b i r t h of th e c u l tu r e h e ro , th e o th e r d e sc rib e s : th e p a r t tu rk ey and b e a r

p lay ed in p ro v id in g food and re se e d in g th e e a r th . The f lo o d i s n o t a

m ajor p a r t o f th e ny tho logy of th e W estern Apache, r a th e r th e m ajor87

p o r t io n i s th e N aiyenezgani o r C u ltu re Hero t a l e s .

N ajyenezgani i s th e son o f th e Supreme b e in g and a v i r g i n . Who

t h i s v i r g i n w as, i s n o t to o c l e a r . Some th in k she was E s t s ' u n n ad leh i

viho was th e s o le s u rv iv o r of th e f lo o d , o th e rs b e l ie v e t h a t the d au g h te r

of E s t s 1 u n n ad leh i was th e m other, and a t h i r d group o f myths s im ply s t a t e88

i t was an unnamed v i r g i n . N aiyenezgan i was n o t com pletely form ed a t

b i r t h f o r he la c k e d f in g e r s , f i n g e r n a i l s , h a i r , t o e s , a no se , e a r s , l i p s

and j o i n t s . A m a jo r i ty of th e myths p ro v id e a b r o th e r f o r th e c u l tu re

h e ro , who was conceived by a llo w in g w a te r to e n te r th e m other of89

N aiyenezgan i. A t an e a r ly age H ajyenezgani in q u ire s who h i s f a th e r i s .

A f te r some h e s i t a t i o n , h is m other t e l l s him i t i s th e sun and h e decides

to go and v i s i t h im . Once a g a in th e re i s a g r e a t d ivergence i n th e

d e s c r ip t io n of th e b a r r i e r s t h a t N aiyenezgani en co u n te rs on h i s way to

^ T h is was th e m other o r grandm other of N aiyenezgan i.

^ T h e m ost com plete acco u n t of th e f lo o d i s fo u n d i n Goodwin, I-tyths and T a le s , 50 -5 l«

pp00Goddard> Myths and T ales San C arlo s A paches, 8 . A fo u r th a re a

of th o u g h t a s c r ib e s h i s b i r t h t o Changing Woman.

89The q u e s t io n of a b r o th e r i s r a th e r u n im p o rtan t, f o r th e t a l e s d e a l w ith th e c u l tu re h e ro and th e b r o th e r appears t o b e only a companion in some of th e e a r ly a d v e n tu re s , n o ta b ly th e t r i p to th e home of th e su n .

k3

th e home of h i s fa th e r* Upon reach in g th e heme of th e sun he i s ad

m itted . by th e w ife o f th e sun who h id e s him when th e sun approaches and

th e n accu ses th e Supreme Being o f i n f i d e l i t y and b r in g s h i s son o u t o f

h id in g . Die sun a tte m p ts to k i l l N aiyenezgani by g iv in g him “tobacco

th a t k i l l s ”’ to smoke, b u t he smokes i t and l i v e s j n ex t he throws him

in to f o u r f i r e s — b la c k , b lu e , y e llo w and w h ite — b u t t h i s f a i l s a l s o .

A f te r s e v e r a l more a tte m p ts th e sun acknowledges him a s h i s c h i ld and

w ith th e a i d o f o th e r s , o r by h im s e lf , g iv e s him f in g e r s , to e s , h a i r ,

no se , e a r s , j o i n t s , and so fo r th *

The sun a l s o fgavs; th e h e ro weapons, o f fe r in g him th e ch o ice o f

guns and w h ite m en's c lo th e s , o r th e bow and arrow s and d re s s of th e

Apache, N aiyenezgani chooses th e d re s s and weapons of th e Apache and

re tu rn s to e a r th where he goes ou t t o s la y a l l th e m onsters who harm man.

Once a g a in th e number and ty p es o f m onsters s l a i n v a ry l i t t l e w ith th e

myth r e l a t e d , b u t th e c u l tu re h e ro k i l l s them a l l and th u s earns th e name

S la y e r of M onsters* The f i n a l co n quest o f th e c u l tu re h e ro i s Goli l i s i

who i s h o ld in g g r e a t numbers o f peop le i n s la v e ry . S la y e r of M onsters

i n a s e r i e s of games o f s k i l l and chance manages t o w in a l l th e peop le

fro m G o l i l i s i and th e y a re f r e e d . Because o f th e se and mazy o th e r

e x p lo i t s , N aiyenezgani i s th e c h ie f f o lk h e ro of th e Apaches o f A rizo n a

and th e t a l e s of h i s deeds a re o f te n lo n g e r th a n any of th e o th e r m yths.

I n a d d i t io n to t a l e s d e a lin g w ith th e m ajor s u p e r n a tu r a ls , th e

91W estern Apaches a ls o have numerous t a l e s ab o u t th e c c y o te , owl and C ans.

^ I f th e r e a d e r i s i n t e r e s t e d i n t h i s myth or any o f th e o th e r myths o f th e W estern Apache, b o th Goddard and Goodwin a re e x c e l le n t s o u rc e s .

^G oodw in, Ify~ths and T a le s , d iv id e s th e myths o f th e Apache in to

1 4

These myths a re n o t concerned w ith r e l i g io n , b u t r a th e r a re u sed to

i n s t r u c t and i l l u s t r a t e th e r ig h t o r a c c e p ta b le way of a c t i n g . For

exam ple, th e cqyote cy c le of myths i s devoted to t h i s , and th e h e ro ,

"S lim Coyote" g e ts i n and o u t of sc rap e s and perform s outrageous deeds

much to th e amusement o r shock of th e Apache l i s t e n e r s . The coyote i s

a l s o c r e d i te d w ith a id in g th e A paches, and b e in g a b le t o c o n s ta n tly o u tw it

th e w h ite man. Big Owl and th e Pans a re bogeyman to th e W estern Apaches

and o f te n naughty c h i ld re n a re th re a te n e d w ith them to in s u re c o r r e c t

b e h a v io r .

The r e l i g io n of th e W estern Apache p eop le has many cerem onies

invoking th e s u p e rn a tu ra l powers i n t h e i r v a r io u s g u is e s , f o r a id i n th e

problem s o f Apache l i f e from h u n tin g and r a id in g to th e f in d in g of l o s t92

o b je c ts and c o n t r o l l in g th e e lem en ts . The s u p e rn a tu ra l powers a re

c o n sid e red b o th b e n e f ic i a l and h a rm fu l, though more th e fo rm er th a n th e

l a t t e r . These powers work to g u ard man and c o u n te ra c t th e fo rc e s which

would harm him . Though th e powers a re co n sid e red a l iv e , in an im ate

o b je c ts may be sou rces o r r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s o f them. A power cou ld be

used to p r o te c t from harm by o th e r pow ers, o r even to n e u t r a l iz e o r

combat th e so u rce of power from which i t came5 i . e . : d e e r power was

needed i f one was t o k i l l d e e r , b e a r power was u sed t o combat b e a r93s ic k n e s s , and snake power co u ld p r o te c t one from sn ak es . The amount

m ajor and m inor c y c le s : Coyote and N aiyenezgani a re th e m ajor c y c le s ;and th e Cans and Big Owl th e m inor c y c le s .

^G oodw in , Am erican A n th ro p o lo g is t, XL (January-M arch , 1938), 2 8 . "To th e q u e s tio n , 'J u s t what i s r e l i g io n ?1 I once re c e iv e d th e answ er,' I t i s s u p e rn a tu ra l p o w er,' and t h i s i s t r u e , f o r i t i s th e k e y n o te ."

93I b id .

o f power p o ssessed by a source v a r ie d and was dependent on th e r e l a t i o n

of th e shaman or m edicine man and h i s power so u rc e , and how i t was9ku t i l i z e d o r c a l le d upon c e re m o n ia lly . Each power had a fu n c t io n w hich

no o th e r power could im i ta te . Because th e Apaches look upon th e powers

as p e rso n s , th ey pray to Dawn Boy, In Charge o f L i f e , h ie Snake P e o p le ,

or W hite S h e l l G i r l , r a th e r th a n th e dawn, su n , snakes o r a w h ite s h e l l .

The W estern Apache co u ld become th e a g en t f o r a power i n s e v e r a l

ways. Every Apache male o r fem ale was a p o t e n t i a l shaman and p o s se s so r

95o f s u p e rn a tu ra l power. A p e rso n c o u ld re c e iv e a power a t any tim e :

v h i le he was a lo n e , in a sm a ll g roup , o r i n camp am idst many peo p le . A

power came when i t b e lie v e d th e in d iv id u a l was a person th rough whom i t

cou ld w ork. The p e rso n approached m ight d e c lin e t o become an ag en t f o r a

power f o r s e v e ra l re a so n s — d i s i n t e r e s t , so rrow , o r s u s p ic io n . B ut

u s u a lly th e power would be a c c e p te d . When an Apache o b ta in ed a power he

aw aited in s t r u c t io n s ab o u t th e so n g s, p ra y e rs , taboos and cerem onies

a s s o c ia te d w ith th e pow er, and o f te n would t r a v e l to th e "pow er's home"

to be in s t r u c te d . F req u e n tly a man who became an ag en t f o r a power had

c e r ta in r e s t r i c t i o n s p la ce d on him . O ften a p e rso n would be approached96

by s e v e ra l powers d u rin g h i s l i f e and become "lo ad ed down w ith pow ers."

^•M orris E. O p le r, An Apache L ife way (C h icag o :U n iv e rs ity of Chicago P r e s s , 19U l), 206, and Goodwin in volume I4O of th e American A n th ro p o lo g is t as c i t e d above.

^ O p le r , American A n th ro p o lo g is t, XXXVII (January-M arch , 1935) 3

67 . But O p ler i n Apache L ife way, 202, q u a l i f i e s t h a t by n o tin g t h a t few re c e iv e powers b e fo re th e y re a c h p u b e rty .

O p le r, American A n th ro p o lo g is t, XXXVH (January -H arch , 1 9 3 5 ),67

A nother mode of a c q u ir in g a power was t o have i t t ra n s fe r re d to you from

It6

an o ld e r shaman who p o sse ssed i t , b u t once a g a in th e power determ ined97

t h i s by in d ic a t in g t h a t h e approved o f th e can d id a te • though the

in d iv id u a l Apache c o u ld , i t would ap p ea r, c la im any number of pow ers,

h e d id n o t , f o r a f a l s e c la im m ight enrage th e power and b r in g d i s a s t e r

t o th e im p o sto r. I f a p e rso n who c laim ed a "power” and perform ed th e

cerem onies f a i l e d to a ch ie v e h i s aim s, th e n i t was presumed h i s power

h ad d e se r te d him , and h e had to e i th e r t r y and r e g a in i t s con fid en ce o r

a c c e p t th e lo s s of th e su p e rn a tu ra l* s f a v o r . D iere were th re e ty p es o f

cerem onies which th e Apaches u sed : th e t r a d i t i o n a l i n which no innova

t io n s were made, th e s e m i - t r a d i t io n a l i n which seme new songs o r p ray e rs

m ight be added i f th e power co n sen ted , and th e t h i r d which was c re a te dor

com ple te ly by th e shaman v ia in s p i r a t i o n from th e power. 7

D e sp ite th e f a c t t h a t a ry W estern Apache co u ld become a shaman,

h e d id n o t need to p o ssess a c e r t a in power to c a l l on i t , f o r anyone

co u ld p ray to a s u p e rn a tu ra l , b u t on ly th o se s e le c te d co u ld a c t a s i t s

a g e n t . P ray e rs t o a power were e i t h e r t r a d i t i o n a l o r sp o n taneous. One

of th e most common p ra y e rs a sk ed f o r long l i f e , h e a l th and s a f e ty f o r

one’ s c h ild re n . P e t i t io n s m ight b e d i r e c te d to any power, though the

Sun a s r e p re s e n ta t iv e o f th e supreme b e in g was m ost o f te n c a l l e d on .99

The need o f te n determ ined th e s u p e rn a tu ra l p rayed t o . I f p ra y e rs to

one s u p e rn a tu ra l f a i l e d a n o th e r was c a l l e d i n , and t h i s was a l s o th e

97O p le r, An Apache L ifew ay, 211.

^G oodw in, American A n th ro p o lo g is t, XL ( Januaiy-M arch , 1938), 29 .

" i b i d . , 28.

U7

r u le i f th e ceremony of one shaman f a i l e d .

The shamans of th e W estern Apaches were one o f th e most im p o rtan t

groups i n th e s o c ie ty of th e se p e o p le . W rite rs who have h ad d e a lin g s w ith

th e W estern Apaches b o th a t w ar and a t peace ag ree w ith t h i s .

I t w i l l only be a f t e r we have th o ro u g h ly ro u te d th e m edicine men from t h e i r entrenchm ents and made them an o b je c t of r id i c u le t h a t we can hope t o bend and t r a i n th e minds of our In d ia n wards i n th e d i r e c t io n of c i v i l i z a t i o n . I n ny o p in io n , th e re d u c t io n o f th e m edicine men w i l l e f f e c t more f o r th e savages th a n th e g iv in g of la n d i n s e v e r a l i ty or in s t r u c t io n in th e sch o o ls . . .

Goodwin in d ic a te s th e m edicine man was th e H. . . f o c a l p o in t of a lm o st

a l l communal a c t io n among th e Apaches . . . because th rough h is knowledge101and c o n t r o l of th e s u p e rn a tu ra l h e co u ld in f lu e n c e th e outcom e.” The

m edicine men fu n c tio n e d as in d iv id u a ls , th e re was no dogma, r e l ig io u s

s o c i e t i e s , o r o rg an ized p r ie s th o o d . The shaman g e n e ra lly h ad no o b lig a

t io n s to h i s lo c a l g roup , b u t i f c a l l e d upon to combat an epidem ic o r

d i s a s te r he would re sp o n d . The lo c a l group locked on th e shaman a s " i t s

own" and i f he d id f o o l i s h th in g s which endangered h i s pow ers, th e people102

r e s e n te d i t because th e b e n e f i t s th e y m ight g a in co u ld be a f f a c te d .

The m edicine man o f te n had more power th a n th e c h ie f s f o r i f h is power

in d ic a te d th e need f o r a c e r t a in a c t io n few would d isp u te t h i s d e c is io n .

But th e shaman was n o t an un touchab le and co u ld s u f f e r g riev o u s p u n ish

ment i f he were wrong o r p re d ic te d an endeavor t o be a success and i t was

■ ^ J . G. B ourke, "The M edicine Men of th e A pache," N inth A nnual R eport of th e Bureau o f E thno logy . 1887-88 (W ashington, 1892), 59h*

101G. Goodwin and C. K au t, “A N ative R e lig io u s Movement Among th e W hite M ountain and C ibecue A paches," S ou thw estern J o u rn a l of A nthropology, X (W in ter, 195U), 387.

^^G oodw in, S o c ia l O rg a n iz a tio n , 187.

a f a i l u r e . O ften th e r e s u l t o f such an ev en t was th e death of th e shaman 103

by s to n in g . For t h i s re a so n th e m edicine man seldom f a i l e d to “hedge

h i s b e ts " o r have a re a s o n to o f f e r f o r an u n p re d ic te d f a i l u r e .

The fu n c tio n s of a W estern Apache shaman were many and v a r ie d ,

b u t th e e v e n t t o which h e was m ost o f te n c a l le d and t h a t b ro u g h t him to

th e z e n ith of g lo ry was c u rin g th e s ic k . I f one p erso n was i l l a few

songs and some drumming composed th e e n t i r e ceremony, b u t i f th e re was a n

ep idem ic, dancing w ould be i n c lu d e d .^ ^ O ther rem edies u sed by th e

Apaches were b ased on h e rb s , r o o t s , o r o th e r v e g e ta b le m a tte r tak en

i n t e r n a l ly ; h o t t e a s were o f te n u sed to cu re c h i l l s and sw eat b a th s were10$

used a g r e a t d e a l . One s ta n d a rd p iece of equipm ent of th e Apaches o f

A rizona i n any ceremony was a bag of h o d d e n tin , th e p o l le n of th e t u le o r

c a t t a i l , and n e a r ly every Apache h a d a sm all bag of i t w ith him a t a l l

t im e s . The u ses o f t h i s p o lle n w ere v a r ie d : i t was used prom iscuously

in th e p u b e rty r i t e s , i t was s c a t t e r e d when th e h u n t, r a id , o r p la n tin g

of co rn was t o commence, a q u a n t i ty was s p r in k le d on th e dead , i t was

used to s e a l a b a rg a in , and a s a r e s t o r a t i v e when one was worn out."*"^

A m ulets, m edicine h a t s , m edicine s h i r t s , and any o th e r s a c re d r e g a l ia

must be b le s s e d by th e shaman, i f n o t made by him. The Apache had a

fondness f o r am ulets and ta lis m a n s , and s e v e ra l were p la c e d on th e c ra d le

b o ard to p r o te c t th e baby. T urquoise was h ig h ly v a lu ed by th e m edicine

•^^C onnel, “ The Apache P a s t and P re s e n t ," Tucson C it iz e n , March6 , 1921, 9.

■^^Bourke, M edicine Men o f th e Apache, I462. Bourke th e o r iz e s t h a t c h a n ts , a s tead y drum b e a t ,, a n d /o r dances may induce a deep s le e p which w i l l do more f o r a p e rso n th a n any m ed ic ine .

10% b i d . , U71 .

lo 6I b i d . , £01-02 and 506.

men and a l l a tte m p ted to have a p iece w ith them a t a l l t im e s . F in a l ly ,

a word sh o u ld be s a id re g a rd in g th e payment of shamans. G en e ra lly th ey

were p a id a t th e tim e of th e ceremony by th e p a t i e n t o r h i s r e l a t i v e s .

The amount o r ty p e was dependent on need , how im p o rtan t o r r a r e th e

ceremony w as, and th e w e a lth o f th e p a tie n t*

Though th e re a re no cerem onies connected w ith b u r i a l and d e a th ,

i t can be in c lu d e d i n a d is c u s s io n of r e l i g io n among ih e W estern Apaches.

Die a t t i t u d e tow ard d ea th was a complex one, b u t our knowledge of a c tu a l

p ra c t ic e s i s s m a ll. Die g e n e ra l custom o f th e Apaches of A rizona was as

fo llo w s : th e body was p rep a red f o r b u r i a l w ith s u i ta b le c lo th e s , i t was

c a r r ie d t o a c l e f t i n th e rocks o r a g rave and covered w ith s to n e s ; a l l

th e p o sse ss io n s o f th e deceased w ere d e s tro y ed n e a r th e g ra v e , th e

w ick iup was burned and th e fa m ily moved away from th e a re a ; th e name of

th e deceased was never spoken a g a in and even secondary re fe re n c e s to 107

him were few . Goodwin, who once a g a in i s th e c h ie f so u rc e , adm its

t h a t e x a c t d e s c r ip t io n s a re vague and o f te n have segments of C h r is t ia n

b e l i e f combined in to th e n a t iv e c o n c e p ts . Because o f th e r e t ic e n c e of

th e Apaches t o t a l k ab o u t i t , and th e la p s e of f i f t y to s e v e n ty - f iv e

y e a r s , i t i s d i f f i c u l t to determ ine th e e x a c t p re-18^0 a t t i t u d e tow ard

d e a th .

I n 1853 th e Gadsden Purchase added th e l a s t p iece t o th e p re s e n t

l im i t s o f th e c o n t in e n ta l U n ited S ta te s . Die 30 ,000 square m ile s ceded

107On th e San C arlo s and F o r t Apache R e se rv a tio n s , th e modem

method i s to b reak a l l th e windows in th e home and abandon i t . This i s n o t done w ith government b u i l t houses because d e s t r u c t io n of f e d e r a l p ro p e rty i s a s e r io u s c rim e .

Soby Mexico now gave t o th e U n ited S ta te s government th e rem ainder of the

domain of th e Apaches — and w ith i t th e problem of subduing th e se

In d ia n s who f o r two hundred y e a rs had ravaged th e Am erican Southw est and

N orthw est M exico. Die foe th e U nited S ta te s h ad t o f a c e p o ssessed th e

p h y s ic a l and m en ta l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , th e h i s t o r i c a l e x p e r ie n c e , th e s o c ia l

s t r u c tu r e and custom s, and th e r e l ig io u s b e l i e f s which would su p p o rt them

in th e f i n a l f o r ty - y e a r s t r u g g le a g a in s t th e s e tt le m e n t of t h e i r a n c e s t r a l

lan d s by th e A nglo-A m ericans.

CHAPTER H I

A HERITAGE OF HA1E:

APACHES VS. ANGLO-AMERICANS> 1850 - 1890

F or more th a n two hundred and f i f t y y e a r s th e Apaches h ad ru le d

t h e i r domain by fo r c e , and n e i th e r th e S pan iards nor th e Mexicans had

caused them any a p p re c ia b le amount o f t r o u b le . I n 18U8 th e T rea ty of

Guadalupe H idalgo t r a n s f e r r e d much o f th e la n d o f th e Apaches to th e

U nited S t a t e s . One o f th e p ro v is io n s o f t h i s t r e a ty was a p ledge by th e

U n ited S ta te s t o p re v e n t Apache d ep red a tio n s so u th o f th e in te r n a t io n a l

boundary, to pay damages f o r any such d e p re d a tio n s , to p re v e n t American

c i t i z e n s from tra d in g f o r goods s to le n i n M exico, and to r e tu r n a l l1

re scu ed c a p tiv e s to t h e i r homes in M exico. I n th e f o r t y y e a rs fo llo w in g

1850 th e Apaches o f th e Southw est w ere fo rc e d g ra d u a lly to subm it to th e

^ A r tic le XI o f th e T rea ty o f G uadalupe-H idalgo in c lu d e d th e f o l lowing p ro v is io n s : i n re g a rd to th e "savage t r i b e s " r e s id in g w ith in th et e r r i t o r y ceded by M exico:

. . a l l such in c u rs io n s w i th in th e t e r r i t o r y o f Mexico (by th e se savage t r i b e s ) . . . s h a l l b e f o r c ib ly r e s t r a in e d by th e Government o f th e U nited S ta te s . . . and when th ey can n o t be p re v en ted , tbqy s h a l l be pun ished . . . and s a t i s f a c t i o n f o r the same s h a l l be en ac ted . . . . I t s h a l l n o t be la w fu l, under any p r e te x t . . . f o r any in h a b i ta n t of th e U n ited S ta te s t o purchase o r a c q u ire any M exican . . . who may have been c ap tu red by th e In d ia n s in h a b i t in g th e t e r r i t o r y of e i t h e r of th e two R ep u b lics , n o t t o purchase o r a c q u ire h o r s e s , m ules, c a t t l e , o r p ro p e rty . . . s to le n w ith in M exican t e r r i t o r y by such In d ia n s ."

The S panish and E n g lish t e x t i s in George P . Hammond ( e d . ) . The T rea ty of G uadalupe-H idalgo, F eb ru ary Second 18U8 (B erk e ley : F rien d s of th e B an c ro f t L ib ra ry , 19U9), 37, 39 .

5 1

5 a

w i l l of th e new w h ite r u le r s of t h e i r la n d , b u t Hc i v i l i z a t i o n 11 d id n o t

accompany th e c o n q u es t. I n th e p ro cess of t h e i r subm ission th e se In d ia n s ,

■whom G enera l Crook c a l l e d " th e t i g e r s of th e human s p e c ie s ," le a rn e d t o

d i s t r u s t and to h a te th e Anglo-Am ericans a s f e r v e n t ly as th e y h a d h a te d

th e H ispanic-A m ericans of th e e a r l i e r p e r io d .

I n 1850, J d in R u s s e l l B a r t l e t t 1 s boundaiy su rvey team p assed

through th e so u th e rn p a r t of th e Mexican C ess io n , and w h ile a t th e S an ta

R ita copper mines i n New Mexico h a d s e v e ra l d isag reem en ts w ith th eO.

fo llo w e rs of Mangas C o lo rad as . Meanwhile th e S u p e rin ten d e n t of In d ia n

A f fa ir s i n New M exico, James S . C alhoun, was g a th e r in g a s much in form a

t io n a s p o s s ib le on th e In d ia n s under h i s j u r i s d i c t i o n . He t r a n s m it te d

h i s f in d in g s to th e a u th o r i t i e s i n th e E a s t w ith h is recom m endation th a t

th e N avajos, Comanches, and Apaches be b ro u g h t under c o n t r o l . F a i lu r e t o

do t h i s would le a v e th e re g io n " . . . a how ling w ild e rn e s s , w ith no o th e r

in h a b i ta n ts th a n th e w olf and th e b i r d s of p rey h o v e rin g over mangled

rem ains of our m urdered countzymen . . .

C alhoun 's p r e d ic t io n seemed to be j u s t i f i e d by th e c o n d itio n s i n

A rizo n a , and p a r t i c u l a r ly i n th e f a t e of th e Oatman p a r ty . I n A ugust o f

1850 th e Oatmans and s e v e ra l o th e r f a m il ie s l e f t Independence, M isso u ri,

in te n d in g to s e t t l e a t th e ju n c t io n o f th e Colorado and th e G ila . By th e

tim e th ey reach ed th e Pima V i l la g e s , t h e i r fo o d s u p p lie s were d e p le te d

and s e v e r a l of th e f a m il ie s d e c id e d t o tu r n b ack ; b u t th e Oatmans w ent on,

% he most n o ta b le were o v er th e r e le a s e by fo rc e of Mexican c a p tiv e s of th e A paches. I n L ife Among th e A paches. 6 1 -6 6 , John C.Cremony d e sc rib e s t h i s ep iso d e .

^Annie H. A bel ( e d . ) , P ie O f f i c ia l Correspondence of James S . Calhoun (W ashington: G .P .O ., 1915 ), 1 85—86. See F rank D. Reeve, " F e d e ra l In d ia n P o lic y i n New M exico, 1858-1880," New Mexico H is to r i c a l Review , X II (Ju ly , 1937) and X I I I (Ja n u a ry , A p r i l , J u ly , 1938) f or p o l ic ie s by th e U .S.

53

and a f t e r covering more th a n h a l f o f th e d is ta n c e t o th e C olorado , th e y

were a t ta c k e d by Tonto A paches. The m other, f a t h e r , and youngest c h i ld

were k i l l e d ; Lorenzo, ag ed f i f t e e n , was c lu b b ed ; and th e two g i r l s ,

O live and Mary Ann, were ta k e n c a p tiv e I n J u ly 1852, John R u s s e l l

B a r t l e t t p assed th rough S o u th ern A rizona and c i t e d th e im punity w ith

which th e Apaches r a id e d in th e S an ta Cruz V a lle y .^

I n 1853 th e a re a so u th o f th e G ila was added to th e U nited S ta te s

by th e Gadsden P u rch ase . Two y e a r s l a t e r M ichael S teck became In d ia n

Agent f o r New M exico, and , d u rin g th e n ex t f i v e y e a r s , made s e v e ra l

su g g es tio n s re g a rd in g th e s o lu t io n of th e In d ia n problem . I n 1857 S teck

re p o r te d t h a t a l l o f th e t e r r i t o r y of p re se n t-d a y A rizona ex cep t Tucson6

was i n th e hands of th e Apaches. S teck b e lie v e d t h a t th e In d ia n s sh o u ld

be m a in ta in ed on a r e s e r v a t io n w est of th e 109th p a r a l l e l and n o rth of7

th e G ila R iv e r u n t i l th e y were s e l f s u f f i c i e n t . D uring th e f i r s t y e a rs

of U n ited S t a t e s ’ r u le th e Apaches w ere n o t a t peace n o r were th e y a t

war w ith th e A nglo-A m ericans. R a th e r , th e y ra id e d o c c a s io n a lly and a t

th e same tim e p e rm itte d s ta g e s t a t i o n s and ro u te s to be e s ta b l i s h e d i n

th e h e a r t of t h e i r t e r r i t o r y .

^The Oatman M assacre d id end h a p p ily , f o r Lorenzo was ab le t o r e tu rn to th e Pima V illa g e s where he com pleted h i s re c o v e ry and began to sea rch f o r h is s i s t e r s . The g i r l s had been t r a d e d to th e Mohaves i n 1852, and soon a f t e r Mary Ann, age n in e , d ie d ; b u t i n 1856, th rough th e i n t e r v e n tio n o f a f r i e n d ly Yuma In d ia n , O live Oatman re tu rn e d to c i v i l i z a t i o n . She re jo in e d h e r b r o th e r i n San D iego, and i n 1858 th e y re tu rn e d to th e E a s t . R .B. S t r a t to n , C a p t iv ity o f th e Oatman G ir ls (New York: C a r lto n and P o r te r , 1858).

^John R . B a r t l e t t , B a r t l e t t ’s E x p lo ra tio n s (2 v o l . , New York: D. A ppleton and C o ., 185U), 292 and 317-18.

^R eport o f th e Comm issioner of In d ia n A f f a i r s , 1857. House Exec. Doc. 2 (35 th C ongress: 1 s t S e s s io n ) , 578.

? I b id . , 579 . I n h is re p o r ts of 1858 and 1859 S teck co n tin u ed t o urge th e e s ta b lish m e n t of a r e s e r v a t io n n o r th o f th e G ila .

This am ity was s h a t te r e d in F eb ru a ry , 1861, i n a n o th e r c la s h of

Apache and American e th ic f a r more d is a s tro u s th a n th a t of t e n y ea rs

e a r l i e r a t S an ta R ita d e l C obre. In O ctober o f i860 some s to ck was

s to le n and a c h i ld k idnapped from th e Ward ran ch n ear S o n o ita , A rizo n a .

I n F eb ruary , 1861, George H. Bascom, a g rad u a te of West P o in t i n 1858

and a second l i e u te n a n t in th e Seventh I n f a n t r y , was s e n t from F o r t8

Buchanan t o r e g a in th e s to ck and c h i ld . Upon h i s a r r i v a l a t th e P a s s ,

an in te rv ie w w ith th e C h iricah u a c h ie f , C och ise , was a rra n g ed . W hile

under an a cc e p ted t r u c e , Bascom made C ochise and h i s p a r ty c a p t iv e s .

But C ochise escaped , and a f t e r two weeks under s ieg e — in te r s p e r s e d

w ith f u t i l e n e g o tia t io n s — Bascom*s detachm ent was r e l i e v e d . In

r e t a l i a t i o n f o r th e death of th r e e w h ite s , th e m i l i t a r y hanged s ix ofo

th e Apache c a p t iv e s , in c lu d in g s e v e r a l of C o ch ise 's r e l a t i v e s . As a

r e s u l t of th e "Bascom In c id e n t" , C ochise launched a f u l l - s c a l e war a g a in s t

th e p eop le of th e Southw est w hich l a s t e d e lev e n y e a rs and came c lo se t o

d e s tro y in g every w h ite s e t t le m e n t i n Arizona."*"0

For more th a n a y e a r th e Apaches re ig n e d supreme in th e South

w est. I n mid-1862 th e C a l i f o r n ia Column under C olonel James H. C a r le to n

8O pinions on Bascom*s e x a c t in s t r u c t io n s v a ry , b u t th e concensus cf o p in io n i s t h a t he was s e n t t o in v e s t ig a te and tak e n e ce ssa ry a c t io n .

^ E x c e lle n t accoun ts o f th e in c id e n t a re R obert M. U tley , "The Bascom A f fa i r : A R e c o n s tru c t io n ," A rizona and th e W est, H I (S p rin g ,1961), 59-685; and Benjamin H. S acks, "New Evidence on th e Bascom A f f a i r ," A rizona and th e W est, IV (Autumn, 1962), 261-78

•^ In J u ly , 1861, th e two f o r t s so u th of th e G ila were abandoned and burned when th e m i l i t a r y went E a s t t o j o i n . i n th e C iv i l War. Soon on ly Tubac, Tucson, and s e v e r a l h e a v ily f o r t i f i e d ranches were s t i l l " s a f e " ; i . e . : a s long a s one rem ained w ith in 100 y a rd s of t h e i r w a l l s . Hie w ithdraw al of th e tro o p s was n o ted by th e Apaches and lo g i c a l ly c r e d i te d to t h e i r r e c e n t ly lau n ch ed w ar, which th ey pursued w ith renewed i n t e n s i t y . See Lockwood, Hie Apache In d ia n s . 108.

moved a c ro ss S o u thern A riso n a , and in J u ly o f th a t y e a r an advance guardn

of th e column engaged a la rg e number o f Apaches i n Apache P a ss . On J u ly

27 G eneral C arle to n , r e a l iz in g th e im portance of Apache Pass and th e

S prings lo c a te d th e re , e s ta b l is h e d Camp Bowie and g a r r is o n e d i t w ith one12

hundred men under M ajor T. A. C o u lt. The passage o f th e C a l i fo rn ia

Column d id n o t a l t e r c o n d itio n s i n A rizo n a , however# f o r C harles D.

P oston d e sc r ib e d th e Apaches i n l86h a s . . th e scourge of th e cou n try

f o r more th a n th re e c e n tu r ie s , and y e t th ey co n tin u e t o p rey upon t h i s13exposed f r o n t i e r w ith u n p a ra l le le d a u d a c ity .* L a te i n 186U C a r le to n

began an in te n s iv e campaign a g a in s t th e h o s t i l e In d ia n s , and p a t r o l s from

Tucson and from F o r ts Bowie, Goodwin, W hipple, Ganby, W ingate, C ra ig , and

McRae were d isp a tc h e d w ith o rd e rs t o ex te rm in a te a l l h os t i l e s o r fo rc e

them onto r e s e r v a t io n s . I n th e two months t h a t fo llo w e d , th e se p a t r o l s

c ro sse d and re c ro s s e d th e la n d i n th e hope of unnerving th e h o s t i l e s

and dem onstrate th e f u t i l i t y of r e s i s t a n c e . R e su lts were m eager, how ever,lit

and any su ccess was o f f s e t by in c re a s e d h a tre d s on th e p a r t o f th e A paches.

In Ja n u a iy , 1865, C a r le to n was r e l ie v e d cf command in New Mexico.

The newly c r e a te d T e r r i to ry of A rizona was now a ss ig n e d to th e M il i ta ry

^ F o r an e x c e l le n t d e s c r ip t io n o f th e B a t t le of Apache Pass see Cremony, L ife Among th e A paches, 262-367♦

•^Ray B randes, F r o n t ie r M il i ta ry P o s ts of A rizona (G lobe: Dale S . K ing, i 960) . H i.

^ ••R ep o rt o f th e Com m issioner o f In d ia n A f f a i r s , 186U," House E x ecu tiv e Document 1 (38 th C ongress 2nd S e s s io n ) , 298.

•^N ot a l l Apache-American c o n ta c t was h o s t i l e du ring l861|. John Rope d e sc r ib e d th e f i r s t c o n ta c t of th e E a s te rn W hite M ountain Apaches and th e m i l i t a r y a t F o r t Goodwin a s a f r ie n d ly r e l a t io n s h ip . See G re n v ille Goodwin, *E xperiences o f an In d ia n S c o u t," A rizona H is to r i c a l Review, V II (Jan u ary 193$), 36 -3 8 .

D iv is io n o f th e P a c i f ic , and w ith th e r e s u l t a n t d ec rease i n th e s t r e n g th

of th e army u n i ts th e In d ia n s r a id e d w ith l i t t l e r e s t r a i n t . I n F eb ruary

of 1865 th e Apaches a t ta c k e d F o r t Buchanan and drove th e tro o p s o u t . ^

In th e P r e s c o t t a re a th e Americans provoked th e Y avapai and th e Yumas

by k i l l i n g two of t h e i r c h ie f s and s e v e ra l o th e r tr ib e sm e n . These

In d ia n s jo in e d in th e war on th e w h ites and by e a r iy June th e abandonment

of c e n t r a l A rizona seemed im m inent."^ The S u p e rin ten d e n t of In d ia n

A ffa ir s e s tim a te d th e Apache p o p u la tio n a t I f ) ,000 and s t a t e d t h a t th e y

were in c o n tro l of A rizona e a s t of a l in e drawn th rough Selgman, S k u l l17V a lley , W ickeriburg, and G ila Bend.

I n May, 1865, th e b le a k s i t u a t i o n was r e l ie v e d by th e a r r i v a l o f

one thousand tro o p s under C o lo n e l Mason. Mason d iv id e d A rizona in t o sub

s e c to rs and made each s e c to r commander re sp o n s ib le f o r h i s own f i e l d

o p e ra t io n s . The summer p a ssed and n o th in g of n o te came o f t h i s a tte m p t18

to c o n tro l th e A paches. The w in te r campaign was more s u c c e s s fu l and

th e In d ia n s were s t ru c k s e v e ra l t im e s . I n March of 1866 m i l i t a r y

a c t i v i t y ceased once a g a in , and from 1866 to 1869 th e Apaches dom inated

56

•^Ralph O gle, F e d e ra l C o n tro l of th e W estern Apache, 18U8-1866 (A lbuquerque: U n iv e rs ity of New Mexico P re s s , 19 l|0 ), 153.

*^In h i s r e p o r t to th e Com m issioner, S u p e rin ten d e n t G. W. Leihy s ta t e d t h a t th e a u d a c ity of th e Apaches f a r exceeded any of th e i r fa rm e r movements. Most of th e l e s s f r i e n d ly t r i b e s had jo in e d them and many o f th e fo rm erly n o n -h o s ti le groups were w avering . R ep o rt of th e Commissioner of In d ia n A f f a i r s , 1865 (W ashington* G .P .O ., 1865), 128.

^ I b id . , 506. This l i n e would ru n n o r th and so u th one hundred m iles e a s t of th e C olorado R iv e r .

•^The one p o s i t iv e ev en t i n 1865 was th e e s ta b lish m e n t of F o r t McDowell n e a r th e ju n c t io n o f th e Verde and S a l t R iv e rs . This fo rc e d th e h o s t i l e s , r a id in g so u th , t o p ass th rough th e lan d s of th e Pima and M aricopa, t h e i r p e re n n ia l enem ies. O gle, F e d e ra l C o n tro l, 15U.

$7

A rizona w ith only o c c a s io n a l f l a s h e s of a c t io n by th e m i l i t a r y or 19c i v i l i a n s • I n 1869 B r ig a d ie r G en era l E . 0 . C. Ord, commanding th e

newly c r e a te d D i s t r i c t of A rizo n a , d ec id ed to t r y to e s ta b l i s h a

r e s e rv a t io n f o r th e Apaches r a t h e r th a n to launch a new campaign a g a in s t

th e h o s t i l e s . He s e n t M ajor John Greene in to th e W hite M ountains to

in v e s t ig a te th e s t a tu s of th e Apaches r e s id in g th e r e . Green found th e se

In d ian s d e s iro u s o f p eace , b u t n e v e r th e le s s p roceeded to d e s tro y o v e r20

one hundred a c re s o f co rn t h a t was re a d y to be h a rv e s te d .

By 1870 sen tim en t i n th e E a s t a g a in s t fo rc e as th e s o lu t io n to

th e In d ia n problem was in c re a s in g , and p e a c e fu l methods were w ide ly

ad v oca ted . As a r e s u l t P re s id e n t G ran t developed h i s c e le b ra te d "peace

p o lic y ” , and i n th e s p r in g of 1871 th e Quaker churchman, V in cen t C o ly e r,21was s e n t to A rizona to d e a l w ith th e Apaches. On Septem ber 7 , 1871,

C olyer reach ed F o r t Apache in th e W hite M ountains o f A rizo n a . He was

^ I n 1867, M ajor Robert Jones describ ed Arizona as being more dangerous to th e t r a v e le r than i t had been te n y e a rs e a r l i e r . Report of th e S ec re ta ry of War, 1867. E nclosure B -l i n th e Report of th e Commander of the D iv is io n of th e P a c if ic , 8 l .

^ P a p e rs Accompanying R eport of th e Commissioner of Ind ian A f fa i r s , I 869. Appendix J to V incent Colyer* s R eport, Green s ta te s th a tth e re was *. . ♦ no s e t t l e d p o lic y (tow ard th e Apaches), b u t a g en era l po licy to k i l l them w herever fo u n d .* B iis cou ld w e ll serve as a summary of th e e n t i r e decade a f t e r 1861.

21Colyer*s coming was h asten ed by th e Camp G rant Massacre of A p ril 30 , 1871, when a band of Americans, Mexicans, and Papago Ind ians swept down on a camp of Aravaipa Apaches who had been l iv in g in peace near Camp G rant, and k i l l e d e ig h ty to one hundred women and c h ild re n . P re s id en t Grant th re a te n e d to p u t th e t e r r i t o r y under m a r tia l law u n less the g u il ty p a r t ie s were t r i e d in a c o u rt of law . In th e r e s u l t in g t r i a l a l l were a c q u it te d . See James R. H astings, "The Tragedy a t Camp G ran t,” Arizona and th e W est, Volume I (Summer, 1959), U46- I 6I . For a g en era l trea tm en t of G ra n t 's "peace p o lic y ," see Martha L. Edwards, "A Problem of Church and S ta te in the 1870*3,* M iss is s ip p i V alley H is to r ic a l Review, XI (June, 19210 , 37 -5 3 .

welcomed b y th e In d ia n s and th e y i n tu r n were a s s u re d of th e b e n e f i t s o f

58

a p e ac e fu l e x is te n c e by C o ly er. From F o r t Apache C olyer t r a v e le d t o

Camp Grant where h is concept of th e "noble savage” was f u r th e r

s tre n g th e n e d . His f i n a l s to p was a t Camp Verde w here, on O ctober 3 j he22

c re a te d a r e s e r v a t io n f o r th e In d ia n s of t h a t r e g io n . Because of

C olyer*s a p p a re n t s u c c e s s , th e governm ent d e c id e d to t r y t o b r in g C ochise

onto a r e s e r v a t io n . I n A p r i l , 1872, B rig a d ie r G enera l O liv e r 0 . Howard

a r r iv e d i n A rizona. A f te r v i s i t i n g th e v a r io u s r e s e rv a t io n s d u rin g May,

he re tu rn e d to th e E a s t; b u t i n A ugust he reap p ea red to conclude a

t r e a ty w ith C och ise . I n O ctober Howard and C ochise met i n th e C h iricah u a

M ountains and reached an agreem ent which b ro u g h t th e l a s t h o s t i l e group

o f Apaches onto a r e s e r v a t io n s e t a s id e f o r them in s o u th e a s te rn A rizo n a .

The problem of m a in ta in in g th e "calm 0 c re a te d by th e " fo rc e s of23

peace” was I t . C ol. (B rev t B rig . G en.) George C ro o k 's . I n th e f a l l o f

1872 Crook was re a d y to b r in g a l l th e Apaches who were s t i l l h o s t i l e

under c o n tr o l . Die d a te f o r th e s t a r t of th e cam paign was November 15 ,

and th e p la n was to d e fe a t one band o r group a t a tim e u n t i l a l l had

accep ted l i f e on th e r e s e r v a t io n s . I n th e f i r s t p h ase , columns from

n oThough C olyer was welcomed by th e In d ia n s w ith g r e a t jo y , th e

c i t i z e n s of A rizona r e v i l e d him w ith th r e a t s and term s in c lu d in g "c o ld b looded s c o u n d re l ,” " re d handed a s s a s s in ," and " o ld d e v i l . "

^ G e n e r a l Crook had come to A rizona i n June o f 1871, and immed ia te ly began t o g a th e r in fo rm a tio n on th e Apaches and th e t e r r a i n th ey were f ig h t in g on. A f te r an e x p lo ra to ry march from Tucson to F o r t W hipple v ia Camp Bowie, th e Graham M ountains, th e San C arlo s R iv e r , F o r t Apache, and Camp V erde, Crook h ad d ev ised a p la n to d e f e a t th e A paches, b u t f u r th e r o p e ra tio n s were h a l te d u n t i l th e m issio n s of C olyer and Howard were com pleted . D isc u ss io n of C ro o k 's march can be found i n M artin F . Schm idt, G enera l George Crook: H is A utobiography (Normal; U n iv e rs ity o f Oklahoma P re s s , 19U6), 163-67 .

Camps H u a lap a i, D ate Creek and Verde sw ept a round th e Tonto B asin re g io n

and fo rc e d th e Apaches in to t h i s a r e a . I n th e second phase th e columns

were to m a in ta in c o n tin u a l c o n ta c t w ith th e h o s t i l e s u n t i l th e Apaches

su rre n d e red o r were k i l l e d . A number of b a t t l e s were f ought and from

December to February n in e s e p a ra te columns o p e ra ted i n th e Tonto B as in

a re a . By e a r ly March th e Apaches began to come onto th e r e s e rv e s i n2k

la rg e num bers, and on A p r i l 7 th e l a s t h o s t i l e groups su rre n d e re d . For

th e f i r s t tim e in t h i r t e e n y e a r s a t r u e peace was en joyed by th e c i t i z e n s

of th e A rizona T e r r i to r y .

The Apaches of A rizona w ere lo c a te d on th re e m ajor r e s e rv a t io n s

p lus two m inor ones. With th e end of h o s t i l i t i e s th e c r e a t io n o f a25

w orkable r e s e r v a t io n p o lic y became a problem . Crook h ad developed a

p o lic y of c o n tro l and se lf-g o v e rn m en t t h a t appeared to have p o s s i b i l i t i e s

of s u c c e ss . I t c a l l e d f o r each male In d ia n to be g iv en a numbered ta g

and d a i ly , o r w eekly , counts t o be made. G enera l Crook b e lie v e d i n th e

e d u ca tio n o f th e younger Apaches and th e g a in f u l employment of th e o ld e r26

in d iv id u a ls . He a l s o used fo rm er Apache S cou ts a s p o l ic e , and a s a

nucleus f o r fu tu r e se lf-g o v e rn m e n t. U n fo rtu n a te ly th e se p lan s d id n o t

m a te r ia l iz e and , though th e t e r r i t o r y was to en joy two y e a r s of p eace ,

2livne of th e b e s t d e s c r ip t io n s o f t h i s campaign a g a in s t th e Apaches i s fo und i n B ourke 's On th e B order w ith Crook. 176-198.

pd^ In F eb ruary 1873, C ongress had a b o lis h e d s e v e r a l of the

su p e r in te n d e n c ie s , in c lu d in g A rizo n a , to s im p lify th e management and in c re a se and f a c i l i t a t e th e e f f ic ie n c y of th e r e s p e c t iv e a g e n c ie s . Under th e new p la n each agency was t o purchase i t s own s u p p lie s and r e p o r t d i r e c t l y to th e Bureau of In d ia n A f f a i r s . A b o a rd of f i v e in s p e c to rs were t o m on ito r and examine th e ag en c ies a t l e a s t tw ice a y e a r and r e p o r t to th e S e c re ta ry of th e I n t e r i o r . See O gle, F e d e ra l C o n tro l, 119-20 .

^ B o u ik e , On th e B order w ith Crook, 182.

60

th e end of the Apache wars was s t i l l tw elve y e a rs away.

Die two m inor r e s e rv a t io n s were Camp G rant on A ravaipa C reek, and

Camp Verde on th e Verde R iv e r . Both of th e se re s e rv e s e x is te d f o r only a

few y e a rs b e fo re th e In d ia n s were moved to San C arlo s and th e la n d r e

tu rn e d to th e p u b lic domain. Camp G rant was c re a te d by G enera l 0 . 0 .

Howard i n 1872. D uring th e s h o r t tim e i t e x is te d Camp G ran t was p lagued

by th e absence of a perm anent a g e n t .” I n th e sp rin g o f 1873 th e In d ia n s

were moved to San C a r lo s . Die Camp Verde re s e rv e was n o t a c c e p ta b le t o

th e Apaches and problem s th e re w ere th u s compounded. I n A p r i l , 1873, 360

Apaches from Camp Date Creek w ere moved to Camp V erde, and in May 1 ,200

Apache-Yumas and Apache-Mdhaves were a ls o p laced th e r e . Because of la c k_ 28

cf to o ls an a g r i c u l t u r a l program was n o t begun by th e Agent in 1873•

Poor h e a l th c o n d itio n s and a d eg ree o f law le ssn ess a l s o c o n tr ib u te d t o

th e u n re s t of th e Apaches. I n th e summer of 187U th e Commissioner

decided t o move th e Apaches t o San C arlo s and i n F e b ru a ry , 1875, 1,U0029In d ian s l e f t Verde f o r San C a r lo s .

I n 1870 a r e s e r v a t io n h a d been c re a te d i n th e "White M ountains o f

27George S tevens was made tem porary a g en t i n May, 1872. I n December S tevens re c e iv e d n o tic e t h a t George Larabee was t o be perm anent ag en t a t Camp G ran t. On F ebruary 9 , 1873, D r. R.A. W ilb e r took o v er as a c tin g a g en t and on th e 1 0 th , Crook le a rn e d t h a t th e Camp G rant In d ia n s w ished to be moved to San C a r lo s . He persuaded a c t in g a g en t W ilb e r t o do t h i s , and in March 1 ,500 In d ia n s moved to th e r e s e r v a t io n on th e G ila .

nOuI n h is r e p o r t f o r 1873 (R eport of th e Commissioner of In d ia n

A f f a i r s , 1873 (W ashington: G .P .O ., 1873), 2 8 7 ), Agent W illiam s re q u e s te d 25,000 d o l la r s to c r e a te i r r i g a t i o n d itc h e s and open 1500 to 2000 a c re s to c u l t iv a t io n . D iis co u ld make th e r e s e r v a t io n s e l f - s u p p o r t in g . Die In d ia n O ffice d en ied t h i s re q u e s t because th ey were co n tem p la tin g rem oval o f th e Camp Verde In d ia n s to San C a r lo s .

^ P a u l Wellman in h i s v e ry re a d ab le book. Death i n th e D e se rt (Hew York: M acM illan, 1935), lli9 -5 0 , d e sc r ib e s th e r o l e 01 th e zfucson R ing i n th e rem oval of th e Camp Verde A paches.

61

A rizona to p rov ide f o r th e Apaches o f t h a t re g io n . D uring th e th re e

y e a rs t h a t fo llo w ed most of th e W hite M ountain Apaches rem ained a t peace

w ith "the Americans and s e v e r a l se rv ed a s sco u ts f o r Crook in h i s cam paigns.

D uring th e f i r s t two y e a r s o f i t s e x is te n c e th e r e s e rv e was n o t fu rn is h e d

w ith fu n d s , books, s t a t io n e r y , o r a g r i c u l tu r a l im p le m e n ts .^ By June,

1873, th e re 1 ,675 In d ia n s on th e F o r t Apache r e s e r v a t io n and th e y h ad

283 a c re s o f la n d in c u l t i v a t i o n , and were a l s o c a r in g f o r th e s to ck 31

is s u e d them. These p e a c e fu l c o n d itio n s co n tin u ed d u ring I 87U and f iv e

m ile s of i r r i g a t i o n d i tc h was dug e n ab lin g 300 a d d i t io n a l a c re s to be

c u l t iv a te d . The W hite M ountain Apaches were making s t r i d e s tow ard a

c i v i l i z e d s o c ie ty when a c o n f l i c t of c i v i l and m i l i t a r y a u th o r i ty s topped 32t h i s p ro g re s s .

The second m ajor r e s e r v a t io n was th e C h iricah u a in s o u th e a s te rn

33A rizo n a . The f i r s t a g e n t, Tom J e f f o r d s , soon le a rn e d t h a t th e govern

ment would n o t p rov ide much h e lp t o th e agency and so h e used h is own

fu n d s to buy th e n ecessa ry s u p p l ie s . I n a d d i t io n to th e la c k of * 3

• R e p o r t of Commissioner o f In d ia n A f f a i r s , 1873 (R eport of James R o b e r ts , Agent a t F o r t A pache), 290.

31I b i d .

3 ^ In J u ly , I 87It, th e m i l i t a r y o rd e red th e punishm ent of a l l In d ia n s fo u n d o ff r e s e r v a t io n la n d s , even i f th ey p o sse ssed passes s ig n ed by Agent R o b e rts , and i n Septem ber th e a n y took over th e is su an ce of r a t i o n s . I n F ebruary of 1875 th e m i l i t a r y s ie z e d c o n tro l of th e agency and C ap ta in F. D. O gilby ousted R o b e r ts . Commissioner Sm ith, puzzled by t h i s , tu rn e d th e c o n tr o l of th e agency o v er to John P. Glum, a g en t a t San C a r lo s .

33I t was c re a te d i n 1872 by Howard in h i s t r e a t y w ith C ochise .Tom J e f fo rd s was made a g en t and on November 15 , 1872 th e re were 1000 Apaches on th e r e s e r v a t io n , a number t h a t rem ained r e l a t i v e l y c o n s ta n t f o r th e n e x t th r e e y e a r s .

p ro v is io n s , J e f fo rd s fa c e d two o th e r prob lem s: In d ia n s from o th e r

ag en c ie s d r i f t e d onto th e C h iricah u a re s e rv e and u sed i t as a s ta g in g

p o in t f o r r a id s i n to M exico, an d th e C h iricah u a Apaches were n o t i n te r e s t e d

i n a g r ic u l tu r e o r s to c k r a i s i n g . ^ On June 8, 187U> Cochise d ie d — and

th e g r e a te s t power f o r peace among th e G hiricahuas d ie d w ith h im . I n

F eb ru a ry , 18?6 , th e b e e f r a t i o n was c u t o f f and J e f fo rd s a llow ed th e

G h iricahuas to le a v e th e r e s e r v a t io n to h u n t game. A segment of th e

t r i b e moved in t o ih e Dragoon M ountains, b u t th e group q u a r re le d and

tw elve f a m il ie s re fu s e d to r e tu r n t o th e r e s e rv e . B ie in d iv id u a ls t h a t

rem ained in th e m ountains began to r a i d i n to Mexico and th e San Pedro35V alley of A rizo n a . Because of th e renewed h o s t i l i t i e s , J e f fo rd s was

suspended and John P . Clum g iv e n charge of th e r e s e rv e . On June $ a

con ference was h e ld and th e G h iricah u as a g re ed to move t o San C a r lo s , and

on th e 12th 325 In d ia n s began th e jo u rn e y . Bius by mid-1876 a l l th e

Apaches i n A rizona were lo c a te d on tiie San C arlo s R e se rv a tio n .

San C arlo s was c r e a te d i n 187 2 by G enera l 0 . 0 . Howard and i n

1873 agency h e a d q u a r te rs were moved from Camp G rant t o th e ju n c t io n o f36

th e San C arlo s and th e G ila . Because o f a power s t ru g g le betw een

a c t in g ag en t R . A. W ilb er and George L arabee , th e perm anent A gent, the

62

^ ^ C o n tr ib u tin g to th e problem s was th e f a c t t h a t J e f fo rd s ra n a " lo o se re s e rv a tio n " w ith in f r e q u e n t h e ad c o u n ts , fe e d in g of v i s i t i n g In d ia n s w ith o u t q u e s t io n , and is s u in g of r a t io n s i n b u lk r a th e r th a n in d iv id u a l l o t s .

^ I n A p r i l one o f th e le a d e rs o f t h i s sm a ll band k i l l e d Rogers and Spence, th e o p e ra to r and cook of a nearby s ta g e s t a t i o n , when th ey re fu s e d to s e l l him more w hiskqy. I n m id -A p ril a t ro o p of c a v a lry pu rsued th e band w ith o u t s u c c e ss . James P . Dunn, M assacres of th e M ountains: A H is to ry o f In d ia n Wars i n th e F a r W est, .1835-1875 (N .Y .: H arp ers , 1886),

36^yJhen th e Camp G rant Apaches were removed from t h e i r re s e rv e on th e A ravaipa to San C a r lo s , th e agency h e ad q u a rte rs moved w ith them .

63

m il i t a r y s e iz e d c o n t r o l of San C a rlo s i n May of 1873• The ariry r e

mained in c o n tro l u n t i l August 8 , 187b when Agent John P. Glum a r r iv e d

and r e in s ta t e d c o n tro l by th e c i v i l a u t h o r i t i e s . Glum began h i s ad m in is

t r a t i o n a t San C arlos by i n s t i t u t i n g reform s to in c re a s e th e s e l f -38

s u f f ic ie n c y of th e A paches. By March, 1875j th e agency was under

e f f i c i e n t c i v i l c o n tro l and th e a d d it io n of th e Camp Verde In d ia n s

caused l i t t l e d is ru p t io n .

I n A p r i l of 1875) Glum — a c t in g on o rd e rs from th e Commissioner

of In d ia n A f fa ir s — assumed c o n t r o l of th e F o r t Apache In d ia n R eserva

t io n . On A p r i l 19, he coun ted a l l males a t th e agency d e s p i te m i l i t a r y39e f f o r t s t o b lo ck th e c o u n t. I n May Glum was c a l l e d to W ashington and

upon h i s r e tu r n c a r r ie d in s t r u c t io n s to move th e In d ian s from th e

n o rth e rn r e s e r v a t io n to San C a r lo s . Then he a ttem p ted t o do t h i s he

d isco v e red t h a t h a l f of th e W hite M ountain Apaches would n o t leav e b e fo re

t h e i r c ro p s were h a rv e s te d or t h e i r le a d e rs r e tu rn e d from se rv in g a s

sco u ts f o r th e army. By December, 1875) how ever, a l l b u t 300 of th eUo

Apaches had moved t o San C a r lo s .

3?Under C ap ta in W. H. Brown drunkenness was red u ced and th e In d ian s a cc e p ted th e governm ent’s p o l ic ie s and began to fa rm an d x aise l iv e s to c k . O gle, F e d e ra l C o n tro l , lU l.

^^Clum c re a te d an In d ia n p o lic e fo rc e t o en fo rce law s a g a in s t t is w in b rew ing . He a ls o used Apache la b o r to b u i ld th e agency b u ild in g s and encouraged th e In d ia n s t o p r a c t ic e a g r i c u l tu r e . Woodworth Glum, Apache Agent (New York: Houghton M if f l in , 1936 ), 13U.

^ C a p ta in O gilby a tte m p ted to o v e rrid e Glum’s a u th o r i ty and , f a i l i n g in t h i s , r e le a s e d a l l In d ia n p r is o n e rs and re fu s e d to a c c e p t th o se a r r e s t e d by Glum’s In d ia n p o l ic e . He a l s o o rd e re d th e s o ld ie r s to only a c t to p r o te c t governm ent p ro p e r ty . R ep o rt of th e Commissioner cf In d ia n A f f a i r s , 1875 (W ashington: G .P .O ., 1875 ), 217.

k® lhere were ab o u t 1 ,600 In d ia n s a t San C arlo s and 300 a t F o r t Apache a t th e end of 1875* I b i d . , 218.

Hie f i r s t few months of 18?6 were among th e most p e a c e fu l th e

San C arlo s R e se rv a tio n , and A rizona i n g e n e ra l , h ad had i n many y e a r s .

The Apaches were g a in f u l ly employed, d i s c ip l in e was be in g en fo rced by

th e In d ia n p o l ic e , and ev en ts seemed to in d ic a te th e dawn of an e ra of

q u ie t . B ut i n A p r il renegade C h iricah u as began t o r a i d i n Mexico and

A rizona and in June Glum b ro u g h t 32f> of th e C h iric ah u as t o San C a r lo s .

From Ju n e , 18?6 to March of 1877, ev en ts a t San C arlo s c o n tin u e d in t h e i r

calm c o u rse . I n March Glum a g a in c la sh e d w ith th e m i l i t a r y , and when th e

Commissioner re fu s e d to su p p o rt him i n a showdown he r e s ig n e d and l e f th2

th e r e s e r v a t io n on Ju3y 1 , 1877♦

The re s ig n a t io n of John P . Clum came j u s t over two y e a rs a f t e r

G eneral George Crook l e f t A rizona . The d ep a rtu re of th e se two in d iv id u a ls

marked th e co n c lu s io n of s i x y e a r s of e n lig h te n e d m i l i t a r y and c i v i l i a n

In d ia n a d m in is tra t io n . I n th e n ex t f i v e y e a rs b o th c i v i l i a n and m i l i t a r y

c o n tro l was t o be c h a r a c te r iz e d by in e f f ic ie n c y , g r a f t , c o r ru p tio n , and

d is re g a rd f o r th e In d ia n .

Mr. Sweeny, Glum’s agency c le r k , took over as in te r im ag en t u n t i l

^ T h e q u e s tio n of . th e tho roughness of Glum’s rem oval of th e C h iricah u as i s an i n t e r e s t i n g one. Clum s ta t e d i n h i s r e p o r t f o r 1876 t h a t th e re were b$0 Apaches on th e r e s e rv e and l a t e r in d ic a te d t h a t he removed 325, le a v in g 125 unaccounted f o r . J e f fo rd s i n h i s r e p o r t c la im s th e re were ap p rox im ate ly e ig h t or n in e hundred Apaches on th e re s e rv a t io n : o f th e se II4.0 went t o th e Warm S p rin g s re s e rv e and 325 t o SanC a rlo s , le a v in g 325 to 1*25 n o t acco u n ted f o r . Thus th e re may have been a s mary as ItOO or as few a s 125 Apaches unaccounted f o r . The p u zz lin g q u e s tio n i s , where had th ey gone?

^ 2In A p ril Clum to o k tim e o ff from h is d is p u te w ith th e arny t o e f f e c t th e c ap tu re of Geronimo, t h i r t e e n o th e r renegade le a d e r s , and t h e i r fo l lo w e rs . See O gle, F e d e ra l C o n tro l, 173-75 f o r a d is c u s s io n o f t h i s f i n a l c o n s o lid a t io n by Clum. F or Glum’s s to r y o f t h i s c a p tu re , see Apache A gent, 212-22.

65

H. L . H a rt, th e new a g e n t, a r r iv e d i n A ugust. Soon a f t e r h i s a r r i v a lli3

H art had to cope w ith a m ajor o u tb reak . I n s p i t e o f t h i s h i s adm in is

t r a t i o n had an a u sp ic io u s b e g in n in g , f o r he in d ic a te d a w ill in g n e s s to

co o p era te w ith th e m i l i t a r y and re c e iv e d u n u su a lly prompt su p p o rt from

th e D epartm ent of th e I n t e r i o r . D uring th e l a s t f o u r months of 1877 and

th e f i r s t s i x months of 1878, th e Apaches co n tin u ed to behave and under

H a r t’s d i r e c t io n dug over tw elve m ile s of new i r r i g a t i o n d itc h e s and made)|)|

p ro g re ss i n a g r ic u l tu r e and s to c k r a is in g . Apaches were a ls o employed

o f f th e r e s e r v a t io n a t G lobe, M cM iU ian v ille , i n th e n in e s , and a t near-

by ra n c h e s .

U n fo rtu n a te ly , b e n ea th t h i s v e n e e r of q u ie t and p ro g re s s , Agent

H art was s i l e n t l y g r a f t in g . 'When H art became a g e n t he re c e iv e d a crew

x h ich was c h a r a c te r iz e d a s a “bad l o t ” by In s p e c to r V andeveer. H art d id

no t remove th e se men, a lthough he d id f i r e George Sweeny and re p la c e him15

w ith George Smerdon. H art began c o n v e r tin g governm ent goods in to

p r iv a te fu n d s , and i n January of 1879, he was a ccu sed of s e l l i n g su p p lie s

to th e m iners a t Globe and M c M illia n v ille and o th e r camps. An

^ O n Septem ber 1 , P ionsenay s l ip p e d in t o th e San C arlo s re s e rv a t i o n and took s e v e r a l non-com batants t h a t be longed t o h i s group back to M exico. Die same n ig h t 310 Apaches under th e le a d e rs h ip of Loco and V ic to r io l e f t f o r M exico. This group was pursued by th e m i l i t a r y and fo rc e d n o r th . A f te r a m onth-long chase th e y su rre n d e re d a t F o r t W ingate, New Mexico.

^ 3 h e In d ia n s l iv in g on th e San C arlos R iv e r and below th e agency on th e G ila r a i s e d 1350 b u sh e ls of b a r le y and 100 of w heat. I n A ugust, I 878, th e re w ere e ig h ty a c re s of c o rn and beans u n d e r c u l t i v a t io n . Stock- r a is in g was p ro g re ss in g and th e r e were 521 c a t t l e and 769 sheep owned l y In d ian s i n Ju n e , 1878. See A nnual R eport of th e Commissioner of In d ia n A f f a i r s , 1878 (W ashington: G .P .O ., 1878) , 7 •

k^H art s t a t e d Sweeny was a drunkard and a "h ard case” . However, Smerdon a ls o had a fo ndness f o r l iq u o r . O gle, F e d e ra l C o n tro l, 190.

66

in v e s t ig a t io n by In s p e c to r Hammond was made and th e e x te n t of H a r t’s1 Z

g r a f t re v e a le d . I n J u ly , 1879, H art was r e l ie v e d by C ap ta in Adna

C h affee . C haffee im proved th e w e lfa re of th e In d ia n s by a llo w in g them

to leav e th e r e s e r v a t io n i n la r g e numbers to g a th e r w ild fo o d p la n ts and

a ls o a llow ed 355 to r e tu r n t o t h e i r homes in th e 'White M ountains. One

of th e m ajor problems of C h affee , a s w ith o ther a g en ts b e fo re h im , was

th e i r r e g u la r d e l iv e iy of goods. O ften goods o rd e re d i n Judy f o r

d e liv e ry i n O ctober a r r iv e d i n F e b ru a ry . C haffee se rv ed a s a tem porary

a g en t u n t i l Judy , 1880, when h e was re p la c e d by J . C. T iffa n y of th e

Dutch Reform C hurch.

T iffa n y began h i s a d m in is t r a t io n i n a manner t h a t in d ic a te d

prom ise of improvement i n th e w e lfa re of th e A paches. He o rg an ized a

Sunday S choo l, p lanned t o b e g in a r e g u la r sch o o l, and seemed in te r e s t e d

i n h e lp in g th e Apaches. U n fo rtu n a te ly a l l th e se prom ises were m erely a

smoke s c re e n , f o r w ith in f i v e months a f t e r assum ption of d u t ie s , In d ia n

In s p e c to r Mahan r e p o r te d T iffa n y was s ig n in g f o r goods n o t r e c e iv e d , had i s

sued s h o r t r a t i o n s , ju g g le d agency accoun ts to a id h im s e lf , and m ight be

i n c o l lu s io n w ith th e agency b u t c h e r . ^ D esp ite th e se examples o f * 2

^ I b i d . , 195• Ogle c i t e s two exam ples: 1 . H a rt used a can ofh igh g rade f l o u r f o r sam ples o f th e f lo u r b e in g is s u e d to th e In d ia n s ;2 . H art would r e t u r n b e e f h e rd s to th e c o n tra c to r s a f t e r in s p e c t io n and would n o t r e - in s p e c t th e c a t t l e b e fo re is s u in g them to th e In d ia n s .

^ B u t Mahan p o in te d o u t t h a t th e se ev id en ces of g r a f t were n o t re a so n f o r d is m is s a l , a s T if fa n y ’s m otives were h o n e s t , and S e c re ta ry of th e I n t e r i o r Shurz a llow ed T iffa n y to rem ain a s a g e n t . O gle, F e d e ra l C o n tro l, 201.

d ish o n es ty . T iffany*s facad e remained, s e c u re , and he r e p o r te d an in c re a s e

i n th e number of a c re s under c u l t iv a t io n from l£ 0 to 1000 betw een i860

and 1881, w ith crop y ie ld s f iv e to t e n tim es as g r e a t and th e number o f

l iv e s to c k a lm o st d o u b le d .^ By March of 1881, Agent T i f fa ry was sw in d lin gU9th e government i n every phase of o p e ra tio n s a t th e agency*

I n th e sp rin g of 1881 a shaman in th e C ibecue a r e a , N och -ay -del-

k l in n e , began to c la im he co u ld r a i s e th e m ajor Apache le a d e rs from th e

dead . Wien h i s a tte m p ts f a i l e d , h e c laim ed i t was because of th e p resence

of th e w h ite man on th e a n c e s t r a l la n d s of th e A paches, and s t a t e d t h a t

th e le a d e rs would r e tu r n when th e w h ite s were d riv e n o u t." ^ By e a r ly

summer th e "ghost" dances were in c r e a s in g . A f te r s e v e ra l f u t i l e a tte m p ts

to lu r e th e m edicine man to th e San C arlo s Agency, T if fa ry re q u e s te d

C o lonel (B rev t B r ig a d ie r G enera l) Eugene A. C a rr , Commander a t F o r t

Apache, to c ap tu re th e shaman*

67

^®See A nnual R ep o rt of th e Commissioner of In d ia n A f f a i r s , 1881 (W ashington: G .P .O ., 1881), 7 and 8 , f o r com parative f ig u r e s com piled by T i f f a ry .

^ T i f f a n y had c r e a te d a c a t t l e ranch w ith government c a t t l e , and f e d th e se c a t t l e on governm ent g r a in . He s o ld wagons bought f o r government use to p r iv a te in d iv id u a ls , th e agency b lack sm ith was charg in g th e In d ia n sco u ts to shoe t h e i r h o rs e s , and th e p o s t t r a d e r was s e l l i n g excess s u p p lie s to th e c i v i l i a n p o p u la tio n . See O gle, F e d e ra l C o n tro l, 210-213, and Bourke, On th e B order w ith Crook, I438-UO f o r more examples of g r a f t a t San C a r lo s .

^Thom as C ruse , Apache Days and A f te r (C a ld w ell, Id ah o : Caxton P r in te r s , 1 9 b l) , 93-95 and 106, sk e tc h e s th e l i f e of th e m edicine man, N o c h -ay -d e l-k lin n e , as fo llo w s : i n 1871 ho had gone to W ashington w iths e v e ra l o th e r Apaches and had met P re s id e n t G ran t. He l a t e r a tte n d e d sch o o l i n Albuquerque and re c e iv e d a sm a tte r in g of C h r i s t i a n i ty . I n 1881 he was t h i r t y - s i x y e a r s o ld , 5*6" t a l l , w eighed 135 pounds, was dark sk in n ed , and had th e fa c e of an a s c e t i c .

^ O n A ugust 13 , G enera l W illco x , Commander of th e A rizona M il i ta ry D e p t., o rd e re d G enera l C arr to a r r e s t th e m edicine man as soon as p o s s ib le .

68

G en era l C arr re c e iv e d o rd e rs on A ugust 28 to c a p tu re o r k i l l

H och -ay -d e l-k lin n e im m ediately# and on th e m orning of th e 29 th two

companies o f tro o p s and some tw enty sco u ts l e f t F o r t Apache f o r th e$2

m edicine man’s camp n e a r Cibecue C reek , By two o ’c lo ck i n th e a f t e r

noon of A ugust 30# th e column was n e a rin g th e shaman’s camp. A f te r a

s e r ie s of te n se exchanges betw een C arr and Noch-ay, th e m edicine man

ag reed to go to F o r t Apache w ith th e m i l i t a iy . Die column began i t s

r e tu r n , and a s i t moved tow ard C ibecue Creek more and more Apaches began

to ap p ea r on th e r e a r and f la n k s o f th e fo rm a tio n . C a rr decided t o c ro ss

th e c reek and encamp f o r th e n ig h t . % i l e th e l a s t of th e s o ld ie r s were

fo rd in g th e creek , one of th e In d ia n s c o u ts . Dandy Jim , s h o t and k i l l e d53C ap ta in Edmund C. H en tig ,

I n th e f i g h t t h a t fo llo w e d , th re e hundred Apaches surrounded

th e encampment on th re e s id e s and began sh o o tin g a t w i l l . W ith n ig h t

th e f i r i n g d ec rea sed an d a check o f th e ranks re v e a le d seven dead , th re e

wounded, and f i f t y - e i g h t unharmed. A f te r a b r i e f co n fe ren c e , C arr

decided to r e t r e a t im m ediately t o F o r t Apache. A f te r b u ry in g th e dead ,

th e column began th e r e tu r n march t o th e f o r t , a r r iv in g th e re on th e

dn^ Die In d ia n sc o u ts h ad ta k e n p a r t i n th e dances and l ie u te n a n t

Diomas C ru se , th e o f f i c e r i n charge of th e s c o u ts , d id n o t b e lie v e t h e i r a l le g ia n c e was as f i r m as i t sh o u ld have been and re p o r te d t h i s f a c t to C arr. Apache Days and A f te r , 99*

' ’^With th e f i r s t s h o ts , th e S e rg ean t g u ard ing th e m edicine man k i l l e d him as h e h ad been p re v io u s ly o rdered to do.

5hevening o f th e 3 1 s t . The A paches, however, c la im ed th e e n t i r e command

had been a n n ih i la te d and , because th e te le g r a jh w ire was down, th e se

rumors re c e iv e d wide p u b l ic a t io n and E a s te rn new spapers c a r r ie d r e p o r ts

of a "second L i t t l e Big H o rn ." The Apaches r e a c te d to th e "news" in

numerous w ays: some f l e d to th e m ountains f e a r in g r e t r i b u t i o n by th e

m i l i t a iy , w h ile o th e rs head ed f o r F o r t Apache to ta k e p a r t i n i t s

d e s t r u c t io n .

The s ie g e o f F o r t Apache began on th e m orning of Septem ber 1 ,

b u t a f t e r a day of in te r m i t t e n t f i r i n g , th e Apaches w ithdrew . At th e

same tim e F o r t Apache was under a t t a c k . C h ief N an-T ia-T ish and a band

of C ibecue Apaches were r a id in g i n th e P le a sa n t V a lle y and th e p rev io u s

day a n o th e r band had k i l l e d fo u r men a t th e to p of Seven M ile H i l l .

W ith in a week th e m i l i t a iy h a d in c re a s e d i t s s t r e n g th and was r e in f o r c in g

th e v a rio u s p o s ts in Apache c o u n try . D uring th e t h i r t y days fo llo w in g

Septem ber 1 , 1881, th e re was sp o ra d ic w arfa re and a g r e a t amount of

p ro p e rty was d e s tro y ed t y bo th s id e s . The 25 th o f Septem ber was th e

f i n a l d a te s e t f o r th e renegades t o s u r re n d e r p eaceab ly , and on th e 20 th

69

^ T h e a r r i v a l o f C arr and h i s command g r e a t ly r e l ie v e d th e a n x ie ty , to p u t i t m ild ly , of th e p eop le a t th e f o r t , a s th e y b e lie v e d th e e n t i r e command had been k i l l e d . By fo u r i n th e morning of th e 3 1 s t , a h a l f - b r e e d h ad reach ed th e f o r t w ith th e news t h a t th e command had been m assacred . The s i t u a t i o n was p e r i lo u s a s th e re were l e s s th an 25 men a t th e f o r t and w ith o u t th e te le g ra p h th e re was no way to summon h e lp . W ill C. B arnes, te le g ra p h e r a t F o r t Apache, proposed t h a t he clim b to th e to p of th e h ig h mesa w est of th e f o r t i n hopes of see in g som ething. This r e q u e s t was g ra n te d by th e o f f i c e r i n ch arg e . Barnes s p o tte d th e r e tu r n in g column and s ig n a le d th e news to th e f o r t . See B arnes, Apaches and Longhorns, 58-62., f o r h i s p a r t i n th e e v en ts a t F o r t Apache.

^ B a r n e s , 58 . See a l s o C ruse , Apache Days and A f te r . 118 and Lockwood, The Apache In d ia n s , 2 lil, f o r d e s c r ip t io n s of th e Indians* r e a c t io n s .

70

f iv e of th e m utinous sc o u ts gave them selves up. W ith th e s u r re n d e r of

th e s c o u ts th e ex c item en t ap peared to b e o v e r, b u t on Septem ber 3057se v e n ty -fo u r C h iricah u a Apaches under Juh and Geronimo f l e d th e re s e rv e .

The p u r s u i t by th e m i l i t a r y "was u n su c c e ss fu l, and a f t e r a sk irm ish on

O ctober 2 th e h o s t i l e s s l ip p e d in to M exico.

The f l i g h t of th e O h iricah u as marked th e re su m p tio n of th e Apache

w ars . ^ On A p r i l 19 , 1882, Loco was fo rc e d by C h a tto , M atches, and th e

p re s su re cf h i s own fo llo w e rs t o j o in th e h o s t i l e s i n th e S ie r r a M adres.

Seven hundred Apaches f l e d southw ard le a v in g a t r a i l of d ea th and

d e s tro y ed p ro p e rty i n t h e i r w ake. The a rn y pursued them and n e a r

S t e in 's Pass th e w a r r io rs d e lay ed th e tro o p s u n t i l th e In d ia n women and

c h i ld re n had f l e d in to M exico. G enera l F o rsy th c o n tin u ed h is p u r s u i t

a c ro ss th e i n t e r n a t io n a l l i n e and soon th e Apaches stum bled in t o a n

ambush a t Canyon A lex io , s u f f e r e d one hundred c a s u a l t i e s , and l o s t most

59of t h e i r p o s se s s io n s . When seven hundred of h i s charges d isap p e a re d .

-^The f i v e sc o u ts were t r i e d and found g u i l ty — th re e were hanged and two s e n t to A lc a tra z and g iv en d ish o n o ra b le d is c h a rg e s .

-^On Septem ber 30 a detachm ent of tro o p s was s e n t t o a r r e s t two of th e c h ie f s in v o lv ed in th e C ibecue r e v o l t . The m i l i t a r y w a ited most of th e day f o r C h ief B on ito and George to s u r re n d e r , and tow ard evening d ec id ed to ta k e them by f o r c e , b u t th e c h ie f s f l e d to th e C h iricah u a camp c la im ing th e s o ld ie r s w ere going t o a t t a c k th e camp. The C h ir i - cah u as , f e a r f u l th e m i l i t a r y m ight be co n tem p la tin g p u n ish in g them f o r t h e i r crim es w h ile on th e w a rp a th , f l e d th e re se rv e th e same ev en in g .

-^ T e c h n ic a lly th e war had n ev er cea sed , b u t had only deg en era ted in to an o c c a s io n a l f l a s h o f a c t i v i t y . Mow th e f l a s h was a f i r e and th e n e x t s ix months were marked by u n re s t and r a id s i n t o A rizona and Mew Mexico by th e Apaches who f l e d th e r e s e r v a t io n i n O c to b er, and o th e r sm all groups who had never s u rre n d e re d .

-^O g le , F e d e ra l C o n tro l , 213- l b f o r d e t a i l s on th e exodus of th e O hiricahuas o

Agent T iffan y d ec id ed i t was th e t i n e t o r e s ig n and on June 30 he l e f t

f o r reasons o f h e a l th and b u s in e s s . Two months l a t e r G eneral Crook

re tu rn e d to th e t e r r i t o r y .

By Septem ber, 1882, th e Apaches of A rizona h a d re a d ie d a p o in t

of d e sp e ra tio n . Both th e le a d e rs and th e p eop le were d i s t r u s t f u l , d is

c o n te n t , d isco u rag ed and d e f i a n t . No crops h ad been p la n te d a t San C arlo s

i n 1882, and th e In d ia n s , because o f s h o r t r a t i o n s , were fo rc e d to beg

o r s t e a l . ^ In th e l a s t months of 1882 some 5 ,500 Apaches were s t i l l on

th e two re s e rv a t io n s and o f th e se 1,U00 co u ld b e a r a rm s # ^ G en era l Crook

h e a rd th e Apaches* views on th e problem s of th e r e s e r v a t io n system ;

rem oval from t h e i r la n d , a r r e s t s f o r m inor c rim es, a g e n ts who robbed

w ith o u t t ry in g to concea l i t , and lo s s of r e s e r v a t io n lan d s w ith o u t

co n sen t of th e In d ia n s , were some of th e m ajor g r i e v a n c e s .^ Crook

a c te d to r e l i e v e th e se com pla in ts and b r in g peace t o th e r e s e r v a t io n s .

71

ouL t. B r i t to n D avis d e sc r ib e d c o n d itio n s a t San C arlo s i n 1882 as fo llo w s ;

Everywhere th e naked, hungry , d i r t y , f r ig h te n e d l i t t l e In d ia n C h ild re n . . . . Everywhere th e s u l l e n , s t o l i d , h o p e le ss su sp ic io u s f a c e s of th e o ld e r In d ia n s c h a lle n g in g you . You f e l t th e c h a lle n g e , . . . t o prove y o u r s e l f a n y th in g e l s e , th a n one more l i a r and t h i e f d i f f e r in g b u t l i t t l e from th e p ro c e ss io n of l i a r s and th ie v e s t h a t had proceeded y o u . D av is, The T ru th About Geronimo (New Haven: Y ale U n iv e rs ity P re s s , 1929), 3 1 .

Crook i n G enera l o rd e r No. 1*3 d e sc r ib e d th e **. . . g e n e ra l f e e l i n g of d i s t r u s t , and w ant of co n fid en ce i n th e w h ite s . . . (and) th e d is s a t i s f a c t i o n dangerous to th e peace of th e co u n try . . . .** Bourke,On th e B order w ith Crook. 1|U3, c i t e s G. 0 . U3 is s u e d a t F o r t "Whipple on S> O ctober 1882.

^^D av is, P ie T ru th About Geronimo, 1;0.

^ B o u rk e , On th e B order w ith Crook, U36-U I, d e sc r ib e s th e con ferences Crook had w ith th e le a d e rs of th e Apaches s t i l l on th e re s e rv e .

72

F i r s t h e a llow ed th e W hite M ountain Apaches t o r e tu r n t o t h e i r o ld homes.

Second th e In d ia n s were g iv en th e r i g h t t o p o lic e th em se lv es . T h ird th ey

were encouraged to become s e l f - s u p p o r t in g .

Crook n e x t p lanned h i s campaign a g a in s t th e h os t i l e s i n th e

S ie r r a M adres. I n O ctober, 1882, h e a ttem p ted to open communication

w ith them , b u t f a i l e d . Crook sp re a d h i s meager fo r c e s a long th e 200

m iles of v u ln e ra b le b o rd e r , w h ile C ap ta in Emmet Craw ford and 1J>0 sc o u ts

p a t r o l le d th e i n te r n a t io n a l l i n e . I n March, 1883, C h a tto and tw en ty -

s ix w a rr io rs sw ept out o f Mexico on a s i x day r a i d which covered ItOO

m iles and r e s u l t e d i n th e d e a th of tw e n ty -f iv e people ~ th e Apaches had

one c a s u a l ty , and a n o th e r h o s t i l e su rre n d e re d . B iis in d iv id u a l .

P a -n a y o -tish n , a W hite M ountain Apache who had m arried a C h iric a h u a , was

b ro u g h t t o San C a r lo s . He o f f e re d t o guide th e m i l i t a r y e x p e d itio n to

th e C h iricah u a camp. On A p r i l 29, th e column reach ed th e b o rd e r and61i

headed in to M exico.

By May 12 , th e detachm ent was n e a r th e camp of th e C h iricah u as

and h a l te d w h ile th e Apache s c o u ts a tte m p ted t o c o n ta c t th e h o s t i l e s .

On th e 15tli a renegade camp was s u r p r is e d , n in e w a r r io rs k i l l e d , and f iv e

c h i ld re n c a p tu re d . Die n ex t day s ix squaws ap p eared a t th e m i l i t a r y

encampment t o t a l k and two days l a t e r f o r t y - f i v e Apaches su rre n d e re d .

By th e 23rd th e re were 220 n e a r Crook’s camp. On May 29, more th a n

•^Die a re a under s u rv e i l la n c e s t r e tc h e d from S asab ee , A rizona to Los C ru ces , New M exico.

^^Crodk h a d o b ta in e d p e rm iss io n from th e M exican a u th o r i t i e s t o c ro s s th e b o rd e r i n p u r s u i t o f th e Apaches. There were app rox im ate ly f i f t y w h ite s and 193 In d ia n sc o u ts i n th e column. Schm idt, G enera l Crook: His A utob iography , 2 lff.

73

one hundred Apaches jo in e d th e column as i t r e tu rn e d to A rizo n a . The

caravan c ro sse d in to A rizona on June 1$, On th e 2 l|th of Ju n e , 1883> 32^

Apache h o s t i l e s re a ch e d San C a r lo s .

A d u a l system o f c o n tro l was c re a te d because of th e o p p o s itio n of

th e ag en t and th e r e s e r v a t io n Apaches to th e r e tu r n of th e renegades to66

San C a r lo s . The C h iric ah u as s e t t l e d near th e headw aters of Turkey

Creek in th e ‘White M ountains, an d under th e d i r e c t io n of C ap ta in Emmet

C ra fo rd and L ieu te n a n t Gatewood a p p l ie d them selves to fa rm in g . But

in c re a s in g f r i c t i o n m arred th e o th e rw ise p e a c e fu l a tm osphere . I n November*

1883, Agent P . P. W ilcox c r i t i c i z e d C raw fo rd 's in te r f e r e n c e w ith th e

assignm ent of lan d s by th e agency fa rm e r, and in December Craw ford67

charged W ilcox w ith i s s u in g c a t t l e t h a t were i n f e r i o r . By F eb ru a ry ,

1881;, th e management of th e e n t i r e r e s e r v a t io n was be in g d eb a ted . In

Septem ber W ilcox re s ig n e d and was re p la c e d by C. D. F o rd . When C raw ford

began to u su rp power un d er th e g u is e of m a in ta in in g peace . A gent Ford

o b je c te d . A f te r s e v e ra l more u n re so lv e d d if fe re n c e s Crawford re q u e s te d

t r a n s f e r back to h i s u n i t and was re p la c e d by C ap ta in P ie rc e i n March,

^ D u rin g the fo llow ing n ine months about 1^0 more of th e h o s t i le s came in to San C arlo s.

^ I n a memorandum is s u e d j o i n t l y by th e S e c re ta ry of War, S ec re ta r y of th e I n t e r i o r , Commissioner o f In d ia n A f f a i r s , and G enera l Crook on Ju ly 7 , 1883, th e c o n d itio n s f o r th e r e tu r n of th e C h iricah u as were s e t f o r t h . F i r s t , a l l Apaches c a p tu re d o r s u rre n d e r in g would be under th e c o n tro l of th e War D epartm ent, b u t n o t a t th e agency w ith o u t th e consen t of th e a g e n t. Second, th e War D epartm ent s h a l l f e e d and ca re f o r th e se In d ia n s . T h i r d , . i t w i l l a l s o p r o te c t th e ag en t i n th e d is charge of h i s d u t ie s . B ourke, On th e B order w ith Crook. h $ l•

^ A n in v e s t ig a to r frcen W ashington s ta te d th e re was no b a s is f o r th e com plaint though th e c o n tra c t was l a t e r ca n c e lle d . Ogle, F ed era l C o n tro l, 227•

681885). B efore th e d is p u te betw een m i l i t a r y and c i v i l a u th o r i t i e s c o u ld

be r e s o lv e d . M atches, Geronimo, and 121; C h iricah u as f l e d th e r e s e r v a t io n69

and s t a r t e d tow ard M exico. On A ugust 6 , 1885, P re s id e n t C leveland

gave th e m i l i t a r y c o n t r o l of b o th re s e rv e s and C ap ta in P ie rc e became

agen t on September 1 .

The Apaches once ag a in were on th e w arpath and by June 10 had

e n te re d M exico. Moving h i s h e a d q u a rte rs to Deming, G eneral Crook p re p a red

f o r a n o th e r long cam paign. C ap ta in Emmet Crawford and C ap ta in W irt D avis

were r e c a l l e d t o A rizona to command s e p a ra te e x p e d itio n s o f In d ia n sc o u ts

to be s e n t i n to M exico. A f te r a th re e month campaign th e two columns

re tu rn e d in e a r ly O ctober cf 1885. In l a t e November C ap ta in s Davis and

Crawford re e n te re d Mexico le a d in g one hundred Apaches sc o u ts a p ie c e . On

January 10 , 1886, C raw ford a t ta c k e d th e h o s t i l e C h iricahua camp and70

c ap tu red most of t h e i r fo o d , s to c k , and equipm ent. The h o s t i l e s

re q u e s te d a c o n fe ren c e , b u t b e fo re i t c o u ld be h e ld C raw fo rd 's camp was

7h

^®In March a D em ocratic a d m in is tr a t io n took o f f ic e i n W ashington and S e c re ta ry of War E n d ic o tt and S e c re ta ry , of th e I n t e r i o r , Lamar, fa v o re d c o n tr o l by G enera l Crook. An in v e s t ig a t io n in to th e p o s s i b i l i t y of t h i s was begun and b o th Agent F ord and th e in s p e c to r su g g es ted Crook and th e m i l i t a r y ta k e com plete command of th e In d ian s on th e upper r e s e rv a t io n , b u t p o in te d out th o se a t San C arlo s were making s a t i s f a c to r y p ro g re s s ,

^ T h e ou tbreak h ad been develop ing f o r two months b e fo re th e e ru p tio n on May 15—18 . During March and A p r i l abou t f i f t e e n Chiricahua m alcon ten ts and t h e i r fo llo w e rs began to in d u lg e i n T isw in drunks. On May 15, L t . B r i t to n Davis was c h a llen g e d by Geronimo, Magnas, C h iric ah u a , and o th e rs to s to p them from brew ing and d rin k in g t i s w in . Davis r e p l ie d t h a t G enera l Crook w ould have to d ec id e and d isp a tc h e d a w ire to C ap ta in P ie rc e . P ie rc e upon th e adv ice of A1 S ie b e r , C h ie f of S c o u ts , d id n o t fo rw ard th e te le g ra m . A f te r w a itin g two days th e C h iricah u as l e f t f o r Mexico on th e 1 7 th . They c u t th e te le g ra p h w ire and P ie rc e was n o t n o t i f i e d of th e ou tb reak u n t i l May 18 .

70schm id t, G eneral Crook. 259.

L

75

a tta c k e d by M exican i r r e g u la r s and i n th e r e s u l t i n g m elee he was k i l l e d .

L ieu te n a n t Maus took over th e camp and th e h o s t i l e s ag re ed to meet Crock

n e a r San B ernadino S p rings i n two m onths.

On March 16 , 1886, c o n ta c t w ith th e h o s t i l e s was e s ta b l is h e d and71

th e conference sch ed u led f o r Canyon de Embudos on March 25• Die m eeting

opened a f t e r lu n ch a s th e Apaches began t o d r i f t in to th e camp of G enera l72

Crook by twos and th r e e s . Geronimo opened th e p a r le y by s t a t in g he f l e d

th e re s e rv e i n f e a r o f h i s l i f e a f t e r m is tre a tm en t by L ie u te n a n t B r i t to n

D av is, Mickey F re e , and o th e r s . Crook charged t h a t t h i s was n o t t r u e and

p o in te d o u t t h a t Geronimo h ad b ro k en h i s prom ise of 1883 to rem ain a t

p eace . He th e n o f fe re d th e Apache le a d e r two cho ices — co n tin u e to

f i g h t or s u r re n d e r . Die m eeting ad jo u rn ed w h ile th e In d ia n s d eb a ted the

te rm s. On March 27 th e ren eg ad e le a d e rs ag reed to s u r re n d e r w ith th e

un d ers tan d in g th ey w ould be s e n t away f o r s e v e ra l y e a rs • Crook t e l e

graphed S h e rid an t h a t th e Apache problem was so lv e d .

U n fo rtu n a te ly a r a s c a l named T r ib o le t t s o ld th e C h iricah u as

m escal, and s e v e ra l of th e le a d e r s became d runk . F e a rin g punishm ent,

Geronimo, M atches, and tw enty w a r r io r s and t h i r t e e n women re tu rn e d to

th e S ie r r a M adras. Die rem ain ing sev e n ty -se v en w ere e s c o r te d t o F o r t

Bowie and s e n t by t r a i n to F o r t M arion, F lo r id a . On A p r i l 11, 1886,

Crook was r e l ie v e d of h i s command by h i s own r e q u e s t , and B r ig a d ie r

' xCaiyon de Los Embudos i s ap p rox im ate ly tw elve m ile s so u th o f San B arnad ino , New Mexico.

^^S even teen w h ite s , seven to te n h o s t i l e s and s e v e r a l i n t e r p re te r s took p a r t i n th e c o n fe re n c e . Die co u rse of th e m eetings w ith m ajor speeches by b o th s id e s was re c o rd e d by John G. Bourice i n On Die B order w ith Crook, U7it-79»

76

G eneral N elson A. M iles was named th e head of th e D epartm ent of A rizo n a .

73M iles began p re p a ra t io n s to cap tu re th e rem aining h o s t i l e s . H is p la n

was b ased on th e f a c t t h a t th e m i l i t a r y drew from u n lim ite d fo rc e s w h ile

th e Apaches had l i t t l e i f any re s e rv e . A f te r a s e r ie s of c la s h e s ,

Geronimo made s u r re n d e r o v e r tu re s , b u t was t o l d th e on ly term s were

u n c o n d itio n a l s u r re n d e r . On Septem ber li, 1886, th e renegades su rre n d e re d

to G eneral M iles and on th e 8 th l e f t f o r F lo r id a by t r a i n . ^ The Apache

wars were f i n a l l y o v er.

I n th e f o u r y e a r s betw een 1886 and 1890 th e Apaches of A rizona

began to a c c e p t r e a d i ly th e ways of th e w h ite man. D ie ir h e rd s f lo u r is h e d

and by 1889 th ey owned 200 h o rse s and 1 ,800 c a t t l e . P ro d u c tio n o f c o rn ,

b a r le y , and wheat i n 1889 was th r e e to s ix tim es th e amount produced in

1887. The Apaches were a ls o a t te n d in g a sc h o o l e s ta b l is h e d by th e

^ M ile s d iv id e d th e r e g io n in to d i s t r i c t s , s e t up a h e lio g ra p h system to f a c i l i t a t e qu ick com m unication, p la c e d guards a t a l l w a te ih o le s and m ountain p a s s e s , and o rg a n iz ed c a v a liy u n i ts to pursue a ry h o s t i l e s .

^ R r i o r t o th e rem oval of Geronimo and th e l a s t band of ren eg ad es, a l l th e C h iricah u a Apaches on th e F o r t Apache R e se rv a tio n had been t r a n s f e r r e d to F lo r id a . Most of th e s e In d ia n s had been p e a c e fu l s in c e Ju n e , 1883, and s e v e ra l h ad se rv ed a s sc o u ts a g a in s t t h e i r own kinsm en. Neverth e le s s G eneral M iles w ith th e co n cu rren ce of P re s id e n t C lev e lan d , L.Q.C. Lamar, S e c re ta ry o f th e I n t e r i o r , and P h i l l i p S h e rid an , S e c re ta ry of War, o rd ered th e rem o v a l. See S en a te Exec. Doc. 117, U9th C ongress: 2nd S e ss io n , U-7 and 1|0-U3• This was th e f i n a l t re a c h e ry of th e f o r ty y e a r b a t t l e to b r in g th e Apaches un d er c o n t r o l .

^ A n n u a l R ep o rt of th e Commissioner o f In d ia n A f f a i r s , 1889 (W ashington: G .P .O ., 1889), 122 .

7&A co m p ila tio n of th e r e p o r t s of th e San C arlo s Agent f o r 1888 and 1889 r e v e a ls th e fo llo w in g f ig u r e s . See A nnual R ep o rt of th e Comm iss io n e r of In d ia n A f f a i r s , 1888 (W ashington: G .P .O ., 1888), 7 and f o r

121. BushelsYear Corn Wheat Barley

1886-87 1760 3U0U 30021887-88 6000 60$U 12,01*81888-89 8200 9107 16,300

ag en t i n 1888, and by 1890 th e re was an average a tte n d a n c e of sev e n ty -77

th re e i n a schoo l d e sig n ed f o r f i f t y . The p ro p h e tic o b se rv a tio n by

A. G. T a ss in i n 1889 th a t th e Apache co u ld be c i v i l i z e d — once h i s

nomadic h a b i t s were changed and h e was s e t t l e d i n one lo c a t io n where

sch o o ls and o th e r i n s t i t u t i o n s co u ld re a ch him — seemed to be coining. 78t r u e .

77Annual R ep o rt o f th e Commissioner of In d ia n A f f a i r s , 1890 (W ashington: G .P .O ., 1890), 12 .

^®A. G. T a s s in , "Among th e A paches," O verland M onthly, XVI (Septem ber 1889), 3 2 .

CHAPTER IV

THE LUTHERANS COME TO THE APACHES j

1892 - 1918

I n 1890 th e S u p e rin te n d e n t of Schools f o r th e San C arlo s agency,

Theodore G. Lemmon, was co n d ucting a r e g u la r r e l ig io u s c la s s on Sundays

f o r th e In d ia n s who were in t e r e s t e d i n a t te n d in g . The S u p e rin ten d e n t

d id n o t b e l ie v e , how ever, t h a t h i s e f f o r t s were s u f f i c i e n t . I n h i s

an n u al r e p o r t f o r t h a t y e a r he p o in te d o u t t h a t a C h r is t ia n m iss io n a ry

was needed, and d e c r ie d th e f a c t t h a t men of th e c lo th were w i l l in g to

M. . . t r a v e r s e rag in g seas and b u rn in g d e se r ts t o th e h e a t o f A fr ic a

f o r m iss io n ary work, . . . w h ile a s thorough savages i n our own

co u n try • . . a r e p e rm itte d t o go to th e d e v il i n such manner a s th e y

may choose . . . W hether Lemmon’s canments were re a d by th e members2

of th e German L u theran Church i s a m a tte r of c o n je c tu re ; b u t i n 1892

two L utheran p a s to r s , Theodore H artw ig and 0 . H. Koch, were s e n t t o th e

^Papers Accompanying th e R ep o rt o f th e Commissioner of In d ia n A f fa ir s f o r 1890 (W ashington: G .P .O ., 1890), 13.

9The J o i n t German L u theran Synod of W isconsin , M innesota,

M ichigan, and o th e r S ta te s h ad tak en up a c o l le c t io n among i t s members to f in a n c e t h i s work and th e Apache M ission was th e f i r s t e s ta b l is h e d by t h i s fu n d . C a r l G uen ther, "The H is to ry of th e M issio n a t P e r id o t t i l l March 1 , 1903 ," 1 . A ty p e s c r ip t copy of th e o r ig i n a l m an u sc rip t a t P e r id o t , A r iz o n a .in th e A rizona P io n e e rs ’ H i s t o r i c a l S o c ie ty .

78

79

sou th w este rn U n ited S ta te s w ith in s t r u c t io n s t o f i n d a t r i b e o f In d ian s

3. . where no m iss io n a ry of a ry denom ination has y e t s e t f o o t . " When

th e two reach ed th e Pima R e se rv a tio n Rev. C h arle s Cook, a P re s b y te r ia n

m issio n ary t o th e Pim as, t o l d them th a t th e Apaches i n e a s t - c e n t r a l

A rizona h ad no m issio n s among them . Jou rney ing t o San C a r lo s , th e

m in is te rs re c e iv e d a d d i t io n a l encouragement from in te r e s t e d w h ites

b e fo re t h e i r r e tu r n to th e E a s t t o r e p o r t t h e i r f in d in g s .

Because of th e fa v o ra b le r e p o r t su b m itte d by Koch and H artw ig ,

th e church decided to sen d two m is s io n a r ie s t o th e Apaches o f A rizona.

On O ctober 10 , 1893 j R ev. John P lo c h e r and Rev. George Adas check a r r iv e d

a t San C a rlo s^ only to l e a r n t h a t t h e i r coming h ad n o t b e en c le a re d w ith

th e m i l i t a iy a t th e f o r t . The m is s io n a r ie s , th e r e f o r e , d id n o t rem ain a t

San C a r lo s , b u t s e t up two t e n t s a t a lo c a t io n n in e m iles n o rth of th e

f o r t . B e liev in g th e s i t e t o be s u i t a b le f o r a perm anent m iss io n , th e y

a p p lie d to th e government f o r t i t l e . When C h ie f C assadore ag reed t o s e l l

th e la n d to th e L u th eran C hurch, th e government approved th e t r a n s a c t io n .^

The te n - a c r e p lo t was lo c a te d n e a r a m alapai c l i f f which c o n ta in e d a

sem i-p rec io u s s to n e , th e P e r id o t , and th u s th e lo c a t io n was named P e r id o t .

I n December, 1893> P lo c h e r and Adascheck began co n d ucting r e l i

g ious s e r v ic e s a t th e bo ard in g s c h o o l a t San C a r le s and v i s i t i n g th e

^ C e n ten n ia l Committee W isconsin Synod, C o n tinu ing i n His Word, (Milwaukee: N orthw estern P u b lish in g House, 1951)? 232.

^Guenther, "H isto ry of th e M ission a t P e rid o t to 1903?" ! •

% b id . , 2 .

^A pproval by th e D epartm ent of th e I n t e r i o r was g ra n te d i n a l e t t e r d a te d March 17 , 189U? th e o r ig in a l of which i s a t P e r id o t M iss io n .

80

In d ian s i n t h e i r camps. I n th e sp r in g o f 189U th e two m is s io n a r ie s began

to p la n perm anent b u i ld in g s , b u t i n June Adas check was g iv en p e rm iss io n7

to r e tu r n t o th e E a s t . P lo ch e r rem ained a t P e r id o t and by f a l l a combi-8

n a tio n re s id e n c e , c h a p e l, and s c h o o l had been com pleted . Die f i r s t

m issio n sch o o l began w ith an en ro llm en t of f o u r te e n s tu d e n ts , and w ith in9

a few months th e number reach ed tw en ty . Each Sunday Rev. P lo ch e r

conducted s e rv ic e s a t bo th P e r id o t and th e San C arlo s bo ard in g sc h o o l;

during th e week h e ta u g h t s ch o o l and v i s i t e d th e n e ig h b o rin g camps to

b rin g th e g o sp e l t o th e A paches. The i n i t i a l r e a c t io n of th e In d ia n s was

one of doubt — th e y had seen to o many w h ite men who spoke one way and

a c te d a n o th e r — b u t i n tim e th e y r e a l iz e d t h a t P lo c h e r had come t o g iv e

and n o t to ta k e . P lo ch e r rem ained a t th e P e r id o t M ission u n t i l th e f a l l

of 1899 when he h ad to r e tu r n t o th e E a s t because of h i s w ife ’s h e a l t h .

During h is s ix y ea rs among th e Ind ians of th e San C arlos R eserv a tio n , the

fo u n d a tio n of th e L u theran work was l a i d . I n A p r i l o f 1899 h i s f i r s t fo u r

co n v erts , a l l s tu d en ts of th e boarding sch o o l, were b a p tiz e d , and on Ju ly10

2nd two o th e r s tu d e n ts of th e sch o o l were m arried by P lo c h e r .

I n I 89I4, a f t e r a t r i p t o th e W hite M ountains of A rizona , P lo c h e r

recommended to th e M ission B oard th a t a s t a t i o n be e s ta b l i s h e d on th e

upper r e s e r v a t io n . I n 1896, R ev. P au l M ayeriioff a r r iv e d a t P e r id o t , and

7Rev. Adas check r e tu rn e d to th e E a s t because of h i s d i f f i c u l t y

w ith th e E n g lish and th e Apache lan g u ag e . C en ten n ia l Com m ittee,C ontinu ing i n H is Word. 233.

OuIn 1962 t h i s f i r s t perm anent b u ild in g was s t i l l s tan d in g and

was se rv in g a s th e re s id e n c e o f th e head te a c h e r a t P e r id o t .

^G uenther, ’’H is to ry o f th e M ission a t P e r id o t to 1903,” 2 .

10I b i d . , 3 .

81

in June of th a t y e a r he and P lo c h e r t r a v e le d t o P o r t Apache. A f te r a

survey of th e a r e a , th e two men decided to lo c a te th e m iss io n a t a p o in t

th re e m ile s from F o r t Apache. Here M ayerhoff e r e c te d a t e n t and ev ery

week gave r e l ig io u s i n s t r u c t io n to ap p ro x im ate ly s ix ty c h ild re n a t th e

F o r t Apache b o a rd in g sch o o l a s w e l l as v i s i t i n g th e In d ia n s in t h e i r

camps. When th e governm ent g ra n te d s u f f i c i e n t la n d f o r a m iss io n ,

M ayerhoff b u i l t a tw e lv e-b y -tw e lv e fram e b u ild in g t o se rv e a s a r e s i

d e n c e .^ R eac tio n to th e f i r s t m issio n ary on th e upper r e s e r v a t io n was

th e same as on th e low er: th e In d ia n s co n sid e red M ayerhoff a . . . j u s t12

a n o th e r w h ite man j u s t ta lk in g a b o u t som ething ." I n 1898 a t h i r ty - b y

t h i r t y b u ild in g was c o n s tru c te d and th e sm a lle r b u ild in g c o n v e rted i n t o

a s c h o o l. B iis sch o o l o p e ra te d u n t i l 1906 when a la c k o f p e rso n n e l and

th e in c re a s e d d u tie s of th e m iss io n a ry fo r c e d i t to c lo s e .

I n 1902. P a s to r M ayerhoff re c e iv e d an a s s i s t a n t i n th e p e rso n o f

O tto Schoenberg, who came to th e m iss io n a t E a s t Fork t o te a c h th e tw enty

c h ild re n in th e sch o o l and t o a i d i n th e m iss io n work. M ayerhoff re tu rn e d

to th e E a s t i n 1903, and h i s re p la ce m e n t Henry Haase a r r iv e d in 190lt.

This same y e a r Schoenberg was o rd a in ed , and th e two m in is te r s se rv ed

to g e th e r u n t i l 1905 when Haase w ent to P e r id o t to a s s i s t C a r l G uenther.

With only one m iss io n ary a t E a s t Fork i t was im p o ssib le to c o n tin u e th e

sch o o l; i t c lo se d in 1906 a f t e r e ig h t y e a rs o f o p e ra tio n . U n ti l th e

sp r in g of 1911 Schoenberg s e rv e d th e Apaches of th e upper r e s e r v a t io n .

•^M .J. Wehausen, "N otes on E a s t Fork M iss io n ,” 1 , a ty p e s c r ip t copy of which i s i n th e A rizona P io n ee rs * H is to r i c a l S o c ie ty .

■^Jack K eyes, ”A Voice From th e S ickroom ,” The Apache S cou t (Ju n e , 1936), U88. Keyes was th e f i r s t i n t e r p r e t e r employed t y R ev.E. E . G uenther when he came to E a s t Fork in 1911.

D uring "this p e r io d th e m iss io n c o n tin u e d to grow, and Schoenberg became

e x p e r t i n th e Apache lan g u ag e .

The problem of language was one o f th e b a s ic d i f f i c u l t i e s th e

L utheran m is s io n a r ie s had t o overcome. The g u t t e r a l Apache tongue was

n o t an easy one t o m a s te r . A lthough a l l th e men a ss ig n e d to th e r e s e r

v a t io n in th e e a r ly y e a rs d id le a r n a few b a s ic p h ra s e s , o n ly a few13became v e ry p r o f i c i e n t . Thus th e problem of c o m u n ic a tio n rem ained a

c o n s ta n t one u n t i l th e ipUO’s when th e Apaches of b o th r e s e r v a t io n s were

a c c u l tu ra te d t o th e p o in t where E n g lish was t h e i r second la n g u ag e ."^

When P locher l e f t P e r id o t i n th e f a l l of 1899, th e G en era l M ission

Board asked P a s to r K ay eih o ff t o come down from E a s t Fork u n t i l a new

m issio n ary c o u ld be s e n t from th e E a s t . M ayerhoff came to P e r id o t i n

November and rem ained th e r e u n t i l Rev. C a r l G uenther a r r iv e d e a r ly i n

F eb ru ary , 1900. G uenther co n tin u ed th e work of p ro v id in g r e l ig io u s

in s t r u c t io n t o th e c h i ld re n a t th e b o a rd in g s c h o o l, te a c h in g and

p re a ch in g , and v i s i t i n g th e camps. Soon a f t e r G u en th er 's a r r i v a l th e

government opened a second b o a rd in g sch o o l a t R ic e , A rizo n a , th r e e m ilesIS

from P e r id o t , and th e new m iss io n ary in c lu d e d t h i s sch o o l i n h is ro u n d s .

82

^ I n a l e t t e r t o M rs. H elen G. R ice of B oston , d a te d February 15 , 1903, S u p e rin ten d e n t Crouse m entioned t h a t P a s to r M ayerhoff was a b le t o speak th e lan g u ag e . F o r Apache R eco rd s , M icro film R o ll 2 , U n iv e rs ity of A rizona L ib ra ry . But Jack Keyes h a s s t a t e d t h a t M ayerhoff co u ld n o t speak Apache, w h ile Schoenberg c o u ld . Apache S c o u t, XV (Ju n e , 1936), U88.

" ^ In June of 1950 th e w r i t e r a t te n d e d a church s e rv ic e a t E as t Fork in w hich th e sermon was t r a n s l a t e d in to Apache f o r a few of th e o ld people who re fu s e d to l e a r n E n g lish . At th e p re s e n t tim e in te r p r e te r s a re s t i l l used by th e m is s io n a r ie s on t h e i r v i s i t s to th e camps.

•^The name of R ice was changed to San C arlo s i n 1929 when F o r t San C arlos was in u n d a ted by th e w a ter beh ind C o o lidge Dam.

83

C h arles G uenther, th e only C h r is t ia n m iss io n a ry to 1 ,100 people

on th e San C arlos R eserv a tio n , served n o t only th e s p i r i t u a l b u t a lso the

p h y sica l needs of th e In d ia n s . The only doctor on th e re se rv a tio n was

unable to reach a l l those "who needed h e lp , and in h i s saddlebags Guenther

c a r r ie d medicine f o r th e s ic k in th e camps. G uenther o ften would leave

P e rid o t a t fo u r in th e m orning, r id in g one h o rse and lead ing two o th e rs .

Changing mounts tw ice , h e would complete th e c i r c u i t of th e camps a t16

seven o r e ig h t in th e even ing . I n October of 1900 th e M ission Board

s e n t Rudolph Jen s , who had p rev io u sly tau g h t a t Columbus, W isconsin, to

P erid o t to assume th e d u tie s of in s t r u c t io n and to a id th e work of th e. . 17m ission .

Die curriculum of th e m ission school under Jens com prised o b jec t

le sso n s , read in g and a r i th m e tic , and re lig io u s in s tru c t io n and songs.

The c h ild re n were d iv id e d in t o th r e e g ro u p s: advanced, in te rm e d ia te , and

18beginners in reading and m athem atics. O bject lesso n s were used to

fa m il ia r iz e the young Apaches w ith th e names and uses of such item s as

th e ca len d ar, th e clock, books, hammer and saw, le v e l , m irro r , broom, and

s to v e . R elig io u s in s t ru c t io n c o n s is te d of the Ten Commandments, B ible19

s to r i e s , and sim ple hymns. Die .enro llm ent a t P e rid o t in th e th re e

y ears a f t e r J e n s ’ a r r iv a l v a r ie d from twenty to tw en ty -fiv e ; th e average

•^ C e n te n n ia l Com m ittee, C on tinu ing i n H is Word, 23b.

"^G uenther,**H istoiy of th e M ission a t P e r id o t t o 1903,® h»

^ D ie c h i ld re n used B aldw in’s P rim er a s th e re a d in g t e x t and th e advanced s tu d e n ts le a rn e d to add and s u b t r a c t sums from one to one- hundred . Lesson Book of Rudolph J e n s , P e r id o t M iss io n .

19Ib id . •

20On March 1 , 1903, th e c o rn e r-age of th e p u p ils was t e n and a h a l f .

s to n e of a com bination sch o o l and ch ap e l was l a i d , and on th e 2ljth of

May th e b u ild in g was d e d ic a te d . L a te r i n th e y e a r Jens was k i l l e d when

a wagon o v e rtu rn ed . P a s to r R. K urtz came t o r e p la c e him b u t l e f t a y e a r

l a t e r , and th e m issio n sch o o l was c lo s e d in 1905•

D uring th e p e r io d th a t Jen s was a t P e r id o t , G uenther was f r e e d

of th e r e s p o n s ib i l i t y o f te a c h in g and was a b le to devote a l l of h i s tim e

to camp v i s i t s and m iss io n a ry work among th e c h ild re n a t th e bo ard in g

sch o o ls . Twelve p eop le were b a p tiz e d in 1901, fo u r te e n in b o th 1902 and

1903, and tw en ty -n ine i n 190lij b u t th e re were only two in th e n ex t two

21y e a r s . C a rl G uenther rem ained a t P e r id o t u n t i l 1912 when, because o f

h i s w if e ’s f a i l i n g h e a l t h , he was t r a n s f e r r e d to Lowell i n th e RLsbee-

Douglas a r e a . D uring h i s tw elve y e a r s a t th e P e r id o t M ission he b a p tiz e d22

over one hundred Apaches and con firm ed e ig h te e n in th e L u th eran C hurch•

I n 1907 P a s to r G ustav H a rd e rs , who had se rv ed a s m in is te r of th e

Je ru sa lem L u theran Church in Milwaukee f o r e ig h te e n y e a r s , was s e n t to

Globe to e s ta b l i s h a church and a c t as s u p e r in te n d e n t of th e In d ia n

m issio n . H arders had f i r s t come t o A rizona i n 190U to r e g a in h i s h e a l th ,

and du rin g h i s s ta y he h ad a id e d C a r l G uenther a t P e r id o t . He re tu rn e d

to th e E a s t i n 1905, b u t two y e a rs l a t e r he was fo rc e d by a th r o a t

in f e c t io n to r e s ig n h i s p a s to r s h ip i n M ilwaukee. Tie p o p u la tio n of Globe

^ A tte n d a n c e R eco rd s , P e r id o t M iss io n , 1900-1920.

^ R e co rd s of th e P e r id o t M iss io n .noc C en ten n ia l Com m ittee, C ontinuing i n H is Word, 235. Confirm a

t i o n i s th e acknowledgment by th e in d iv id u a l t h a t he w i l l rem ain f a i t h f u l to th e t e n e t s and b e l i e f s of th e L u theran C hurch.

85

i n 1907 was ap p rox im ate ly 9 ,000 and in c lu d e d many Apaches who worked i n

th e m ines. H ard ers1 c a l l s p e c i f ie d t h a t he was t o do m iss io n work among

th e In d ia n s i n th e Globe a r e a , a t B y las, a t C la rk d a le , and a t F o r t

Huachuca.

Upon h i s a r r i v a l i n G lobe, H arders purchased a fo u r room house

and two la rg e l o t s on D evereau S t r e e t , and began w orking i n th e f i e l d

a ss ig n e d to him . A lthough s e n t a s a m iss io n ary t o th e Apaches, H arders

o c c a s io n a lly t r a v e le d to P hoenix and Tucson to conduct s e r v ic e s . W ith in

a few months H arders began th e c o n s tru c tio n of a sm a ll fram e church o f23

one-inch p in e b o a rd s . I n th e f a l l o f 1907 th e m in is te r opened a sc h o o l

f o r Apache c h i ld re n , and as th e en ro llm en t grew from f iv e to f o r ty w ith in

a y e a r th e need f o r a s e p a ra te sch o o l b u i ld in g became obvious. Die

M ission Board was h e s i t a n t to advance th e n ecessa ry money, how ever, and

H arders dipped in to h i s own fu n d s , a s he had done to b u i ld th e chu rch ,

and bought th e m a te r ia l needed to e r e c t a com bination sch o o l and d o r -211m ito iy a t th e r e a r o f th e c h a p e l.

D uring th e s i x y e a rs t h a t fo llo w e d . Rev. H arders and v a rio u s

members of h i s fa m ily se rv ed a s th e s t a f f f o r th e New Jeru sa lem School

f o r th e A paches. E a r ly i n 1915 H. C. N itz , a s tu d e n t from th e L u theran

Seminazy a t T h g in s v il le , W isconsin , came to Globe to a s s i s t a t th e m iss io n ,

23Named th e New Je ru sa lem L u theran Church, i t was th e t h i r d L u theran chape l b u i l t i n A rizo n a .

2llI n J a n u a iy , 1911, th e m iss io n a t Globe c o n s is te d of a parsonage of fo u r room s, a d in in g room o f n o n d e sc rip t lum ber b u i l t n e x t t o th e parsonage , th e s c h o o l, and th e chu rch . These d e t a i l s a re from th e "A utobiography of E . E . G u en th er," ap p earin g i n B lack and Red (1957),66- 67, th e m onthly s tu d e n t p u b l ic a t io n of N orthw estern C o lleg e , W atertown, W isconsin .

86

b u t i n th e f a l l he re tu rn e d to co n tin u e h i s s tu d ie s a t th e sem inary .

A lf re d U plegger came to Globe in 1917 to a id in th e work among th e

A p a c h e s O n A p r i l 13, 1917, H arders d ie d and was b u r ie d a t G lobe.

U plegger se rv ed th e m issio n f i e l d by h im se lf u n t i l A ugust when Rev. Henry

R osin a r r iv e d to te a c h i n th e sch o o l. U plegger and R osin rem ained a t

Globe u n t i l 1918 when th e y were a ss ig n e d t o new m iss io n s t a t i o n s .

I n January of 1911, Rev. E . Edgar G uenther, a r e c e n t g ra d u a te o f

th e L u theran Sem inary a t T h e in s v iH e , a r r iv e d w ith h i s w ife i n G lobe.

E . E . G uenther was n o t r e l a t e d t o C a r l G uenther of P e r id o t . He had been

c a l l e d t o se rv e a t E a s t Fork and was s ta y in g a t Globe u n t i l th e ro ad s to

th e upper r e s e r v a t io n were u s a b le . A f te r s e v e ra l f a l s e s t a r t s th e young

m issio n ary and h i s w ife bought r a i l r o a d t i c k e t s an d , t r a v e l in g v ia Bowie,

Deming, and A lbuquerque, f i n a l l y reach ed H olbrook, ttiey now took th e

s ta g e to t o i i t e r i v e r an d , d e c l in in g th e o f f e r of th e In d ia n A gent to spend

th e n ig h t , pushed on th e f i n a l f iv e m iles t o E a s t F ork . Welcomed by th e27

w a il of a ccy o te i n th e h i l l s nearb y , th ey reach ed t h e i r d e s t in a t io n .

Rev. Schoenberg, th e r e s id e n t m iss io n a ry who occupied th e o th e r h a l f o f

th e dup lex p a rso n ag e , d e s ir e d t o e s ta b l i s h a s t a t i o n on C ibecue Creek a t

th e e a s te r n end of th e r e s e r v a t io n . Soon a f t e r th e a r r i v a l of th e28

G uen thers, Schoenberg l e f t f o r C ibecue.

pd^ C en ten n ia l Committee, C ontinu ing i n H is Word, 238.

^ I n t e r v ie w of J u ly 20, I960 w ith Rev. Henry R osin , L u th eran m iss io n ary a t P e r id o t .

^ G u e n th e r , “A utobiography ," (1956), 6 7 -6 8 .

^ G u e n th e r 's p a r ish m easured 5000 square m ile s and in c lu d e d 2,5>00 A paches. I b id . , 90 .

87

I n a d d i t io n to b r in g in g th e g o sp e l t o th e A paches, G uenther was

in s t r u c te d to reopen th e sch o o l t h a t h ad been c lo se d f o r s ix y e a r s .

O perating w ith o u t a b u i ld in g , f u r n i t u r e , books, or money, and com peting

w ith a government b o a rd in g sc h o o l t h a t fe d and c lo th e d t h e i r p u p i ls ,

G uenther began to se a rc h f o r s tu d e n ts . I n Septem ber, 1911, he reopened29

th e sc h o o l w ith a dozen c h i ld re n . Hie church b u ild in g was th e s c h o o l-

house and th e noon meal was se rv e d in one o f th e rooms o f th e p a rso n ag e .

The desks were made from sc rap lum ber, and th e le s so n s f o r each day were

ty p ed o u t th e evening b e fo re , gy C hristm as th e c h i ld re n were c a r ry in g

on sim ple c o n v e rsa tio n s i n E n g lis h .

From 1911 to 1916, G uenther and h i s w ife o p e ra ted th e m issio n a t

E a s t F o rk . G uenther v i s i t e d th e Apache camps s c a t te r e d a lo n g th e c reek s

of th e upper r e s e r v a t io n and conducted w eekly s e rv ic e s i n th e board ing

sch o o ls a t E a s t Foik and t t h i t e r i v e r . U n t i l 1916 th e on ly mode of t r a n s

p o r ta t io n a v a i la b le to th e p a s to r was horseback o r buckboard; b u t i n

1916 G uenther bought a Model T F ord from an a rny d o c to r , and th i s v e h ic le

s e rv ed him f o r many y e a r s . I n 1916 G ustav G le i te r came to E a s t Fork t o

assume th e te a c h in g d u t i e s . T h u s r e l i e v e d , G uenther was a b le t o devote

more tim e to sy s te m a tic v i s i t a t i o n of th e camps and he was a l s o a b le to

m a in ta in c o n ta c t w ith th e c h i ld re n from th e M h ite r iv e r B oarding S choo l.

When P a s to r H arders d ied i n 1917, G uenther became S u p e rin ten d e n t of th e

Apache In d ia n M issio n . In th e sp rin g of 1918 Rev. M artin Wehausen

^ G u e n th e r , ^ A u to b io g r a p h y ,(1956), 92-93. P a s to r G ustav Harders* f i n a l words of a d v ice w ere , aAsk f o r n o th in g and prom ise n o th in g ,u and G uenther heeded t h i s i n th e e s ta b lish m e n t of th e s c h o o l.

3 0 lb id . , 17 it.

88

re p la c e d G le i te r who had been d ra f te d in to m i l i t a iy s e r v ic e . In O cto b er,

1919, G uenther and h i s fa m ily moved to W hite r i v e r t o e s t a b l i s h a perm anent

m issio n s t a t i o n th e r e , and Wehausen was g iv en charge of th e E a s t Fork

m iss io n .

In th e f a l l of 1918 th e sc h o o l a t E a s t Folk opened w ith an

en ro llm en t of f o r ty - th r e e c h i ld re n , b u t th r e e weeks a f t e r c la s s e s began

an in f lu e n z a epidem ic s tru c k th e upper r e s e r v a t io n and fo r c e d th e s c h o o l

to c lo s e . G lasses resum ed i n November only to be h a l te d ag a in in F eb ruary

and March, 1919, by a second wave of th e ep idem ic. D uring th e se two

p e rio d s G uenther and th e agency d o c to r , F red Loe, worked d e s p e ra te ly t o

save as many a£ th e In d ia n s as p o s s ib le , b u t th e epidem ic took a f r i g h t

f u l t o l l th ro u g h o u t th e r e s e r v a t io n . A l l t h a t . G uenther and Loe co u ld do

was to d i s t r i b u t e m edicine and in s u la te d t h e i r p a t ie n ts from th e damp,

31c o ld ground by means of sh e e ts of ro o f in g p ap e r .

The C ibecue V alley a t th e w e s te rn end of th e F o r t Apache R eserva

t i o n c o n ta in ed some of th e f i n e s t la n d in th e e n t i r e r e s e rv e . I n 1911 Rev.

O tto P. Schoenberg went t o t h i s v a l lq y t o e s ta b l is h a m iss io n and s e le c te d

a s i t e one m ile from th e t r a d in g p o s t . A f te r re c e iv in g t i t l e to th e la n d32

from a l o c a l c h ie f named N ask ilzo h n , Schoenberg b u i l t an adobe home and

church in th e sp rin g of 1912. I n th e f a l l Schoenberg began a sch o o l w ith

s ix c h i ld re n , two b en ch es , a rough ta b le , and a p ie ce of b lack b o ard c lo th * 3

31I b i d . , 13 .

3 ^The m issio n s i t e c o n s is te d of 2.152 a c re s on C ibecue C reek .L e t t e r of August 9 , 1911, F o r t Apache R eco rd s , M icro film R o l l 15 , U n iv e rs ity of A rizona L ib ra ry .

8933d iv id e d in to s i x sq u a re s . I n 1913, however, h e r e tu rn e d to tiie E a s t

and P a s to r Zubeit»ier became th e r e s i d e n t m issionazy a t C ibecue. Z u b erb ie r

rem ained in th e v a l le y u n t i l 1919, and i t was h i s work t h a t firmHy

e s ta b l is h e d t h i s m iss io n .

"When P a s to r C a r l G uenther moved from P e r id o t to th e D ouglas a re a

i n 1912 because of h i s w if e ’s tu b e r c u lo s i s , h e was re p la c e d by Rev. C a r l

T oepel. Toepel r e e s ta b l i s h e d th e sch o o l a t P e r id o t and co n tin u ed th e

work a t th e b o a rd in g sc h o o l and i n th e camps. I n 1915, Toepel was a d v ise d

by h i s d o c to r t o g iv e up te a c h in g d u t ie s , and M arie K ieckbusch took over

th e sc h o o l. B ut "the red u ced work lo a d d id n o t h e lp Toepel r e g a in h i s

h e a l th , and in mid-1936 h e was fo rc e d to r e tu rn t o W isconsin . Henry C.

N itz , th e sem in arian who h ad been h e lp in g H arders a t G lobe, ag reed t o

a d m in is te r th e P e r id o t s t a t i o n u n t i l a perm anent m issio n ary co u ld be

c a l le d . S ince N itz was t o r e tu r n t o th e sem inary i n January o f 1917,

R ev. G ustav F is h e r a r r iv e d a t th e m iss io n i n December. W hile N itz was

a t P e r id o t , th e sc h o o l h a d ab o u t tw enty c h i ld re n e n ro lle d . I n th e f a l l

o f 1917, tw e n ty -f iv e c h i ld r e n a t te n d e d c la s s e s f o r more th a n s ix ty - f iv e

of th e s e v e n ty - s ix days o f th e s e s s io n ."5 I n A p r i l , 1918, a f t e r F is h e r

h ad been a t P e r id o t f o r f i f t e e n m onths, h e was o rd e red to le a v e by th e35f e d e r a l governm ent because of a rum or t h a t he was spying f o r Germany.

^ C e n te n n ia l Com m ittee, C o n tinu ing i n His Word, 2i4i.

^ P e r i d o t S chool A ttendance R ecords, 1900-1920.

^ T h i s charge r e f l e c t e d th e h y s te r i a t h a t sw ept th e U n ited S ta te s d u rin g W orld War I , and e v id e n t ly even p e n e tra te d a s f a r a s th e Apache r e s e rv a t io n s of A rizo n a . Die charge was based on th e f a c t t h a t F is h e r was German, spoke German, and had a t te n d e d th e U n iv e rs ity of V ienna. In te rv ie w w ith Rev. A lf re d U plegger and Rev. F ra n c is U plegger, San C a r lo s , J u ly 18, i 960.

90

P a s to r Henry R osin moved fro m Globe to P e r id o t to r e p la c e F is h e r , who

re tu rn e d to W isconsin .

F is h e r was n o t th e on ly L u theran m iss io n ary t o s u f f e r from th e

Germanojhobia of th e p e r io d . I n A ugust of 1918, th e home of Rev. E . E .

G uenther was sea rch ed and th e m iss io n a ry a r r e s t e d and h e ld in th e F o r t36

Apache j a i l on charges o f sp y in g and b e in g sy m p ath e tic to Germany.

He was a r ra ig n e d b e fo re th e m i l i t a r y a u th o r i t i e s a t F o r t Apache th e n ex t

day, and b e in g u nab le t o p rove a n y th in g , thqy r e le a s e d h im . Die same day

t h a t G uenther was a r r e s t e d , th e home of A lfre d U plegger a t Globe was

se a rc h e d f o r ev idence a g a in s t G uenther. L a te r P a s to r G uenther le a rn e d

t h a t a c h ie f i n s t i g a t o r of th e a r r e s t was a s a rg e a n t who had b een s e n t

t o F o r t Apache from F o r t Sam H ouston, Texas, when h e was su sp e c te d o f

a tte m p tin g to sp re ad G landers d is e a s e among th e h o rse s a t th e Texas 37f o r t .

I n 1917 Rev. A lf re d U plegger assumed th e d u tie s of m in is te r a t

Globe upon th e death of H a rd e rs . I n a d d i t io n to h i s work a t G lobe,

U plegger a l s o made f re q u e n t v i s i t s t o S an C arlos and conducted s e rv ic e s

f o r th e Apaches i n th e a r e a . I n A ugust, 1918, U plegger was s e n t t o San

Die charges a g a in s t G uenther w ere based on th e f a c t t h a t he was of German d e sc e n t and spoke t h a t lan g u ag e , p lu s th e p resence of a p ic tu re of th e K a ise r i n th e m issionaiy* s home. G uenther h a d re c e iv e d th e p o rt r a i t i n th e December, 1917, is s u e of a magazine p u b lish e d i n Germany.Not d e s ir in g to have th e p i c tu r e , th e m in is te r hung i t over a h o le b eh ind th e s to v e and fa c in g th e w a l l . L a te r i t a c c id e n t ly tu rn e d outw ard and was seen by two o f f i c e r s from F o r t Apache. G uenther e x p la in ed t h a t th e K a ise r was doing a good jo b of c o v e rin g a h o le i n th e p l a s t e r , and n o th in g more was s a id . L a te r , how ever, s e v e ra l o f f i c e r s and non-com m issioned o f f ic e r s charged t h a t G uenther was a German sym p ath ize r, a n d th u s h e was a r r e s t e d . In te rv ie w w ith Rev. E . E dgar G uenther, M i i te r iv e r , J u ly 2U, i 960.

3?When th e r e was a change o f commanding o f f i c e r s a t F o r t Apache, G uenther p r o te s te d th e in c id e n t and re c e iv e d th e a p o lo g ie s of th e r a i l i - t a i y . In a l l , h e re c e iv e d th re e s e p a ra te a p o lo g ie s from th e governm ent. I b id .

91

C arlo s as a perm anent m iss io n a ry ? and th e newly o rd a in ed Henry C. N itz

re p la c e d him i n G lobe. The church a t San C arlo s was th e second on th e

low er r e s e r v a t io n , and by th e f a l l of 1918 i t was w e ll e s ta b l is h e d .

By O ctober, 1918, th e L u therans h ad been m in is te r in g to th e Apaches

f o r t r e n ty - f iv e y e a r s . D uring t h i s e n t i r e p e r io d th e y w ere th e only38

C h r is t ia n m is s io n a r ie s on th e F o r t Apache and San C arlo s r e s e r v a t io n s .

Vfoile th e y had e s ta b l i s h e d only f o u r perm anent m iss io n s ta t io n s on th e 39

two re s e rv a t io n s and co u ld n o t b o a s t of s p e c ta c u la r su ccess among th e

In d ia n s , th e y had ach iev ed th e a l l im p o rtan t e n try and had done th e

p io n e e r in g c u l t iv a t io n . I n th e n e x t few y e a rs th e number o f L u theran

m iss io n s t a t io n s would d o u b le , and th e work of C h r is t ia n iz in g th e A padies

would a c c e le r a te a t an as to u n d in g p a ce .

^®The Roman C a th o lic s a r r iv e d in th e f a l l o f 1918 a t San C arlo s and W h ite r iv e r .

^ I n o rd e r of t h e i r e s ta b lish m e n t th ey were P e r id o t , E as t F ork , C ibecue, and San C a r lo s . The m iss io n a t Globe s e rv e d bo th th e Apache and w h ite members of th e community.

CHAPTER V

THE APACHES COME TO THE LUTHERANSj "

1918 - 19li3

D uring th e f i r s t tw e n ty -f iv e y e a r s , th e L u th eran m issio n work

among th e Apaches o f A rizona was c o n sid e red an e x p e rim en ta l v e n tu re i n

a new and unknown a r e a . B ut i n 1918 and 1919 th e M ission Board came to

r e a l i z e t h a t h e re was a perm anent and growing r e s p o n s ib i l i ty . D oubtless

one of th e m ajor re a so n s f o r t h i s change i n ou tlook was th e w r i t in g o f

G ustav H arders, m iss io n a ry a t G lobe. Between 1 9 U and 191$ Harders*

th re e novels o f h i s t o r i c a l f i c t i o n b a se d on m iss io n ary a c t i v i t i e s among

th e A paches, a ro u sed th e i n t e r e s t and en thusiasm of L utherans i n th e

East."*" Between 1918 and 1922 f iv e new m issions were e s ta b l is h e d — San

C a rlo s , M i i te r iv e r , B y las, R ic e , and Upper C ibecue o r C arrizo Creek —

and th e number o f m is s io n a r ie s in c re a s e d during t h i s p e r io d from f iv e

to e lev e n . By 1922 th e re w ere th re e m iss io n schoo ls on th e two r e s e r v e s ,2

se rv in g ab o u t n in e ty c h i ld re n . I n th e b o ard ing sc h o o ls a t R ice and F o r t

■*The th r e e books were J a a la h a n (1911), La Paloma (1913), and W ille W ider W ille (191$). A l l were w r i t t e n and o r ig in a l ly p u b lish e d in Gentian, b u t th e f i r s t and t h i r d have r e c e n t ly b een re p u b lish e d in E n g lish by N orthw estern P u b lish in g House of Milwaukee. I n th e E n g lish v e rs io n W ille W ider W ille i s t i t l e d D c h a sc h itid a , meaning **Mo, I W o n 't."

^G .E.E . L in d q u is t, The Red Man in th e U n ited S ta te s (New York: George H. Dorn C o ., 1923)# 302.

92

93

Apache th e L u therans were re s p o n s ib le f o r p ro v id in g r e l ig io u s i n s t r u c t io n

to f o u r - f i f t h s o f t h e s tu d e n ts .^ Die s t a t u s of camp work by 1922 was

such t h a t th e re was " n o t a s in g le camp" on e i th e r r e s e rv a t io n n o t b e in g

" v i s i t e d a t r e g u la r in te r v a l s As e a r ly a s th e sp r in g o f 1922 th e

Apache M ission cou ld c laim 1 ,200 a d h e re n ts , and th i s p resag ed th e s te a d y

growth which c h a ra c te r iz e d th e second q u a r te r c e n tu ry of L u theran en

deavor in t h i s f i e l d .

I n A p r i l , 1918, Rev. Henry R osin came to P e r id o t t o re p la c e

G ustav F is h e r . Die sch o o l which F is h e r had b een conducting was c o n tin u e d ,

and i n th e sp r in g s e s s io n of 1920 th e en ro llm en t in c re a s e d to t h i r t y .

D iis marked a g a in of f iv e o ver th e p re v io u s y e a r . Because of t h e r i s in g

en ro llm en t and R o s in 's need to devote more tim e to camp work, Miss5

D orthea U plegger came to a id a t th e s c h o o l. By th e f a l l o f 1920 th e

c h i ld re n a tte n d in g th e m issio n sch o o l were f u r th e r advanced e d u c a tio n a lly6

th a n th e c h i ld re n i n th e b o a rd in g sch o o l a t R ic e . A id ing R osin i n h i s

work was h i s new b r id e , th e fo rm e r Jchanna U plegger, who h ad been keep ing

house a t San C a rlo s f o r h e r b r o th e r A lf r e d . By Ju n e , 1922, a new d in in g

room f o r th e P e r id o t sch o o l was an a b s o lu te n e c e s s i ty , and th e re was a ls o

3I b id .

^ L e t te r d r a f te d and s e n t by th e A rizona C onference to th e Home M ission C ouncil, i n answ er t o m is lead in g s ta tem e n ts made by th e c o u n c il abou t th e San C arlo s and W hite M ountain Apaches. M inutes of th e A rizona Conference of L u th eran M in is te r s , May 1 -3 , 1922, i n th e Papers of E. Edgar G uenther, T h i t e r iv e r .

-’I n h is q u a r te r ly r e p o r t f o r O ctober t o December, 1920, P a s to r R osin su g g es ted t h a t some sm all payment be made to M iss U plegger f o r h e r work. R eport of P e r id o t M iss io n , Uth Q u a r te r , 1920. Papers of E . Edgar G uen ther.

6 I b id .

9k

a need f o r a new w ell*

U n ti l 1930 th e P e r id o t sch o o l was conducted in th e f i r s t s t r u c tu r e

b u i l t by th e L u therans on e i t h e r r e s e r v a t io n , th e com bination house and

ch ap e l c o n s tru c te d by P lo ch e r and Adascheck i n 189U. The new sch o o l was8

b u i l t of Tufa s to n e from th e o ld church b u ild in g a t San C a r lo s . I t had

two rooms tw enty by t h i r t y f e e t and a f a c u l ty of th r e e e n ro l le d e ig h ty -9

one s tu d e n ts i n Jan u a ry , 1930. E nro llm en t in c re a s e d slow ly during th e

n e x t two y e a r s , and by Septem ber of 1932 th e re w ere n in e ty -tw o students*"*"^

Because th e d e p re ss io n fo rc e d many Apaches t o seek work o f f th e r e s e rv a -, 11

t i o n , en ro llm en t dropped to f i f t y - t h r e e i n th e f a l l o f 1934* From t h i s

p o in t , how ever, a tte n d an c e began t o clim b and by th e f i r s t sem e s te r of

th e 19U2-li.3 s ch o o l y e a r th e re w ere 109 c h ild re n and th re e te a c h e rs a t 12

P e r id o t . In th e f a l l o f 1943, a s th e m iss io n a t P e r id o t approached th e

f i f t i e t h a n n iv e rsa ry of i t s fo u n d in g , th e r e were n in e ty - th r e e s tu d e n ts

e n r o l l e d . ^

Die P e r id o t sch o o l h ad th e same cu rricu lu m as th e government

7P e r id o t M ission R ep o rt, 2nd Q u a rte r of 1922. Papers of E . Edgar G uenther.

O°01d San C arlo s was abandoned in 1929 upon com pletion of C oolidge

Dam and th e s i t e was covered by th e w a te r backed up b eh in d th e dam. The m iss io n b u ild in g s were d isassem b led and th e s to n e u sed f o r th e new sch o o l a t P e r id o t .

% .E . G uenther, "The New P e r id o t S ch o o l," Apache S co u t, V I I I (F eb ru ary , 1930), 1 .

E . R o sin , " P e r id o t ." Apache S co u t, X (Septem ber, 1932), l £ l .

4 s . E . G uenther, "Here and There i n A pacheland," Apache S co u t. X U (O ctober, 193U), 3$k*

^ H .E . R o sin , " P e r id o t ," Apache S co u t, XX (December, 19U2), 367.

■*■3"Views of P e r id o t ," Apache S co u t, XXX (Septem ber, 19U3), LWi.

sc h o o ls , p lu s r e l ig io u s in s t r u c t io n . One s ta n d a rd f e a tu r e i n a l l th e

In d ia n sch o o ls was th e f r e e noon m eal, and a t P e r id o t even t h i s was an

e d u c a tio n a l experience a s th e o ld e r sch o o l g i r l s d id th e p la n n in g ,

p re p a ra t io n , s e rv in g , and c le a n in g up. For t h e i r p a r t , th e bqys had th elit

r e s p o n s ib i l i ty of su p p ly in g wood f o r th e f i r e . A lthough th e government

sch o o ls were ab le to o f f e r many inducem ents t h a t m iss io n schoo ls co u ld n o t ,

th e P e r id o t sch o o l e x e r te d a c o n tin u in g in f lu e n c e on th e r e s e r v a t io n .

The p ro g ress o f th e m iss io n was a s encouraging a s th e developm ent

of th e sch o o l a t P e r id o t . By 1926 th e re was an average church a tte n d an c e

of tw e n ty - f iv e , and by 1930 t h i s h ad more th a n doubled. A f te r re a ch in g a

h ig h of e ig h ty per Sunday i n 1932, a tten d an ce dropped to f i f t y by 1 9 3 9 ,^

and during th e f i r s t two y e a rs o f th e war th e re was no n o ta b le in c r e a s e .

I n 1933 th e M ission B oard asked each s t a t i o n to p re s e n t a summary of i t s

work du rin g th e f i r s t f o r t y y e a r s . The P erid o ’t m issio n re p o r te d f o r t y -

n in e co n firm a tio n s s in c e R o s in 's a r r i v a l i n 1918 and 1?6 bap tism s s in c e16

th e b eg in n in g of th e m is s io n . I n 1933 th e re were s ix ty - n in e communi

c an ts i n th e P e r id o t d i s t r i c t . A decade l a t e r f o r ty - f iv e bap tism s co u ld

be re p o r te d f o r a th r e e - y e a r p e r io d , and t h i s was encourag ing in d eed .

B efore 1920 th e need f o r a L u th eran b o ard in g sch o o l b ig enough t o

accomodate c h ild re n from b o th re s e rv a t io n s h ad been obvious to th e r e s id e n t

m is s io n a r ie s , b u t th e M ission Board d id n o t acknowledge t h i s need and * 10

■^For a g ra p h ic d e s c r ip t io n of a t y p ic a l lunch program , see H.E. R o sin , "Lessons betw een R e c i ta t io n s ,^ Apache S co u t, TTT (A ugust, 193U), 335-36.

^ A tte n d a n c e f ig u r e s from th e R ecord Books of H.E. R osin a t P e r i d o t . . ,

10Summary of M iss io n Work a t P e r id o t to Ju n e , 1933• Papers of H.E. R osin a t P e r id o t .

h e s i t a t e d t o advance th e money. By A p r i l , 1920, th e governm ent b oard ing

sc h o o l a t E a s t Fork was a v a i la b le f o r p u rch ase , and th e con fe ren ce of17

th e A rizona d i s t r i c t recommended t h a t th e board buy i t . Xn h i s re p o r t

f o r th e second q u a r te r of 1920, G uenther d e sc rib ed E a s t Fork as an id e a l

lo c a t io n . He in d ic a te d t h a t f i v e th o u san d d o l la r s would buy th e e n t i r e 18

complex, and f i v e th o usand more would p rov ide a l l th e needed a d d itio n s

and a l t e r a t i o n s . I n O c to b er, 1920, G uenther r e p o r te d t h a t th e govern-19ment was re a d y to condemn th e p ro p e r ty and s e l l to th e h ig h e s t b id d e r .

Thus th e b o a rd in g sch o o l a t E a s t Fork was purchased f o r f o u r thousand 20

d o l l a r s .

I n h i s r e p o r t i n Ju n e , 1922, M artin Wehausen d e sc r ib e d th e f i r s t

th re e months o f occupancy of th e new i n s t i t u t i o n . On A p r i l 3 th e new

sch o o l opened w ith s e v e n ty - f iv e day s tu d e n ts . Rev. Henry C. N itz had

charge of th e th i r ty - tw o second and t h i r d g ra d e rs , and Wehausen hand led

th e prim ary g ro u p s. By December th e re were s ix ty - n in e day s tu d e n ts and 0

96

• ^ M i n u t e s of th e A rizona D i s t r i c t C onference a t P hoenix , A p r i l 10-lU , 1920. Papers o f E . Edgar G uen ther.

i 0 lh e day sc h o o l b u ild in g s in c lu d e d la u n d ry , sch o o l b a rn , d w e llin g , s e v e ra l a c re s of farm la n d , f o r t y a c re s of p a s tu r e , and an a p p le o rch a rd . R eport o f S u p e rin ten d e n t E . E dgar G uenther to th e M ission B oard, A p r i l - Ju n e , 1920. Papers o f E. Edgar G uen ther.

■^Agent C h arles D avis was v e ry f r i e n d ly t o th e m iss io n and appare n t ly th e e n t i r e t r a n s a c t io n was a rra n g e d to en su re th e L u therans would be th e h ig h b id d e r o r th e o n ly b id d e r .

2 0 ln th e sp rin g of 1921, th e co n fe ren ce o f th e A rizona D i s t r i c t advanced th e fo llo w in g re a so n s why th e E a s t Fork s i t e sh o u ld be p u rchased : (1) Agent Davis; i s f r i e n d ly to th e m iss io n ; (2) th e p o s i t io n o f th e E a s t Fork m iss io n would be s tre n g th e n e d by th e p u rch ase ; (3) en ro llm e n t would doub le ; (k) th e p r ic e was a giveaway and th e church co u ld n o t b u i ld th e needed s t r u c tu r e s f o r th e c o s t of th e e n t i r e p l a n t . M inutes o f th e A rizona D i s t r i c t C onference , G lobe, May, 1921. P apers o f E. Edgar G uenther.

97

fo u r b o a rd in g p u p i l s . Die c u rricu lu m fo llo w ed t h a t o f th e government

s c h o o ls , and E n g lish was used in a l l b u t th e b e g in n e r c la s s e s where an

i n t e r p r e t e r was employed. Miss Uielma Davids soon r e l ie v e d Wehausen o f

h i s c la s s e s , and N itz now ta u g h t g rades two th ro u g h seven . Die two

g r e a te s t needs during th e f i r s t months were a cook and an in d u s t r i a l 21

te a c h e r . # i t h th e sp r in g of 1923 came th e need f o r fa rm implements22

to c u l t iv a te t h e i r g a rd en . A f te r j u s t a y e a r o f occupancy th e re w ere

se v e n ty - fo u r s tu d e n ts e n ro l le d , b u t because no p ro v is io n co u ld be made23f o r d o rm ito r ie s only f o u r o f th e s e were l iv in g a t th e m is s io n . A

d o rm ito iy was to be b u i l t i n th e summer of 1923> and th e re were hopes o f2l|

o rg an iz in g a band i n th e f a l l . •

By th e f a l l of 1923 a b e y s ’ d o rm ito iy , d in in g room, s ic k room,

te a c h e r s ’ room, and g i r l s ’ do rm ito ry had been b u i l t , and by December th e re

were e lev en bo ard in g p u p i l s . I n th e f a l l sem es te r of 192$ en ro llm en t

reach ed e ig h ty - e ig h t i n th e day sch o o l and th i r ty - n in e in th e board ing

sch o o l. The e ig h t g rad es were ta u g h t by th re e te a c h e rs ; Miss D avids,2$

P a s to r N itz and P a s to r M elvin C r o l l . Die growth of b o th th e b o ard in g

2% ehausen p o in te d out t h a t th e t i l l a b l e la n d owned by th e m issio n would supp ly most of th e needed fo o d s tu f f s and th e one h o u r p e r day d evo ted to i n d u s t r i a l in s t r u c t io n would s u f f i c e to m a in ta in th e g a rd en . R eport of M .J. Wehausen a t E a s t Fork m is s io n , t o S u p e rin ten d en t E .E . G uenther, f o r A p r i l to Ju n e , 1922. Papers o f E . Edgar G uenther.

^ R e p o r t of H.C. N itz a t E a s t Fork m iss io n to E .E . G uenther f o r O ctober to Deceniber, 1922. Papers of E . Edgar G uenther.

23Die b u ild in g t h a t o r ig in a l ly was d e s ig n a te d to be a dorm ito ry was made in to th e orphanage. H.C. N itz , ’’The B oarding S c h o o l,” Apache S co u t, I (Ju n e , 1922), 2 .

Zk lb id . , 3 .

2^H.C. N itz , ’’E a s t F o rk ,” Apache S c o u t, I I I (O ctober, 1925), U-5. P a s to r M elvin C ro l l h ad replaced.V /ehausen i n 1923.

and day components o f th e sch o o l co n tin u ed a s new b u ild in g s re p la c e d th e

o ld o r tem porary q u a r te r s . W ith th e com pletion o f a new g ir ls * do rm ito ry

i n 1928 a t a c o s t o f 22,000 d o l la r s , th e re were tw e n ty -e ig h t b o a rd in g and

s ix ty - e ig h t day s tu d e n ts e n ro l le d i n g rad es one th ro u g h te n . I n Jan u a ry ,

1929, P a s to r H its re s ig n e d and r e tu rn e d to th e E a s t. He was re p la c e d by

C h r is t ia n A lb re c h t, who became p r in c ip a l of th e sch o o l as w e ll a s r e s id e n t

m iss io n a ry . I n th e f a l l of 1929 th e re were e ig h ty - s ix s tu d e n ts i n th e two

d iv is io n s . E n ro llm en t in c re a s e d tw e n ty -f iv e p e r c e n t i n 1930, and from261931 to 1938 i t av erag ed betw een 100 and 130 every y e a r . From 19l|0 to

19U3 th e a tten d an ce dropped a s mary Apaches l e f t th e r e s e r v a t io n , and in27

Jan u ary of 19UU th e bo ard in g sc h o o l was c lo se d f o r la c k of s tu d e n ts .

D uring th e f i r s t two decades of e x is te n c e , th e E a s t Fork bo ard in g

and day sch o o l was b e s e t by s e v e ra l epidem ics o f m easles and in f lu e n z a .

Care of th e s ic k came bo th from th e m iss io n w orkers them selves and from

th e government d o c to rs and n u rs e s . As i n most In d ia n s c h o o ls , d is c ip l in e

was a c o n tin u a l problem ; b u t th e r e was only one in s ta n c e when i t became

s e r io u s enough to b e a r m ention in The Apache S c o u t, th e magazine28

p u b lish e d by th e m iss io n . One of th e m ajor advan tages of th e lo c a t io n

a t E a s t Fork was th e amount o f la n d t h a t co u ld be c u l t iv a te d . I n th e l a t e

^ A tte n d a n c e a t th e m iss io n s c h o o l was b e t t e r th a n a t th e government sch o o ls on th e r e s e r v a t io n . I n 193b o n e -fo u rth o f th e s tu d e n ts had p e r f e c t a tte n d an c e frcm Septem ber u n t i l F eb ru a ry , 1935, a b e t t e r re c o rd th a n t h a t of th e government b o a rd in g sc h o o l p u p ils a t F o r t Apache. E .E . G uenther, "Here and There i n A pacheland,"' Apache S c o u t, X III (M arch,1935), 3 . ■

2?I t opened a g a in i n th e fo llo w in g Septem ber w ith an en ro llm en t of fo u r te e n . C ontinu ing in H is Word, 2b6.

2®The problem was s t e a l in g . C. A lb re c h t, "E a s t F o rk ," Apache S c o u t. V II (Ju n e , 1929), 7 .

98

summer and f a l l of 1935 one thousand q u a r ts of j e l l i e s , j a m , v eg e tab le s ,

and o th e r f r u i t s were canned as w e ll as f i f t y q u a rts of sau e rk rau t. Die

f i e ld s y ie ld e d tw elve tons of a l f a l f a and the orchard provided n ine tons 29

of ap p le s . Hie boarding and day schools a t E ast Fork re p re se n te d th e

most su c c e ss fu l e f f o r t of th e Lutherans to f u l f i l l one of the b a s ic a im

of t h e i r work — th e ed u ca tio n of Apache ch ild re n in a C h r is tia n environ

ment.

The orphanage a t E a st Fork a lso f u l f i l l e d a g o a l. I t s purpose was

to care f o r In d ian c h ild re n whose mothers could no t or would no t care f o r

th e m .^ Hie orphanage was opened on August 2, 1922 by Arnold Knoop and31h is w ife . Knoop was Mrs. G uenther’s b ro th e r and had helped w ith the

c o n s tru c tio n of th e church a t W h ite riv e r. At f i r s t the orphanage was

housed in th e r e a r of the sc h o o l, b u t th e c h i l l w in te r of 1922-23 caused32

i t s removal to th e home of th e Knoops. Hie advent of th e orphanage was

h a i le d by both m ission and la y o f f i c i a l s of th e re se rv a tio n as an im portan t33s te p fo rw ard . C onstruction of an adequate b u ild in g was begun in A ugust,

29?. Behn, "E as t Fork Mews, A ugust to December," Apache S c o u t, XIV (F eb ru ary , 1936), l i5 l .

^ O f the f i r s t fo u r orphans, one came because h is mother was too s ic k to care f o r him, two because th e mother had d ied , and a fo u r th as a r e s u l t of abandonment.

3^The Knoops took Iona Browning and M ilton Opah, th e f i r s t orphans in to t h e i r home.

^ F o r a d isc u ss io n of th e beginnings of th e orphanage, see M.J. Wehausen, “Our Apache Orphans," Apache S cout, I (A p ril, 1923), 1-U.

•^C harles L. D avis, S uperin tenden t of th e F o rt Apache R eserv a tio n , d esc rib ed i t as " . . . a o asis i n th e g re a t d e se rt l i f e o f the Apiache b a b ie s .” Dr. Fred Loe, th e agency d o c to r, in d ic a te d th e re was l i t t l e p roper care f o r c h ild re n and " . . . a very high b i r t h r a te . . . i s the only th in g th a t accounts f o r th e i r ex is ten ce to d ay .” "Save the L ife of a Baby,” Apache S cou t, I (A p ril , 1923), U.

192U, and th e re were t e n c h i ld re n and th e new m atron , M rs. L ouise Plumb

w a itin g to move i n . On March 2 , 192S, th e y occupied th e p a r t i a l l y corn-

100

p le te d b u i ld in g . I n August th e b u ild in g was f in i s h e d and th i r t e e n

c h i ld re n had a perm anent home."' The s t r u c tu r e was th i r ty - tw o by f i f t y -35

e ig h t f e e t , two s t o r i e s h ig h , and had a basem ent and tw elve rooms.

The newly com pleted b u ild in g was n o t an orphanage i n th e u s u a l

sense of th e word — i t welcomed any c h i ld whose p a re n ts were unable to

p rov ide c a r e . By e a r ly 1926, fo r ty -o n e c h i ld re n had e n te r e d th e i n s t i

tu t io n : of th e s e , e ig h t had re tu rn e d to t h e i r homes, f i f t e e n were a t

th e o rphanage, and e ig h te e n had d i e d . ^ D uring th e summer of t h a t y e a r

seven of th e c h i ld re n d ied frcm c o l i t i s . An epidem ic of m easles sw ept

th e r e s e r v a t io n i n th e spu ing of 1927, and tw enty-tw o of th e tw e n ty -th re e37

c h i ld re n th e n a t th e orphanage became i l l ; b u t only one d ie d . i n th e

s p r in g of 1928 th e orphanage was e n la rg ed to make space f o r tw enty38

c h i ld re n , two m atro n s , two n a tiv e a s s i s t a n t s , and th e prim ary te a c h e r .

The number of c h ild re n co n tin u ed to f lu c tu a te from tw enty to

t h i r t y du rin g th e l a s t two y e a rs of th e decade. I n Jan u a ry , 1932, th e re

were tw en ty -n in e i n th e orphanage, ran g in g in age from l e s s th a n s ix39months t o tw elve y e a r s . I n Ju n e , 193U, M ilton Opiah, one o f th e f o u r

3Uh .G . N itz , "E as t F o rk ," Apache S c o u t, H I (O c to b er, 1922), 2 .Three of t h i r t e e n were sch o o l a g e .

32«0ur New O rphanage," Apache S c o u t, IV (A p r i l , 1926), 2 .

36I b id .

^ H .C . N itz , "E ast Fork N o tes ," Apache S c o u t, V (Ju n e , 1 9 2 7 ), 6 .3®The th r e e a d d i t io n a l rooms were needed by th e f a l l of 1928 a s th e re

were tw e n ty -s ix c h i ld re n i n th e orphanage. H .C .N itz , "The O rphanage,"Apache S c o u t, VI (O ctober, 1928), 6 .

3 ^ In an a r t i c l e , "Who's Who i n th e O rphanage," Apache S co u t, X (F eb ru ary , 1932), 1 -3 , each of tw en ty -n in e c h i ld re n i s b r i e f l y d d sc rib ed and th e re a so n s f o r re s id e n c e a t th e orphanage a r e n o ted i n most c a s e s .

101

o r ig in a l o rphans, g rad u a ted from e ig h th grade and was con firm ed . By

1939 th e number o f c h i ld re n a t th e orphanage was f o r t y .

m e E a s t Fork orphanage by 1942 was once a g a in i n need of re n o

v a tio n t h a t would en ab le th e e ig h te e n younger c h i ld re n to be housed on

th e f i r s t f l o o r r a t h e r th a n u p s t a i r s . I n December of t h a t y e a r t h i s work 42

was com pleted) i n O ctober, 1943, th e orphanage was se rv in g as home f o r

tw enty p re -s c h o o l c h i ld re n and an eq u a l number of o ld e r c h i ld re n were

housed i n th e two d o rm ito r ie s of th e board ing s c h o o l . ^ m e orphanage

had become an i n t e g r a l p a r t of Apache l i f e .

The m is s io n a r ie s a t E a s t Fork concerned them selves n o t on ly w ith

th e sch o o lin g of In d ia n c h ild re n and th e care of hom eless c h i ld re n , b u t

a l s o b ro u g h t th e g o sp e l t o th e camps of th e In d ia n s . I n J u ly , 1923,

M elvin Or o i l became r e s id e n t m is s io n a iy , re p la c in g VJehausen,, and by 1925

th e work of Or o i l and N its was d iv id e d : Or o i l se rv ed as m iss io n ary to

th e In d ia n s w h ile N its a c te d a s a d m in is t r a to r o f th e orphanage, s c h o o l,44and ch u rch . I n 1926 C r o l l r e tu rn e d to th e E a s t and was re p la c e d by

P a s to r A lb e r t M eier, fo rm erly a t u t o r a t N orthw estern C o lle g e , W atertow n,

W isconsin . In Jan u a ry , 1929, H.C. N its l e f t E a s t Fork and was re p la c e d

by Rev. C h r is t ia n A lb re c h t of W arren, A riso n a , who assumed th e d u tie s of

4 0 i ,F ir s t Orphanage C o n firm a tio n ," Apache S co u t, X II (J u ly , 1 9 3 4 ) ,1 .

^ O rp h a n a g e C a l l , ” Apache S c o u t, XVII ( J u ly , 1939), 48 .

^^D orothy B u l l i s , "E a s t F o rk ," Apache S c o u t, XX (December, 1942),366-6 7 .

^ I n 1943 th e r e were f o r t y - f i v e c h i ld re n a t th e orphanage. Board of E d u ca tio n , W isconsin Synod, Our Synod and I t s Work (Milwaukee: N orthw e ste rn P u b lish in g House, 1947), 87.

44i<inutes of th e S pring conference of th e A rizona D i s t r i c t , May 5 and 6 , 1925 a t E a s t F o rk . Papers of E . Edgar G uenther.

102

s u p e r in te n d e n t. L a te r t h a t y e a r . Rev. A rnold Niemann, fo rm erly p a s to r

a t C ibecue, succeeded A lb e r t M eier a s camp m iss io n a ry . Work among th e

In d ia n s i n th e camps p ro g re sse d v ery w e ll because of th e r e p u ta t io n of

th e sch o o l and orphanage •

In 193k Rev. Paul Behn, th e a s s i s ta n t p a s to r a t W h ite riv e r,

became th e r e s id e n t m iss io n a ry a t E a s t Fork and p r in c ip a l o f th e board ing

and day s c h o o l. I n 1939 th e ch ap e l was ren o v a ted a t no c o s t t o th e M issio n

Board — th e t o t a l sum came from th e Apache co n g re g a tio n and th e work was

c o n tr ib u te d by th e m iss io n a ry , th e i n d u s t r i a l te a c h e r , and th e o ld e r

s tu d e n ts . On O ctober 15 , 1939, th e ch ap e l was d e d ic a te d . D uring th e

1930* s a tte n d a n c e a t Sunday s e rv ic e s h ad averaged ab o u t f i f t y 11 camp11

In d ian s p lu s th e b o a rd in g s tu d e n ts . I n J u ly , 19U0, •when Behn l e f t f o r

li5th e E a s t a f t e r s e rv in g th e Apaches f o r fo u r te e n y e a r s . P a s to r F ran c is

U plegger of San C arlo s became a c t in g m issio n ary a t E a s t Fork u n t i l P a s to r

A rth u r K e ll took charge e a r ly i n 1 9 lil. K e ll rem ained a t E a s t Fork u n t i l

m id-19b6. Die E a s t Fork m iss io n , second to be e s ta b l is h e d i n th e Apache

c o u n try , by th e e a r ly I 9I1O * s h ad become th e l a r g e s t s t a t i o n b o th i n range

of program and s i z e of f a c i l i t i e s .

The t h i r d m iss io n , e s ta b l is h e d i n 1911 a t C ibecue, was se rv ed by

P a s to r Schoenberg and P a s to r Z u b erb ie r during i t s f i r s t sev en y e a r s . I n

th e f a l l of 1919 Z u b erb ie r l e f t and was re p la c e d by P au l A lb re c h t.

A lb re c h t rem ained a t C ibecue only one y e a r , and th e n moved to W h ite r iv e r

as a s s i s t a n t p a s to r , and Rev. F . W eindorff re p la c e d him . By 1922 th e

^ B e h n had s e rv e d a t W h ite r iv e r , By la s and E a s t Fork du rin g h i s tim e on th e r e s e r v a t io n . E .E . G uen ther, " P a s to r P.A. Behn," Apache S c o u t, XVIH ( J u ly , 191*0), 11*8.

103

en ro llm en t a t th e C ibecue sch o o l was tw e n ty -fo u r and th e average churchU6

a tte n d an c e n in e te e n . I n 1921 Rev. A rnold S i t z e re c te d a t e n t n e a r th e

ju n c tio n o f C arrizo and Cordurcy Creeks and began camp work among th e

Apaches i n th e Cedar C reek, Canyon C reek, C a r r iz o , and B lue Spring a re a

on th e w e s te rn end o f th e r e s e r v a t i o n .^ D uring th e two y e a rs he was

among them , S i tz found th e In d ia n s f r i e n d ly and anx ious to h e a r th eU8

g o sp e l. P lans were made to develop th e lo c a t io n of S i t z 1 s camp a s a

perm anent m iss io n , b u t t h i s p r o je c t was abandoned i n 1923 f o r la ck o flt9

money and S i t z went t o Tucson to become an a s s i s t a n t p a s to r . I n 1923

W eindorf l e f t th e C ibecue m iss io n and was re p la c e d by Rev. A rth u r

K rueger. In 1928 a perm anent s t a t i o n was e s ta b l is h e d a t Upper Cibecue

to se rv e th e Apaches fo rm e rly se rv e d by S i t s , and A rth u r Niemann became

th e f i r s t m is s io n a r y . '^ Thus by 1929 th e re w ere m issions a t bo th upperf>land low er C ibecue.

Die sch o o l begun by Schoenberg in 1911 co n tin u ed to op era te w ith

ou t in te r r u p t io n , and by th e f a l l of 1931 th e re were f i f ty - o n e e n ro lle d

^ R e p o r t of F . W eindorff t o S u p e rin ten d e n t G uenther f o r J u ly to Septem ber, 1922. P apers of E . E dgar G uenther.

^7S i t z had a r r iv e d in A rizona in 1919 and had a id e d G uenther during th e w in te r o f 1919-1920 when G uenther was i l l w ith in f lu e n z a .

^ I n t e r v ie w w ith E.A. S i t z , F ebruary lU , 1962, a t Tucson.

k % ev . E. A rno ld S i t z i s n e a rin g h i s f o r t i e t h a n n iv e rsa ry a t Grace L u th eran Church i n Tucson.

-^U pper C ibecue was n e a r th e s i t e o f th e B a t t le o f C ibecue, A ugust30, 1881.

^ U p p e r and Lower C ibecue a re th e two m ost i s o l a t e d m issio n s ta t io n s m ain ta in ed by th e L u th e ran s . I n 1936 each was sev en ty m iles from a r a i l r o a d , f i f t y m ile s from th e n e a re s t L u th eran m iss io n , f i f t e e n m iles from a main highw ay, and w ith o u t r e g u la r m a il d e l iv e ry . E .E . G uenther, “Would You B e liev e I t ? " Apache S c o u t, XIV (A p r i l , 1936), h7$»

■with th e m in is te r A rth u r K rueger, and M argaret H aatz se rv in g as te a c h e r s .

A ttendance dropped to f o r ty - f iv e i n 193U and v a r ie d betw een f o r ty and

f i f t y d u rin g th e rem ainder o f th e 1 9 3 0 's . I n th e f a l l o f 19^2 th e re were

f i f t y - s i x e n ro l le d i n th e sc h o o l and about th e same number a tte n d in g th e52

two m iss io n c h u rch es .

I n th e sp rin g of 1939 K rueger re s ig n e d a f t e r s ix te e n y e a rs a t

C ibecue, and in th e f a l l of t h a t y e a r h e was succeeded by a layman,

Raymond R e is s , who h a d p re v io u s ly ta u g h t a t E a s t F ork . D uring th e

in te r im . Rev. A rth u r Niemann conducted bo th th e camp work and th e Sunday

s e rv ic e s a t Upper and Lower C ibecue . M ission work in th e C ibecue V a lley

in v o lv ed more camp v i s i t a t i o n th a n th e o th e r s ta t io n s because th e In d ia n s

of th e v a l le y were s c a t te r e d over a la rg e a r e a , and b ecause th ey ex p ec ted

th e m iss io n a ry t o v i s i t them r a th e r th a n to go to th e m is s io n a iy . A nother

s e r io u s problem on th e w est end of th e r e s e r v a t io n was th e poor c o n d itio n

of the ro ad s which made t r a v e l by any mode ex cep t buggy o r h o rs e ex trem ely

d i f f i c u l t . I n 19lil Niemann l e f t th e C ibecue V a lley to work a t E a s t F o ik

and Rev. P a u l S c h l ie s s e r came to r e p la c e h im . By 19^2 th e re were two

hundred Apaches b e in g se rv e d by R e is s and S c h l ie s s e r , b u t only f i f t y

53people took comnunion during th e e n t i r e y e a r . Both o f th e se men

rem ained a t C ibecue u n t i l th e m id-19h01 s and under them th e work among

th e Apaches advanced.

Hie fo u r th m iss io n to be e s ta b l is h e d among th e Apaches b e fo re 1918

^ E .E . G uenther, “V i s i t t o C ibecue," Apache S c o u t, XX (November,191*2), 35U.

53S t a t i s t i c a l R ep o rt of th e E v a n g e lic a l L u theran Church of W isconsin and o th e r S ta te s f o r 19b2, 2k»

105

was a t G lobe. Begun i n 1907, i t s e rv ed bo th In d ia n s and w h ite s from th e

o u ts e t j b u t by th e m id-19201s i t s p rim ary fu n c tio n was n o t a s an Apache

m iss io n . A f te r th e d ea th o f P a s to r H arders in 1917 and th e t r a n s f e r o f

A lfre d U plegger to San C arlo s th e n e x t y e a r , th e Globe m iss io n was se rv ed5kby a s e r i e s o f m in is te rs in c lu d in g H.C. N itz , E .A . S i t z , and M.A.

Zimmerman. Hy 1925 th e Apaches i n Globe were n o t a t te n d in g th e church

w ith a ry r e g u la r i t y . Biey were s c a t t e r e d on v a r io u s jo b s which made i t

d i f f i c u l t to come to G lobe, and n e i th e r th e w h ite s nor th e Apaches were

e ag e r t o a s s o c ia te w ith th e o th e r . The Globe church a f t e r 1925 was

c le a r ly an o f f - r e s e r v a t io n m is s io n . '’'*

E s ta b lis h e d i n th e l a s t h a l f o f 1918, th e m issio n a t o ld San

C arlos was th e f i f t h Apache s t a t i o n opened by th e L u th eran s . The San

C arlos m iss io n e x is te d f o r only e lev e n y e a r s . I n 1928 th e f i n a l payment

f o r th e m iss io n p ro p e rty was made by th e government and th e fo llo w in g56

y e a r th e w a te rs of th e newly c r e a te d C oolidge Dam flo o d e d th e s i t e .

E xcept f o r th e y e a r , 1926-27, when h e was on le av e in Iowa, A lf re d57

U plegger se rv e d c o n tin u o u s ly a s r e s id e n t m iss io n a ry a t San C a r lo s .

U plegger1s b ig g e s t problem was t h a t th e San C arlos a re a was a c e n te r of58

n a t i v i s t i c r e l ig io u s movements such a s t h a t of S i l a s S t . John . Church

^Som e o ld - tim e rs i n Globe s t i l l remember "N itz and S i t z up on th eH i l l .*

^ C o n tin u in g in His Word, 238.

% I o s t o f th e In d ia n s a t o ld San C arlos moved e i t h e r to Bylas o r up th e San C arlo s R iv e r t o R ic e , new San C a r lo s , th e agency h e a d q u a r te rs .

^ D u r in g th e y e a r t h a t U plegger was gone, h i s b ro th e r - in - la w . Rev. Henry R osin and h i s f a t h e r . Rev. F ra n c is U plegger, sh a re d th e m u lt ip le d u tie s of L u theran m in is t iy i n th e a r e a .

^®For a d is c u s s io n of th e S i l a s S t . John and o th e r n a t iv e r e l ig io u s movements. See G re n v ille Goodwin and C. K aut, "A N ative R e lig io u s Movement Among th e W hite M ountain and Gibe cue A paches," Sou thw estern J o u rn a l o f A nthropology. X (W inter, 195W , 385-Uolu

106

a tte n d a n c e av eraged betw een tw enty and t h i r t y during th e se y e a rs and in

a d d i t io n U plegger conducted weekly s e r v ic e s f o r f i f t e e n o r tw enty Apaches

a t th e camp of Manuel V ic to r . Once every two weeks th e m iss io n ary v i s i t e d

th e 200 f a m il ie s in th e San C arlo s a re a and a ls o conducted r e l ig io u s

s e rv ic e s a t th e b o ard in g sch o o l f o r app rox im ate ly f i f t y c h i ld re n . D uring

th e decade th e m issio n e x is te d 101 were confirm ed and 188 In d ia n s bap-60

t i z e d by U plegger.

Soon a f t e r h i s a r r i v a l i n 1896, th e E a s t Fork m iss io n ary began t o

h o ld s e rv ic e s f o r th e p u p ils of th e government b o a rd in g sch o o l a t W hite-

r i v e r . I n th e tw en ty y e a rs fo l lo w in g . W hite r i v e r rem ained a w eekly s to p

on th e schedu le of each m iss io n a ry . I n 1919 i t was dec id ed to e s ta b l i s h

a perm anent m iss io n th e r e , and E . E dgar G uenther o f E a s t Fork was chosen

to be th e r e s id e n t p a s to r . D uring th e f i r s t y e a r s e rv ic e s were h e ld i n

a c a rp e n try shop; G uenther meanwhile had t o g a in th e co n sen t of enough

In d ia n s to j u s t i f y th e opening of a m i s s i o n .^ The problem of g a in in g

th e ap p ro v a l o f th e Apaches was com plica ted by th e f a c t t h a t C h ief

A lchesay would n o t g iv e h i s co n se n t — th e o th e r Apaches would n o t s ig n

i f i t meant o ffen d in g th e o ld c h ie f . I n th e w in te r of 1919-20, in f lu e n z a

once a g a in s tru c k th e r e s e r v a t io n . W hile r id in g over th e r e s e rv a t io n in

h i s e f f o r t s to a id th e s ic k In d ia n s , G uenther d isco v e re d A lch esay 1 s camp

^ Q u a r te r ly R eport of th e San C arlo s M iss io n a ry , January-M arch, 1923. Papers o f A lf re d U p legger.

^^U plegger r e tu r n e d to Globe as p a s to r . I n 1932 h e moved to P e r id o t as a te a c h e r , b u t i n 1937 r e tu rn e d t o G lobe. Four y e a rs l a t e r he came back to te a c h a t P e r id o t , and i n 19l|3 w ent to new San C arlo s a s r e s id e n t m iss io n a ry .

^^Continuing in His Word, 2U7.

10%

and found th e Apache le a d e r i l l . The m iss io n ary p ro v id ed th e c h ie f w ith

some m edicine and d i r e c t io n s f o r i t s u se , and from t h i s tim e on th e two

were f r i e n d s . I n mid-1920 A lchesay gave h i s co n sen t t o th e b u ild in g o f

a m i s s i o n .^ I n th e s p r in g of 1921 th e m is s io n a ry ’s home was com pleted

and in A p r i l , 1922, th e c h ap e l a t V Jh ite riv er was f in i s h e d . The new

church co u ld h o ld ap p rox im ate ly 300, and n e a r ly a l l of th e 200 s tu d e n ts

and th e b o a rd in g s c h o o l a t te n d e d f o r c h ap e l s e rv ic e s and b ib le s t o r i e s .

On A p r i l 30 th e m iss io n was fo rm a lly d e d ic a te d and 101 A paches, in

c lu d in g C h ie f A lchesay , w ere b a p t iz e d . Die c h ie f u rged everyone to

a t te n d th e only church t o which he had g iv en h i s a p p ro v a l. D uring th e

t h i r d q u a r te r of 1922 G uenther b a p t iz e d th i r t y - f o u r a d d i t io n a l A paches.

P ro v id in g r e l ig io u s i n s t r u c t io n to p u p ils a t th e V Jh ite riv e r

b o a rd in g sc h o o l gave th e L u therans a chance to work w ith a la r g e number

of c h ild re n from a l l o v er th e u p per r e s e r v a t io n . Most o f th e s e young6 It

Apaches a t te n d e d b ib l e c l a s s a t th e m iss io n , and r e s u l t s from th i s work

proved v ery en co u rag in g . B eginning in th e e a r ly 1920’s th e m is s io n a r ie s

a l s o gave r e l ig io u s in s t r u c t io n to th e In d ian s of th e Theodore R o o sev e lt

School a t F o r t Apache* I n a d d i t io n to work w ith th e sch o o l c h i ld re n th e

m is s io n a r ie s a l s o v i s i t e d th e cam ps. The same b a s ic p a t t e r n was f ollow ed

a t a l l s t a t i o n s . Upon a r r i v a l , th e m issio n ary would speak t o th e In d ia n s

i n th e camp and a lo c a t io n would be s e le c te d t o h o ld th e s e r v ic e . The

^^Q uenther, ’’A utob iography ,^ B lack and Red (1956), 16-17 .

^ M in u te s of th e A rizona C onference , M h ite r iv e r , May 1 -3 , 1922. Papers of E . Edgar G uenther.

6U jn 1929, 310 of th e 390 s tu d e n ts e n ro l le d a t th e b o ard in g sc h o o l were members of th e Church o f th e Open B ib le a t M h ite r iv e r . ’’W h ite r iv e r ," Apache S c o u t, VTI (O ctober, 1929), 6 .

108

p o r ta b le o rgan would be s e t up , th e m issio n ary would p la y a s e r i e s of

hymns, and th e In d ia n s would b e g in to d r i f t i n to th e a re a and tak e s e a ts

on th e g round . A f te r d e te rm in in g th e hymns which th e In d ia n s w ished t o

s in g , th e m issio n ary would d e l iv e r a s h o r t sermon which m ight be i n t e r

p re te d i f th e s i t u a t i o n demandedj and a f t e r a few v i s i t s w ith in d iv id u a ls65

in th e camp, th e m in is te r would d r iv e on to th e n ex t s e t t le m e n t .

A ttendance v a r ie d from f i f t e e n to t h i r t y a t th e se camp m ee tin g s .

I n 1921 an a s s o c ia te p a s to r was a ss ig n e d a t W h ite r iv e r t o ease

th e burden of G uenther who was a l s o th e S u p e rin ten d en t of th e Apache

In d ia n M iss io n s . The f i r s t a s s o c ia te p a s to r , P a u l A lb re c h t, rem ained a t

W hite r i v e r u n t i l 1923 when he r e tu r n e d to th e E a s t . The 'W hiteiuver d is

t r i c t in c lu d e d 1000 In d ia n s i n th e camps and l a r g e r s e t t le m e n ts , and th e

job o f a s s o c ia te p a s to r in c lu d e d s e rv in g th e se w idely s c a t te r e d p e o p le .

On Ju ly 15 , 1923a E r ic La Haine became th e new a s s o c ia te p a s to r and was

a ss ig n e d th e camps on North F ork , C edar Creek and th e a re a so u th of F o r t

Apache. I n 192U a s e c o n d r e s id en ce was b u i l t f o r th e a s s o c ia te p a s to r .

I n 1926 Rev. P au l Behn came to th e m issio n to re p la c e La H aine, who had

re tu rn e d t o th e E a s t . Behn was a t W h ite r iv e r f o r th e n ex t e ig h t y e a r s ,

excep t f o r 1929-30 when he se rv e d as in te r im m iss io n a ry a t Etylas. D uring

Behn’s re s id e n c e a t W h ite r iv e r he a cq u ire d a s l id e p r o je c to r t h a t o p e ra ted

o ff a c a r b a t t e r y and used i t t o good advantage in h i s camp work. I n 193U»

Behn was t r a n s f e r r e d t o E a s t Fork a s p r in c ip a l of th e b o a rd in g s c h o o l.

P a s to r Rudolph O tto re p la c e d him and s e rv e d u n t i l 1 9 l|l when Rev. Waldemar

Z a rlin g a r r iv e d a t W hite r i v e r . Z a rlin g rem ained u n t i l A ugust, 19h3» when

^ ’•A V is i t a t a Camp S e rv ic e ,* Apache S c o u t, XIV (Ja n u a ry , 193 6 ), UU9* This account was w r i t t e n e i t h e r by E.E . G uenther or Rudolph O tto .

h e moved to th e B isbee-D ouglas a r e a . He was re p la c e d by Rev. A d a lb ert

S c h u ltz . Hie m ission a t W h ite r iv e r , under th e d i r e c t io n of Rev. B. E .

G uenther and h i s a s s o c ia te p a s to r s , by 19U3 vzas one of th e l a r g e s t on

th e r e s e r v a t i o n .^

D uring h i s te n u re a t P e r id o t from 1900 to 1912 P a s to r C a r l

G uenther v i s i t e d Elylas p e r io d ic a l ly to conduct s e rv ic e s f o r th e Apaches,

and bo th Rev. C a r l Topel and Rev. Gustav F is h e r co n tin u ed t h i s p r a c t i c e .

But i t was A lf re d U plegger who e s ta b l is h e d and n u r tu re d th e L u theran m is

s io n a t E y ia s . Beginning in 1917, U plegger t r a v e le d to Bylas every week

end t o make camp c a l l s and conduct s e r v ic e s . In 1920 Ifcrlas became a

perm anent m iss io n s t a t i o n and Rev. G ustav S c h le g e l was a s s ig n e d as m in is te r .

I n 1922 a house and a sm a ll ch ap e l of co n cre te b lo ck s were e re c te d , and on

January 13 , 1923, S c h le g e l began a "Saturday School" f o r th e beys and

g i r l s a t th e government day sc h o o l. A ttendance av erag ed ab o u t f i f t e e n

p e r week d u rin g th e s p r in g sem este r and t h i s sch o o l co n tin u ed f o r two

y e a r s . I n th e summer of 192^ th e government c lo se d th e day sch o o l and

tu rn e d th e b u ild in g s over t o th e m is s io n . On Septem ber 2 of t h a t y e a r

sch o o l opened w ith f o r t y - s i x c h i ld re n i n a tte n d a n c e . Two days l a t e r Miss

M arie Vanzke a r r iv e d a t By l a s t o te a c h th e b e g in n e r , p rim ary , and f i r s t

g rades w h ile S c h le g e l h an d led th e tw e n ty -s ix p u p ils of th e seco n d , t h i r d ,

and fo u r th g ra d e s . I n th e summer of 1926 S c h le g e l was fo r c e d by i l l n e s s

^ O n O ctober 1 9 , 19U2, th e W ii te r iv e r church was o rg an ized as a c o n g reg a tio n and e le c te d e ld e r s . This p la ce d some of th e r e s p o n s ib i l i t y f o r runn ing th e church i n th e hands o f th e Apache members r a th e r th an s o le ly on th e m iss io n a ry . E .E . G uenther, "V ih ite riv e r C o n g reg a tio n ,"Apache S c o u t, XXI (Ja n u a ry , 19U3), 373-75'•

^ G . S c h le g e l, "News From R y la s ," Apache S c o u t, I (A p r i l , 1923),7 .

109

noto le a v e th e m issio n and r e tu r n t o M ichigan. He was re p la c e d by Rev.

A lex H illm e r who se rv ed u n t i l h i s r e s ig n a t io n in 1929. P au l Behn now

l e f t h is p o s t a t E a s t Fork to s u b s t i t u te u n t i l a perm anent appointm ent

cou ld be made. -Rev. E rn e s t S p re n g le r a r r iv e d in A ugust, 1930, and became

th e r e s id e n t raL ssionaiy . This e n e rg e tic and d e d ica te d man se rv ed a t

By l a s f o r f i f t e e n y e a r s . I n ±9h$ he was t r a n s f e r r e d to E a s t Fork a s

p a s to r .

There were s ix ty - e ig h t p u p ils a t B ylas i n th e 1931-32 sch o o l y e a r .

I n Septem ber, 1932, th e e n ro llm e n t reach ed n in e ty and a t h i r d room was

added t o th e sc h o o l. These p u p ils began c la s s a t 8 :30 and co n tin u ed

u n t i l U:00 in th e a f te rn o o n , w ith a two h o u r noon re c e s s f o r lu n c h .

S u b je c ts in c lu d e d re a d in g , E n g lish , a r i th m e t ic , geography, s p e l l in g ,

s in g in g , a r t , and B ib le s t o r i e s . One h o u r a week was devo ted to in d u s

t r i a l t r a in in g . S choo l en ro llm en t was 102 i n th e f a l l of 1936; a y e a r68

l a t e r th e r e were liiO s tu d e n ts , f o u r c lassro o m s, and fo u r te a c h e r s . I n

1939 th e uses of th e governm ent sch o o l by th e L u therans was p ro te s te d by

th e C a th o l ic s , and th e church was fo rc e d to abandon th e b u ild in g s ; b u t

th e governm ent reopened th e sch o o l a f t e r e n la rg in g and m odernizing i t .

The m iss io n , m eanw hile, had b u i ld i t s own sc h o o l, b u t because of d e lay s

i n c o n s tru c tio n and i t s sm all s iz e th e number o f s tu d e n ts t o ta l e d only69

s ix ty - tw o f o r th e 19U3-UU sch o o l y e a r .

The work of b r in g in g th e g o sp e l to th e Apaches i n th e Eyias re g io n

^®Because of th e e n la rg e d en ro llm en t th e noon m eal was red u ced to j e l l y and peanu t b u t t e r sandw iches, o c c a s io n a lly a meat sandwich and an a p p le . M rs. E rn e s t S p re n g le r , “B ylas on th e A ir ," Apache S c o u t, XVI (Ja n u a ry , 1938), 7•

^ E r n a S p re n g le r , " B y l a s Apache S c o u t, XKII (A p r i l , 19Wi), lt97•

H I

was a s w e ll re c e iv e d a s th e s c h o o l. I n th e f i r s t t h i r t e e n y e a rs of the

m iss io n 236 peop le w ere b a p t iz e d , 10U were confirm ed , and 131 had ta k e n 70

communion. By th e m id - th i r t i e s P a s to r S p re n g le r was se rv in g 600 A paches.

!Ihe By l a s m issio n co n tin u ed to grow, and by 19UU in c lu d e d 700 w ith s ix ty

members. D uring t h a t y e a r S p re n g le r had confirm ed e ig h t and b a p tiz e d 71t h i r t y . Through th e e f f o r t s of E rn e s t S p ren g le r t h i s m iss io n had

become one of th e most a c t iv e of th e L u theran s t a t i o n s .

I n th e s p r in g o f 1919 P a s to r F ra n c is U plegger, th e f a t h e r of

A lf r e d , came to A rizona to su rv ey th e needs of th e s t a t e and t o determ ine

where th e b e s t o p p o rtu n ity f o r m iss io n work w as. A f te r t r a v e l in g over

most of A rizona, h e decided th e g r e a te s t need was among th e A paches. I n72November, 1919, h e s e t t l e d a t R ic e , and during th e n ex t two y e a rs l iv e d

73in tem porary q u a r te r s w h ile th e ch ap e l and parsonage were b e in g b u i l t .

The L utherans h ad been w orking w ith th e s tu d e n ts i n th e government bo ard in g

sch o o l a t R ice s in c e i t was opened i n 1900. In 1918 th e Roman C a th o lic s

began a m iss io n a t R ice and a tte m p ted to c o n v e rt some of th e s tu d e n ts —

b u t o f th e 270 a t th e sch o o l i n November o f 1922, a t o t a l of 2£0 a tte n d e d

7%ummaiy of M ission Work a t By l a s t o 1933. Papers of H. R osin a t P e r id o t .

71S t a t i s t i c a l R ep o rt on Bylas f o r 19hU in R ep o rt of Synod, 19ltli.

^ I n t e r v i e w w ith A lf r e d and F ra n c is U plegger, Ju3y 1 8 , i 960 a t San C a r lo s .

73The two c a rp e n te rs who worked on th e church were P au l Behn and h i s f a t h e r . D uring th e work a t R ice th e younger Behn became in t e r e s t e d i n m iss io n work. He re tu rn e d to W isconsin , e n te re d th e sem inary , and i n 1926 was s e n t t o W h ite r iv e r . I n 193b he was moved to E a s t Fork where he rem ained f o r s ix y e a r s . A t p re s e n t he i s d i r e c to r o f th e In d ia n m issions and l iv e s i n M ilwaukee.

112

th e L u th eran church , and th e r a t i o rem ained about th e same du rin g th e

n ex t n in e y e a rs A second f u n c t io n of th e R ice m iss io n was to b r in g

th e g o sp e l to th e Apaches i n th e nearby camps. This became ex trem ely

im p o rtan t i n 1929 when th e m ines a t Globe were sh u t down and th e agency

h e a d q u a rte rs were moved from San C arlos t o R ic e . As a r e s u l t , th e a re a

became th e p o p u la tio n c e n te r of th e low er r e s e r v a t io n . I n 19k2 th e San

C arlos L u theran m iss io n was s e rv in g 608 A paches, h ad ll*8 communicant

members, and d u rin g th e y e a r b a p tiz e d f i f ty - tw o In d ia n s . I n 19lt3 A lfre d

U plegger became r e s id e n t m iss io n a ry a t San C arlo s when h i s f a th e r became

s u p e r in te n d e n t o f th e In d ia n m issio n s upon G uenther’s r e s ig n a t io n .

F o r many y e a r s Cary on Bay had been one of th e r e g u la r s to p s on

th e c i r c u i t o f th e m in is te r a t M i i te r iv e r . A t f i r s t th e s e rv ic e s were

h e ld i n one o f th e camps, b u t d u rin g th e e a r ly 1930’s a s e r ie s of b u ild in g s

se rv ed a s tem porary q u a r te r s . I n 1935 s e rv ic e s were h e ld e v e ry Sunday i nyg

a ram ada, th e a tte n d an c e a v e rag in g f o r ty d u ring th e summer m onths. I n

1936 a sm a ll rude c a b in was b u i l t by th e A paches, and t h i s became th e

ch ap e l. A y e a r l a t e r p lan s were made to b u i ld a new church and funds77were g a th e re d f o r t h i s p u rp o se . N othing was done, how ever, u n t i l th e

m iddle of 19h l when th e m iss io n a c q u ire d an o ld b a rra c k s b u ild in g w hich

7^A pledge c a rd s ig n ed by th e p a re n t determ ined which church th e s tu d e n t a t te n d e d . R ep o rt of th e R ice M ission f o r Septem ber to December, 1922. Papers of E . Edgar G uen ther.

th e f a l l of 1931, 200 of th e 216 e n ro lle d i n th e R ice b o a rd in g sch o o l a t te n d e d th e L u th eran C hurch. F ra n c is U plegger, "At San C a r lo s , G athering th e Honey." Apache S c o u t» H (O ctober, 1931)» 57-58*

^^"C aryon Day C hurch ," Apache S co u t, X IH (S eptem ber-O ctober, 1935)»

^^R. O tto , "F ran T h i t e r iv e r , " Apache S co u t. XV (A p r i l , 1 9 3 7 ), 30 .105.

113

had s e rv e d as th e re a d in g room a t F o r t Apache p r io r t o i t s abandonment

in 192U, and f o r th e n ex t e ig h te e n y e a rs had been a storeroom !' and machine

shop . I n 19Ul th e b u ild in g was condemned, and th e su p e r in te n d e n t of the

Theodore R ooseve lt School tu rn e d th e p ro p e r ty over to th e m issio n on th e

c o n d itio n th e b u ild in g be removed. I t was d isassem b led , moved to Canyon

Day, and reassem bled . The c h ap e l was t h i r t y - e i g h t by tw e n ty -fo u r f e e t

w ith a s ix te e n by tw e n ty -fo u r f o o t room to th e r e a r . S e rv ic e s w ere h e ld

th e re p r io r t o C h ris tm as, b u t on December 2J?, 19Ul, th e ch ap e l was78

fo rm a lly d e d ic a te d . Sunday a tte n d a n c e averaged abou t f o r t y - f i v e , b u t

Canyon Day d id n o t re c e iv e a r e s id e n t m iss io n ary and co n tin u ed to be

se rv e d by th e "W hiteriver p a s to r .

I n th e summer o f 19U3 w eekly s e r v ic e s were h e ld a t Me Nary on

Thursday evenings by P a s to r G uenther and h is w ife . W ith th e adven t o f79

w in te r , th e s e were d isc o n tin u e d f o r la c k o f a m eeting p la c e . As th e

f i r s t h a l f - c e n tu r y of m iss io n work among th e Apaches drew to a c lo s e ,

e f f o r t s were underway to open s t i l l a n o th e r m iss io n . The p ro g ress made

by th e L u therans i n th e y e a r s from 1893 to 19it3 was e v id e n t n o t o n ly in

th e su ccess of th e in d iv id u a l s ta t io n s b u t a l s o i n many g e n e ra l develop

ments which a f f e c t e d th e e n t i r e m iss io n .

I n a d d i t io n to th o se lo c a t io n s w ith a r e s id e n t p a s to r , a ch u rch ,

and a parsonage, th e re wore many p la c e s on th e r e s e r v a t io n where camp

s e rv ic e s were h e ld r e g u la r ly . A l l th e m issions ex cep t P e r id o t and E a s t

Fork were founded a f t e r q u ie t , e f f i c i e n t camp work and re g u la r ly sch edu led

7^E .E . G uen ther, “Our Church a t Canyon D ay," Apache S co u t, XX (F eb ru a iy , 19U2), 281-82,

7 ? In 1$bS a church was b u i l t a t McNaiy and G uenther conducted s e r v ic e s th e r e .

v i s i t s h ad e s ta b l is h e d th e need f o r a m iss io n s t a t i o n . D uring th e u s u a l

v i s i t t o a camp, th e m iss io n ary ta lk e d to th e Apaches, gave them r e l ig io u s

m a te r ia l , and encouraged them to come to chu rch . I f th e re w ere s e v e ra l

camps i n a sm a ll a r e a , h e m ight h o ld a s e r v ic e ; b u t most v i s i t s were on

an in d iv id u a l b a s i s , th e n i t became ev id en t t h a t enough peop le w ere

in te r e s t e d t o j u s t i f y a m iss io n , a c t io n was ta k en to e s ta b l i s h a perm anent

church .

I n 1923 th e L u th eran m iss io n began a magazine, Hhe Apache S c o u t,

which was designed to a id th e m is s io n a r ie s i n t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s among th e

In d ia n s and to in fo rm in t e r e s t e d in d iv id u a ls of th e p ro g re ss of th e work.

P u b lish ed s ix tim es a n n u a lly f o r th e f i r s t fo u r y e a rs and th e n n in e tim es

a y e a r from 1927 to 1931, th e S cou t began m onthly p u b l ic a t io n in 1932.

On th e r e s e r v a t io n Ih e Apache S co u t was bo th a news medium and a r e l i g io u s

message t h a t cou ld be l e f t a t each w ick iup . During i t s f i r s t tw enty y e a rs80

E . Edgar G uenther was e d i to r ex cep t f o r th e p e r io d of 1937-38. The

c o n te n ts of th e l i t t l e e ig h t page magazine in c lu d e d a r t i c l e s on prom inent

Apaches, news of th e v a r io u s m is s io n s , modern-day p a ra b le s b a sed on th e

d a i ly l i f e o f th e A paches, and s h o r t r e l ig io u s a r t i c l e s . Every is s u e of

th e Scout a l s o c o n ta in e d one o r more photographs o f Apache l i f e , m iss io n

s t a t i o n s , m is s io n a r ie s , o r prom inen t Apache L u th eran s . Die main c o n t r i

b u to r to th e Scout was G uenther h im s e lf , o f te n because o th e r m is s io n a r ie s

f a i l e d t o p rov ide news f o r p u b l ic a t io n . G uenther was an e x p e r t i n th e

^ G u e n th e r rem ained as e d i to r of Die Apache Scout u n t i l 19f>3«His r e s ig n a t io n was cau sed by th e d e c is io n of th e M ission Board to change th e name of th e magazine to Die Apache L u th e ra n , a d e c is io n made w ith o u t th e knowledge of th e e d i to r o r any one e ls e connected w ith th e Apache m iss io n . In te rv ie w w ith M rs. E .E . G uenther, I ih i t e r iv e r , J u ly 22, i 960.

n s

use of an everyday ite m t o i l l u s t r a t e some p o in t o r t o em phasize how t o

behave . From th e f i r s t is s u e o f The Apache Scout t o th e p re s e n t , i t has

co n ta in ed a happy b a lan ce of item s of g e n e ra l i n t e r e s t to th e people on81

th e r e s e rv a t io n and to L u therans th ro u g h o u t th e U nited S ta te s .

P r io r t o W orld War U The Apache Scout was th e only p u b lish in g

v e n tu re of th e L u theran m is s io n a r ie s . In th e e a r ly lp 2 0 's an a tte m p t

was made to is s u e an Apache p ra y e r book and hym nal, b u t no ta n g ib le

r e s u l t s came u n t i l a sm a ll volume of hymns in Apache by F ra n c is U plegger82

was p u b lish e d i n th e 1950’ s . U plegger was an e x p e r t i n t r a n s l a t i n g and

sc o r in g r e l ig io u s music f o r th e A paches. D uring th e p e r io d from 1923 to

19ii3, many hymns were p r in te d in th e Scout which p rov ided th e m is s io n a r ie s8

w ith songs i n th e language of th e In d ian s t h a t cou ld be used i n t h e i r w ork.

D uring t h e i r f i r s t f i f t y y e a rs th e L utheran m is s io n a r ie s were

a id e d m easurably by many in d iv id u a l A paches. Nine s ta n d o u t . ^ C h ie f

A lchesay became a L u th eran i n 1922, and in s in f lu e n c e a id e d th e growth

of th e L u theran m issio n s on th e upper r e s e r v a t io n . Rankin R ogers, a

c r ip p le d Apache, ta u g h t th e low er g rades i n th e P e r id o t School f o r s e v e ra l

OnxAn Apache d e sc r ib e d th e im pact of th e S cou t a s fo llo w s : 11 Our

m is s io n a r ie s a re doing w onderfu l work f o r us th rough th e Scout by w r i t in g i n sim ple language so t h a t we can u n d e rs tan d and en jo y o u r p ap e r. We would l ik e t o have more peop le e s p e c ia l ly from o u ts id e of h e re to en joy o u r paper w ith u s . I am su re you w i l l l i k e our paper . . . . I am su re you w i l l g e t som ething good out c£ i t a s we do h e r e . ” D avid M ile s , "Our Apache S c o u t," Apache S co u t, X t (Ja n u a ry , 1933), 186.

®^A copy of t h i s volume i s a t th e A rizona P io n e e rs ’ H is to r i c a lS o c ie ty .

^ F r a n c i s U plegger was th e c h ie f c r e a to r of th e se hymns in th eS c o u t.

®^In th e summer o f i 960 th e w r i t e r in te rv ie w e d s e v e ra l of th e o ld e r m is s io n a r ie s and one q u e s tio n he asked was t o name t e n Apaches who have g iv en th e g r e a te s t a id t o th e L u therans on th e r e s e rv a t io n s s in c e 1893 and d e sc r ib e t h e i r c o n tr ib u t io n s .

1]6

y e a rs and was a s tro n g w itn e ss f o r th e g o sp e l. Die c e n t r a l c h a ra c te r i n

H a rd e rs ’ nove l D ohaschtida was O scar D av is , tdio se rv e d as i n t e r p r e t e r f o r85

H ard ers , R o sin , and S p re n g le r . Io n B u l l is w ro te numerous a r t i c l e s i n

The Apache Scout under th e pseudonym o f D a jid a . A lf re d B u rd e tte began as

an i n t e r p r e t e r f o r S p re n g le r a t Bylas and rem ained w ith him u n t i l t h a t86

m iss io n a ry ’ s dea th i n 1957 • An o ld Apache woman c a l le d Shimah a id ed

th e G uenthers by ca r in g f o r t h e i r c h i ld re n and h e lp in g w ith th e d a i ly

ro u t in e f o r tw e n ty -f iv e y e a r s . Timothy V ic to r se rv ed as i n t e r p r e t e r f o r

th e U pleggers a t San C arlo s f o r t h i r t y y e a r s . One of th e s t ro n g e s t

b e l ie v e r s of th e e a r ly c o n v e rts was Tom M y cliffe who a c te d as i n t e r p r e t e r

a t E a s t Fork u n t i l h i s d e a th i n 1921. Mark Hopkins in te r p r e te d f or C a r l

G uenther, R o sin , and b o th of th e U p leggers. Many o th e r in d iv id u a ls cou ld

be c i t e d s p e c i f i c a l l y . B ut th e l i s t would grow to in c lu d e a l l th o se who

a c c e p te d C h r i s t i a n i ty , th e r e l i g i o n of th e w h ite man, when th e memoiy of

h i s t re a c h e ry and th e power of th e shamans was s t i l l dom inant i n th e

Apache c o u n try .

I n O c to b er, 19li3, th e L u therans d e b r a t e d th e f i f t i e t h a n n iv e rsa ry

of t h e i r m iss io n a ry work among th e Apaches of A rizo n a . D uring th e second

tw e n ty -f iv e y e a rs of t h i s h a l f c e n tu ry , th e la b o rs of th e L u therans were

ab u ndan tly com pensated by th e f a c t t h a t a t l a s t th e In d ia n s were coming to

them . Through t h e i r ch u rc h es , s c h o o ls , and camp v i s i t a t i o n s , th e L u th eran

m is s io n a r ie s had become a moving fo rc e i n th e l i v e s o f many A paches.

^ I n t e r v ie w w ith Rev. Henry R o sin , P e r id o t , J u ly 20, I9 6 0 .

^ I n 1962 A lfred B u rd e tte was ex p ec ted to become th e f i r s t l ic e n s e d L u theran m in is te r of th e Apache r a c e . In te rv ie w w ith E. A rnold S i t z , Tucson, F ebruary l i t , 1962.

EPILOGUE

D uring th e y e a rs o f W orld War I I th e L u theran m is s io n a r ie s added

to t h e i r r e g u la r d u tie s th e heavy ta s k of correspondence w ith th e mary

L u th eran Apaches who were se rv in g i n th e v a rio u s th e a t r e s of o p e ra tio n

th ro u g h o u t th e w orld . Die pages of The Apache Scout co n ta in ed l e t t e r s

w r i t t e n t o th e m is s io n a r ie s and l i s t s of ad d resses of Apache serv icem en.

A t th e end of th e w ar th e young In d ia n s , re tu rn in g home, o f te n were shocked

by th e c o n d itio n s th ey saw."*" Die m issio n s co n tin u ed to grow in th e p o s t

war p e r io d , and new s ta t io n s were e s ta b l is h e d a t KcNaxy, F o r e s td a le ,

C a r r iz o , Cedar C reek, and M averick. Die y e a rs a f t e r 19k!? a ls o marked th e2

a r r i v a l of many new r e l ig io n s among th e A paches, b u t th e long re s id en ce

of th e L u therans in s u re d th e co n tin u in g success of t h e i r m in is t ry .

The m issio n s have co n tin u ed t o grow a t a slow , b u t s te a d y r a te

d u rin g th e p a s t two d ecades. I n th e f i n a l y e a rs of th e 1950* s th e

m is s io n a r ie s began t o t r a i n In d ian s a s church le a d e r s and to devolve

•*Rev. E rn e s t S p re n g le r , a n a ly s in g th e f e e l in g s of th e se young men, p o in te d o u t t h a t some would t r y t o a i d t h e i r peop le w h ile o th e rs would drown t h e i r d isap p o in tm en t i n s tro n g d r in k . S p re n g le r a ls o rem inded th e r e tu rn in g s o ld ie r s n o t t o f o r g e t t h e i r r e l ig io n o r t h e i r p e o p le . "The R etu rn in g Apache V e te ra n ," Apache S c o u t, XXIV (M arch, 19U6), 21 -22 .

2Ey 19!?k th e re were seven denom inations among th e I t ,000 In d ian s on th e San C arlo s R e se rv a tio n . I n o rd e r of t h e i r a r r i v a l , th e y w ere: L u th eran , C a th o lic , Holy Ground, Independent Apache, Assembly of God, P e n te c o s ta l , and Mormon. S ta n fo rd R esearch I n s t i t u t e , Die San C arlos Apache In d ia n R e se rv a tio n (S ta n fo rd : 1 9 $ k )} 39 .

117

118

more r e s p o n s ib i l i ty upon them . Today th e Apaches appear t o be i n

c re a s in g ly aw are t h a t th e s e a re t h e i r churches and no lo n g e r th e w hite

m an's m iss io n s . I n O ctober of 1963 th e L utherans w i l l c e le b r a te sev en ty

y e a rs among th e Apaches of A rizona , and t h e i r work co n tin u es t o p ro s p e r .^

One of th e m ajor aim s of th e m is s io n a r ie s from th e s t a r t was th e

e s ta b lish m e n t of schoo ls among th e Apaches. I n th e l a t e 1950's th e

m is s io n a r ie s decided to l i m i t en ro llm en t to c h i ld re n of L u th eran Apaches

r a th e r th a n to adm it a l l who a p p lie d . I n 1962 th e r e were U90 c h i ld re n

e n ro lle d i n th e sch o o ls a t By l a s , C ibecue, E a s t F ork , and P e r id o t .^ The

c o n tin u e d growth of th e sch o o ls in d ic a te s th e prom ise of f u r th e r develop

ment of th e v a rio u s m issio n s and i l l u s t r a t e s th e in c re a s in g power of

L u theran ism among th e A paches.

There have been many changes i n th e p e rso n n e l of th e L u theran

m issions i n Apache c o u n tiy d u ring th e l a s t two decades, b u t th e re a ls o

h as been c o n t in u a l s e rv ic e by men who have worked w ith the Apaches f o r

f o r t y y e a rs or more. Rev. Hemy R osin i s n e a rin g h i s f o r t y - f i f t h a n n iv e r

s a ry of s e rv ic e a t P e r id o t . Rev. A lf re d U plegger h as worked among th e

Apaches f o r over f o r t y - f i v e y e a r s . H is f a th e r , F ra n c is U plegger, h as b een

on th e low er r e s e r v a t io n s in c e 1919• I n 1957 Rev. E rn e s t S p re n g le r d ied

a t E a s t Fork a f t e r tw en ty -sev en y e a rs a s a m issio n ary t o th e Apaches j and

3Apaches were a s s ig n e d a s Sunday sch o o l te a c h e rs and te a c h e rs i n th e m issions s c h o o ls , Apache co n g reg a tio n s were o rgan ized w ith th e e le c t i o n of o f f i c e r s , and a tte m p ts were made to c r e a te a n a tiv e p a s to r a te .

^There were 2 ,703 a c t iv e members i n th e v a r io u s m iss io n churches i n 1958. P roceed ings of th e T h i r ty - F i f th C onvention o f th e E v a n g e lic a l L u th eran Synod of W isconsin and o th e r S ta te s , A ugust 5 , 12 , 1959, 59 .

^P roceed ings o f th e F i f th B ie n n ia l C onvention , A rizo n a- C a l i fo rn ia D i s t r i c t , June 5-7 j 1962, 1 9 .

119

R ev. E . Edgar G uenther, who d ied in May, 1961, se rv ed th e In d ia n s of th e

F o r t Apache R e se rv a tio n f o r no le s s th a n f i f t y y e a r s . I n th e e a r ly 1920*s

Rev. R u p ert R o sin , th e son of Henry R osin , became m iss io n a ry a t Gibe cue

and rem ained th e re u n t i l 1927, and ab o u t th e same tim e Rev. A rth u r

G uenther assumed th e d u tie s o f a s s o c ia te p a s to r a t "W hiter!ver. I n 1927

Rev. A rth u r K rueger, who h ad l e f t C ibecue i n 1939, r e tu rn e d th e re as

p a s to r . Die su ccess of th e L u th eran m issions to th e Apaches c o u ld be

a t t r i b u t e d to many re a so n s , b u t none i s more c e n t r a l th a n th e d ev o tio n of

men such a s G uen ther, R o sin , and th e U pleggers. To them t h i s s tu d y has

been d e d ic a te d .

BIBLIOGRAPHY

O ral Testim onies

In te rv ie w w ith Rev. E . E dgar G uen ther, J u ly 23, I960 , a t V h i te r iv e r .

In te rv ie w w ith Mrs. E. E . G uenther, J u ly 22 , i 960.

In te rv ie w w ith Rev. Henry R osin , J u ly 20, i 960, a t P e r id o t , A rizona .

In te rv ie w w ith Rev. E. A rnold S i t z , February l i t , 1962, ra t:.Tucson.

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Buck, Lucius E. “An In q u iry in to th e H is to ry of P re s b y te r ia n E d u c a tio n a l M issions i n New M exico.“ U npublished M aste r’s D ie s is , U n iv e rs ity of S o u thern C a l i f o r n ia , 19U9.

G uenther, C a r l . **H is to ry of th e M issio n At P e r id o t U n ti l March 1 , 1903 .“ T y p e sc r ip t a t A rizona P ioneers* H is to r i c a l Society*

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U plegger, A lf re d M. Papers a t San C a r lo s .

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Bourke, John G. On th e Border With Crook. New York: S c r ib n e r 's , 1891.

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C o n n ell, C h arles T. "The Apache P a s t and P re s e n t ." T y p e sc r ip t of a r t i c l e s ap p ea rin g i n th e Tucson D a ily C i t iz e n , F ebruary 5 -J tt iy 31# 1921.

Cremocy, John C. L ife Among th e A paches. San F ra n c isc o : A. Reman, 1868.

Cremory, Jchn C. "The Apache R ac e ." O verland M onthly, I (Septem ber, 1868), 201— 09 .

C ru se , Thomas. Apache Bays and A f te r . C a ld w e ll, Idaho : The Caxton P r in t e r s , L td . , 19U1.

D avis, B r i t t i a n . The T ruth ab o u t Geronimo. New Haven: Y ale U n iv e rs ity P re s s , 1929.

Goodwin, G re n v il le . "E x p eriences o f an In d ia n S cout (Jch n R o p e)." A rizona H i s to r i c a l Review, V II (Ja n u a ry , A p r i l , 1936 ), 31-68 . 31-73*

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T a ss in , A.G. "Among th e A paches." O verland M onthly, XIV (Septem ber and O ctober, 1889). 311-23; 37lpSoT

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B an c ro ft, H ubert H. H is to ry o f A rizona and New Mexico. San F ra n c isc o :The H is to ry Compary P u b lis h e rs , I 8B9.

B e a ls , Dr. Ralph L. M a te r ia l C u ltu re of th e Pima; Papago, and W estern Apache. U n ited S ta te s D epartm ent o f th e I n t e r i o r : N a tio n a l Park S e rv ic e , F ie ld D iv is io n of E d u ca tio n . B erk e ley , 193U.

Board o f E d u ca tio n W isconsin Synod. Our Synod and I t s Work. Milwaukee: N orthw estern P u b lish in g House, 19n7*

B randes, Ray. F r o n t ie r M il i ta r y P o s ts i n A rizo n a . G lobe: D ale S . K ing,I960.

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Clum, Woodworth. Apache A gent. B oston : Houghton, M if f l in and Company, 1936.

D ale , Edward E . The In d ia n s of th e Southw est. Norman: U n iv e rs ity of Oklahoma P re s s , 19^9.

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Goodwin, G re n v il le . Die S o c ia l O rg a n iz a tio n o f th e W estern Apache. C hicago: U n iv e rs ity of C hicago P re s s , 19^2.

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