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A statue of Louis XIV on horsebackoutside of the palace of Versaillesin France

The Age of

Enlightenment

1690John Lockewrites aboutpeople’s rights

1748Montesquieudescribes sepa-ration of powers

1776Declaration ofIndependenceis signed

1650 1700 1750 18001650 1700 1750 1800

1687Isaac Newton

states laws aboutmotion and gravity

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Chapter Overview Visitca.hss.glencoe.com for a preview of Chapter 11.

The Scientific RevolutionStudying the past helps to understand the present. Scientific ideas and

discoveries gave Europeans a new way to understand theuniverse.

The Ideas of the EnlightenmentSystems of order, such as law and government, contribute to stable

societies. During the 1700s, many Europeans believed that reasoncould be used to make government and society better.

Politics and the EnlightenmentStudying the past helps to understand the present. The ideas of the

Enlightenment played a role in both the American Revolution andthe French Revolution, and brought about many other changesthat still affect our world today.

View the Chapter 11 video in the Glencoe Video Program.

Organizing Information Make this foldable to help you compare and contrastthe ideas of the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment.

Reading and WritingAs you read the chapter,write notes under eachappropriate tab of yourfoldable. Be sure to usemain ideas and key termsto help you organize your notes.

Step 1 Fold a sheet of paperin half from side to side.

Fold it so the leftedge is about

inch from theright edge.

12

This will makethree tabs.

The Age of Enlightenment

Science NewIdeas

Politics

Step 2 Turn the paper andfold it into thirds.

Step 3 Unfold and cutthe top layer only alongboth folds.

Step 4 Label as shown.

511

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http://ca.hss.glencoe.com

Finish reading before

you begin taking notes.

The best way for you to remember information is to write itdown, or take notes. Good note-taking is useful for studying andresearch. When you are taking notes, it is helpful to:

• phrase the information in your own words• restate ideas in short, memorable phrases• stay focused on main ideas and only the most important

supporting detailsSee the example of note-taking using the paragraph below.

Taking Notes

The Enlightenment raised questions about the role ofwomen in society. Previously, many male thinkers claimed thatwomen were less important than men and had to be controlledand protected. By the 1700s, however, women thinkers begancalling for women’s rights. The most powerful supporter ofwomen’s rights was the English writer Mary Wollstonecraft. . . . Many people today credit her as the founder of the modernmovement for women’s rights.

— from page 529

A

B

C

A. The Enlightenment brought attention to women’srights.

B. Women were previously treated as less impor-tant and not as strong as men.

C. English writer Mary Wollstonecraft is seen asthe founder of the women’s rights movement.

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Make note-taking easier by using a chart to help you organizeinformation clearly. Write the main ideas in the left column. Thenwrite at least two supporting details for each main idea in the rightcolumn. Read the text from Section 1 of this chapter under the head-ing The Scientific Revolution, pages 515–517. Then take notesusing a chart, such as the one below.

Main Idea Supporting Details

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Choose an importantscientist, philosopher,or thinker from thechapter. Do furtherresearch, using at leastthree sources andtaking notes as youread. Use your notes towrite a brief report.

Read to Write

513

As you read this chapter, make a chartwith important dates, names, places,and events as main ideas. Under eachmain idea, list at least two supportingdetails from your reading.

The GreekscientistPtolemy

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The Scientific Revolution

514 CHAPTER 11 • The Age of Enlightenment

1543Copernicus supports

sun-centered solar system

1632Galileo publisheswork supporting

Copernicus’s ideas

1687Isaac Newton

states laws aboutmotion and gravity

Rome

Florence

Paris

London

1500 1600 17001500 1600 1700

Looking Back, Looking AheadOne result of the Renaissance

was a new interest in science. Duringthe 1600s, people began to observe,experiment, and reason to find newknowledge.

Focusing on the • The thinkers of the ancient world

developed early forms of science and passed this knowledge to later civilizations. (page 515)

• European interest in astronomy ledto new discoveries and ideas aboutthe universe and Earth’s place in it.(page 517)

• The Scientific Revolution led to newdiscoveries in physics, medicine,and chemistry. (page 519)

• Using the scientific method,Europeans of the 1600s and 1700sdeveloped new ideas about societybased on reason. (page 522)

Meeting PeoplePtolemy (TAH• luh•mee)Copernicus (koh•PUHR•nih•kuhs)Kepler (KEH•pluhr)Galileo (GA• luh•LEE•oh)Newton (NOO•tuhn)Descartes (day•KAHRT)

Content Vocabularytheory (THEE•uh•ree)rationalism (RASH•nuh•LIH•zuhm)scientific method

hypothesis (hy•PAH•thuh•suhs)

Academic Vocabularyinvestigate (ihn•VEHS•tuh•GAYT)approach (uh•PROHCH)

Reading StrategyCompare and Contrast Use adiagram like the one below to showthe similarities and differences in theviews of Ptolemy and Copernicus.

HistorySocial ScienceStandardsWH7.10 Studentsanalyze the historicaldevelopments of theScientific Revolutionand its lasting effect onreligious, political, andcultural institutions.

Ptolemy Copernicus

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WH7.10.1 Discuss the roots of the Scientific Revolution (e.g., Greek rationalism; Jewish, Christian, and Muslim science; Renaissancehumanism; new knowledge from global exploration).

The Scientific RevolutionThe thinkers of the ancient world

developed early forms of science and passed this

knowledge to later civilizations.

Reading Connection Have you ever taught a skill orpassed on an idea to a younger brother or sister? Readin this chapter how the scientific ideas of early thinkerswere passed on to later generations.

From earliest times, people have beencurious about the world around them.Thousands of years ago, people began touse numbers, study the stars and planets,and watch the growth of plants and ani-mals. These activities were the beginningsof science. Science is any organized study ofthe natural world and how it works.

Early Scientists Early civilizations devel-oped different kinds of science to solve prac-tical problems. Among the first scienceswere mathematics, astronomy, and medi-cine. Mathematics was used for record keep-ing and building projects. Astronomyhelped people keep time and figure outwhen to plant and harvest crops. Early civ-ilizations also developed medical practices,such as surgery, acupuncture, and the useof herbs, for treating illnesses.

The ancient Greeks left behind a largeamount of scientific knowledge. Theybelieved that reason was the only way tounderstand nature. As they studied theworld, they developed theories. A theory(THEE •uh • ree) is an explanation of how orwhy something happens. A theory is basedon what you can observe about something. Itmay not be correct, but it seems to fit the facts.

In ancient Greece, the Greek philoso-pher Aristotle observed nature and com-piled vast amounts of information aboutplants, animals, and the environment. Hethen took the facts he gathered and classified

CHAPTER 11 • The Age of Enlightenment 515

them, or arranged them into groups, basedon their similarities and differences.

The Greeks made many important scientific advances, but their approach toscience had some problems. For example,they did not experiment, or test, new ideasto see if they were true. Many of their con-clusions were false because they were basedon “common sense” instead of experiments.

For example, in the A.D. 100s, theEgyptian-born astronomer Ptolemy (TAH •luh •mee) stated that the sun and the planetsmoved around the earth in circular paths.After all, it did seem like the earth was thecenter of the universe. Astronomers inEurope accepted Ptolemy’s geocentric, orEarth-centered, theory for more than 1,400years.

Science During the Middle Ages InRoman times, people continued to acceptthe scientific knowledge of the Greeks.During the Middle Ages, most Europeanswere more interested in theology, or thestudy of God, than in the study of nature.For scientific knowledge, they relied onGreek and Roman writings and saw noneed to investigate the facts or to maketheir own observations. Many of theseancient works, however, were either lost orpoorly preserved.

Meanwhile, Arabs and Jews in theIslamic Empire preserved much of the sci-ence of the Greeks and Romans. They care-fully copied many Greek and Roman worksinto the Arabic language. They also cameinto contact with the science of the Persiansand the Indian system of mathematics.

Arabic and Jewish scientists madeadvances of their own in areas such as mathematics, astronomy, and medicine.However, in spite of these achievements,scientists in the Islamic world did notexperiment or develop the instruments

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necessary to advance their scientific knowledge.

During the 1100s, European thinkersbecame involved in science again as a resultof their contacts with the Islamic world.Major Islamic scientific works were broughtto Europe and translated into Latin. TheHindu-Arabic system of numbers alsospread to Europe, where it eventuallyreplaced Roman numerals.

Christian thinkers, such as ThomasAquinas, tried to show that Christianity andreason could go together. During the 1100s,Europeans began building new universities.These universities would play an importantrole in the growth of science.

As you have read, in the 1300s the ideasof the Renaissance humanists developed

into a new way of understanding the world.Humanists borrowed ideas from theancient Greeks and Romans and combinedthem with ideas based on reason and ideasbased on faith.

Humanist ideas then spread acrossEurope, aided by the invention of the print-ing press. This invention continued to playan important role in spreading ideas duringthe 1600s and 1700s.

In the meantime, the humanist approachto science and reason led to other inven-tions during the Renaissance. These helpedbring about the Age of Exploration that youread about in Chapter 10. Better charts,maps, and navigational instruments helpedexplorers reach different parts of the worldin the 1400s and 1500s.

A New View of the UniverseA New View of the Universe

The astronomical theory of Ptolemy (left) placedEarth at the center of the universe (above). Histheory was accepted for more than a thousandyears. According to the diagram, how manyplanets besides Earth were known at the time ofPtolemy?

Sun

Mercury

Venus

EarthMoon

Mars

Jupiter

Saturn

Fixed Stars

Prime Mover

Ptolemaic UniversePtolemaic Universe

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WH7.10.1 Discuss the roots of the Scientific Revolution (e.g., Greek rationalism; Jewish, Christian, and Muslim science; Renaissancehumanism; new knowledge from global exploration). WH7.10.2 Understand the significance of the new scientific theories (e.g., those of Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, Newton) and the significance of new inventions (e.g., the telescope, microscope,thermometer, barometer).

The voyages of exploration helpedEurope become the world leader in com-merce and trade. They also added toEurope’s scientific knowledge. Explorersmapped the oceans and continents, andnew kingdoms and countries were located.Scientists gathered and classified newknowledge about plants, animals, and dis-eases in different parts of the world.

By the 1500s, various developments inEurope had come together to increaseEuropean interest in science. As more andmore people began to study science, manynew discoveries were made. This era, whenEuropeans became interested in scienceagain, is known as the Scientific Revolution.

Describe Describe scien-tific knowledge during the Middle Ages.


A Revolution in AstronomyEuropean interest in astronomy led to

new discoveries and ideas about the universe and

Earth’s place in it.

Reading Connection What would people on Earth thinkif life were discovered on other planets? Read to see howEuropeans reacted to new discoveries about the universe.

During the 1500s, European thinkersbegan to abandon the old scientific ideas.They increasingly understood that advancesin science could only come through mathe-matics and experimentation. This new wayof thinking led to a revolution, or sweepingchange, in the way Europeans understoodscience and the search for knowledge.Astronomy was the first science affected by

Nicolaus Copernicus (right), a Polishmathematician, believed that the sun was at thecenter of the universe. His model (above) placedEarth and the other planets in orbits around thesun. Why did Europeans again become interested inscience in the 1100s?

SunMercury

VenusEarth

MoonMars

Jupiter

Saturn

Fixed Stars

Copernican UniverseCopernican Universe

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Today, telescopes arelarge, complex, and powerful. The

Hubble Space Telescope has been inorbit 380 miles above the earth’s

surface since 1990. It can see greatdistances because it is outside the

atmosphere. Why is astronomy importanttoday?

Telescopes

Galileo’s first telescope was made of twolenses inside a tube. Kepler improved the telescopeby including an outward curving eyepiece, whichincreased the magnification and field ofview. In 1663 James Gregory published adescription of a reflecting telescope thatwould use a mirror to gather and focuslight. It was not built until 1668.

Galileo’s telescope

The Hubble Space Telescope


the Scientific Revolution. New discoveriesbrought changes in the way Europeans sawthe universe. They challenged traditionalthinking that God had made the earth as thecenter of the universe.

Who Was Copernicus? Leading theScientific Revolution was a Polish mathe-matician named Nicolaus Copernicus (koh•PUHR•nih•kuhs). In 1543 Copernicus releaseda book called On the Revolutions of the HeavenlySpheres. He disagreed with Ptolemy’s viewthat the earth was the center of the universe.Copernicus believed that Ptolemy’s theory

was too complicated. Instead, he developed asimpler heliocentric, or sun-centered, theoryof the universe. Copernicus’s theory statedthat the Sun, not Earth, was the center of theuniverse. The planets moved in circular pathsaround the Sun.

Kepler’s Revolution The next step forwardin astronomy was taken by a Germanastronomer named Johannes Kepler (KEH •pluhr). He supported Copernicus’s theory butalso made corrections to it. Kepler added theidea that the planets move in ellipses (ih •LIHP• SEEZ), or oval paths, rather than circular

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WH7.10.2 Understand the significance of the new scientific theories (e.g., those of Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler, Newton) and thesignificance of new inventions (e.g., the telescope, microscope, thermometer, barometer).

ones. His theory made it easier to explain themovements of the planets. It also marked thebeginning of modern astronomy.

Who Was Galileo? An Italian scientistnamed Galileo Galilei made the third greatbreakthrough in the Scientific Revolution.Galileo (GA • luh • LEE • oh) believed that newknowledge could come through experi-ments that were carefully carried out. Forexample, Galileo challenged Aristotle’s ideathat the heavier the object is, the faster it fallsto the ground. Galileo’s experiments provedthat Aristotle was wrong. Objects fall at thesame speed regardless of their weight.

Galileo also realized that scientific instru-ments could help humans better explore thenatural world. He improved instruments,such as the clock and telescope. With the tel-escope, Galileo found clear evidence sup-porting Copernicus’s view that Earthrevolves around the Sun.

Galileo also played an important role inthe development of new scientific instru-ments. In 1593 he invented a water ther-mometer that, for the first time, allowedtemperature changes to be measured.Galileo’s assistant, Evangelista Torricelli,then used the element called mercury tobuild the first barometer, an instrument thatmeasures air pressure.

When Galileo published his ideas in 1632,his work was condemned by the RomanCatholic Church. The Catholic Church held tothe geocentric, or Earth-centered, view of theuniverse, believing that it was taught in theBible. The pope ordered Galileo to come toRome to be tried for heresy. Church threatsfinally forced Galileo to withdraw many ofhis statements. Nonetheless, Galileo’s ideasspread throughout Europe and changed peo-ple’s views about the universe.

Explain How did Galileoprove Copernicus’s theory?


In this painting, Galileo presents hisastronomical findings to the Catholic clergy.How did Galileo respond to the Church’scondemnation of his work in astronomy?

New Scientific DiscoveriesThe Scientific Revolution led to new

discoveries in physics, medicine, and chemistry.

Reading Connection Think about all the facts you knowabout medicine. For example, you know your heart pumpsblood, your lungs breathe air, and your body is made ofcells. Read to learn how scientists of the 1600s and 1700smade discoveries we often take for granted today.

Throughout the 1600s and 1700s, theScientific Revolution continued to spread.Many new discoveries were made inphysics, medicine, and chemistry.

Who Is Isaac Newton? Despite continuingscientific breakthroughs, the ideas ofCopernicus, Kepler, and Galileo needed to bebrought together as one system. This feat wasaccomplished by an English mathematiciannamed Isaac Newton (NOO• tuhn).

According to tradition, Newton was sit-ting in his garden one day when hewatched an apple fall to the ground. The

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apple’s fall led him to the idea of gravity, orthe pull of the earth and other bodies onobjects at or near their surfaces.

In a book called Principia, published in1687, Newton stated his laws, or well-testedtheories, about the motion of objects inspace and on Earth. The most significantwas the universal law of gravitation. Itexplains that the force of gravity holds theentire solar system together by keeping thesun and the planets in their orbits.Newton’s ideas led to the rise of modernphysics, or the study of physical propertiessuch as matter and energy.

Medicine and Chemistry Sweeping changeswere made in medicine in the 1500s and1600s. Since Roman times, European doc-tors had relied on the teachings of the Greek

physician Galen. Galen wanted to study thehuman body, but he was only allowed todissect, or cut open, animals.

In the 1500s, however, a Flemish doctornamed Andreas Vesalius began dissectingdead human bodies for research. In 1543Vesalius published On the Structure of theHuman Body. In this work, Vesalius pre-sented a detailed account of the humanbody that replaced many of Galen’s ideas.

Other breakthroughs in medicine tookplace. In the early 1600s, William Harvey,an English doctor, proved that bloodflowed through the human body. In themid-1600s, an English scientist namedRobert Hooke began using a microscope,and he soon discovered cells, the smalleststructures of living material.

Beginning in the 1600s, European scien-tists developed new ideas in chemistry.Chemistry is the study of natural sub-stances and how they change. In the mid-1600s, Robert Boyle, an Irish scientist,proved that all substances are made up ofbasic elements that cannot be broken down.

European scientists of the 1700s also developed ways to study gases. Theydiscovered hydrogen, carbon dioxide, andoxygen. By 1777, Antoine Lavoisier (AN •twahn luhv • WAH • zee • AY) of France hadproven that materials need oxygen to burn.Marie Lavoisier, also a scientist, contributedto her husband’s work.

Identify According toNewton, what force held the planets in orbit?

Nation DiscoveriesScientist

Antoine Lavoisier (1743–1794)

France

Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543)

Poland Earth orbits the Sun; Earth spins on its axis

Galileo Galilei (1564–1642)Johannes Kepler (1571–1630)

William Harvey (1578–1657)

Robert Hooke (1635–1703)Robert Boyle (1627–1691)

Isaac Newton (1642–1727)

Italy

Germany

England

England

Ireland

England

other planets have moons planets have elliptical orbits

heart pumps blood

cells

air is made of gases

gravity; laws of motion; calculus

how materials burn

The Scientific Revolution The Scientific Revolution

During the Scientific Revolution, scientistsmade discoveries in many fields, such asastronomy and medicine.1. What did William Harvey discover? 2. Identify Which scientists’ discoveries dealt

with chemistry?

Web Activity Visit ca.hss.glencoe.com andclick on Chapter 11—Student Web Activity tolearn more about early science.


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521

SIR ISAAC NEWTON1642–1727Isaac Newton was born into a farming family on

December 25, 1642, in Woolsthorpe, England. His father died before Newton was born. His mother remarried when he was three years old. His new stepfather did not want the boy to live with them, so Newton’s grandmother raised him.

Newton earned a degree from Trinity College, part of Cambridge University, in 1664. He planned to work for the university, but from 1664 to 1666, it closed because of the plague. Newton spent the next two years in his hometown.While there, he developed his theory of gravity, invented a new kind of mathematics called calculus, and discovered that white light is made up of all other colors of light.

Newton returned to Cambridge, earned a master’s degree,and was appointed to several positions there. His life was verystressful because many scientists questioned his calculations.These criticisms made Newton reluctant to publish hisdiscoveries, but eventually he did. His book Principia isconsidered one of the greatest scientific books everwritten. In it, Newton describes his three laws of motionand his ideas about gravity.

During his life, Newton won many awards for his discoveries. In 1705 he became the first scientist ever to be knighted by the English king.

521

WH7.10.2 Understand the significance ofthe new scientific theories (e.g., those ofCopernicus, Galileo, Kepler, Newton) and thesignificance of new inventions (e.g., thetelescope, microscope, thermometer,barometer).

Newton’s findings were criticized by somescientists of his time. Do research to find ascientific discovery made in the last 50 yearsthat others have questioned or criticized.Describe your findings to the class.

Newton analyzing light rays

“If I have seen farther, it is by standing upon the shoulders of giants.”

—Isaac Newton, in a letter to Robert Hooke

Trinity College today

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WH7.10.3 Understand the scientific method advanced by Bacon and Descartes, the influence of new scientific rationalism on thegrowth of democratic ideas, and the coexistence of science with traditional religious beliefs.

The Triumph of ReasonUsing the scientific method, Europeans

of the 1600s and 1700s developed new ideas about

society based on reason.

Reading Connection What do modern scientists doin their laboratories? Read to understand how methodsof scientific research changed Europeans’ understand-ing of human society in the 1600s and 1700s.

As scientists made new discoveries,European thinkers began to apply science tosociety. For these thinkers, science had proventhat the physical universe followed naturallaws. By using their reason, people couldlearn how the universe worked. Using thisknowledge, people also could solve existinghuman problems and make life better.

Descartes and Reason One of the mostimportant scientific thinkers was theFrenchman René Descartes (day •KAHRT). In

1637 he wrote a book called Discourse onMethod. In this book, Descartes began withthe problem of knowing what is true. ToDescartes, one fact seemed to be beyonddoubt—his own existence. Descartes clari-fied this idea by the phrase, “I think, there-fore I am.”

In his work, Descartes claimed thatmathematics was the source of all scientifictruth. In mathematics, he said, the answerswere always true. This was because mathe-matics began with simple, obvious princi-ples and then used logic to move graduallyto other truths. Today, Descartes is viewedas the founder of modern rationalism (RASH •nuh • LIH • zuhm). This is the belief thatreason is the chief source of knowledge.

What Is the Scientific Method?Scientific thought was also influenced byEnglish thinker Francis Bacon, who livedfrom 1561 to 1626. Bacon believed thatideas based on tradition should be putaside. He developed the scientificmethod, an orderly way of collecting andanalyzing evidence. It is still the processused in scientific research today.

The scientific method is made up ofseveral steps. First a scientist begins withcareful observation of facts and then triesto find a hypothesis (hy • PAH • thuh • suhs),or an explanation of the facts. Throughexperiments, the scientist tests the hypoth-esis under all possible conditions to see if itis true. Finally, if repeated, experiments showthat the hypothesis is true, and then it is con-sidered a scientific law.

Struggles of Faith Because the ScientificRevolution led many people to rely moreon reason than faith, it diminished thepower and influence of Christian churches.This was particularly true with the RomanCatholic Church. However, Christianity didnot cease to exist. Missionaries continued to

Specimenholder

Focusingscrew

Light source

Lenses

Eyepiece

The MicroscopeThe Microscope

An early microscope used by Robert Hooke todiscover cells


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gain converts throughout the world, andchurch membership continued to increasein many areas.

Although scientists supported reasonas a way of gaining knowledge, many con-tinued to believe in God. They argued thatGod had created the universe according tomathematical laws. God then allowed theuniverse to run itself by these laws. Thisreligious approach is called deism.

Isaac Newton was foremost among thedeist scientists. He believed that God hadcreated natural laws that could not beexplained in any other way. For example,he believed that the force of gravity was ascientific law. However, he believed itcould not exist unless God had made it. Inthis way, religion coexisted with reasonduring the Scientific Revolution.

Explain What is the scientific method?

Test your predictions throughexperiments and observation.

Predict something based on yourhypothesis.

Observe some aspect of the universe.

Modify hypothesis in light of results.

Hypothesize about what you observed.

The Scientific MethodThe Scientific Method

The scientific method is still important today.1. What is the next step after predictions are

tested through experiments and observation?2. Conclude Why is the scientific method

necessary to create scientific law?

Reading SummaryReview the • The thinkers of the ancient world

developed early forms of scienceand passed this knowledge tolater generations.

• European interest in science ledto new discoveries and ideasabout the universe and Earth’splace in it.

• The Scientific Revolution led tonew discoveries in physics,medicine, and chemistry.

• Descartes invented rationalism,and Bacon developed the scien-tific method.

1. Who was Copernicus, and whatwas the heliocentric theory?

2. Describe Francis Bacon’s beliefsabout scientific reasoning.

Critical Thinking3. Summarize Draw a diagram

like the one below. Add detailsto show some of the new ideasdeveloped during the ScientificRevolution.

4. Science Connection ExplainKepler’s view of the solar sys-tem.

5. Analyze Why did the Churchcondemn Galileo’s astronomi-cal findings?

6. Write an essaydescribing how astronomychanged from the time ofPtolemy to the time of Galileo.

7. Taking NotesList the main ideas in Section 1and take notes on them. Usethese notes to write a shortessay on the section. CA 7WS1.3

CA 7RC2.3

CA 7RC2.2

CA 7RC2.2

CA 7RC2.0

What Did You Learn?

Study Central Need help understanding theScientific Revolution? Visit ca.hss.glencoe.comand click on Study Central.


Ideas FromScientific Revolution

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The Ideas of the

Enlightenment


1748 Montesquieudescribes separationof powers

1690John Lockewrites aboutpeople’s rights

1792Mary Wollstonecraftcalls for women’srights

1700 1750 18001700 1750 1800

Looking Back, Looking AheadAs you have read, the Scientific

Revolution led to new discoveries.Atthe same time, it also led to many newideas about government and society.

Focusing on the • During the 1700s, many Europeans

believed that reason could be used tomake government and society better.(page 525)

• The Enlightenment was centered inFrance, where thinkers wrote aboutchanging their society and met todiscuss their ideas. (page 528)

Meeting PeopleThomas Hobbes (HAHBZ)John Locke

Baron Montesquieu (MAHN•tuhs•KYOO)

Voltaire (vohl•TAR)Denis Diderot (dee•DROH)Mary Wollstonecraft (WUL•stuhn•

KRAFT)

Content Vocabularynatural law

social contract

separation of powers

Academic Vocabularyerror (EHR•uhr)topic (TAH•pihk)advocate (AD•vuh•kuht)

Reading StrategySummarizing Information Completea table like the one below showing themajor ideas of Enlightenment thinkers.

HistorySocial ScienceStandardsWH7.10 Studentsanalyze the historicaldevelopments of theScientific Revolutionand its lasting effect onreligious, political, andcultural institutions.

WH7.11 Studentsanalyze political andeconomic change in thesixteenth, seventeenth,and eighteenthcenturies (the Age ofExploration, theEnlightenment, and theAge of Reason).

Thinkers Ideas

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WH7.10.3 Understand the scientific method advanced by Bacon and Descartes, the influence of new scientific rationalism on thegrowth of democratic ideas, and the coexistence of science with traditional religious beliefs. WH7.11.4 Explain how the main ideas of the Enlightenment can be traced back to such movements as the Renaissance, the Reformation, and the Scientific Revolution and to the Greeks, Romans, and Christianity. WH7.11.5 Describe how democratic thought and institutions were influenced by Enlighten-ment thinkers (e.g., John Locke, Charles-Louis Montesquieu, American founders). WH7.11.6 Discuss how the principles in the MagnaCarta were embodied in such documents as the English Bill of Rights and the American Declaration of Independence.

New Ideas About PoliticsDuring the 1700s, many Europeans

believed that reason could be used to make govern-

ment and society better.

Reading Connection What makes people get alongwith each other? Do they need rules, a strong leader, orto learn to work together? Read to learn how thinkersin Europe answered these questions.

During the 1700s, European thinkerswere impressed by scientific discoveries inthe natural world. They believed that rea-son could also uncover the scientific lawsthat governed human life. Once these lawswere known, thinkers said, people coulduse the laws to make society better.

As the Scientific Revolution advanced,many educated Europeans came to believethat reason was a much better guide thanfaith or tradition. To them, reason was a“light” that revealed error and showed theway to truth. As result, the 1700s becameknown as the Age of Enlightenment.

European thinkers during the Enlight-enment believed they were entering a newera of thought and ideas. Even so, theyknew that many of their ideas came fromolder traditions. The Greeks had looked atnature and seen patterns that could beobserved. Greek philosophers, such as Plato,Aristotle, and Socrates, had all stressed rea-son and analysis. The Enlightenmentthinkers were also influenced by theRomans. Many laws and ideas of govern-ment had come from the Romans, who hademphasized systems of order.

The use of reason during the Renaissanceand the critical thinking of religious writersduring the Reformation had helped bringabout the Scientific Revolution. In turn, theRenaissance, Reformation, and Scientific


This illustration is from the title page ofHobbes’s Leviathan. What sort of governmentdid Hobbes support in Leviathan?

Revolution helped bring about the Enlight-enment. Christianity also played a role in shaping Enlightenment ideas. Some writers during the Enlightenment rejectedChristianity. They compared their ownmethods for gaining knowledge to religionin order to determine which method theythought worked best.

During the Enlightenment, politicalthinkers tried to apply reason and scientificideas to government. They claimed thatthere was a natural law, or a law thatapplied to everyone and could be under-stood by reason. As early as the 1600s, twoEnglish thinkers—Thomas Hobbes andJohn Locke—used natural law to developvery different ideas about how governmentshould work.

Who Was Thomas Hobbes? ThomasHobbes (HAHBZ) wrote about English gov-ernment and society. During his life, Englandwas torn apart by civil war. Supporters ofKing Charles I fought those who backed

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they needed to obey a government that hadthe power of a leviathan, or sea monster. ToHobbes, this meant the rule of a kingbecause only a strong ruler could give peo-ple direction.

Why Is John Locke Important? AnotherEnglish thinker, John Locke, contradictedHobbes. Locke used natural law to affirmbasic democratic ideas such as citizens’rights and the need for government to beanswerable to the people.

During Locke’s life, another Englishking, James II, wanted to set up an absolutemonarchy against Parliament’s wishes. In1688 war threatened, and James fled thecountry. Parliament then asked Mary,James’s daughter, and her husband,William, to take the throne. This event cameto be called the “Glorious Revolution.”

In return for the English throne, Williamand Mary agreed to a Bill of Rights. The doc-ument guaranteed all English people basicrights, like those the Magna Carta had givento the nobles. For instance, people had theright to a fair trial by jury and to freedomfrom cruel punishment for a crime.

In 1690 John Locke explained many of theideas of the Glorious Revolution in a bookcalled Two Treatises of Government. Lockeargued against the absolute rule of one per-son. He stated that government should bebased on natural law. This law, said Locke,gave all people from their birth certain natu-ral rights. Among them were the right to life,the right to liberty, and the right to own property.

Locke believed that the purpose of government is to protect these rights. Allgovernments, he said, were based on asocial contract, or an agreement betweenrulers and the people. If a ruler took awaypeople’s rights, the people had a right torevolt and set up a new government.

The Separation of Powers

The ideas of the French writer BaronMontesquieu were influential in shapingBritish and American ideas about government.

“Again, there is no lib-erty, if the judiciarypower be not separatedfrom the legislative andexecutive. Were it joinedwith the legislative, thelife and liberty of thesubject would beexposed to arbitrary con-trol; for the judge wouldbe then the legislator.Were it joined to theexecutive power, thejudge might behave withviolence and oppression.”

—Montesquieu,The Spirit of Laws

According to Montesquieu, why shouldjudges be independent?

Parliament. Charles I wanted to haveabsolute, or total, power as king. Parliamentdemanded a greater role in running England.

The fighting eventually led to Charles’sexecution. This event shocked ThomasHobbes, who was a strong supporter of themonarchy. In 1651 Hobbes wrote a bookcalled Leviathan. In this work, Hobbesargued that natural law made absolutemonarchy the best form of government.

According to Hobbes, humans were nat-urally selfish and violent. They could not betrusted to make their own decisions. Left tothemselves, people would make life “nasty,brutish, and short.” Therefore, Hobbes said,

Montesquieu

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WH7.11.5 Describe how democraticthought and institutions were influenced byEnlightenment thinkers (e.g., John Locke,Charles-Louis Montesquieu, Americanfounders).

JOHN LOCKE1632–1704John Locke was born in Somerset, England. His father

was a lawyer but also served as a cavalry soldier. Usinghis military connections, he arranged for his son John toget a good education. Locke studied classical languages,grammar, philosophy, and geometry at Oxford University. To Locke, the courses were not exciting, so he turned to his true interests—science and medicine.

After graduating, Locke went to work for governments inEurope. He continued to study science and philosophy. Heparticularly liked the work of Descartes. In 1671 Locke beganrecording his own ideas about how people know things.Nineteen years later, he published his ideas in An EssayConcerning Human Understanding. In this book, Lockeargued that people’s minds are blank when they are bornand that society shapes what people think and believe.This idea meant that if people could make society better,it would also make people better.

In 1683 Locke fled to Holland after theEnglish government began to think his politicalideas were dangerous. During that time, he wasdeclared a traitor and was not able to returnuntil after the Glorious Revolution of 1688. Itwas at that time that he wrote his famous TwoTreatises of Government. Soon afterward, Lockeretired to Essex. There he enjoyed frequent visitsfrom Sir Isaac Newton and other friends untilhis death in 1704.

527

William and Mary being crownedfollowing the Glorious Revolution

“Law is not to abolish orrestrain, but to preserveand enlarge freedom.”

—John Locke, Two Treatises of Government

John Locke

Give examples of how Locke’s ideas haveinfluenced our lives and ideas.

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WH7.11.5 Describe how democratic thought and institutions were influenced by Enlightenment thinkers (e.g., John Locke, Charles-Louis Montesquieu, American founders).


Who Was Montesquieu? England’s govern-ment was admired by thinkers in France.They liked it better than their own absolutemonarchy. In 1748 Baron Montesquieu (MAHN•tuhs • KYOO), a French thinker, published abook called The Spirit of Laws.

In this book, Montesquieu said thatEngland’s government was the bestbecause it had a separation of powers.Separation of powers means that power isdivided among the branches of govern-ment: executive, legislative, and judicial.The legislative branch makes the laws, andthe executive branch enforces them. Thejudicial branch interprets the laws.Separating these powers keeps governmentfrom becoming too powerful and threaten-ing people’s rights.

Explain How did BaronMontesquieu want government organized?

The French PhilosophesThe Enlightenment was centered in

France, where thinkers wrote about changing their

society and met to discuss their ideas.

Reading Connection What role do writers play inthe United States today? Read on to find out whateffect writers had on Europe during the Enlightenment.

During the 1700s, France became themajor center of the Enlightenment. As theEnlightenment spread, thinkers in Franceand elsewhere became known by theFrench name philosophe (FEE • luh • ZAWF),which means “philosopher.” Most phi-losophes were writers, teachers, journalists,and observers of society.

The philosophes wanted to use reasonto change society. They attacked supersti-tion, or unreasoned beliefs. In addition,

Voltaire

During the Enlightenment, upper-class nobles held gatherings ofwriters, artists, and government officials in their homes to discussnew ideas. How did the philosophes spread their ideas?

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they also disagreed with Church leaderswho opposed new scientific discoveries.The philosophes believed in both freedomof speech and the individual’s right to lib-erty. They used their skills as writers tospread their ideas across Europe.

Who Was Voltaire? The greatest thinker ofthe Enlightenment was François-MarieArouet, known simply as Voltaire (vohl•TAR).Born in a middle-class family, Voltaire wrotemany novels, plays, letters, and essays thatbrought him fame and wealth.

Voltaire became known for his strongdislike of the Roman Catholic Church. He blamed Church leaders for keeping knowledge from people in order to maintainthe Church’s power. Voltaire also opposedthe government supporting one religionand forbidding others. He thought peopleshould be free to choose their own beliefs.Voltaire, like many philosophes, supporteddeism.

Who Was Diderot? Denis Diderot (dee •DROH) was the French philosophe who didthe most to spread Enlightenment ideas. Withthe help of friends, Diderot published a large,28-volume encyclopedia. His project, whichbegan in the 1750s, took about 20 years tocomplete.

The Encyclopedia included a wide rangeof topics, such as science, religion, govern-ment, and the arts. It became an importantweapon in the philosophes’ fight againsttraditional ways. Many articles attackedsuperstition and supported freedom of reli-gion. Others called for changes that wouldmake society more just and caring.

The Enlightenment and Women TheEnlightenment raised questions about therole of women in society. Previously, manymale thinkers claimed that women wereless important than men and had to be


Natural Rights of Women

Mary Wollstonecraft argued that the naturalrights of the Enlightenment should extend to women as well as men.

“In short, in whatever light I view the subject, rea-son and experience convince me that the onlymethod of leading women to fulfill their peculiar[specific] duties is to free them from all restraintby allowing them to participate in the inherentrights of mankind. Make them free, and they willquickly become wise and virtuous, as men becomemore so, for the improvement must be mutual.”

—Mary Wollstonecraft,A Vindication of the Rights

of Woman: With Strictures on Political and Moral Subjects

What did Wollstonecraft believe wouldhappen if women were allowed rights?

controlled and protected. By the 1700s,however, women thinkers began calling forwomen’s rights. The most powerful sup-porter of women’s rights was the Englishwriter Mary Wollstonecraft (WUL • stuhn •KRAFT). She sought to eliminate inequality ineducation between men and women. Manypeople today credit her as the founder ofthe modern movement for women’s rights.

Mary Wollstonecraft

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Reading SummaryReview the • In the 1700s, many Europeans

thought reason could make government and society better.Hobbes, Locke, and Montesquieudeveloped ideas about how toimprove government.

• Enlightenment thinkers, such asVoltaire, Diderot, and Rousseau,described ways to make societybetter.

1. Who were the Frenchphilosophes?

2. What was the Encyclopedia,and what message did it attemptto deliver to its readers?

Critical Thinking3. Organizing Information

Draw a chart to list the thinkers of the Enlightenmentand their accomplishments.

4. Why didEnlightenment thinkers believethat reason could be used tomake government and societybetter?

5. Conclude Which of theEnlightenment thinkers discussed in this section do you think had the most impact on modern society?Explain your answer.

6. Civics Link Describe howbeliefs about people and government during theEnlightenment are reflected in our government today.

CA HI2.

CA HI2.

CA 7RC2.3

CA 7RC2.0

What Did You Learn?

Study Central Need help understanding theEnlightenment? Visit ca.hss.glencoe.com and click on Study Central.

Thinker Accomplishments

In 1792 Mary Wollstonecraft wrote abook called A Vindication of the Rights ofWoman. In this work, she claimed that allhumans have reason. Because women havereason, they should have the same rights asmen. Women, Wollstonecraft said, shouldhave equal rights in education, the work-place, and in political life.

Rousseau’s Social Contract By the late1700s, some European thinkers were start-ing to criticize Enlightenment ideas. One ofthese thinkers was Jean-Jacques Rousseau(zhahn zhahk ru • SOH).

Rousseau claimed that advocates of theEnlightenment relied too much on reason.Instead, people should pay more attentionto their feelings. According to Rousseau,human beings were naturally good, but civ-ilized life corrupted them. To improvethemselves, he thought people should livesimpler lives closer to nature.

In 1762 Rousseau published a bookcalled The Social Contract. In this work,Rousseau presented his political ideas. A workable government, he said, shouldbe based on a social contract. This is an agreement in which everyone in a society agrees to be governed by the general will, or what society as a wholewants.

Compare and ContrastCompare Voltaire’s ideas to those of Rousseau.

Rousseau

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Politics and the

EnlightenmentLooking Back, Looking Ahead

You have learned how peopleduring the Scientific Revolution andthe Enlightenment emphasizedreason. This concept continues toimpact our world today.

Focusing on the • Many of Europe’s monarchs who

claimed to rule by the will of God triedto model their countries onEnlightenment ideas. (page 532)

• The American and French peoplestaged revolutions based onEnlightenment ideas. (page 534)

• The ideas of the Enlightenmentcontinue to influence the world today.(page 539)

Meeting PeopleLouis XIV (LOO•ee)Frederick II

Catherine II

George Washington

Thomas Jefferson

Locating PlacesPrussia (PRUH•shuh)Austria (AWS•tree•uh)St. Petersburg (PEE•tuhrz•BUHRG)

Content Vocabularyabsolutism (AB•suh•LOO•TIH•zuhm)representative government (REH•

prih•ZEHN•tuh•tihv)constitution (KAHN•stuh•TOO•

shuhn)popular sovereignty

(SAH•vuh•ruhn•tee)estate (ihs•TAYT)bourgeoisie (BURZH•WAH•ZEE)

Academic Vocabularytension (TEHN•shuhn)

Reading Strategy Cause and Effect Complete a cause-and-effect diagram showing howEnlightenment ideas led to theAmerican Revolution and the FrenchRevolution.

HistorySocial ScienceStandardsWH7.11 Studentsanalyze political andeconomic change in thesixteenth, seventeenth,and eighteenthcenturies (the Age ofExploration, theEnlightenment, and theAge of Reason).

1643Louis XIVbecomes

king

1740Frederick the

Great becomesPrussia’s king

1776AmericanRevolutionbegins

1789FrenchRevolutionbegins

1650 1750 18501650 1750 1850


Paris ViennaBerlin

London

St. Petersburg

Moscow

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WH7.11 Students analyze political and economic change in the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries (the Age ofExploration, the Enlightenment, and the Age of Reason).

The Age of AbsolutismMany of Europe’s monarchs who

claimed to rule by the will of God tried to model

their countries on Enlightenment ideas.

Reading Connection If you were given the chance tobe a leader, how would you treat the people you ruled?As you read, think about the power of Europe’s kingsand queens during the 1600s and 1700s.

During the 1600s and 1700s, manyEuropean thinkers favored limits on gov-ernment power. However, powerful kingsand queens ruled most of Europe. This sys-tem was known as absolutism (AB • suh •LOO • TIH • zuhm). In this system, monarchsheld absolute, or total, power. They claimedto rule by divine right, or by the will ofGod. This meant that rulers did not answerto their people, but rather to God alone.

However, as the Enlightenment spread,many of Europe’s absolute rulers turned tophilosophes for help in making their gov-ernments work better. At the same time,

however, they did not want to lose any oftheir power. Historians used to call theserulers enlightened despots. Despots arerulers who hold total power.

Louis XIV: France’s Sun King During the1600s, France was one of Europe’s strongestnations. In 1643 Louis XIV (LOO•ee) cameto the throne. As king, Louis XIV was themost celebrated absolute monarch. Hisreign of 72 years—the longest in European history—set the style for Europe’s kingsand queens. Louis was known as the SunKing, the source of light for all of his people.

Louis relied on a bureaucracy, but hewas the source of all political authority inFrance. He is said to have boasted, “I amthe State.” Louis’s army fought and wonwars to expand France’s territory, but theseconflicts were costly in money and soldiersto France. The king’s constant wars andexcessive spending weakened France andthe monarchy.

Frederick the Great During the 1600s and1700s, Germany was a collection of over 300separate states. Of these states, two—Prussia (PRUH • shuh) and Austria (AWS •tree •uh)—became great European powers.

The most famous Prussian ruler wasFrederick II, also called Frederick theGreat. He ruled from 1740 to 1786. AsPrussia’s king, Frederick strengthened thearmy and fought wars to gain new territoryfor Prussia. He also tried to be an enlight-ened ruler. He supported the arts and learn-ing and tried to carry out enlightenedreforms. He permitted his people to speakand publish more freely. He also consentedto greater religious toleration.

Austria’s Hapsburg Rulers By the 1700s,the other powerful German state, Austria,ruled a large empire of many different


Louis XIV shows the plans for his palace atVersailles. Why is Louis XIV important?

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peoples, languages, and cultures. This vastAustrian empire spread over much of cen-tral and southeastern Europe. It was ruledby a family known as the Hapsburgs.

In 1740 a young Hapsburg princessnamed Maria Theresa became Austria’sruler. Energetic and talented, Maria Theresaworked hard to improve the lot of Austria’sserfs, who worked for the nobles. She alsotried to make government work better.

After Maria Theresa died in 1780, herson, Joseph II, became ruler. Joseph IIadmired Enlightenment philosophies. Hefreed the serfs, made land taxes equal fornobles and farmers, and allowed books to bepublished freely. Despite his efforts, most ofJoseph’s reforms failed. The nobles opposedJoseph’s changes, and he was forced to backdown. However, the former serfs, now farm-ers, were allowed to keep their freedom.

Russia’s Peter I and Catherine II To theeast of Austria stretched the vast empire ofRussia. As you read previously, Russia wasruled by all-powerful rulers known asczars. One of the most powerful czars wasPeter I, also known as Peter the Great.During his reign from 1689 to 1725, Petertried to make Russia into a strong and up-to-date European power. He began reformsto make the government work moresmoothly.

Peter also improved Russia’s militaryand expanded Russia’s territory westwardto the Baltic Sea. In 1703 he founded a citycalled St. Petersburg (PEE • tuhrz • BUHRG) inthis area. A few years later, Russia’s capitalwas moved to St. Petersburg from Moscow.

After Peter died, conflict erupted amongRussia’s nobles. Then, in 1762 a Germanprincess named Catherine II came to the

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1. Movement Which state didPrussia acquire between 1700 and1720?

2. Movement During which of theperiods shown did Austria expandits territory the most?

Find NGS online map resources @www.nationalgeographic.com/maps

Frederick the Great

Joseph II

Land added, 1700–1720Land added, 1526–1699Austrian Hapsburg lands, 1525

KEYEast Prussia and possessions, 1618Land added, 1619–1699Land added, 1700–1720

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WH7.11.5 Describe how democratic thought and institutions were influenced by Enlightenment thinkers (e.g., John Locke, Charles-Louis Montesquieu, American founders). WH7.11.6 Discuss how the principles in the Magna Carta were embodied in such documents as the English Bill of Rights and the American Declaration of Independence.

throne of Russia. Early in her reign,Catherine was devoted to Enlightenmentideas. She studied about and wrote lettersto the philosophes. She even consideredfreeing the serfs, but a serf uprisingchanged her mind. In the end, she allowedthe nobles to treat the serfs as they pleased.

Under Catherine, Russia gained evenmore land and increased its power inEurope. As a result, Catherine becameknown as “the Great.” However, by 1796,the year Catherine died, the ideas of libertyand equality had spread across Europe.These ideas seriously threatened the rule ofpowerful kings and queens.

Explain How did the ideasof absolute monarchs conflict with the ideas ofEnlightenment thinkers?

Revolution and EnlightenmentThe American and French people

staged revolutions based on Enlightenment ideas.

Reading Connection Do you like to make your owndecisions, without someone else telling you what to do?Read to find out why the American colonies wanted tomake decisions without British interference.

Previously, you learned that Spain andPortugal built colonies in the Americas inthe 1500s. Beginning in the 1600s, theEnglish began setting up their own coloniesin the Americas. While the Spanish had set-tled in the Caribbean, Mexico, and SouthAmerica, England’s colonies were prima-rily in North America.

The English Settle in America English set-tlers came to North America for many rea-sons. Merchants set up some Englishcolonies to make money. Others were set upby people who wanted religious freedom.

England’s colonies grew rapidlybecause of economic problems in England.Many people in England wanted to move toAmerica because their landlords hadevicted them from their farms. In America,they had a chance to own land for them-selves. Still others came because they wereunemployed and needed jobs.

By the early 1700s, the English had cre-ated colonies along the coast of NorthAmerica. These colonies had different soci-eties, but they had one thing in common:they wanted to govern themselves.

Self-Government in America The tradi-tion of self-government began early in theEnglish colonies. To attract more settlers,the head of the Virginia Company, anEnglish joint-stock company, gave thecolonists in Virginia the right to electburgesses. Burgesses were representatives


Russia grewpowerful underPeter the Great.How did Peter tryto make Russia aEuropean power?

Catherine the Great studiedEnlightenmentideas.

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chosen from among the men who ownedland. The first House of Burgesses met in1619. It was patterned after the EnglishParliament and voted on laws for theVirginia colony.

The House of Burgesses set an examplefor representative government (REH • prih •ZEHN • tuh • tihv), or a government in whichpeople elect representatives to make lawsand conduct government. It was not longbefore other colonies set up their own legis-latures as well.

A year after the Virginia House ofBurgesses met, a group of Puritans calledthe Pilgrims arrived in North America.They began their own tradition of self-government. Before going ashore, thePilgrims signed an agreement called theMayflower Compact. They agreed to rulethemselves by choosing their own leadersand making their own laws.

Over the years, several of the Englishcolonies drew up constitutions (KAHN • stuh •TOO • shuhnz), or written plans of govern-ment. These documents let the colonistselect assemblies and protected their rights.

The Road to War For many years, GreatBritain allowed the American colonies torun their own local affairs. Between 1756and 1763, however, the French and Britishfought for control of the Americas. TheBritish won, but at great financial expense.When the British decided to impose newtaxes on the American colonies to pay forthe war, the colonists became frustrated.The colonists believed that only their localassemblies had the right to impose taxes.

This conflict eventually led to violence,more taxes, harsher laws, and rising tensionbetween the two sides. Finally, in September1774, delegates from 12 colonies met inPhiladelphia. They called themselves theFirst Continental Congress. The Congress


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spoke out against various British policiesand called for their repeal.

Colonial leaders, however, continued todebate about what to do. Some, like GeorgeWashington of Virginia, hoped to settle the

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They appealed to King George III, whorefused to cooperate. More and moreAmericans began to think that independ-ence was the only answer.

The Declaration of Independence On July4, 1776, the Congress issued the Declarationof Independence. Written by ThomasJefferson of Virginia, the Declaration statedthat the colonies were separating from GreatBritain and forming a new nation, theUnited States of America.

In the Declaration, Jefferson borrowedthe ideas of John Locke to explain why thecolonists were founding a new nation.

differences with Great Britain. Others, likeSamuel Adams of Massachusetts and PatrickHenry of Virginia, wanted the colonies tobecome independent.

Before the colonists could decide what todo, fighting broke out in Massachusetts. TheBritish set out to destroy a store of weaponsat Concord. On the way there, they encoun-tered colonial troops at Lexington and foughtthe first battle of the American Revolution.

In May 1775, the Second ContinentalCongress met in Philadelphia. GeorgeWashington was named head of a new colo-nial army. The Congress then tried again tosettle their differences with Great Britain.

On July 4, 1776, Congress approved theDeclaration of Independence. The preamble—the first part of the document—explainsCongress’s reason for issuing the declaration:“When in the Course of human events,it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another. . . . they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.”

The document also explained that people have certain basic rights:“We hold these truths to be self-evident,that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit ofHappiness.”

—Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776

Why do you think the Congress thought they had to issue a written declaration ofindependence?

The Declaration of Independence

Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, andThomas Jefferson, shown left to right,worked together to write the Declarationof Independence.

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Previously, you learned about Locke’s ideathat people have the right to overthrowgovernments that violate their rights. TheDeclaration stated that “all men are createdequal” and have certain God-given rights.It said that King George III had violatedcolonists’ rights, so they had the right torebel.

The Declaration also drew from earlierEnglish documents, such as the Magna Cartaand the English Bill of Rights. Both docu-ments established the idea that governmentsare not all-powerful and that rulers had toobey the laws and treat citizens fairly.

The United States Constitution For manyyears, the colonists fought to obtain theirfreedom. In 1783 Great Britain finally recog-nized American independence. At first theUnited States was a confederation, or aloose union of independent states. Its planof government was a document called theArticles of Confederation. The Articles cre-ated a national government, but the statesheld most powers. It soon became clear thatthe Articles were too weak to deal with thenew nation’s problems.

In 1787, 55 delegates met in Philadelphiato change the Articles. Instead, they decided

to write a constitution for an entirely newnational government. The new United StatesConstitution set up a federal system inwhich powers were divided between thenational government and the states. Follow-ing the ideas of Montesquieu, power in thenational government was divided betweenexecutive, legislative, and judicial branches.A system called checks and balances enabledeach branch to limit the powers of the otherbranches.

Under the Constitution, the United Stateswas a republic with an elected presidentinstead of a king. Elections held in 1789made George Washington the first presidentof the United States. That same year, a Bill ofRights was added to the U.S. Constitution.The Bill of Rights set out certain rights thegovernment could not violate. These rightsincluded freedom of religion, speech, andpress, and the right to trial by jury.

The U.S. Constitution was also shaped byEnlightenment principles. One of these ispopular sovereignty (SAH•vuh• ruhn• tee), orthe idea that government receives its powersfrom the people. Another is limited govern-ment, or the idea that a government may useonly those powers given to it by the people.

The American leaders who met in Philadelphia in 1787 and wrote the United States Constitutionwere some of the nation’s greatest political minds. What sort of system of government did theConstitution create?

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The French Revolution Begins The sameEnlightenment ideas that led to theAmerican Revolution also influencedFrance. In the 1700s, French kings ruledwith absolute power. Nobles had manyprivileges and lived in great wealth. Mostpeople, however, were poor, had little edu-cation, and struggled to make a living.

The French people were divided intothree estates (ihs•TAYT), or classes. The FirstEstate was the Catholic clergy, or church offi-cials. They did not pay taxes, and theyreceived money from church lands. TheSecond Estate was the nobles. They filled thehighest posts in government and the mili-tary. Like the clergy, the nobles were freefrom taxes. They lived in luxury at the king’scourt and owned large areas of land.

Everyone else in France belonged to theThird Estate. At the top of this group was the

bourgeoisie (BURZH • WAH •ZEE), or the middleclasses. They included merchants, bankers,doctors, lawyers, and teachers. Next werethe city workers—artisans, day laborers, andservants. At the bottom were the peasants,who made up more than 80 percent of theFrench people.

Members of the Third Estate wereexcluded from government affairs, but theypaid the country’s taxes. As Enlightenmentideas about freedom and justice spread, theThird Estate came to resent more and morethe privileges of the nobles and clergy.

In 1789, the members of the Third Estatedecided they had had enough. They hadseen the British colonists in America revoltand gain their freedom. Many members ofthe Third Estate were aware of theAmerican Declaration of Independence.They decided to hold an assembly to design

Music of the Enlightenment The 1700s was one of the greatest musical periods inhistory. Before this time, almost all music was religious in nature and was limited tochurch performances. During the Enlightenment, music was played in theaters for thefirst time, and some of the new pieces were not religious.

Many types of music existed in the 1700s.Sonatas were performed with one instrumentand a piano, and string quartets were played withfour instruments. Concertos and symphonieswere longer and involved an orchestra. Operaswere full-scale theatrical performances usingvocal and instrumental music.

Baroque music emphasized drama and emotion.Johann Sebastian Bach and George FrederickHandel composed baroque music. Bach composed

A string quartet

538Mozart Museum, Prague, Czech Republic, Giraudon/Bridgeman Art Library

531-541 CH11S3-868876 8/23/05 5:01 PM Page 538

WH7.11.5 Describe how democratic thought and institutions were influenced by Enlightenment thinkers (e.g., John Locke,Charles-Louis Montesquieu, American founders).

Connecting to the Past1. What is the difference in tone between baroque and

classical music?

2. What factors allowed music to thrive during the 1700s?

many pieces of music that are still popular today. Handel wrotemany operas, but he is best known for Messiah, an oratorio, orreligious composition that mixes voices, orchestra, and organ.

Classical music emerged in the mid-1700s. Classicalcomposers, inspired by the ancient Greeks and Romans,emphasized balance, harmony, and stability. Franz JosephHaydn and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart wrote classicalmusic. Haydn’s use of instruments made thesymphony more popular. Mozart composed a largenumber of musical pieces that remain popular today.

539

JohannSebastian Bach

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

The Enlightenment’s LegacyThe ideas of the Enlightenment con-

tinue to influence the world today.

Reading Connection Think about how you make deci-sions. Do you consider the various reasons for and againstsomething before deciding? Read to find out how the ratio-nalist approach of the Enlightenment continues today.

As you have learned, the ideas of theEnlightenment had a profound impact on theworld. Enlightenment ideas changed theway people thought and acted and how theyviewed the world.

The Enlightenment also changed thecourse of history in many countries. Forsome people, it led them to emphasize reasonover faith or tradition. For others, the rationalapproach to knowledge helped them betterunderstand the world but did not break theirfaith.

a new constitution so that they, too, couldhave rights and privileges. A revolt began,and people around the countryside becameterrified.

To calm the people, the assembly passednew laws that ended the privileges of boththe clergy and nobles. It also issued theDeclaration of the Rights of Man and theCitizen. The Declaration drew Enlighten-ment ideas from the American Declarationof Independence, which had borrowed fromthe Magna Carta. The French Declarationtransferred the powers of government to thepeople.

Within a few years, the French peoplehad overthrown their king and established anew government. The French Revolutionhad begun.

Explain Why did thecolonists decide to separate from Great Britainand create a new nation?

531-541 CH11S3-868876 1/17/05 2:52 PM Page 539

New Rights in America Enlightenmentprinciples sometimes took many years tochange government. For instance, theUnited States was not as democratic as it istoday. When the country was founded,women and African Americans could notvote. Ideas inspired by the Enlightenment,such as equality under the law, eventuallyled to positive changes. Sometimes thesechanges came through war. Other times


they resulted from peaceful discussion anddemonstrations.

Martin Luther King, Jr., is a prime exam-ple of how Enlightenment principlesbrought about change. King was an impor-tant civil rights leader in the United Statesduring the 1950s and 1960s. During thisperiod in U.S. history, many AfricanAmericans were treated differently thanwhite people. There were laws in parts ofthe United States that kept AfricanAmericans and white Americans segre-gated, or separate, from each other.

King believed that all people shouldhave an equal opportunity to make theirway in the United States. He also believedthat people’s success should depend ontheir abilities. Although King often spoke topeople’s hearts, his arguments were alsobased on the Enlightenment ideas of reasonand human rights.

Human Rights The idea of human rights isa concern of people throughout the worldtoday. Many countries came together afterWorld War II to create an internationalorganization called the United Nations. Thisorganization was formed to encouragecountries to settle disagreements peacefullyand to support human rights worldwide.The United Nations sends representativesthroughout the world to try to accomplishthese goals.

Generally, people in the United Statestoday try to solve problems through thedemocratic process rather than throughforce. Americans have not always succeededin resolving their differences peacefully, butthere is widespread agreement that a demo-cratic government that respects individualrights and freedoms is the best form of gov-ernment. This is an Enlightenment idea.

In many other countries, the govern-ment leaders are changed only through

Declaration of the Rights ofMan and the CitizenOn August 26, 1789, the French NationalAssembly approved 17 articles that statedtheir basic freedoms. Three of the articles arelisted below.

2. The aim of everypolitical association is the preservation of the natural . . .rights of man. Theserights are liberty,property, security,and resistance tooppression [hardship].

9. Every man being pre-sumed innocent untilhe has been provenguilty, . . .

11. The free communica-tion of ideas andopinions is one of the most precious of therights of man; every citizen can then freelyspeak, write, and print. . . .

—Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen (August 1789)

Which freedoms do Articles 2, 9, and 11protect?

Declaration ofthe Rights ofMan and theCitizen

531-541 CH11S3-868876 7/12/05 12:57 AM Page 540

violence. This was the case in ancient Romeand in France during the French Revolution.In the United States, and in many othercountries today, change in leadership occursthrough a peaceful election process.

Technology and Trade The Enlightenmentprinciple of applying rationalism to scienceand technology is still important today.Many great discoveries have been generatedby utilizing the scientific method. Examplesof important inventions include automo-biles, telephones, electrical appliances, air-planes and spaceships, computers, andmany new medicines to fight diseases.

One reason so many new technologieshave been developed is capitalism—an eco-nomic system where people can own private

property and run their own businesses.Today capitalism is one of the most importanteconomic systems in the world. Companiesin many different countries compete witheach other. Trade between countries isgreater than ever before.

When Columbus set sail hoping to finda new trade route to China, he had no ideahe was helping launch the Age of Explor-ation. Similarly, the Age of Explorationhelped begin an economic revolution thatfurthered the rise of capitalism. Over 500years ago, exploration, trade, and an inter-est in science and discovery began to buildthe world that we live in today.

Explain How did MartinLuther King, Jr., use Enlightenment principles?


Reading SummaryReview the • In the 1700s, Europe was ruled

by absolute monarchs, several ofwhom tried to implement somereforms based on Enlightenmentideas.

• The ideas of the Enlightenmenthelped to cause revolutions inAmerica and in France and alsoinfluenced the U.S. Constitution.

• The Enlightenment led to a wide-spread belief in democracy andhuman rights and to a commit-ment to science and reason thatcontinues to shape the worldtoday.

1. What was absolutism?

2. What is representative govern-ment, and what was one of thefirst examples?

Critical Thinking3. Sequencing Information

Create a chart like the onebelow. Fill in information aboutwhere and when each of therulers reigned.

4. How did the ideasand events of the Enlighten-ment influence the Declarationof Independence?

5. Describe How did absoluterulers use the ideas of theEnlightenment to better orchange their countries? Werethey successful?

6. Summarize Write an essaysummarizing the effect ofEnlightenment ideas onEurope.

7. Conclude Write aletter to the editor giving youropinion on either theDeclaration of Independence, orthe French Declaration of theRights of Man and the Citizen.Describe the political ideas inthe document and statewhether you agree or disagreewith those ideas. CA HR5.

CA 7WA2.5

CA 7RC2.0

CA HI2.

What Did You Learn?

Study Central Need help understanding thelegacy of the Enlightenment? Visitca.hss.glencoe.com and click on Study Central.

Louis Frederick Maria Peter I &XIV II Theresa Catherine II

531-541 CH11S3-868876 7/12/05 12:58 AM Page 541



The Social Contract

Jean-Jacques Rousseau published The SocialContract in 1762. The piece discussed people’srelationship to government.

. . . [Each] person, in making a contract,as it were, with himself, finds himself dou-bly committed, first, as a member of thesovereign body in relation to individuals,and secondly as a member of the state inrelation to the sovereign. . . .

As soon as the multitude is united thusin a single body, no one can injure any oneof the members without attacking thewhole, still less injure the whole withouteach member feeling it. Duty and self-

interest thus equally oblige the two . . . par-ties to give each other mutual aid. . . .

For every individual as a man may havea private will contrary to, or different from,the general will that he has as a citizen. His private interest may speak with a verydifferent voice from that of the public interest; . . . and . . . he might seek to enjoythe rights of a citizen without doing theduties of a subject. The growth of this kindof injustice would bring about the ruin ofthe body politic . . .

There is often a great difference between[individual will] and the general will; thegeneral will studies only the common inter-est while the [individual will] studies pri-vate interest.

—Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract

The Age ofEnlightenment

The philosophers of the Enlightenment wanted to build a bet-ter society than the one in which they lived. Many of their essaysdescribed how government should work and how people shouldtreat one another.

Read the passages on pages 542 and 543, and answer the ques-tions that follow.

sovereign (SAH•vuh•ruhn): supreme

multitude: great number of people

oblige (uh•BLYJ): require

mutual: shared; common

body politic: political body

premises (PREH•muhs•ehs): place;

location

indifferent: unconcerned

divulging (duh•VUHL J•ihng): revealing

Reader’s Dictionary

Jean-JacquesRousseau

WH7.11.5 Describe howdemocratic thought andinstitutions were influenced byEnlightenment thinkers (e.g.,John Locke, Charles-LouisMontesquieu, Americanfounders).

542-543 CH11 CRA-868876 7/12/05 12:59 AM Page 542


Encyclopedia

The philosophes were interested in acquiringknowledge. One of them, Denis Diderot, led ateam in compiling a 28-volume encyclopedia. Indefining the word encyclopedia, Diderot focuseson how important it is to share knowledge.

ENCYCLOPÉDIE, f. n. (Philosophy). Thisword means the interrelation of all know-ledge. . . . In truth, the aim of an encyclopédieis to collect all the knowledge scattered overthe face of the earth, to present its general out-lines and structure to the men with whom welive, and to transmit this to those who willcome after us, so that the work of past cen-turies may be useful to the following cen-turies, that our children, by becoming moreeducated, may at the same time become morevirtuous and happier. . . .

It would be desirable for the government toauthorize people to go into the factories andshops, to see the craftsmen at their work, toquestion them, to draw the tools, themachines, and even the premises. . . .

I know that this feeling is not shared byeveryone. These are narrow minds, deformedsouls, who are indifferent to the fate of thehuman race and who are so enclosed in theirlittle group that they see nothing beyond itsspecial interest. . . . What is the good ofdivulging the knowledge a nation possesses,its private transactions, its inventions, its

industrial processes, its resources, its tradesecrets, its enlightenment, its arts, and all itswisdom? Are not these the things to which itowes a part of its superiority over the rivalnations that surround it? This is what they say . . . instead of enlightening the foreigner,we could spread darkness over him . . . so thatwe could dominate more securely over every-one? These people do not realize that theyoccupy only a single point on our globe andthat they will endure only a moment in itsexistence. To this point and to this momentthey would sacrifice the happiness of futureages and that of the entire human race.

—Denis Diderot, “Encyclopédie”

Nobles discuss Enlightenment ideas.

The Social Contract

1. What is the difference between general willand the individual will?

2. Why is it important for the individual to keepin mind the general will, instead ofconcentrating only on the individual will?

Encyclopedia

3. According to Diderot, why is it important tocreate the Encyclopédie?

4. Why did some people say it was a bad idea tocreate the Encyclopédie? How did Diderotrespond to this?

Read to Write

5. Rousseau argues that people should not lettheir individual interests interfere with theinterests of the common good. Would Diderothave agreed with Rousseau? Give examplesfrom both passages that prove your opinion.

CA HR5.

542-543 CH11 CRA-868876 7/12/05 1:00 AM Page 543


Critical Thinking14. Explain How did Copernicus, Kepler,

Galileo, and Newton each add to ourunderstanding of the universe?

15. Analyze How did the ideas of theEnlightenment influence the rise of democracy?

Geography Skills16. Movement In what years did Austria

gain the most territory? 17. Human/Environment Interaction What

natural features probably helped theAustrian Empire increase its ability totrade as it grew?

18. Location Use a map of modern-dayEurope to find out which countries madeup part of the Austrian Empire. CA CS3.

CA CS3.

CA CS3.

CA 7RC2.3

CA HI2.

Review Content VocabularyWrite the key term that completes each sentence.

a. constitutionb. the scientific methodc. separation of powersd. absolutisme. theoryf. natural law

1. Louis XIV and Frederick the Great ruledunder the system of _______________.

2. Locke and Hobbes used _______________to help develop their ideas.

3. Francis Bacon developed _______________.4. Scientists develop a(n) _______________ to

explain how or why something happens.5. Montesquieu believed _______________

was needed for good government.6. A(n) _____________ is a written plan for

government.

Review the Section 1 • The Scientific Revolution

7. How did European thinkers develop newideas?

8. How did the interest in astronomy lead tonew information about the earth?

9. In what areas were significant scientificdiscoveries made?

Section 2 • The Ideas of the Enlightenment

10. How did Thomas Hobbes and John Lockedisagree?

11. Who were the philosophes, and what didthey want to accomplish?

Section 3 • Politics and the Enlightenment

12. How did the Enlightenment affectEurope’s rulers?

13. What are some of the ways that the ideasof the Enlightenment still affect us today?

Standards WH7.10 & WH7.11

N

S

W EChamberlin Trimetricprojection

200 kilometers0

200 miles0

10°E

40°N

50°N

20°E

Adriatic Sea

Po R.

Elbe R.

Danube R.

BOHEMIAMORAVIA

TRANSYLVANIA

SERBIA

SAXONY SILESIA

MILAN

TYROLCARINTHIA

CROA

TIA

AUSTRIA HUNGARY

ITALY

PestBuda

Vienna

Belgrade

Growth of Austria

Austrian Hapsburg lands, 1525Land added, 1526–1699Land added, 1700–1720

KEY

544-545 CH11CRA-868876 1/17/05 3:07 PM Page 544

Read to Write19. Writing Research Reports

Write a brief essay describingMontesquieu’s beliefs about governmentand explaining how they are reflected inthe U.S. Constitution. Use your locallibrary and the Internet to find informationto support your essay.

20. Using Your Use the informationfrom your foldable to write a short sum-mary of the main ideas of the Enlighten-ment and the Scientific Revolution. Usethis summary to help you write an essayexplaining how these ideas affected society.

Using Academic VocabularyRead each of the following sentences. Changethe underlined word in each sentence to makesure that it is grammatically correct.21. During the Renaissance, many scientists

and thinkers used a humanist approachedin their work.

22. There was more than one topics covered inDenis Diderot’s Encyclopedia.

23. Mary Wollstonecraft was an advocatingfor women’s rights.

24. The desire for freedom and independenceled to many tension moments betweenEngland and the colonies in NorthAmerica.

Building Citizenship25. Making Connections Mary

Wollstonecraft is often considered thefounder of the modern women’s rightsmovement. Use your local library to findinformation about Wollstonecraft’s impacton women’s rights. Write an essay describ-ing her influence during the Enlighten-ment and today.

Linking Past and Present26. Analyze The music, art, and literature of

the Enlightenment reflected people’s viewsduring that time. Write an essay describinghow present-day music, art, and literaturereflect people’s feelings about society. Giveexamples to support your opinion.

CA 7WA2.0

CA HI2.CA 7WA2.3

CA 7WA2.5

CA 7WA2.3


Reviewing Skills

27. Taking Notes Create achapter study guide by making a two-column chart that lists each main idea anddetails that support that main idea.

28. Recognizing Change Usinginformation from the chapter, as well asyour own research, write an essay dis-cussing the ideas of Enlightenmentthinkers and their effect on the rise ofdemocracy in Europe and America.

CA HI3.CA 7WA2.3

CA 7WS1.3

Self-Check Quiz To help you prepare forthe Chapter Test, visit ca.hss.glencoe.com

Select the best answer for eachof the following questions.

The Enlightenment thinkerBaron Montesquieu believedthat a government would notbecome too powerful if thegovernment

A was ruled by an honorable king.B obeyed Parliament’s laws.C had a separation of powers.D was based on natural law.

John Locke’s belief that allpeople have certain naturalrights influenced the writing ofwhich important document?

A the Magna CartaB the Declaration of

IndependenceC the English Bill of RightsD the Mayflower Compact

30

29

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Making Comparisons

Where did theevents in thesechapters takeplace?

• North America

• Central America

• Caribbean islands

• South America

• Europe • Western Europe

• North America

• Africa

• South Asia

• Southeast Asia

• City-states (Italy)

• Commercial cities(London, Paris)

• Farming villages

Who were someimportantpeople?

Where did mostpeople live?

What werepeople’sbeliefs?

546

TheAmericas

TheAmericas

Renaissance andReformation


Chap ter 9C hap te rs 7 & 8

Age ofExploration

Age ofExploration

Chap t er 10

• Europe

• North America

• Deism introducedin Europe andAmerica

Age ofEnlightenment

Age ofEnlightenment

C hap te r 11

Compare early modern timesby reviewing the informationbelow. Can you see how thepeople who lived during thisperiod had lives that were verymuch like yours?

Chapters 7, 8, 11

Chapter 9

Chapter 10

• Northern Europe:Protestant

• Southern Europe:Roman Catholic

• Jewishcommunities

• TraditionalNativeAmericanreligions

• Europeans spreadChristianityoverseas

• ChristopherColumbus A.D. 1451–1506

• Queen Elizabeth I(England), ruled A.D. 1558–1603

• Pachacuti, ruled A.D. 1438–1471

• Montezuma II,ruled A.D. 1502–1520

• Atahualpa, ruled A.D. 1525–1533

• Leonardo da Vinci A.D. 1452–1519

• Martin Luther A.D. 1483–1546

• Queen Isabella(Spain), ruled A.D. 1474–1504

• Francis Bacon A.D. 1561–1626

• Galileo Galilei A.D. 1564–1642

• John Locke A.D. 1632–1704

• Cities


• Port cities (Lisbon,Amsterdam)

• Overseassettlements andplantations

• Hunter-gatherers


• Cities (Cuzco andTenochtitlán)

(t)Vatican Museums & Galleries, Rome/Canali PhotoBank, (b)Boltin Picture Library

546-547 UR3-868876 7/12/05 1:01 AM Page 546

What role didlanguage andwriting play?

What wasgovernmentlike?

How are weaffected today?Can you addany examples?

Whatcontributionswere made?

547

TheAmericas

TheAmericas



Chap ter 9Chap te rs 7 & 8

Age ofExploration

Age ofExploration

Chap t er 10

• Local groups ruledby chiefs andcouncils

• Powerful emperorsor kings (Maya,Aztec, and Inca)

• Italian city-statesruled by wealthyfamilies

• Most Europeanareas ruled bykings, princes, andnobles

• Monarchies

• Control ofoverseasterritoriesthrough colonies

• Native Americansspoke hundreds oflanguages

• Mayan and Azteclanguages writtenin hieroglyphics

• Inca had no written language

• Printed bookshelped spreadknowledge

• Vernacular used inProtestant worship

• Latin remains language ofCatholic Church

• Meeting of cultures meant spread ofknowledge aboutlanguages

• Europeanlanguages broughtby settlers tooverseas colonies

Age ofEnlightenment

Age ofEnlightenment

C hap te r 11

• Divine right ofkings

• English king’spowers are limited,representativegovernmentspreads

• United Statesfounded as a republic

• Studied ancientGreek and Romantexts as well asideas of Jews andMuslims

• Developed newideas about scienceand philosophy

• Reason seen as a way to truth

• General rulesdeveloped forscientific study

• New ideas aboutgovernment

• Developed tradenetworks andmethods offarming andbuilding

• Furtherededucation

• Created lifelike art

• Different religionsexisted side by side

• Used newtechnologies toexplore the world

• Mercantilismleads to earlyforms ofcapitalism

• Native Americans passed on foods(corn, chocolate,potatoes)

• Renaissance andReformationEuropeans passedon practice ofprinting books

• Foods and suppliesavailable throughworldwide trade

• Supported rightsthat we enjoytoday

• Scientific tools(microscope,telescope) andvaccines fordisease developed

546-547 UR3-868876 1/17/05 3:19 PM Page 547

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