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Transcript of The Age of Revolutions is the historical period from the 1770
Keckler-Alexander 1
K. Keckler-Alexander
HIS 241
Final Paper
Mr. Berry
Impacts and Consequences in the Age of Revolutions
The Age of Revolutions is the historical period from the 1770’s until the mid-1800s
during which several “revolutionary” movements transpired in the world, predominantly in
Western Europe and the Americas. A key identifying characteristic of this time is the global
spread of government transition. Many governments moved from monarchial systems, such as
absolute monarchies, towards republics and constitutional systems including constitutional
monarchies. Notable revolutions of this time were the American Revolution, the French
Revolution, the Greek Revolution, the Haitian Revolution and various revolutions throughout
Latin America and the Caribbean, for example the St John’s Slave Rebellion in 1733. The Age
of Revolutions had a devastating effect upon the earlier imperialist-minded European nations,
though it did lead some nations to turn towards Asia and the Pacific for colonization (Sciolino).
The British in particular pursued this after the loss of the United States, though they would lose
the majority of their colonial holdings during further rebellions over the coming century. Many
historians agree that the “Age of Empires” truly ended with World War I and World War II.
Most consider this point in history, the early 1900s, to be the end of colonialism, and historically
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that is accurate. However the beginning of the end for imperialism and colonialism was most
assuredly the Age of Revolutions. This period in history changed how governments interacted
with their people, changed political structures and ultimately would begin to change the face of
the modern world. Historians agree that both the American Revolution and the French
Revolution had major and lasting impacts, though there is dispute over which was more
significant. Upon looking at both revolutions, it is clear that one did in fact have a broader
global effect than the other yet the reasons are perhaps more geographical than ideological.
The American Revolution was about much more than a simple revolt against British
control. The American colonies had been subjected to unjust taxation, unjust legislative rule,
and had little to no voice within the British government. These abuses which spanned a long
history of tension between the American colonies and their British masters grew to a boil in 1763
when the British began tightening their control over the colonies. The British passed several acts
of taxation including the Stamp Act and the Sugar Act in an effort to financially weaken the
colonies in an effort to reassert control over their holdings. The American Revolution was not
just a war, it includes the period in the 1760s forward because of the long diplomatic
negotiations which took place before finally, in February 1775, the colony of Massachusetts
declared itself to be in revolt against the British. The British sent troops to Massachusetts,
specifically Boston, with the intent of putting down the uprising. Yet the patriot Paul Revere
warned the colonists of the impending British invasion, and so in April 1775 when the British
entered Concord, Massachusetts they were greeted by a group of militia men. Shots were fired
but the British were able to withdraw and move on towards Lexington where yet another group
of militia men awaited them. Thus, with the battles of Lexington and Concord cemented into the
history books, the American Revolutionary War began.
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Officially all of the American colonies, which later became the United States of America,
were not all in open rebellion against the British at this point. That came later in 1776 when the
Continental Congress met and ratified the Declaration of Independence, declaring that the
American colonies were free from British control and unified in their struggle to become an
independent nation. The American Revolutionary War raged from those early battles in 1775
across the colonies for nearly a decade. Both the British and the American patriots suffered
losses. About 7,200 Americans died in battle during the Revolution. Another 10,000 died from
disease or exposure and about 8,500 died in British prisons (Mintz). Other historians dispute
these American casualty figures. They claim due to the unreliability of record-keeping during
this period the actual figure of Americans killed in battle, lost to disease, killed while imprisoned
by the British, or were severely wounded and/or disabled by the Revolutionary War, places the
total figure of American casualties over 50,000. The most reliable figure for British losses from
battle and disease is approximately 24,000 casualties. However these numbers are likely also too
low as British forces were comprised of not just naval forces but regular army, militia, hired
mercenary troops, and Loyalists within the colonies. There are no reliable statistical reports for
the number of casualties from these groups (White). There were great victories for both sides and
crushing defeats. However the American struggle for independence ended victoriously for the
United States. The British Parliament voted in the House of Commons to officially end the war
in 1782 and preliminary peace accords were signed. In 1783 the British evacuated from
American soil and delegates met in Paris to sign what became known as the Treaty of Paris. This
treaty officially ended the war between the British Empire and the American colonies now
known as the United States of America. The Congress of the Confederation, the precursor to the
Congress of the United States, officially ratified the treaty January 4, 1784.
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Most consider the American Revolution as the first modern revolution. The American
Revolution was unique in some aspects as it was the first time in modern history that a group of
people fought for independence based on unifying principles such as the equal rule of law
popular sovereignty and the constitutional rights of men. The American Revolution showed the
world that genuinely democratic politics were possible in political systems (Wood). As a result
of American Revolutionary ideology the ideals of liberty, individual rights, and equality among
men became core values of “liberal republicanism”. The American Revolution forced the old
guard of Europe to recognize the Democratic ideal that “governments are instituted among men,
deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed…" ("The Declaration of
Independence”) The American Revolution provided an example to many other colonial peoples
and empowered them with the knowledge that they too could break away and become self-
sufficient independent nations. However historians are divided upon the true impacts that the
American Revolution had upon the world as a whole. Historian Jack Greene contends that the
American Revolution wasn’t as revolutionary as people seem to feel. He points out that in
reality, the American colonies were not “transformed,” rather the American colonies simply
exchanged a remote government for a resident one. The generally espoused viewpoint by
historians was that the American Revolution was unique because of the democratic ideals that
were based in Enlightenment philosophy, which reshaped the form of government. Historians
insist that these ideologies had a profound and lasting effect on world affairs. Particularly
because of the ideals of the equality of man and the natural rights of man. Though this viewpoint
is ironic considering that the vast majority of the population after the American Revolution was
still heavily restricted in their voting rights. Only free white males who were able to pass the
property qualification test, this translated into approximately one out of every nine persons living
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in the American colonies during this period, was entitled to vote. It would take another two
centuries and a great deal of civil rights struggles before the majority of the American population
would gain equal voting rights. This dichotomy calls into question the true ideological impacts
of the American Revolution. The ideals espoused such as the equality of mankind and the natural
rights of man were not in fact practiced and would not be for another 200 years. Regardless of
the validity of the ideological notions behind the American Revolution, it clearly had an impact
on a global scale. However across the Atlantic, another revolution, one which had been brewing
for quite some time, was about to ignite into one of the bloodiest revolutions in history.
No single act was directly responsible for igniting the French Revolution. Years of
oppression, poor leadership and fiscal negligence created an environment ripe for rebellion over
the course of time. The financial hardships of the 1700s had nearly bankrupted France. King
Louis XVI consulted with advisors from across Europe who all concluded that France needed a
radical change in its taxation policies if it was to survive, but the king ignored them. By the
1780s even King Louis realized changes must happen, he tried convincing the nobility to pay
taxes which of course they refused. The clergy was also tax exempt and so when the Estates
General was convened in 1789 to work out a “solution” for the tax issue, the Third Estate,
peasantry and the middle classes, knew that they would be forced to pay the new taxes. Though
the Third Estate comprised nearly 95% of the total French population, French law gave them a
single vote, and the other two estates each held a vote. The populace felt this was grossly unfair
as they were the majority and therefore should have more power in government policy. Realizing
that they wouldn’t be able to work within the Estates’ rules and that their greater numbers gave
them power, the Third Estate declared themselves independent from the Estates General and
formed the National Assembly. They took what is now known as the Tennis Court Oath after
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being ordered to disperse by the king. At Versailles, on the Jeu de Paume, an indoor tennis
court, the delegates swore a vow not to disband until a new French constitution had been
adopted. This is broadly considered as the start of the French revolution. Within only a few
days of the formation of the National Assembly, several members from the other two estates had
also joined with the revolutionaries (McPhee, Companion; "Jacobin Club (French Political
History).").
The National Assembly’s revolutionary actions were the catalyst for radical action which
spread through France like fire. Paris citizenry stormed the Bastille, the largest prison in Paris
and home to many political prisoners. They were not actually seeking to free prisoners but to
take control of the Bastille’s massive armory. In rural areas, starving peasants and tenant
farmers attacked the manors and estates of the upper classes and landlords. This time is known as
the “Great Fear.” The August Decrees brought the majority of the rural attacks to a close and
freed peasants from the feudal contracts. Later in August, the National Assembly published the
“Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen” which can be compared to the American
Declaration of Independence and the Bill of Rights together. After this, France entered a period
of brief peace. The National Assembly drafted a constitution and attempted to establish a new
government, however discontent still simmered between the moderate Girondins and the more
radical thinkers, the Jacobins. The Girondins advocated rebuilding the constitutional monarchy,
however the Jacobins wanted the monarchy completely destroyed. The king and the royal family
attempted to escape France in order to raise and army and retake the throne. They were captured
and this fractured the fragile peace. Some of the neighboring countries, Austria and Prussia in
particular, feared that France’s revolutionary ideology would spread to their own lands. These
nations demanded that France restore her king in the Declaration of Pillnitz. The leadership of
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the National Assemble took this declaration as a hostile action and declared war on Austria and
Prussia (Hunter-Chang).
After declaring war, the National Assembly became the National Convention and its first
act was to formally abolish the French monarchy and to declare France a republic. In January
1793, the new French government tried the former king, Louis XVI, for treason. He was
convicted and executed by guillotine on January 21, 1793. His wife Marie Antoinette, former
queen of France, was tried for treason eight month later and also executed by guillotine. The
death of Louis combined with the war with Austria and Prussia, which was not going well,
ignited a firestorm which is now known as the “Reign of Terror.” Rage fuelled the populace and
they removed the Girondins from power and replaced them with the Jacobins. The Jacobin
leader was a French revolutionary radical, Maximilien Robespierre. Initially Robespierre
seemed to do well as leader, his conscriptions of soldiers began turning the tide in the war with
Austria and Prussia (Tilley). His internal policies brought initial stability however this was very
short lived. Robespierre was incredibly paranoid and grew more so. After the execution of
Marie Antoinette, Robespierre launched the Reign of Terror, a rash of treason trials and
allegations which ran from late 1793 through the first half of 1794. Historians still cannot agree
on precise figures for those killed by Robespierre’s terror, estimates range from 13,800 to over
19,000 executed with a trial and 25,000 to 40,000 who were executed without a trial. Another
100,000 to 500,000 were imprisoned. Thousands more simply vanished. In all likelihood there
will never be a full accounting (De Gioia-Keane, White). The Reign of Terror finally ended
when the French army was able to drive the Austrian and Prussian armies from France and the
French economy began to recover from the turmoil of the revolution. Robespierre himself found
the guillotine, he was arrested in July of 1794 and summarily executed the following day,
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without trial. Historian Hilaire Belloc examined the irony of Robespierre’s execution in his 1923
work, Robespierre, a Study, in which he observes that Robespierre was executed for “trying to
do the opposite of the very thing which he was popularly supposed to be doing, and his death and
removal largely achieved what he was trying to accomplish.” (Belloc; McPhee, Robespierre;
Shulim)
The death of Robespierre led to the Thermidorian Reaction, which was a time of
restructuring and recovery for France. A new constitution was drafted and adopted in 1975, and
to control executive responsibilities, the National Convention created a group called the
Directory. The Directory abused their powers and soon the governmental abuses rivaled
Robespierre’s madness. The one bright spot in yet another tumultuous time was the wildly
successful French Army, led by a young and ambitious general, Napoleon Bonaparte. Once
Napoleon was notified of the political disorder in France, he returned with his army and led a
coup against the Directory. In 1799, Napoleon named himself the “first consul” of France and
thus the French revolution ended under the strong military leadership of Napoleon.
The French Revolution had major impacts on both other European nations and the
Americas. Historian François Aulard writes: “From the social point of view, the Revolution
consisted in the suppression of what was called the feudal system, in the emancipation of the
individual, in greater division of landed property, the abolition of the privileges of noble birth,
the establishment of equality, the simplification of life... The French Revolution differed from
other revolutions in being not merely national, for it aimed at benefiting all humanity." (Tilley).
R.R. Palmer asserts that the French revolution was in fact the only “revolution” of the period
which truly underwent a revolution in “the fullest and most profound sense of the word.” And he
also notes that France was unique in that they alone revolted under their own power, all other
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revolutions of the period involved outside assistance from other nations, such as the French
assisting the Americans in their revolution. Only France revolted alone. “Marxist” historians,
such as Marcel Reinhard and George Rudé, argued for the uniqueness of the French Revolution
due to its radicalism, extraordinary in comparison with the American Revolution. The French
Revolution was the bourgeois revolution, a true revolution of the people in their opinions, and
it’s extremely radical nature foreshadowed the ideals of the proletariat mentality (Amann). Their
opinion is not unique, "It has long been almost a truism of European history that the French
Revolution gave a great stimulus to the growth of modern nationalism." (Dann) Nationalism has
been emphasized by countless historians as the predominant lasting legacy of the French
revolution. Across Europe and the world, radical intellectuals found inspiration from French
Revolutionary philosophy and later from the Napoleonic Code. Other revolutionary armies
carried the French slogan of "liberty, equality and brotherhood" in their own battles. Prussia and
Austria had been right to fear the “French spread” as they saw their own holdings erupt into
rebellions (the Dutch patriots and the Belgian democrats) and various other nations soon found
revolutionary fever had infected their populaces as well (Horstbøll).
This spread is what also distinguished the French Revolution from the American
Revolution, the geographical nature of its impact. 18th century Europe watched in shock and
abject fascination as France consumed itself in its revolution. They were awed by one of the
most “powerful” monarchies in Europe being destroyed by its own people. Thanks to the
printing advances giving birth to journals, newspapers and circulars, the general public of Europe
had “ringside” seats to the actions in France. The “Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the
Citizen” was translated and published in circulars, a copy even appeared on the front page of the
Saint Petersburg Gazette. This was the age of the “Grand Tour” which provided eyewitness
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accounts, diaries, and letters relating to events in France in all European languages. The French
Revolution was illustrated in paintings, prints, cartoons, and caricatures. It was described in
poetry and depicted on the stage. In the United States, most initially saluted the French
Revolution, though the reign of Terror led to many wavering in their support later. John
Marshall, Virginian statesman and later Supreme Court Justice, was quoted as saying, “I
sincerely believed human liberty to depend … on the success of the French Revolution” (Elkins).
Given the courses of the American Revolution and the French Revolution and their
respective impacts and ideologies it is clear that the French Revolution had a more profound
impact upon the world as a whole than its American counterpart. This is seen for predominately
four reasons, first the fundamental differences in the nature of the two revolutions. The American
Revolution was predominately an external conflict and in terms of violence and casualties was,
for most intents and purposes, an extremely civilized revolution. The French Revolution was an
internal struggle and like almost every internal struggle in history, this led to far more extreme
violence and turmoil. The death tolls of the French Revolution are horrifying. Historians have
argued over the last two centuries in an attempt to quantify a true accounting of lives lost during
this period. In the end it is almost impossible to know just how many were killed during this
time. Low estimates place the total dead and around 500,000 but most agree that the death toll in
reality is much higher the highest estimate including civilian casualties place the total number of
dead somewhere around 2 million persons from 1789 through 1799. In comparison the total
number of dead in the American Revolution at its highest estimate is somewhere around 100,000
persons killed or severely wounded. To give a bit more perspective towards these numbers, the
estimated population of the American colonies in 1776 was somewhere in the range of 2.5
million person. this number did not include slaves or Native American population. In
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comparison, at the start of the French Revolution in 1789 the total estimated population of the
country of France was 28 million persons, with Paris, the heart of the French Revolution, having
a population estimated around 700,000 persons.
The majority of the deaths occurred during the American Revolution were military either
regular army or militia very few civilian casualties occurred during the American Revolution,
though there were some civilians killed during the battles. The French Revolution however saw
men, women, and children killed without prejudice. This is in part why it is so difficult to
calculate the full number of dead during this ten-year period, accurate records of the indigent,
women, and children who were killed in the streets of Paris do not exist. When all was said and
done at the end of the French Revolution historians estimate that approximately four out of every
one hundred people in France had died. In comparison, the highest estimate of those severely
wounded or killed in the American Revolution being 50,000 means that only two out of every
one hundred persons in the American colonies were killed or seriously wounded. Also the
American Revolution claimed very few civilian lives, around 6,000 is the closest estimate and
that number includes those who died from disease and/or starvation. The French revolution was
an internal “civil” war that claimed mostly “civilian” rebels. This is major difference between
the two revolutions. While the American Revolution was primarily an external war between two
opposing military forces, the French Revolution was an internal struggle where the population
rose up against its own government. Fighting in the French Revolution was primarily peasants in
the lower classes revolting against the monarchy and parts of the nobility. There were no
traditional standing armies and therefore the majority of the casualties were common people.
The second key reason for the superiority of the French Revolution are the actual changes
which took place within each nation. After the American Revolution the United States
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established itself as a republic. They espoused liberalist ideology and Enlightenment ideals such
as natural rights of men and the rules of law however within the United States as previously
covered the general population was in fact not entitled to vote only free white males who were
property owners and met certain qualifications were entitled to have a legislative vote in the
United States. Initially, this translated to 10% of the total population within the United States
being eligible for voting rights, if you include the slave population and Native American
populations. Conversely, in France the revolutionary Constitutions all held the ideas of universal
male suffrage. This was incredibly unique and perplexing for most of Europe. While Britain did
have some form of male suffrage, but it was by no means universal. The restoration of the
Bourbon monarchy after the fall of Napoleon saw universal male suffrage overturned, still for a
period, The French Revolution granted widespread voting rights on a scale unlike anything the
modern world had seen before. The United States saw some type of universal male suffrage in
the early 1800s however it would be over a century before universal suffrage (the term universal
male suffrage was replaced by universal suffrage after women gained the right to vote in the 19th
and 20th centuries) became common practice in the United States.
Many historians have argued that the United States didn’t truly change overmuch as a
result of the American Revolution. This is potentially true in some aspects for two primary
reasons. First is the assertion made by Jack Green that the American Revolution was simply an
exchanging of governments. The second is that the American colonies had been largely
independently ruling themselves for quite some time before the actual American Revolution.
While they were still technically British colonial possessions, their geographical location, and
relative self-sufficiency in relation to Great Britain all combined to make them far more
autonomous than other colonial possessions. This is perhaps in part why the American
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Revolution was so civilized. Unlike their counterparts in France, American colonists were not
starving and dying in the streets from lack of food. While Great Britain was exerting certain
economic pressures on them, the general population of the United States by no means suffered
the way that the French population was suffering (Hazen). The American Revolution could
afford to be civilized the French on the other hand were desperate starving people. When human
beings are on the edge of survival, civility is rarely a consideration.
The third reason for the French Revolution having a greater global impact is
geographical. As previously covered the French Revolution took place in the heart of Europe the
American Revolution took place in a geographically isolated location. In the 18th century the
only method of travel across the Atlantic was by sail. The average time for an Atlantic crossing
in that period was anywhere from 2 to 4 weeks, possibly longer depending upon the season and
the weather patterns. News did not travel quickly from the American colonies. While the
American Revolution was known and discussed, envoys from the colonies traveled to Europe
and Great Britain, gave speeches and solicited political and financial support, pamphlets were
printed and sent to Europe explaining American revolutionary ideals, copies of the Declaration
of Independence and the Bill of Rights circulated in Europe, yet news was still delayed. In
France’s case there was no time delay, or at least not a large time delay, as events unfolded
during their revolution. Quite literally, the majority of Europe would know within days of major
events occurring. Some nations, neighboring ones, knew within hours, as was the case during
the execution of Louis XVI. The majority of Europe had front row seats to the French
Revolution and the ideology spread like wildfire from France. American ideology spread as
well, but the immediacy and availability of French ideology meant that their revolutionary
thoughts spread faster than American ones had. They were also continuously reinforced.
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Another contributing factor to this spread was the radical nature of the French Revolution. The
brutality and the violence caused greater attention to be paid to the events in France. Just like
with any great tragedy or natural disaster, human interest will always be drawn by violence and
tragedy, and the French Revolution provided both in spades making it a central topic in Europe
for the duration. The rapid spread of the French Revolution and it being a continual topic of
discussion and debate fueled rampant counterrevolutionary movement in nations who feared the
French spread. Not only did France’s Revolution inspire similar revolutionary mentalities in
countries such as Belgium Greece and Ireland, it also sparked an entirely new set of movements
which were the counterrevolutionary ideologies particularly popular in Prussia Germany and
Austria (Klaits, McPhee).
Perhaps the single greatest legacy that the French Revolution gave the world, the major
development which sets the French Revolution above the American Revolution, is the rise of
nationalism from revolutionary thought. Nationalism in some form had existed as a philosophical
school of thought prior to the French Revolution. Many Enlightenment era ideals are central to
nationalistic thought, but the French Revolution brought nationalism into the modern world full
force. While nationalism gave birth to some very positive aspects of modern political thought
and philosophy, nationalism and various other French revolutionary ideology also can be
considered as the parent ideologies and philosophies behind socialism and communism
(Keitner). Both of which existed in some form during the 18th century as well. However those
early forms of socialism and communism were deeply impacted by nationalism and French
radical ideology. Most historians can agree that Marxist thought was deeply influenced by
French radical revolutionary ideals. Marx himself spoke admiringly of several Jacobin writers
and philosophers and quoted them in some of his works (Kołakowski). Nationalism was
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radicalized by certain groups in the 19th and 20th centuries. These radical forms of nationalism
gave rise to the German militaristic complex and in part, the Nazi party. Communism and
Socialism both developed into more radical forms under leaders such as Stalin, Lenin, and
Chairman Mao of China. These political systems are not “evil” so to speak, but many agree that
the more radical forms of these political ideologies have led to extreme human suffering for the
better part of the last two centuries. While these negative consequences cannot be laid entirely at
the feet of the French Revolution, the ideologies which fueled their initial creation are French
Revolution ideologies. So in part, the French Revolution is responsible for these global effects.
While this is not a positive or uplifting legacy of the French Revolution, it cannot be discounted
nor its far-reaching impacts ignored (Acemoglu, Dann).
The task of assigning importance of one revolution over another is complex. This is
primarily because, in general, no two revolutions are truly the same. this is clearly demonstrated
by the French and American revolutions. The two shared many ideologies and even expressed a
kinship with one another in their shared goals and supposed common ideals. Yet history and
evidence shows that there were significant differences between the two. Some are obvious and
some are interpretive based on historical evidence. There is plenty of evidence that would
support the idea of the American Revolution being superior to the French and as I have outlined
there is plenty of evidence which supports the idea that the French Revolution was in fact a more
significant to world events. This is the very crux of historical analysis, the interpretation of
evidence and ideology is rarely absolute. To this day historians still debate both of these
revolutions. They debate their merits, their ideologies, their impacts, and their effects. They
argue that one should be considered superior based on contemporary effects or that one should
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be superior based on far-reaching effects. They argue whether either Revolution is in fact
significant in the modern world. There are no simple answers to those questions.
One could argue that both revolutions were significant, they were simply significant in
different ways. The American Revolution was the first modern revolution and it was truly an
ideological revolution. The French Revolution was ideological as well however far more radical
in thought and practice than any revolution had been previously. The French Revolution took
place in the heart of Europe, rocking the very core of the political thought process. Not only did
the French break with the monarchy, they literally executed their sovereign ruler for treason. an
action which showed the general population of Europe that a new world was dawning, one in
which the general population held a great deal more power than anyone had previously
acknowledged. Beyond its ideology, its radical actions and shocking levels of violence, beyond
even its immediacy and geographical location, the various political changes which resulted from
the French Revolution, the ripple effects so to speak, are what makes this revolution so
significant in world history. The French Revolution and its subsequent wars were a driving and
accelerating force which reshaped the political scene of Europe, the Americas, and Asia, and
gave birth to a new 19th century world landscape.
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