TEXTO CONSOLIDACION LINGUA.pdf

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Material developed and/or compiled by Cristian Torres Salvador 1

INTRODUCTION

SESSION 1

A. Introducing myself to the class.

1. Introduce yourself to your classmates.

2. Write an essay about you. Include as many things as possible.

3. Read your essay.

4. Listen to your classmates essays and write 5 questions about them.

5. Ask the questions and answer your classmates questions.

B. What I expect from this course

1. Write a list of the language items that you can handle properly.

Ex. Comparatives and superlatives

2. Write a list of the language items that you still need to review.

Ex. Phrasal verbs

3. Write a list of the language items that you dont understand.

Ex. The passive voice

4. Share your lists with your group and make common lists.

5. Share your lists with the class and write the common aspects in lists two and three on the board.

The aim of this course, besides reviewing the material given below, is to review structures which need to

be consolidated in order to achieve a level on Proficiency in English as a Foreign Language.

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ACADEMIC WRITING

SESSION 2

From Simple Sentence to Complex Sentence

Combing simple sentences to make complex sentences is an important exercise to help you advance in

your writing abilities. This writing exercise focuses on taking simple sentences and transforming them into

complex sentences which are then combined into a paragraph.

Simple Sentence -> Complex Sentence

Example: Tom is a boy. He is eight years old. He goes to school in Philadelphia.

Complex Sentence: -> Tom is an eight-year old boy who goes to school in Philadelphia.

Here are some simple rules to remember when combining simple sentences into complex sentences:

Don't repeat words

Change words if necessary

Add words to connect ideas

Complex Sentence Exercise

Combine the following sentences into complex sentences.

His name is Peter.

He's a famous professional athlete.

He's a baseball player.

He has a large house in Miami.

The house is beautiful.

He often travels around the US.

He plays away games in different cities in the US.

He travels by airplane.

He usually sleeps on the plane.

He stays up late after games.

He is an excellent pitcher.

Fans love his abilities.

Coaches love his abilities.

Every week he plays a home game.

The game is played in Glover Stadium.

The game is usually sold out.

Glover Stadium is old.

Glover Stadium doesn't have enough seats for all the fans.

The fans wait in line to buy tickets.

The fans often pay more than $60 dollars for a ticket.

The fans are unhappy about the ticket prices.

The fans love Peter.

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How to Write an Essay

There are many ways to write an essay. However, the standard essay form follows the same basic patterns

as discussed in this "how to".

Here's How:

1. Select the topic of your essay.

2. Choose the central idea, or thesis, of your essay. For example: Information technology has

revolutionized the way we work.

3. Outline your essay into introductory, body and summary paragraphs.

4. The introductory paragraph begins with an interesting sentence. For example: Home workers have

grown from 150,000 to over 12 million in the past 5 years thanks to the wonders of the computer.

5. After this first sentence, add your thesis statement from above.

6. Use one sentence to introduce every body paragraph to follow. For example: The Internet has

made this possible by extending the office into the home.

7. Finish the introductory paragraph with a short summary or goal statement. For example:

Technological innovation has thus made the traditional workplace obsolete.

8. In each of the body paragraphs (usually two or three) the ideas first presented in the introductory

paragraph are developed.

9. Develop your body paragraphs by giving detailed information and examples. For example: When

the Internet was first introduced it was used primarily by scientists, now it is common in every

classroom.

10. Body paragraphs should develop the central idea and finish with a summary of that idea. There

should be at least two examples or facts in each body paragraph to support the central idea.

11. The summary paragraph summarizes your essay and is often a reverse of the introductory

paragrah.

12. Begin the summary paragrah by quickly restating the principal ideas of your body paragraphs. For

example: The Internet in the home, benefits and ease of use of modern computer systems...

13. The penultimate sentence should restate your basic thesis of the essay. For example: We have now

passed from the industrial revolution to the information revolution.

14. Your final statement can be a future prediction based on what you have shown in the essay. For

example: The next step: The complete disappearance of the workplace.

Tips:

1. Use strong verbs and avoid modals to state your opinion. It is better to write: The workplace has

evolved than THe workplace seems to have evolved

2. Do not apologize for what you are saying. An essay is about your opinion.

3. Do not translate from your mother tongue, it will quickly get you into trouble!

SOME GENERAL ADVICE ON ACADEMIC ESSAY-WRITING

1. Miscellaneous observations on a topic are not enough to make an accomplished academic essay. An

essay should have an argument. It should answer a question or a few related questions (see 2 below). It

should try to prove something--develop a single "thesis" or a short set of closely related points--by

reasoning and evidence, especially including apt examples and confirming citations from any particular

text or sources your argument involves. Gathering such evidence normally entails some rereading of the

text or sources with a question or provisional thesis in mind.

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2. When--as is usually the case--an assigned topic does not provide you with a thesis ready-made, your

first effort should be to formulate as exactly as possible the question(s) you will seek to answer in your

essay. Next, develop by thinking, reading, and jotting a provisional thesis or hypothesis. Don't become

prematurely committed to this first answer. Pursue it, but test it--even to the point of consciously asking

yourself what might be said against it--and be ready to revise or qualify it as your work progresses.

(Sometimes a suggestive possible title one discovers early can serve in the same way.)

3. There are many ways in which any particular argument may be well presented, but an essay's

organization--how it begins, develops, and ends--should be designed to present your argument clearly

and persuasively. (The order in which you discovered the parts of your argument is seldom an effective

order for presenting it to a reader.)

4. Successful methods of composing an essay are various, but some practices of good writers are almost

invariable:

* They start writing early, even before they think they are "ready" to write, because they use writing not

simply to transcribe what they have already discovered but as a means of exploration and discovery.

* They don't try to write an essay from beginning to end, but rather write what seems readiest to be

written, even if they're not sure whether or how it will fit in.

* Despite writing so freely, they keep the essay's overall purpose and organization in mind, amending

them as drafting proceeds. Something like an "outline" constantly and consciously evolves, although it

may never take any written form beyond scattered, sketchy reminders to oneself.

* They revise extensively. Rather than writing a single draft and then merely editing its sentences one by

one, they attend to the whole essay and draft and redraft--rearranging the sequence of its larger parts,

adding and deleting sections to take account of what they discover in the course of composition. Such

revision often involves putting the essay aside for a few days, allowing the mind to work indirectly or

subconsciously in the meantime and making it possible to see the work-in-progress more objectively

when they return to it.

* Once they have a fairly complete and well-organized draft, they revise sentences, with special attention

to transitions--that is, checking to be sure that a reader will be able to follow the sequences of ideas

within sentences, from sentence to sentence, and from paragraph to paragraph. Two other important

considerations in revising sentences are diction (exactness and aptness of words) and economy (the

fewest words without loss of clear expression and full thought). Lastly, they proofread the final copy.

EX.: Write an essay applying what youve learnt.

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SESSION 3

UNDERSTANDING ESSAY TOPICS: A Checklist

Before you plunge into research or writing, invest some time in thinking through the specific assignment

you are dealing with. Remember, you are not being asked just to collect facts, but to develop and display

your powers of reasoning. You can save yourself time and frustration by beginning this reasoning early in

the process. Here are some steps.

1. Note which concepts or methods the topic asks you to use. Is the main requirement to find and

synthesize information, to argue a point with others, or to explore your own responses? Does the

assignment ask you to go into depth about some material already covered in the course? Or does it

suggest that you evaluate a theory or model by applying it to an example from outside the course material?

Whatever the design, an essay assignment expects you to use course concepts and ways of thinking; it

encourages you to apply course methodology. So if you are writing a paper in Sociology, for instance,

write it using sociological concepts covered in the course. Or if you are asked to do a close reading of a

literary text, concentrate on writing about the literary techniques seen in the text, not the author's

biography.

2. Note the key terms in the assignment sheet, including those naming parts of the topic and those

giving directions for dealing with it. Look especially for words that define the kind of reasoning you should

be using: why, how, analyse, compare, evaluate, argue, etc. Be sure you understand the specific meanings

of these terms.

Analyse means look behind the surface structure of your source material. See the relationship of

parts to whole. Be able to recognize relationships such as cause and effect, even if it's unstated in what

you read. Look for underlying assumptions and question their validity. How and why imply an answer

reached by analysis.

Compare means find differences as well as similarities. You will need to formulate the aspects

which you are looking at in each item; consider organizing your paper by using these aspects as headings.

Evaluate emphasizes that you are to apply your judgement to the results of your analysis. It asks

for an opinion based on well-defined criteria and clearly stated evidence. Wording such as to what extent

also asks for an evaluation of an idea.

Argue (or agree or disagree) likewise asks you to take a stand based on analysis of solid

evidence and explained by clear reasoning. You will need to consider other possible viewpoints and defend

your own in comparison.

3. To generate ideas from which you can choose the direction of your research or preliminary analysis, ask

yourself questions about the specific topic in terms of the concepts or methods that seem applicable.

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Look for controversies in the material to find issues that need discussing. You may want to look early on

at some general discussions in reference works such as encyclopaedias or handbooks to see how others

have framed questions or seen problems to discuss. Do all your reading looking for questions and issues,

not just information.

4. For an essay of argument, formulate a tentative thesis statement at a fairly early stage C that is, a

statement of your own likely position in the controversy that most interests you, or your preliminary answer

to an important interpretive question. You do not have to stick to this answer or statement, but it will help

focus your investigation. (See the handout Using Thesis Statements for advice on how and when to

centre your papers on thesis statements.)

Organizing an Essay

Some basic guidelines

The best time to think about how to organize your paper is during the pre-writing stage, not the writing

or revising stage. A well-thought-out plan can save you from having to do a lot of reorganizing when the

first draft is completed. Moreover, it allows you to pay more attention to sentence-level issues when you sit

down to write your paper.

When you begin planning, ask the following questions: What type of essay am I going to be writing?

Does it belong to a specific genre? In university, you may be asked to write, say, a book review, a lab

report, a document study, or a compare-and-contrast essay. Knowing the patterns of reasoning associated

with a genre can help you to structure your essay.

For example, book reviews typically begin with a summary of the book youre reviewing. They then

often move on to a critical discussion of the books strengths and weaknesses. They may conclude with an

overall assessment of the value of the book. These typical features of a book review lead you to consider

dividing your outline into three parts: (1) summary; (2) discussion of strengths and weaknesses; (3) overall

evaluation. The second and most substantial part will likely break down into two sub-parts. It is up to you to

decide the order of the two subpartswhether to analyze strengths or weaknesses first. And of course it

will be up to you to come up with actual strengths and weaknesses.

Be aware that genres are not fixed. Different professors will define the features of a genre differently.

Read the assignment question carefully for guidance.

Understanding genre can take you only so far. Most university essays are argumentative, and there is

no set pattern for the shape of an argumentative essay. The simple three-point essay taught in high school

is far too restrictive for the complexities of most university assignments. You must be ready to come up

with whatever essay structure helps you to convince your reader of the validity of your position. In other

words, you must be flexible, and you must rely on your wits. Each essay presents a fresh problem.

Avoiding a common pitfall

Though there are no easy formulas for generating an outline, you can avoid one of the most common

pitfalls in student papers by remembering this simple principle: the structure of an essay should not be

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determined by the structure of its source material. For example, an essay on an historical period should not

necessarily follow the chronology of events from that period. Similarly, a well-constructed essay about a

literary work does not usually progress in parallel with the plot. Your obligation is to advance your

argument, not to reproduce the plot.

If your essay is not well structured, then its overall weaknesses will show through in the individual

paragraphs. Consider the following two paragraphs from two different English essays, both arguing that

despite Hamlets highly developed moral nature he becomes morally compromised in the course of the

play:

(a) In Act 3, Scene 4, Polonius hides behind an arras in Gertrudes chamber in order to spy on Hamlet at

the bidding of the king. Detecting something stirring, Hamlet draws his sword and kills Polonius, thinking he

has killed Claudius. Gertrude exclaims, O, what a rash and bloody deed is this! (28), and her words mark

the turning point in Hamlets moral decline. Now Hamlet has blood on his hands, and the blood of the

wrong person. But rather than engage in self-criticism, Hamlet immediately turns his mothers words

against her: A bloody deed almost as bad, good Mother, as kill a king, and marry with his brother (29-

30). One of Hamlets most serious shortcomings is his unfair treatment of women. He often accuses them

of sins they could not have committed. It is doubtful that Gertrude even knows Claudius killed her previous

husband. Hamlet goes on to ask Gertrude to compare the image of the two kings, old Hamlet and

Claudius. In Hamlets words, old Hamlet has Hyperions curls, the front of Jove, and an eye like Mars

(57-58). Despite Hamlets unfair treatment of women, he is motivated by one of his better qualities: his

idealism

(b) One of Hamlets most serious moral shortcomings is his unfair treatment of women. In Act 3, Scene 1,

he denies to Ophelia ever having expressed his love for her, using his feigned madness as cover for his

cruelty. Though his rantings may be an act, they cannot hide his obsessive anger at one particular woman:

his mother. He counsels Ophelia to marry a fool, for wise men know well enough what monsters you make

of them (139-41), thus blaming her in advance for the sin of adultery. The logic is plain: if Hamlets mother

made a cuckold out of Hamlets father, then all women are capable of doing the same and therefore share

the blame. The fact that Gertrudes hasty remarriage does not actually constitute adultery only underscores

Hamlets tendency to find in women faults that do not exist. In Act 3, Scene 4, he goes as far as to suggest

that Gertrude shared responsibility in the murder of Hamlets father (29-30). By condemning women for

actions they did not commit, Hamlet is doing just what he accuses Guildenstern of doing to him: he is

plucking out the heart of their mystery (3.2.372-74).

The second of these two paragraphs is much stronger, largely because it is not plot-driven. It makes a well-

defined point about Hamlets moral nature and sticks to that point throughout the paragraph. Notice that the

paragraph jumps from one scene to another as is necessary, but the logic of the argument moves along a

steady path. At any given point in your essays, you will want to leave yourself free to go wherever you need

to in your source material. Your only obligation is to further your argument. Paragraph (a) sticks closely to

the narrative thread of Act 3, Scene 4, and as a result the paragraph makes several different points with no

clear focus.

What does an essay outline look like?

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Most essays outlines will never be handed in. They are meant to serve you and no one else.

Occasionally, your professor will ask you to hand in an outline weeks prior to handing in your paper.

Usually, the point is to ensure that you are on the right track. Nevertheless, when you produce your outline,

you should follow certain basic principles. Here is an example of an outline for an essay on Hamlet:

thesis: Despite Hamlets highly developed moral nature, he becomes morally compromised while

delaying his revenge.

I. Introduction: Hamlets father asks Hamlet not only to seek vengeance but also to keep his mind

untainted.

II. Hamlet has a highly developed moral nature.

A. Hamlet is idealistic.

B. Hamlet is aware of his own faults, whereas others are self-satisfied.

C. Hamlet does not want to take revenge without grounds for acting.

III. Hamlet becomes morally compromised while delaying.

A. The turning point in Hamlets moral decline is his killing of Polonius.

B. Hamlets moral decline continues when he sends Rosencrantz and Guildenstern to their death.

C. Hamlet already began his moral decline before the turning point in the play, the killing of Polonius.

1. Hamlet treats women badly.

2. Hamlet criticizes others in the play for acting falsely to get ahead, but in adopting the disguise of

madness he, too, is presenting a false face to the world.

IV. Though Hamlet becomes more compromised the longer he delays, killing the king would have been a

morally questionable act.

V. Conclusion: The play Hamlet questions the adequacy of a system of ethics based on honour and

revenge.

This is an example of a sentence outline. Another kind of outline is the topic outline. It consists of

fragments rather than full sentences. Topic outlines are more open-ended than sentence outlines: they

leave much of the working out of the argument for the writing stage.

When should I begin putting together a plan?

The earlier you begin planning, the better. It is usually a mistake to do all of your research and note-

taking before beginning to draw up an outline. Of course, you will have to do some reading and weighing of

evidence before you start to plan. But as a potential argument begins to take shape in your mind, you may

start to formalize your thoughts in the form of a tentative plan. You will be much more efficient in your

reading and your research if you have some idea of where your argument is headed. You can then search

for evidence for the points in your tentative plan while you are reading and researching. As you gather

evidence, those points that still lack evidence should guide you in your research. Remember, though, that

your plan may need to be modified as you critically evaluate your evidence.

Ex.: Write an essay applying what youve learnt

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SESSION 4

Some techniques for integrating note-taking and planning

Though convenient, the common method of jotting down your notes consecutively on paper is far from

ideal. The problem is that your points remain fixed on paper. Here are three alternatives that provide

greater flexibility:

method 1: index cards

When you are researching, write down every idea, fact, quotation, or paraphrase on a separate index

card. Small (5 by 3) cards are easiest to work with. When youve collected all your cards, reshuffle them

into the best possible order, and you have an outline, though you will undoubtedly want to reduce this

outline to the essential points should you transcribe it to paper.

A useful alternative involves using both white and coloured cards. When you come up with a point that

you think may be one of the main points in your outline, write it at the top of a coloured card. Put each

supporting note on a separate white card, using as much of the card as necessary. When you feel ready,

arrange the coloured cards into a workable plan. Some of the points may not fit in. If so, either modify the

plan or leave these points out. You may need to fill gaps by creating new cards. You can shuffle your

supporting material into the plan by placing each of the white cards behind the point it helps support.

method 2: the computer

A different way of moving your notes around is to use the computer. You can collect your points

consecutively, just as you would on paper. You can then sort your ideas when you are ready to start

planning. Take advantage of outline view in Word, which makes it easy for you to arrange your points

hierarchically. This method is fine so long as you dont mind being tied to your computer from the first stage

of the writing process to the last. Some people prefer to keep their planning low-tech.

method 3: the circle method

This method is designed to get your ideas onto a single page, where you can see them all at once.

When you have an idea, write it down on paper and draw a circle around it. When you have an idea which

supports another idea, do the same, but connect the two circles with a line. Supporting source material can

be represented concisely by a page reference inside a circle. The advantage of the circle method is that

you can see at a glance how things tie together; the disadvantage is that there is a limit to how much

material you can cram onto a page.

What is a reverse outline?

When you have completed your first draft, and you think your paper can be better organized, consider

using a reverse outline. Reverse outlines are simple to create. Just read through your essay, and every

time you make a new point, summarize it in the margin. If the essay is reasonably well-organized, you

should have one point in the margin for each paragraph, and your points read out in order should form a

coherent argument. You might, however, discover that some of your points are repeated at various places

in your essay. Other points may be out of place, and still other key points may not appear at all. Think of all

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these points as the ingredients of an improved outline which you now must create. Use this new outline to

cut and paste the sentences into a revised version of your essay, consolidating points that appear in

several parts of your essay while eliminating repetition and creating smooth transitions where necessary.

You can improve even the most carefully planned essay by creating a reverse outline after completing

your first draft. The process of revision should be as much about organization as it is about style.

How much of my time should I put into planning?

It is self-evident that a well-planned paper is going to be better organized than a paper that was not

planned out. Thinking carefully about how you are going to argue your paper and preparing an outline can

only add to the quality of your final product. Nevertheless, some people find it more helpful than others to

plan. Those who are good at coming up with ideas but find writing difficult often benefit from planning. By

contrast, those who have trouble generating ideas but find writing easy may benefit from starting to write

early. Putting pen to paper (or typing away at the keyboard) may be just what is needed to get the ideas to

flow.

You have to find out for yourself what works best for you, though it is fair to say that at least some

planning is always a good idea. Think about whether your current practices are serving you well. You know

youre planning too little if the first draft of your essays is always a disorganized mess, and you have to

spend a disproportionate amount of time creating reverse outlines and cutting and pasting material. You

know youre planning too much if you always find yourself writing your paper a day before its due after

spending weeks doing research and devising elaborate plans.

Be aware of the implications of planning too little or too much.

Planning provides the following advantages:

helps you to produce a logical and orderly argument that your readers can follow

helps you to produce an economical paper by allowing you to spot repetition

helps you to produce a thorough paper by making it easier for you to notice whether you have left

anything out

makes drafting the paper easier by allowing you to concentrate on writing issues such as grammar, word

choice, and clarity

Overplanning poses the following risks:

doesnt leave you enough time to write and revise

leads you to produce papers that try to cover too much ground at the expense of analytic depth

can result in a writing style that lacks spontaneity and ease

does not provide enough opportunity to discover new ideas in the process of writing

USING THESIS STATEMENTS

When you are asked to write an essay that creates an argument, your reader will expect a clear statement

of your position. Typically, this summary statement comes in the first paragraph of the essay, though there

is no rigid rule about position. Here are some characteristics of good thesis statements, with samples of

useful and inadequate ones. Note that the better examples substitute specific argumentative points for

sweeping general statements; they indicate a theoretical basis and promise substantial support. (See

Myths About Thesis Statements [over] for a discussion of times not to organize your writing around thesis

statements.)

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1. It makes a definite and limited assertion that needs to be explained and supported by further

discussion.

trite, irrelevant Shakespeare was the world's greatest playwright.

intriguing The last scene in Midsummer Night's Dream adds a political dimension to the comedy ending by

incorporating subtle linguistic and theatrical references to Elizabeth's position as queen.

2. It shows the emphasis of your argument and indicates its methodology.

emotional, vague This essay will show that the North American Free Trade agreement was a disaster for

the Canadian furniture industry.

worth attention Neither neo-protectionism nor post-industrial theory explains the steep reversal of fortune

for the Canadian furniture industry in the period 1988-1994. Data on productivity, profits, and employment,

however, can be closely correlated with provisions of the North American Free Trade Agreement that took

effect in the same period.

3. It shows awareness of difficulties and disagreements.

sweeping, vague Having an official policy on euthanasia just causes problems, as the Dutch example

shows.

suitably complex Dutch laws on euthanasia have been praised for their use of the principle of self-

determination. Recent cases, however, show that these laws have not been able to deal adequately with

issues involving technological intervention on unconscious patients. Hamarckian theory is needed to

enlarge the framework used in creating the Dutch law. It provides one way to examine the key question of

how to assign rights.

N.B. See over for a discussion of faulty ideas about thesis statements.

Myths about Thesis Statements

and some better ideas

Every paper requires one.

Assignments that ask you to write personal responses or to explore a subject don't want you to prejudge

the issues. Essays of literary interpretation often want you to be aware of many effects rather than seeming

to box yourself into one view of the text.

A thesis statement must come at the end of the first paragraph.

This is a natural position for a statement of focus, but it's not the only one. Some theses can be stated in

the opening sentences of an essay; others need a paragraph or two of introduction; others can't be fully

formulated until the end.

A thesis statement must be one sentence in length.

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Clear writing is more important than rules like these. Use two or three sentences if you need them. A

complex argument may require a whole tightly-knit paragraph to make its initial statement of position.

You can't start writing an essay until you have a perfect thesis statement.

It=s usually a good idea to draft a hypothesis or tentative thesis statement near the start of a big project,

but changing and refining a thesis is a main task of thinking your way through your ideas as you write a

paper. Some projects need to explore the question in depth without being locked in too early. Think in

terms of a possible answer to your question, not a rigid commitment. Then go back and reformulate your

introduction once you see how far you get.

A thesis statement must give three points of support.

It should indicate that the essay will explain and give evidence for its assertion, but points of evidence don't

need to come in any specific number. It=s also important to consider the range of possible perspectives

(including their pros and cons), not just to gather support for one view.

Ex.: Write an essay applying what youve learnt

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SESSION 5

Using Topic Sentences

What is a topic sentence?

A topic sentence states the main point of a paragraph: it serves as a mini-thesis for the paragraph. You

might think of it as a signpost for your readersor a headlinesomething that alerts them to the most

important, interpretive points in your essay. When read in sequence, your essays topic sentences will

provide a sketch of the essays argument. Thus topics sentences help protect your readers from confusion

by guiding them through the argument. But topic sentences can also help you to improve your essay by

making it easier for you to recognize gaps or weaknesses in your argument.

Where do topic sentences go?

Topic sentences usually appear at the very beginning of paragraphs. In the following example from

Anatomy of Criticism, Northrop Frye establishes the figure of the tragic hero as someone more than

human, but less than divine. He backs up his claim with examples of characters from literature, religion and

mythology whose tragic stature is a function of their ability to mediate between their fellow human beings

and a power that transcends the merely human:

The tragic hero is typically on top of the wheel of fortune, half-way between human society on

the ground and the something greater in the sky. Prometheus, Adam, and Christ hang between heaven

and earth, between a world of paradisal freedom and a world of bondage. Tragic heroes are so much the

highest points in their human landscape that they seem the inevitable conductors of the power about them,

great trees more likely to be struck by lightning than a clump of grass. Conductors may of course be

instruments as well as victims of the divine lightning: Miltons Samson destroys the Philistine temple with

himself, and Hamlet nearly exterminates the Danish court in his own fall.

The structure of Fryes paragraph is simple yet powerful: the topic sentence makes an abstract point, and

the rest of the paragraph elaborates on that point using concrete examples as evidence.

Does a topic sentence have to be at the beginning of a paragraph?

No, though this is usually the most logical place for it. Sometimes a transitional sentence or two will

come before a topic sentence:

We found in comedy that the term bomolochos or buffoon need not be restricted to farce, but could be

extended to cover comic characters who are primarily entertainers, with the function of increasing or

focusing the comic mood. The corresponding contrasting type is the suppliant, the character, often

female, who presents a picture of unmitigated helplessness and destitution. Such a figure is pathetic,

and pathos, though it seems a gentler and more relaxed mood than tragedy, is even more terrifying. Its

basis is the exclusion of an individual from the group; hence it attacks the deepest fear in ourselves that we

possessa fear much deeper than the relatively cosy and sociable bogey of hell. In the suppliant pity

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and terror are brought to the highest possible pitch of intensity, and the awful consequences of rejecting

the suppliant for all concerned is a central theme of Greek tragedy.

The context for this passage is an extended discussion of the characteristics of tragedy. In this paragraph,

Frye begins by drawing a parallel between the figure of the buffoon in comedy and that of the suppliant in

tragedy. His discussion of the buffoon occurred in a earlier section of the chapter, a section devoted to

comedy. The first sentence of the current paragraph is transitional: it prepares the way for the topic

sentence. The delayed topic sentence contributes to the coherence of Fryes discussion by drawing an

explicit connection between key ideas in the book. In essays, the connection is usually between the last

paragraph and the current one.

Sometimes writers save a topic sentence for the end of a paragraph. You may, for example,

occasionally find that giving away your point at the beginning of a paragraph does not allow you to build

your argument toward an effective climax.

How do I come up with a topic sentence? And what makes a good one?

Ask yourself whats going on in your paragraph. Why have you chosen to include the information you

have? Why is the paragraph important in the context of your argument? What point are you trying to make?

Relating your topic sentences to your thesis can help strengthen the coherence of your essay. If you

include a thesis statement in your introduction, then think of incorporating a keyword from that statement

into the topic sentence. But you need not be overly explicit when you echo the thesis statement. Better to

be subtle rather than heavy-handed. Do not forget that your topic sentence should do more than just

establish a connection between your paragraph and your thesis. Use a topic sentence to show how your

paragraph contributes to the development of your argument by moving it that one extra step forward. If

your topic sentence merely restates your thesis, then either your paragraph is redundant or your topic

sentence needs to be reformulated. If several of your topic sentences restate your thesis, even if they do

so in different words, then your essay is probably repetitive.

Does every paragraph need one?

No, but most do. Sometimes a paragraph helps to develop the same point as in the previous

paragraph, and so a new topic sentence would be redundant. And sometimes the evidence in your

paragraph makes your point so effectively that your topic sentence can remain implicit. But if you are in

doubt, its best to use one.

Developing Coherent Paragraphs

Paragraph structures provide a map for your ideas, guiding readers through your reasoning. Keep this

simple set of principles in mind while you write, and use it as a checklist when you're revising.

Use Topic Sentences

State the central idea of each paragraph explicitly in a topic sentence. That's one way to show that you

have thought through your material.

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In academic writing, the topic sentence nearly always works best at the beginning of a paragraph so that

the reader knows what to expect. Don't count on your readers to guess what your paragraph is going to be

about.

NOTE: The first and last paragraphs of an essay are exceptions to this rule. In both instances, readers

already know you're leading up to something, and you can save the topic sentence to make a strong

paragraph ending.

Expand on the Topic Sentences

The body of a paragraph develops and demonstrates what your topic sentences state. Here are some

common patterns:

Explain more fully what you mean, giving definitions or indicating distinctions.

Offer details, examples, or relevant quotations (with your comments).

Follow through a logical sequence, showing the connections among your ideas in a recognizable

pattern such as cause and effect or comparison and contrast.

(To see other strategies for developing paragraphs, follow this link to U of Ottawa's HyperGrammar. To

learn more about topic sentences, visit the UC Writing Workshop's file on Using Topic Sentences.)

Show Connections

Be sure your intended logic is clear. Often the simplest words do the most to pull together ideas. Pronouns

such as it and they and this keep the focus on the ideas announced at the beginning of the paragraph--as

long as they are clearly linked to specific nouns (see the Purdue University file on pronoun reference).

Deliberate repetition of key words also helps. This paragraph shows the interweaving of key nouns and

pronouns to emphasize the point that Canadians share an interest in communication:

It's perhaps not surprising that Marshall McLuhan, the most influential communications expert of the

twentieth century, was a Canadian. As a nation, we have been preoccupied with forging communication

links among a sparse, widespread population. The old Canadian one-dollar bill, with its line of telephone

poles receding to the distant horizon, illustrates this preoccupation. Year after year we strive to maintain

a national radio and television broadcasting system in the face of foreign competition. We have been

aggressive in entering the international high technology market with our telecommunications equipment.

(from Northey, Impact: A Guide to Business Communication. Toronto: Prentice-Hall, 1993, p. 3.)

Certain specialized linking words can also be powerful tools for pulling ideas together. But don't just

sprinkle them into your sentences-- use them to support your logic. Here are some examples:

To signal a reinforcement of ideas:

also in other words in addition

for example moreover more importantly

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To signal a change in ideas:

but on the other hand however

instead yet in contrast

although nevertheless in spite of [something]

To signal a conclusion:

thus therefore accordingly

in conclusion finally so [informal]

Choose Appropriate Paragraph Length

A series of long paragraphs can make prose dense and unpleasant to read. Check any paragraph that is

longer than a page to see if it would work better as two or more paragraphs. Break it at a logical place

(e.g., where your focus shifts), and see whether you need to create new topic sentences to make the shift

clear.

Also look for paragraphs only two or three sentences long. They make academic writing seem disjointed or

skimpy. Try combining a few short paragraphs into one, using a single topic sentence to hold them

together.

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SESSION 6

REVISING AND EDITING

Revising gives you the chance to preview your work on behalf of the eventual reader. Revision is much

more than proofreading, though in the final editing stage it involves some checking of details. Good revision

and editing can transform a mediocre first draft into an excellent final paper. It's more work, but leads to

real satisfaction when you find you've said what you wanted.

Here are some steps to follow on your own. Writing centres can give you further guidance.

Start Large, End Small

Revision may mean changing the shape and reasoning in your paper. It often means adding or deleting

sentences and paragraphs, shifting them around, and reshaping them as you go. Before dealing with

details of style and language (editing), be sure you have presented ideas that are clear and forceful. Make

notes as you go through these questions, and stop after each section to make the desired revisions.

1. First check whether you have fulfilled the intention of the assignment. Look again at the instruction

sheet, and revise your work to be sure you can say yes to these questions:

o Have you performed the kind of thinking the assignment sheet asked for (e.g., analyse, argue, compare,

explore)?

o Have you written the genre of document called for (e.g., book review, critique, personal response, field

notes, research report, lab report, essay)?

o Have you used concepts and methods of reasoning discussed in the course? Dont be shy of using

theoretical terms from the course. Also beware of just retelling stories or listing information. Looking at your

topic sentences in sequence will show what kinds of ideas you have emphasized. (See our handout on

Developing Coherent Paragraphs.)

o Have you given adequate evidence for your argument or interpretation? Be sure that the reader knows

why and how your ideas are important. A quick way of checking is to note where your paragraphs go after

their topic sentences. Watch out for repetitions of general ideaslook for progression into detailed

reasoning, usually including source referencing.

2. Then look at overall organization. It's worthwhile to print out everything so that you can view the entire

document. Then consider these questions, and revise to get the answers you want:

o Does your introduction make clear where the rest of the paper is headed? If the paper is argument-

based, you will likely use a thesis statement. Research papers often start with a statement of the research

question. (Ask a clear-headed roommate or other friend to give you a prediction of what he or she expects

after reading only the first few paragraphs of your paper. Dont accept a vague answer.)

o Is each section in the right place to fulfil your purpose? (It might help to make a reverse outline: take the

key idea from each paragraph or section and set it down in a list so you can see the logical structure of

what youve written. Does it hang together? Is it all necessary? Whats missing? Revise to fill in gaps and

take out irrelevant material.)

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o Have you drawn connections between the sections? (Look again at your topic sentences to see if they

link back to what has just been said as well as looking forward to the next point. Find ways to draw ideas

together explicitly. Use logical statements, not just a sprinkling of connecting words.)

o Would a person reading your conclusion know what question you had asked and how you had arrived at

your answer? (Again, ask for a real paraphrase.)

3. Now polish and edit your style by moving to smaller matters such as word choice, sentence structure,

grammar, punctuation, and spelling. You may already have passages that you know need further work.

This is where you can use computer programs (with care) and reference material such as handbooks and

handouts. Here are some tips:

o Read passages aloud to see if you have achieved the emphasis you want. Look for places to use short

sentences to draw attention to key ideas, questions, or argumentative statements. If you can't read a

sentence all the way through with expression, try cutting it into two or more.

o Be sure to use spell check. It will help you catch most typos and many wrongly spelled words. But dont

let it replace anything automatically, or youll end up with nonsense words. You will still have to read

through your piece and use a print dictionary or writer's handbook to look up words that you suspect are

not right.

o Don't depend on a thesaurus. It will supply you with lists of words in the same general category as the

one you have triedbut most of them won't make sense. Use plain clear words instead. Use a print

dictionary and look up synonyms given as part of definitions. Always look at the samples of usage to.

o Dont depend on a grammar checker. The best ones still miss many errors, and they give a lot of bad

advice. If you know that you overuse slang or the passive voice, you may find some of the hits useful, but

be sure to make your own choice of replacement phrases. A few of the explanations may be useful. But

nothing can substitute for your own judgement.

A Note on Appearance:

Looks do count. Give your instructor the pleasure of handling a handsome documentor at least of not

getting annoyed or inconvenienced. These are the basic expectations for any type of assignment.

o Include a cover page giving the title of your paper, the name of the course, your name, the date, and the

instructors name. Dont bother with coloured paper, fancy print, or decorations.

o Number your pages in the top right-hand corner. Omit the number for the first page of your paper (since

it will be headed by the title), starting in with 2 on the second page.

o Double-space your text, including indented quotations, footnotes, and reference lists. Leave margins of

one inch (2.5 cm) on all sides of the page.

o Use a standard font in twelve-point size. For easier reading, don't right-justify your lines.

o Put the reference list or bibliography on a separate page at the end. (See the handout on Standard

Documentation Format: choose your format, then use the examples as guides.)

o Staple your pages; dont use a bulky binding or cover.

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SESSION 7

USING THE COMPUTER TO IMPROVE YOUR WRITING

You already know that the computer lets you easily type in text, shift it around, and make small changes. It

can also help in other ways if you know its capacitiesand its limitations. Here are some simple and

practical tips on making the most of the computer to draft and revise your work. Use the Help key in your

word-processing program to learn more about the functions mentioned here.

Composing

If you use word processing only for typing final drafts, you may be surprised how much power you gain by

doing all your writing on the computer.

1. You don't have to create clean or fully developed text the first time. Try jotting down your ideas as they

come, without looking up spelling or other details. Just make a note or insert XXXX or //// or a lot of space

in the text to mark places to return. Use the highlight button from the bar at the top to show passages that

need more work. Create a full draft quicklythen go back and strengthen it.

2. Try doing brainstorming on screen. Write anything that comes to mind about your topic, then see what

you have said. It's encouraging to scroll through your results later and find worthwhile bits to develop. For

real writer's block, turn off the screen lighting and type in what occurs to you on a darkened screen: you'll

probably be surprised at how much sense the seemingly random sequences make. It's like talking out loud.

3. Outlining is easier on computer. Even a simple list of points to cover helps get you started. You can use

Enter and Tab to set up an initial structure. If you like to work from a full outline, try the built-in outliner to

type in your initial ideas in an indented and numbered sequence. (In WordPerfect it's Insert, Outline; in

Word it's Format, Bullets and Numbering, Outline Numbered.) With any type of outline you can fill in as

much as you want in each session of writing.

4. A simple idea: don't double-space your text until you're ready to print it out. You need to see as many

lines as possible on screen to get a sense of the flow of your work.

5. Save time by using short forms in your first draft. Then use the Search or Find function from the Edit

menu (Ctrl-f is the shortcut key in both WordPerfect and Word) to insert full wordings. For instance, you

can type sov while you're writing your draft, and then replace it with sovereignty-association when you're

ready to print. (But confirm each replacement.)

Revising

Word processing comes into its own with the real work of good writingcutting, arranging, and rewriting.

Get to know what your computer can and can't do to support you.

6. Don't be deceived by the orderly look of text on the screen. Print out your paper several times in order to

look at it as a wholenot just 24 lines at a time. Read it through critically, comparing sections and checking

overall flow and logic.

7. This kind of checking may make you want to restructure your essay completely. Luckily, the computer

makes that easy with its cut-and-paste functions (Ctrl-x and Ctrl-v). If you're uncertain about where a

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section should go, try copying it and looking at it in both places; then you can choose which position you

prefer.

8. Keep all your drafts in case you want to go back to an earlier version. Use the Save As function from the

File menu to rename the drafts in sequence (that's easier than navigating the automatic Versions option in

Word). Later you can open multiple windows to see two or more drafts at once.

9. It's worthwhileespecially for group workto learn the Comment command from the Insert menu in

either Word or WordPerfect. You can write notes to yourself (or your co-writer) that show up behind

highlighted passages but don't change the layout of the text. The Track Changes function in Word

automatically uses different coloured font to show suggested changes in wording. It's easy to accept or

reject specific changes later.

10. To go quickly to a specific passage in your draft, use the Search or Find function of any word

processor (Ctrl-f). Type in a word or two you remember using and ask the computer to find them. It's much

quicker than scrolling through.

11. The computer makes documentation less trouble. Footnotes or endnotes take only a few keystrokes

from the Insert menu. Parenthetical references are easy to check and complete. The first time you enter a

parenthetical reference, type out the full publication information at the end of the document to form a rough

Reference list. You can format and alphabetize these entries later by using the Sort function (under Tools

in Word Perfect, under Table in Word): just highlight that portion of the text.

12. Be sure to use the spellchecker (Tools, Spell Check) as a final touch to your editing. It can catch

typos as well as spelling errors. Set the language (Tools, Language) to Canadian English rather than US

or British English to avoid wondering whether it's labour or labor. Don't accept all the suggestions a

spellchecker makes. It won't recognize personal names or technical terms. And you will definitely still need

to proofread for sense. If you are writing about research on lungs, you don't want to find that your

document talks about lunch instead. And the computer can't tell you that you've mistyped form when you

meant from, much less that you've misused principle for principal.

13. So don't throw out your print dictionary. You will have to look up the words that spellcheckers don't

recognize; and of course you will need it to check meaning and usage. If you use the computer Thesaurus

(in WordPerfect it's under Tools, Thesaurus; in Word, it's under Tools, Language, Thesaurus), do so

with care and thought. Don't use a word if you aren't sure of its meaning.

14. The grammar checkers built into Word and WordPerfect may help you overcome bad habits such as

overusing jargon or the passive voice. Don't count on these programs, however, to clear up problems with

sentence structure or word choice. They catch only a few kinds of grammar errors, and they often flag good

sentences mistakenly. If you do use a grammar checker, study the options and the onscreen comments.

You might learn something, or you might see how badly the program has read your sentence. Find the

Options button and select only the features that are useful and understandable. WARNING: Don't accept

the check "as-you-go" features (turn them off under Tools, Spelling and Grammar in Word; Tools,

Proofread in WordPerfect). The red or green lines bouncing up as you type are distracting, and at least

half their flags are wrong.

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15. You can do your own style checking by making the most of the simple Find function (Ctrl-f). For

instance, if you know you have overused or misused a certain word or phrase, let Find call up each

instance and then look at it in context to see if another word would be better. This can even work with types

of words: try searching for ion or met (type a space after those letters) to notice how many abstract words

you have used ending in those letters. Even looking at each use of and, but, or which can show up some

habits of sentence structuring. Use your judgement about what to change.

16. If you hit a tough passage to revise, give yourself lots of screen space to try out new versions. Do a

hard-page return (Ctrl-Enter) and use the rest of the screen to play around with your ideas. It can

sometimes help to make a list or other visual structureuse Enter and Tab as much as you like until you

see the essential shape of your ideas. Revise, then delete the Enters and Tabs to get back your text.

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SESSION 8

Writing Giving Instructions Essays

A Giving Instructions essay is an essay in which you explain how to do something. One is often required

to explain how to do something in writing. Essays explaining how to set up a campsite, how to get a

passport, how to win a marathon, how to choose the right bicycle, or how to conduct an experiment are all

Giving Instructions essays. When writing a Giving Instructions essay, it is necessary to keep the

following points in mind.

1. Use chronological order. Many Giving Instructions essays must be written in chronological order. If

you are explaining how to patch a tube to fix a flat tire on a bicycle, for example, all the necessary steps

must be written in chronological order, or the reader will not succeed in fixing the flat tire. Or, if you are

explaining how to drive to Teotihuacan from Quertaro, for example, the directions must be in

chronological order, or the reader may end up in Pachuca.

(Writing instructions in chronological order often requires effective use of time transitions. While not a

giving instructions essay, Bobby Julich uses many time transitions in the report to his fans in describing

the bicycle crash that eliminated him from the 1999 Tour de France.)

2. Keep your audience in mind. If you are explaining how to send an attachment with an e-mail

message (or how to download an MP3 and convert it to WAV, something even more complicated) to

someone who has limited computer experience, it is necessary to explain it simply so it can be easily

understood. If you are explaining an intricate, highly specific procedure that is related to your career

(whether architecture, business, or agronomy), and it cannot be understood by a general academic

audience, then do not write it. The audience for whom you write in this class should be a general

academic audience. It is helpful when you finish writing your essay to try to read it from the perspective

of your audience. Then ask yourself how your Giving Instructions essay would look from their

perspective.

3. Stick to the point. When explaining how to change a tire on a car, for example, don't discuss where

to buy cheap tires or how long new ones should last. Such details may interest the reader, but they won't

help in changing the tire.

4. State your organization. Tell your audience what you are going to tell them; then tell them; then tell

them what you told them. While this may sound childish or even simplistic to the non-native English

speaker, it is not simplistic. Instead, it is the organizational pattern that readers of English expect, and,

most important, you will never go wrong if you err on the side of clarity. State your organization clearly.

5. Use a straight line of development. It was stated earlier that the US academic audience expects a

straight line of development. A straight line of development within the essay includes the following: In the

first paragraph, write an introduction that grabs your reader's attention. State the main idea and

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controlling statement. Also include the three main points you intend to discuss. In the body of the essay

(paragraphs two, three, and four) begin each paragraph with the main point (topic sentence) followed by

supporting detail(s). Finally, in the conclusion, be sure to restate your main idea, restate the main points

you covered, and, finally, leave the reader with a good impression. The above concepts applied to a

Giving Instructions essay can result in a five-paragraph essay that is organized as follows:

Paragraph 1: Introduction. Get the reader's attention. Introduce

your main idea and controlling statement. State the three main

points that you intend to discuss. (A five paragraph essay will

contain three main points.)

This is where you "tell

your readers what you are

going to tell them."

Paragraph 2: State the first main point (topic sentence). State

the supporting detail(s). .

Paragraph 3: State the second main point (topic sentence).

State the supporting detail(s).


them." (Paragraphs 2, 3,

and 4)

Paragraph 4: State the third main point (topic sentence). State

the supporting detail(s). .

Paragraph 5: Conclusion. Restate your main idea. Restate

your main points. Leave the reader with a good impression.


your readers what you told

them."

Finally, it may be helpful reading "Giving Instructions" essays by other ESL students. On the last day of

class several semesters ago, students were asked to write letters to younger students following them into

the composition course. While their assignment was not necessarily to write a "Giving Instructions"

essay, each essay here demonstrates the application of the above organizational concepts to short

"Giving Instructions" essays.

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SESSION 9

Writing Cause or Effect Essays

Organization of Cause or Effect Essays

In this Advanced Composition course, it is important to understand that Cause/Effect compositions are

not to be about both causes and effects. On the contrary, for the compositions you write for this class, you

should focus on writing about either the causes or the effects, not both. The reason for this is as follows:

Consider a topic such as "Air Pollution in Mexico City" as an example. If you were to write a twenty-page,

exhaustive study about air pollution in Mexico City, perhaps it would be possible to write about both the

causes and effects, ten pages describing the causes of air pollution and then ten pages describing the

effects of air pollution. However, when writing a short two or three page composition about "Air Pollution

in Mexico City," it is necessary to limit your topic so you can cover it thoroughly. Using this topic as an

example, it would be possible to develop either the causes or the effects of air pollution in Mexico City

very thoroughly as follows:

What, for example, are the causes of air pollution in Mexico? Students in the past have said (1) exhaust

from automobiles and trucks, (2) soot from industry smokestacks, (3) geography, (4) speed bumps, (5)

corruption at emissions inspection stations, (6) more high pollution cars as a result of no-drive days, (7)

insufficient low pollution public transportation, etc. Any of these ideas about the causes of air pollution can

be developed into a two or three page essay. It would be possible to write about just one cause, the main

cause, and explore it in depth, or it would be possible to write about the three main causes, for example.

On the other hand, what are the effects of air pollution in Mexico? Students in the past have said (1) poor

visibility, (2) headaches, (3) emphysema, (4) allergies, (5) runny eyes and nose, (6) shorter life span for

Mexico City's residents, (7) lower quality of life for Mexico City's residents, (8) necessity to stay indoors,

(9) more sitting in front of the television, (10) destruction of wildlife, (11) negative world attention, (12)

decrease in tourism, etc. Any of these ideas about the effects of air pollution can be developed into a two

or three page essay. As above, it would be possible to write about just one effect, the main effect, or it

would be possible to write about the three main effects.

There are several important points to remember when writing a Cause or Effect essay.

1. State your organization. In all your compositions for an academic audience, you should state your

organization. Stating your organization means that you should (1) tell your audience what you are going

to tell them, (2) then tell them, and (3) then tell them what you told them.

2. List all of the causes or all of the effects, not necessarily in your essay, but before you begin to write

your essay. On a piece of paper before beginning to write your essay, list as many causes or effects that

you can think of. Using the above example about the effects of pollution in Mexico City, you may write

your ideas as follows:

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Effects of Air Pollution in Mexico City

more sitting in front of the television

necessity to stay indoors_____destruction of wildlife

negative world attention_______________decrease in tourism

allergies_____________________________emphysema

headaches_______________lower quality of life

poor visibility_______shorter life span

runny eyes and nose

When looking at all these effects of air pollution in Mexico City--there are twelve of them--it is necessary

to consider what you want to write about. Since it would be impractical to list them all in a short essay, it

might be possible to categorize or classify some of them under a single heading such as "health effects."

So, in the following space, list all the effects of air pollution in Mexico City that could be listed under health

effects.

______________________________________________

______________________________________________

Question: Is it possible to categorize any of the other effects of air pollution in Mexico City? Your goal

should be to try to organize your information into three or four main points if possible so it can be

presented to the reader clearly and concisely. If you were to write an essay about the effects of air

pollution in Mexico, what are the three or four main categories that you would include? List them in the

following spaces:

1. ______________________________________________

2. ______________________________________________

3. ______________________________________________

(4.) ____________________________________________

Other points to remember when writing a Cause or Effect essay are as follows:

4. Support all of the causes or effects with supporting details. If you believe, for example, that an

important effect of air pollution in Mexico City is a lower quality of life for the city's residents, state

your point clearly at the beginning of a paragraph and then supply supporting details to help your

reader understand how or why that is true.

5.

4. Save your most important cause or effect until last. There is often one major cause or effect that is

most important. By saving it until last, you leave your reader with a very strong impression. Also, if you

put your most important cause or effect first, your reader may not feel it is necessary to continue reading.

5. Finally, maintain your focus. In a short cause or effect essay of 350-400 words, limit the range of your

topic to either the causes or effects of something. A cause or effect composition doesn't recommend how

to change the situation or give opinions about why the situation is good or bad. It simply examines the

reasons for it.

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SESSION 10

Writing Effective Comparison / Contrast Essays

A Comparison or Contrast essay is an essay in which you either compare something or contrast

something. A comparison essay is an essay in which you emphasize the similarities, and a contrast

essay is an essay in which you emphasize the differences. We use comparison and contrast thinking

when deciding which university to attend, which car to buy, or whether to drive a car or take a bus or an

airplane to a vacation site.

In this section, two classic organizational patterns of a comparison or contrast essay will be discussed.

One is called block arrangement of ideas; the other is called point-by-point or alternating

arrangement of ideas. Suppose you are interested in showing the differences between airplanes and

helicopters. You will then write a contrast composition. One way to arrange your material is to use the

block arrangement which is to write about airplanes in one paragraph and helicopters in the next. If you

mention a particular point in the airplane paragraph, you must mention the same point in the helicopter

paragraph, and in the same order. Study the following outline, which shows this kind of organization.

BLOCK ARRANGEMENT

I. Introduction in which you state your purpose which is to discuss differences

between airplanes and helicopters

II. Airplanes

A. Shape and design

B. Speed

C. Direction of takeoff and flight

III. Helicopters

A. Shape and design

B. Speed


IV. Conclusion

A second way to organize this material is to discuss a particular point about airplanes and then

immediately discuss the same point about helicopters. This is called a point-by-point or alternating

arrangement. An outline of this organization follows.

POINT-BY-POINT or ALTERNATING ARRANGEMENT

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I. Introduction in which you state your purpose which is to discuss differences between

airplanes and helicopters

II. Differences between airplanes and helicopters

A. Shape and design

1. Airplanes

2. Helicopters

B. Speed

1. Airplanes

2. Helicopters


1. Airplanes

2. Helicopters

III. Conclusion

APPLICATION

Examine the short comparison or contrast essays that follow, and decide whether the authors used block

arrangement or point-by-point (or alternating) arrangement.

The Differences Between Airplanes and Helicopters

Airplanes and helicopters are both important forms of air travel, but there are great

differences between them.

The first major difference between airplanes and helicopters is their shape and design.

Airplanes, for example, have long, slender bodies with wings while helicopters have round

bodies and propellers rather than wings.

Another difference between airplanes and helicopters is their speed. Airplanes can travel

extremely fast, reaching speeds of over 1,875 miles (3,000 kilometers) per hour.

Helicopters, on the other hand are much slower than airplanes.

The final difference between airplanes and helicopters is their direction of takeoff and flight.

Airplanes take off horizontally and can move in a forward direction only. They need a lot of

space for takeoff and landing. Airplanes regularly carry several hundred passengers.

Helicopters, however, take off vertically and can move in any direction. Helicopters require a

very small takeoff or landing space, and most helicopters carry only two to five passengers.

Because of the great differences between airplanes and helicopters, each is used for a

specific purpose. Airplanes and helicopters, therefore, are both important forms of air travel.

How to Support Your Point of View though Comparison and Contrast

It was stated at the beginning of this section that we use comparison and contrast thinking when deciding

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which university to attend, which car to buy, or whether to drive a car or take a bus or an airplane to a

vacation site. Many times writers use comparison or contrast to support a personal point of view. For

example, the following paragraphs are from the book, Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance by

Robert Persig. Note that Persig's description of the differences between riding in a car and riding a

motorcycle is not neutral. Instead, Persig uses comparison and contrast to serve a persuasive aim: to

show the reader why riding a motorcycle is more stimulating than driving a car (Persig, by Heffernan and

Lincoln).

Which do You Prefer?

You see things vacationing on a motorcycle in a way that is completely different from any

other. In a car you're always in a compartment, and because you're used to it, you don't

realize that through that car window everything you see is just more TV. You're a passive

observer, and it is all moving by you boringly in a frame.

On a cycle the frame is gone. You're completely in contact with it all. You're in the scene,

not just watching it anymore, and the sense of presence is overwhelming. That concrete

whizzing by five inches below your foot is the real thing, the same stuff you walk on. It's right

there, so blurred you can't focus on it, yet you can put your foot down and touch it anytime,

and the whole thing, the whole experience, is never removed from immediate consciousness.

Finally, read the following essay, Two Dads Are Better than One, in which a freshman composition

student contrasts her stepfather with her biological father in order to decide which she should care about

more. Which organizational style does she use?

Two Dads Are Better than One

I've always envied people with only two parents. They never have to feel sorry for their real

father because he is lonely, and they never have to feel they should care more about their

stepfather because he is the one who has provided them with the necessities most of their

lives. Since I have two fathers, I have known these feelings. I know what it's like trying to

decide which father I should care about more so that I could tell my friends the next time they

asked. It really should be a clear-cut decision. My two fathers are so different in everything

that I should be able to look at these differences and decide.

A major difference between the two is how responsible they are. My stepfather has always

had a steady job. He enjoys going to work each day and knowing that at the end of the week

he'll get a paycheck. With this paycheck he pays bills, buys groceries, and makes sure we

all have clothes to wear. On the other hand, my father doesn't particularly care for steady

jobs. He is a singer and has worked three or four nights a week in nightclubs most of his

life. With his money, he buys things like new guitars and amplifiers. His idea of providing for

us, as Mom tells me, is to send ten dollars

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a month, which is to be divided three ways. He only does this, however, when he's out of

state.

Discipline is another major difference between my two fathers. My stepfather, who can be

very strict at times, believes that children should obey their parents, do what they are told

when they are told to do it, and respect their elders. My father, who was never disciplined

himself, has quite different views. He has always encouraged my brothers and me to rebel

against rules, to ask why we had to do certain things, and to resent being made to do things

we thought were stupid. (Going to bed at ten was stupid.) My mother always told us that our

father only did this to cause trouble, but I'm not so sure about that. Maybe he did, but then

again maybe he thought going to bet at ten was stupid, too!

Education is another big issue my stepfather is concerned about. He believes, like many

people, that to be able to succeed in life, one has to have a good education. He always told

us that he didn

't want us to turn out like he did, a truck driver who had to be away from his family for weeks

at a time. He used to punish me and my brothers for making C's on our report cards. His

theory is that a C is average, and his kids are not average. I wouldn't place any money on

that. My father believes that an education is good to have, but one doesn't have to have it to

survive. He always says, "Look at me; I made it." I don't think, however, that I would call

sleeping in the back of a station wagon "making it."

So here I have it. All their differences down on paper, and I can look at them objectively and

decide which father to love more, but it isn't that easy. I love my father because he is just

that, my natural father. I respect him; I am obligated to him, and I want to make him proud of

me. Then there is my stepfather, whom I respect very much; whom I feel obligated to; whom

I want to make proud of me; and, most important of all, whom I have grown to love as much

as any child could possibly love a parent. I guess I'll never really know which father I love

more. I don't see why I should have to love either more. I think I'll just love both of them in

almost equal amounts.

(Waugh)

There are several important points to remember when writing a comparison or contrast essay.

1. Know what organizational style you are using. Whether you use the block arrangement or point-by-

point arrangement, you should be able to identify it. Being able to identify your organization will not only

help you in the organization of your own writing, but it will also help your reader follow what you have to

say.

2. State your organization. Remember that the "straight line of development" that was discussed in the

introduction requires that you "tell your audience what you are going to tell them; then tell them; then tell

them what you told them." An important objective in academic writing is clarity, and stating your

organization will contribute significantly toward clarity.

3. Keep your audience in mind. You should always keep your audience in mind. After you finish writing,

read your composition from the perspective of your audience. How will they respond to your writing? Will

they understand what you have written? Will they agree with your point?

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4. Say what you want to say. Reread Robert Persig's excerpt from Zen and the Art of Motorcycle

Maintenance. In contrasting the difference between vacationing by car or motorcycle, his preference is

clear. Make your preference clear in your comparison or contrast essay. To further clarify how this can

be done, consider how you could say what you want to say in a comparison or contrast essay on the

following topics:

A. Vacationing in Paris or taking a three-week trip down the Amazon.

B. Growing up in a small town or growing up in a large city.

C. Working for large company or running your own business.

D. _______________________________________

E. _______________________________________

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SESSION 11

Writing Essays to Persuade

According to the authors of the book, Teaching ESL Composition, "Writing is a lifetime skill (that) serves

four crucial, enduring purposes for the learner: communication, critical thinking and problem solving, self

actualization, and control of personal environment" (Hughey). In writing to persuade, you are writing to

control personal environment.

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