Tethys tectonic evolution and its bearing on the ...

Gondwana Research 26 (2014) 419–437

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Tethys tectonic evolution and its bearing on the distribution of importantmineral deposits in the Sanjiang region, SW China☆

Jun Deng a,⁎, Qingfei Wang a,b, Gongjian Li a, Chusi Li b, Changming Wang a

a State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, Chinab Department of Geological Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405, United States

☆ This article belongs to the Special Issue onOrogenesis anTethyan Domain.⁎ Corresponding author. Tel./fax: +86 10 82322301.

E-mail address: [email protected] (J. Deng).

1342-937X/$ – see front matter © 2013 International Asshttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2013.08.002

a b s t r a c t
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:Received 27 March 2013Received in revised form 26 July 2013Accepted 3 August 2013Available online 13 August 2013

Keywords:Sanjiang tectonicsTethys evolutionMagmatismMetallogenyYunnan

The Sanjiang region in SE Tibet Plateau and NWYunnan is known to have formed by amalgamation of Gondwana-derived continental blocks and arc terranes as a result of oceanic subduction followed by continental collision fromPaleozoic to Mesozoic. In this paper we provide a synthesis of tectonic evolution, magmatism and metallogeny inthe region based on data from literatures. Early Paleozoic ophiolites (473–439 Ma) in the Changning–Menglianbelt indicate the existence of a Proto-Tethys ocean in this region. Two episodes of subduction-related magmatismin the early-Paleozoic, one occurred in the Baoshan and Tengchong blocks at 502–455 Ma and the other occurredin the Simao block at 421–401 Ma, are regarded as evidence for two different events of subduction of the Proto-Tethys ocean at different locations. The Proto-Tethys was succeeded in early-Devonian by the Paleo-Tethyswhich comprised the main ocean and three branches: Ailaoshan, Jinshajiang and Garzê–Litang. The Changning–Menglianmain ocean existed frommiddle-Devonian tomiddle-Triassic. The remnants of the oceanic crust are pre-served in a few places in the Longmu Tso–Shuanghu suture as well as in the Changning–Menglian ophiolite belt.The eastward subduction of the main oceanic plate from early-Permian to early-Triassic formed a prominent arcterrane stretching N1500 km from Yunnan to eastern Tibet. From the waning stage of subduction to post-subduction, numerous S-type granite plutons with ages varying between 230 and 219 Ma, such as the Lincangbatholith in Yunnan were emplaced at or close to the suture. This event produced several hydrothermal W–Sndeposits in the region. The tectonic evolution and associatedmagmatism of the Jinshajiang and Ailaoshan branchoceans are generally comparable to those of themain ocean. However, the branch oceans were subductedwest-ward instead. The Garzê–Litang branch ocean also underwent westward subduction from middle-Devonian tolate-Triassic. Arc-related high Sr/Y porphyry intrusions and associated porphyry-skarn Cu–Mo–Au deposits arecommon in the Jinshajiang–Ailaoshan region, especially in the Yidun arc which formed prior to Jurassic. TheVMS deposits in the Sanjiang region formed in diverse tectonic settings includingmiddle-Silurian back-arc basins,Carboniferous oceanic islands, Paleozoic subduction zones and Triassic post-subduction rifting environments. TheMesozoic and early-Cenozoic evolution of the Baoshan and Tengchong blocks was largely influenced by eastwardoceanic subduction of the Meso- and Neo-Tethys from late-Permian to middle-Cretaceous and from late-Cretaceous to ~50 Ma, respectively. Abundant early-Cretaceous granitoids and associated skarn-type Pb–Zn andSn–Fe deposits in the Baoshan and Tengchong blocks were produced in the background of the Shan boundary oce-anic slab subduction to the west and the break-off of the Nujiang-Bitu oceanic slab to the north. The subduction ofthe Neo-Tethys oceanic plate beneath the Tengchong block from Late Cretaceous to Paleogene formed abundant S-type granitoids andmany skarn-type and greisen-type Sn–Wdeposits. Granitoids formed at 105 to 81 Ma and con-temporaneous hydrothermal W, Mo, Ag and Au deposits, which temporally coincided with the subduction of theNeo-Tethys, are common in the Yidun arc terrane.

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1. Introduction

The Sanjiang (three rivers) region covers the southeastern part ofthe Tibet Plateau and western Yunnan province. It is run over by three

dmetallogenesis in the Sanjiang

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major rivers: Jinshajiang, Langcangjiang and Nujiang. This region isthe collage of Paleozoic arc terranes and Gondwana-derived micro-continental blocks (Mo et al., 1994; Metcalfe, 2002, 2013; C.M. Wanget al., 2013). The major continental blocks in the southern part of theSanjiang region are the South China, Simao–Indochina, and Sibumasu.They are separated by the Ailaoshan and Changning–Menglian suturesformed by closure of the Tethys oceans (Fig. 1a, b). The tectonic evolu-tion of these blocks and the suture zones has been studied by many re-searchers in the last two decades (e.g. Metcalfe, 2002, 2006; Hall et al.,

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Fig. 1. (a) Distribution of principal continental blocks and sutures of southeast Asia (modifiedafterMetcalfe, 2011, 2013); (b) Tectonic frameworkof the Sanjiang region showing themajorcontinental blocks, suture zones, localities of dated ultrabasic-basic rocks (including oceanic ridge granites). The ages in the Garzê–Litang suture are from Yan et al. (2005); those in theJinshajiang suture are fromWei et al. (1999), Zhan et al. (1999), Lu et al. (2000), Jian et al. (1999, 2008, 2009a, 2009b), Jian and Liu (2002), Zhu et al. (2010), B.D.Wang et al. (2011),Wanget al. (2012), Zi et al. (2012a); those in the Ailaoshan suture are from Jian et al. (1998, 2009a, 2009b),W.M. Fan et al. (2010), Lin et al. (2012); and those in the Changning–Menglian sutureand related Yunxian-Jinggu arc are fromX.D. Duan et al. (2006), Jian et al. (2009a, 2009b), Chen et al. (2010), Lai et al. (2010), B.D.Wang et al. (2013), Hennig et al. (2009) and G.C. Li et al.(2012).

420 J. Deng et al. / Gondwana Research 26 (2014) 419–437

421J. Deng et al. / Gondwana Research 26 (2014) 419–437

2008; Metcalfe, 2011; Deng et al., 2012; G.C. Li et al., 2012; Deng et al.,2013;Metcalfe, 2013). The northern part of the Sanjiang region consistsof the Songpan–Garzê fold belt and three micro-continental blocks,namely the East Qiangtang, West Qiangtang and Lhasa blocks. Theyare separated by the Jinshajiang, the Longmu Tso–Shuanghu, theBangong–Nujiang sutures formed by closure of the Tethys oceans(Fig. 1a, b). The tectonic evolution in this region has been studiedrecently by some researchers (e.g., K.J. Zhang et al., 2011; Zhaiet al., 2011; Zhu et al., 2012, 2013).

In this paper, we present a modified tectonic framework for theSanjiang region and the temporal and spatial relationships betweenthe evolution of the Tethys oceans, magmatism and metallogeny,which are based on available dating data in recent years. The openingof the Tethys oceans is constrained from the ages of MORB-typeophiolite assemblages, and the subduction is based on the ages of thesupra-subduction zone (abbreviated as SSZ-) type ophiolite (Dilek andFurnes, 2011) and high-pressure metamorphism in convergent mar-gins, and subduction-related magmatism in arcs. The closure of theoceans is determined using the ages of stitching plutons across the su-tures and sedimentary rocks. The ages of igneous rocks are based on zir-con U–Pb dating. The ages of metamorphic rocks are based on phengiteor sodic amphibole Ar–Ar dating aswell as zircon U–Pb dating. The agesof hydrothermal ore deposits are based on U–Pb isotopes of zirconsfrom associated igneous rocks, molybdenite Re–Os dating and Ar–Ardating of K-bearing minerals from mineralized samples.

2. Sutures and arc terranes

2.1. Garzê–Litang suture and Yidun arc

2.1.1. Garzê–Litang sutureThe Garzê–Litang suture extends for a distance over 1000 km from

west of Garzê in the north, through Litang in the center, to Muli inthe south. This suture separates the Songpan–Garzê fold belt and theYidun arc (Fig. 1b). Ophiolite assemblages composed of MORB-type ba-salts, mafic–ultramafic intrusive rocks and sheeted dikes (Mo et al.,1993; Zhong, 1998) are present in the suture. The radiolarian chertsoverlying the ophiolite assemblages are parts of middle-Devonian tomiddle-Triassic strata (Fig. 3) (Zhang et al., 2000; Feng et al., 2002;W. Q. Yang et al., 2010). SHRIMPU–Pb isotope data of zircons from a gab-bro sample with N-MORB geochemical signatures give an age of 292 ±4 Ma (Yan et al., 2005). The gabbros in the northern part of the Garzê–Litang ophiolite belt show SSZ-type geochemical signatures (Duan et al.,2009). Zircon crystals separated from the gabbros yield a SHRIMP U–Pbisotope age of 239.8 ± 3.1 Ma (Duan et al., 2009).

2.1.2. Yidun arcThe Yidun Arc is bounded by the Jinshajiang suture to the west and

by the Garzê–Litang suture to the east. The oldest rocks in the Yidun Arcare Paleozoic meta-sedimentary rocks exposed in the western part ofthe arc. This area is commonly referred to as the Zhongza block in liter-atures (Fig. 1b). Fossils found in the Zhongza block are similar to thosefound in the Paleozoic strata in the northern margin of the Yangtzeblock (Chang, 1997). The Zhongza block could have derived from theYangtze block by opening of the Garzê–Litang ocean in Late Paleozoic(Zhang et al., 1998). W.C. Li et al. (2012) reported a N–S trendingophiolite belt, namely the Shudu ophiolite belt, within the Yidun arc.Jurassic radionian cherts are present close to the ophiolite belt (Fenget al., 2002). Such association suggests that a back-arc basin possiblyexisted until Jurassic in the middle of the Yidun arc.

The Paleozoic meta-sedimentary rocks in the Yidun arc are overlainby Triassic clastic and intercalated volcanic rocks of the Qugasi andTumugou Formations. The volcanic rocks formed in response to thewestward subduction of the Garzê–Litang oceanic plate beneath theYidun arc. The Late Triassic sedimentary–volcanic sequence hosts nu-merous VMS, skarn and hydrothermal ore deposits (Hou et al., 2003a).

The outcrops of granite and granodiorite plutons with zircon U–Pbages varying from ~230 Ma to ~204 Ma (Roger et al., 2003; Lin et al.,2006; Cao et al., 2007; Leng et al., 2008; S.X. Wang et al., 2008; Caoet al., 2009; Pang et al., 2009; B.Q. Wang et al., 2011; Q. Wang et al.,2011; Ren et al., 2011a,b; W.C. Li et al., 2011a, 2011b; Leng et al.,2012,) cover 10–20% of the surface of the Yidun arc. These plutonsintruded the Paleozoic-Triassic volcano-sedimentary sequences (Fig. 2).

The Late Triassic plutons are characterized by abundant hornblende,enrichments in LILE and LREE, depletions in HFSEs, negative ɛNd(t)(−3.8 to −2.1), high initial 87Sr/86Sr ratios (0.7051 to 0.7059),slightly positive zircon ɛHf(t) from −0.2 to 3.2 (averaging 1.5), andhigh Sr/Y ratios from 23 to 92 (Cao et al., 2007; Leng et al., 2007,2012; Ren et al., 2011b; W.C. Li et al., 2011b). Some of these re-searchers suggested that the magmas of these plutons formed bymelting of the subducted slab. However, the geochemical featuresof these plutons are also consistent with parental magmas formed byflux melting in an arc setting (e.g., Richards et al., 2012). Zircons fromsome of the plutons show positive Ce anomalies and slightly negativeEu anomalies, indicating highly-oxidized parental magmas (Ren et al.,2011b).

LA–ICP-MS U–Pb dating of zircons from the granitoids in theYidun arc yielded crystallization ages varying from 105 to 81 Ma(Reid et al., 2007; L.Q. Wang et al., 2008; S.X. Wang et al., 2011;W.C. Li et al., 2012). These Cretaceous granitoids are characterizedby high SiO2, depletions of Ba, Sr and Eu, and slight enrichments ofZr, Hf, Nb and Ta. Such geochemical characteristics are similar tothose of within-plate granites (Pearce et al., 1984). The granitoidsin the Yidun arc are characterized by ɛNd(t) varying from −4.96 to−8.40 and (87Sr/86Sr)i varying from 0.713456 to 0.853879, indicat-ing that their parental magmas were mainly crust-derived withonly minor mantle inputs (Qu et al., 2002).

2.2. Jinshajiang and Ailaoshan sutures and associated volcanic belts

2.2.1. Jinshajiang suture and Jomda–Weixi volcanic beltThe Jinshajiang suture is marked by ophiolite assemblages that

occur over a distance of hundreds of kilometers within a N–Strending tectonic mélange zone (Fig. 1b). The ophiolite assemblagesare composed of serpentinized peridotites, gabbros, and mafic volca-nic rocks including pillow basalts that are intercalated with lime-stones and radiolarian cherts (Zhang et al., 1994). The degrees ofregional metamorphism are greenschist facies. The ophiolites arespatially associated with the Permo-Carboniferous meta-sedimentaryrocks of the Gajinxueshan Group (Wang et al., 2000) and middle-lateTriassic volcano-sedimentary rocks (YNGMR, Yunnan Bureau of Geologyand Mineral Resources, 1990).

Two amphibolite xenoliths from low-Ti basalts in the Jinshajiangophiolite mélange have zircon ages of 439 Ma and 404 Ma (Jian et al.,2009a, 2009b). The Dongzhulin trondhjemites close to this suturehave zirconU–Pb age of ~347 Ma (Zi et al., 2012a). These rocks are char-acterized by highly variable zircon Hf isotopic compositions, high LREE/HREE ratios, negative Eu anomalies, LILE enrichments, and negative Nband Ti anomalies. These geochemical characteristics support the inter-pretation that their parental magmas formed by partial melting of am-phibolites, followed by minor crustal contamination (Zi et al., 2012a).Cumulate peridotites and gabbros, and tholeiites of the Jinshajiangophiolites have (87Sr/86Sr)i from 0.7042 to 0.7060 and ɛNd(t) from 4.4to 8.0, which are within the ranges of rocks derived from an E-MORBsource mantle (Mo et al., 1993, 1994; Zhong, 2000; Wei et al., 2003;Xu and Castillo, 2004; Jian et al., 2009a). Zircons from gabbroic and an-orthositic rocks of the ophiolite assemblages have U–Pb ages rangingfrom ~354 Ma to ~285 Ma (Jian et al., 1999, 2008, 2009b; Wang et al.,2000; Wang et al., 2012). The Jiyidu tonalities close to the suture givezircon U–Pb ages of 283 Ma (Zi et al., 2012a) and 263 Ma (Jian et al.,2008). These rocks are characterized by high Sr/Y ratios from 42 to 61,positive εHf(t) from 5 to 11 and low δ18O values from 6.1 to 6.8. These


values are similar to those of altered oceanic crust, and have beenregarded as evidence for partial melting of subducted oceanic litho-sphere (Zi et al., 2012a). Radiolarian fossils of middle-Devonian tomiddle-Permian ages have been found in the siliceous sedimentaryrocks associated with the ophiolites (Fig. 3) (Sun et al., 1995, 1997;Feng and Ye, 1996; Wang et al., 2000; Q.F. Duan et al., 2006).

The westward subduction of the Jinshajiang oceanic slab producedthe Jomda–Weixi continental arc which stretches over 400 km fromDali to Jomda (Fig. 1b). Volcanic rocks in this arc are Permian calc-alkaline basalts, andesites and dacites. Coeval intermediate-felsic plutonssuch as the Baimaxueshan pluton are common. Zircons from theBaimaxueshan pluton and mafic enclaves within this pluton yield U–

image of Fig.�2


Pb ages of 253–248 Ma (Zi et al., 2012b). The granitoids of this plutonbelong to I-type granite and are characterized by medium- to high-Kand metaluminous compositions, εNd(t) from −9.2 to −6.3 and (87Sr/86Sr)i from 0.7099 to 0.7113 (Zi et al., 2012b). Zircons from this plutonhave average εHf(t) close to−10 and average δ18O close to 8‰ (Zi et al.,2012b). Based on these geochemical characteristics, Zi et al. (2012b) sug-gested that these rocks derived from hydrous magmas produced by par-tial melting of subduction-modified subcontinental lithospheric mantle.The volcanic rocks in the arc are overlain by Triassic turbidites andflysches of the Malasongduo (in the north part), Pantiange and CuiyibiFormations (in the south part) (Fig. 2) (Mou and Wang, 2000; Tan,2002; B.D. Wang et al., 2011). The volcanic rocks within the PantiangeFormation are dominated by high silica rhyolites with whole-rock ɛNd(t)close to −10 and zircon U–Pb ages of 247–246 Ma, which supports theinterpretation that their parentalmagmas formedby crustal anatexis dur-ing initial continental collision (Zi et al., 2012c). The Cuiyibi Formationcontains bimodal volcanic rocks that have zircon U–Pb ages of245–237 Ma and are characterized by negative Nb–Ta anomalies,ɛNd(t) from −6 to −2 and (87Sr/86Sr)i from 0.706 to 0.710. Based onthese geochemical signatures, Zi et al. (2012c) suggested that parentalmagmas of these rocks formed by partial melting of subduction-modified lithospheric mantle in an extension setting after the oceanwas consumed by subduction. The Cuiyibi Formation is unconformablyoverlain by late-Triassic clastic rocks of the Shizhongshan Formation. Insummary, the compositional variations of volcanic rockswith timewithinthe Jomda–Weixi volcanic belt are consistent with subduction-relatedmagmatism before ~250 Ma and post-subductionmagmatism afterward(Fig. 3).

Copper mineralization, such as the Yangla copper deposit (Fig. 5), isassociatedwithpost-subduction granodiorite intrusions in the Jinshajiangsuture zone. The mineralized intrusions have zircon U–Pb ages rangingfrom 239 Ma to 214 Ma and are characterized by ɛNd(t) from −5.5 to−5.0, ɛHf(t) from −4.3 to +2.4, enrichments in LILE including Rb, K,and Pb, and depletions in Ba, Nb, P, and Ti (Y.J. Wang et al., 2010; Zhuet al., 2010; X.A. Yang et al., 2011). The geochemical features are consis-tent with mixing between mantle-derived magma and crust-derivedmelt (Y.J Wang et al., 2010; X.A. Yang et al., 2011).

2.2.2. Ailaoshan suture and Yaxianqiao volcanic beltThe Ailaoshan shear zone (Fig. 1b) is not a continental suture for the

Indochina and South China blocks. The actual location of the suturebetween these two continental blocks is west of the shear zonebased on the crop of Emeishan basalt (Chung et al., 1997). The centerof the suture is marked by ophiolite complexes and its western limit ismarked by the Yaxianqiao arc. An ophiolite complex exposed in theShuanggouarea of the suture is composed of peridotites, gabbros, diabase,plagiogranite and basalts (Zhang et al., 1992). The chondrite-normalizedREE patterns of the gabbros are similar to those of N-MORBs (Yumulet al., 2008). The peridotites are dominated by plagioclase lherzoliteswith minor spinel. The U–Pb zircon ages of the diabase and the

Fig. 2. Ages of magmatism and metamorphism related to the evolution of Tethys oceans in theplate subduction and post-subduction extension is from T.N. Yang et al. (2011); those in thChangning–Menglian oceanic plate subduction and post-subduction extension are from Zhan(2006), Chen et al. (2007), Heppe et al. (2007), Liu et al. (2008), Fan et al. (2009), Hennig et aDong et al. (2012, 2013), Kong et al. (2012), Mao et al. (2012), Nie et al. (2012), Ru et al. (2012),to the Jinshajiang oceanic plate subduction and post-subduction extension are from Jian et al. (2et al. (2010), B.D.Wang et al. (2011), X.A. Yang et al. (2011),W.P. Zhang et al. (2011), J.J. Zhu etand related to the Ailaoshan oceanic plate subduction and post-subduction extension are from Jthose in the Yidun arc and related to the Garzê–Litang oceanic plate subduction and post-subduet al. (2007), Leng et al. (2008, 2012), Q.W.Wang et al. (2008), S.X.Wang et al. (2008), B.Q.Wan(2010), (2011a), G.C. Li et al. (2012), Ren et al. (2011a, 2011b); those in the Tengchong and Baoet al. (2011a), and those of Jurassic to Paleogene are fromBooth et al. (2004), Chen et al. (2007),2011b), Qi et al. (2011), Zou et al. (2011b), Jiang et al. (2012), Luo et al. (2012), Xu et al. (2012)(2002), Booth et al. (2004), Liang et al. (2008), Chiu et al. (2009), M. Liu et al. (2009), Zhu et alMenglian suture are from Zhang et al. (1993), Heppe et al. (2007). The zircon U–Pb ages of th(255–248 Ma, north Ailaoshan suture) are based on our unpublished data.

plagiogranite associated with the gabbros vary from 382.9 ± 3.9 Mato 375.9 ± 1.7 Ma (Jian et al., 2009a, 2009b), comparable with theages of radiolarian fossils (middle-Devonian to early-Carboniferous) inthe associated siliceous sedimentary strata (Fig. 3) (Feng and Ye, 1996;Shen et al., 2001).

The westward subduction of the Ailaoshan oceanic plate which ini-tiated in early-Permian produced the Yaxianqiao arc (Jian et al., 2009a,2009b; W.M. Fan et al., 2010). The arc sequence is composed of calc-alkaline volcanic rocks (basalt–andesite–dacite) and sandy to shalysedimentary rocks. The basalts are characterized by LILE enrichmentsrelative to HFSE and pronounced negative Nb–Ta anomalies, similar totypical arc basalts in the world (Zhong, 1998). Zircons from basalt andbasaltic andesite of the arc yield U–Pb ages between 287 and 265 Ma(Jian et al., 2009a, 2009b; W.M. Fan et al., 2010). The post-subductionvolcanic rocks to the east of the Yaxianqiao arc at Maoheshan andLüchun have zircon U–Pb ages of 249-247 Ma (Liu et al., 2011).

TheXin'anzhai peraluminous granites in the Jinping area have zirconU–Pb ages of 252–251 Ma and ɛHf(t) from −11.1 to −3.1, consistentwith magmas formed by crustal anatexis in a post-subduction setting(Liu et al., 2013). The Liangzong granitic porphyry which occurs northof the Xin'anzhai pluton revealed high silica and peraluminous featureswith zirconU–Pb ages of 263–260 Ma, also implying a crust anatexis or-igin (Zhao et al., 2013). In summary, the transition from subduction-relatedmagmatism to post-subductionmagmatismof the Ailaoshan su-ture appears to be at ~260 Ma.

2.3. Changning–Menglian suture and Yunxian–Jinggu volcanic belt

2.3.1. Changning–Menglian sutureTheChangning–Menglian suture,markedbydismembered ophiolites

and associated deepwater sedimentary rocks, can be traced fromMenglian in the south to Changning in the north (Fig. 1b). The sutureis truncated in the north by the Chongshan metamorphic belt whichruns through the north margin of the Baoshan block. In the south thesuture passes through Burma and extends into northern Thailand. Thesouthmost part of the suture is called the Chiang Mai–Inthanon suturein literatures (e.g., Metcalfe, 2011). The 40Ar–39Ar plateau ages ofsodic amphiboles, glaucophane and phengite from the blueschist inthe Changning–Menglian suture vary from 294 to 279 Ma (Fig. 2)(Zhang et al., 1993; Heppe et al., 2007).

The Proto-Tethys and Paleo-Tethys oceans are both preserved insome places within this suture. The Proto-Tethys relicts include theNantinghe ophiolite complex which is composed of metamorphosedperidotites, gabbros, amphibolites and basalts. The gabbros have zirconLA–ICP-MS U–Pb ages varying from 473.0 ± 3.8 Ma to 439.6 ± 2.4 Ma(B.D. Wang et al., 2013).

The Paleo-Tethys ophiolites are composed of harzburgites, pyrox-enites, gabbros, diabase and basalts. They are surrounded by stronglysheared sandstones, siltstones and shales. Deepwater marine chertsembedded in basalts contain radiolaria of middle-Devonian to middle-

Sanjiang region. The magmatism related to the southern Longmu Tso–Shuanghu oceanice Yunxian–Jinggu volcanic belt arc related to the Proto-Tethys ocean and Paleo-Tethysg et al. (1993), Yu et al. (2003), Peng et al. (2006, 2008), Shi et al. (2006), Wang et al.l. (2009), S. Liu et al. (2009), B. Zhang et al. (2010), Kong (2011), W.G. Zhu et al. (2011),Xiong et al. (2012), Chen et al. (2013); those in the Jomda–Weixi volcanic belt and related003), Roger et al. (2003), Reid et al. (2007), Jian et al. (2008), Gao et al. (2010), Y.B.Wangal. (2011), Zi et al. (2012b, 2012c), Yang et al. (2013); those in the Yaxianqiao volcanic beltian et al. (2009a, 2009b),W.M. Fan et al. (2010), Liu et al. (2011, 2013), Zhao et al. (2013);ction extension are from Roger et al. (2003), Lin et al. (2006), Cao et al. (2007, 2009), Reidg et al. (2011), Q.Wang et al. (2011), X.S.Wang et al. (2011), Pang et al. (2009),W.C. Li et al.shan blocks of Permian to Triassic ages are from Ye et al. (2010),W.C. Li et al. (2011a), ZouLiang et al. (2008), Chiu et al. (2009), Tao et al. (2010), Xie et al. (2010), Cong et al. (2011a,, Ma et al. (2013); those in the Lhasa block of Jurassic to Paleogene ages are from Yan et al.. (2009), Xu et al. (2012). Ages of the high pressure metamorphic rocks in the Changning–e Shuangmaidi granite (485–465 Ma, northern Baoshan block) and Laowangzhai granite


Triassic ages (Fig. 3) (Wang et al., 1994; Feng and Ye, 1996; Feng et al.,2001; Sone and Metcalfe, 2008). Zircons from the gabbros of theGanlongtang ophiolite complex in the Gengma area give U–Pb ages

from 349 to 331 Ma (Q.F. Duan et al., 2006; X.D. Duan et al., 2006).Basalts with N-MORB and trace element characteristics are present inthe ophiolite complex (Lai et al., 2010). In the Laochang area, basalts

image of Fig.�3


imbedded in late-Carboniferous strata have ɛNd(t) from 0.28 to 0.94and OIB trace element signature (Chen et al., 2011). The meta-gabbros in the Damoguanfang area have zircon U–Pb age of267.1 ± 3.1 Ma and arc trace element signature (Jian et al., 2009a,2009b). The geochemical variations of the ophiolite complexes in theChangning–Menglian suture zone indicate an early MORB-type sourcemantle and a late SSZ-type source mantle.

2.3.2. Yunxian–Jinggu volcanic beltThe Yunxian–Jinggu arc experienced two major episodes of

subduction-related magmatism that took place in Silurian and Permo-Triassic, respectively. Silurian calc-alkaline volcanic rocks and granodio-rite with arc geochemical signatures have zircon U–Pb age of 421 Maat Dazhonghe (Mao et al., 2012) and 401 Ma (Ru et al., 2012) atDapingzhang respectively. Mafic–ultramafic intrusions such as theNanlinshan and Banpo intrusions in the Yunxian–Jinggu magmatic belthave zircon U–Pb ages of 298–292 Ma and 295-286 Ma respectively,positive ɛNd(t) values and negative Nb–Hf anomalies (Hennig et al.,2009; Jian et al., 2009a, 2009b; G.C. Li et al., 2012). These intrusionswere previously interpreted as ophiolites (e.g., Zhang et al., 2001) orAlaskan-type zoned complexes (Jian et al., 2009a, 2009b). Recently,G.C. Li et al. (2012) concluded that they are the products ofsubduction-related basaltic magmatism based on petrological charac-teristics and geochemical signatures including Sr–Nd isotopes andtrace elements. Granodiorite plutons in the Jinghong area (see Fig. 2)are slightly younger, giving zircon U–Pb zircon ages of 284–282 Ma(Hennig et al., 2009). They are characterized by negative ɛNd(t) varyingfrom−3.6 to−3.1, elevated initial Sr isotopic ratios from0.709 to 0.710,and trace element patterns similar to those of calc-alkaline rocks formedin an arc setting (Hennig et al., 2009). The subduction-related calc-alkaline magmatism in the Jinghong area roughly coincided with the294–279 Ma high-P metamorphism in the Changning–Menglian sutureto the west (Zhang et al., 1993; Heppe et al., 2007). Triassic volcanicrocks in the Jinghong area are dominated by basaltic andesites, andesitesand rhyolites, which have zircon U–Pb ages ranging from ~249 to~230 Ma and arc geochemical signatures such as enrichments in LILE–LREE and depletions in HFSE (Peng et al., 2008; Y.J. Wang et al., 2010).

As shown in Fig. 2, the Yunxian–Jinggu arc was intruded by theLincang granitic plutonwhich covers an area of nearly 370 km in lengthand ~50 km inwidth. This pluton belongs to peraluminous S-type gran-ite. It is characterized by enrichments in LILEs plus Pb, significant deple-tions in HFSE, negative ɛHf (t) of zircons from −11 to −14 and U–Pbages of zircons from 230 to 219 Ma (Peng et al., 2006; Hennig et al.,2009; Dong et al., 2013; Kong et al., 2012). As pointed out by these au-thors, the geochemical characteristics are consistent with granitesformed by magmas derived from old crustal materials. Coeval mafic–felsic volcanic rocks with zircon U–Pb ages of 235–210 Ma are present

Fig. 3. Temporal evolution of the ophiolitemembers, subduction arc and post-subductionmagmZhang et al. (2000), Feng et al. (2002), W. Q. Yang et al. (2010); those in the Jinshajiang suture(2006); those in theAilaoshan suture are fromFeng and Ye (1996), Shen et al. (2001); those in th(2001), Feng (2002), Sone and Metcalfe (2008); those in the Longmu Tso–Shuanghu suture a(2002a); and those in the Yalu Zangbo suture are from Matsuoka et al. (2002), Wang et al.(2007), Liang et al. (2012). The ophiolites zircon U–Pb age data in the Longmu Tso–Shuanghet al. (2009), Wu et al. (2010); those in the Nujiang suture: Ye et al. (2004), Nimaciren et al. (Fan et al. (2010), Qu et al. (2010); and those in the Yalu Zangbo suture: Hébert et al. (2003), Met al. (2006), Wei et al. (2006), Zhong et al. (2006), Chan et al. (2007), Guilmette et al. (2008,et al. (2011a, 2011b, 2012). Other data for the Garzê–Litang, Jinshajiang, Ailaoshan, and Changnrocks in the Lhasa,Western Qiangtang and the Longmu Tso–Shuanghu suture related to the Lon(2007), Li et al. (2008b), Li et al. (2009), Song et al. (2007), J.Wang et al. (2008), Q.Wang et al. (2et al. (2011), T.N. Yang et al. (2011), K.J. Zhang et al. (2011), Guynn et al. (2012), Pan et al. (2012ocean evolution are fromYan et al. (2002), Booth et al. (2004), Liang et al. (2008),M. Liu et al. (2the northern Sibumasu (Tengchong and Baoshan) block related to or contemporary with the(2010), Xie et al. (2010), Cong et al. (2011a, 2011b), Qi et al. (2011), Zou et al. (2011b), Luo etto or contemporarywith theNeo-Tethys (Yalu Zangbo) oceanic plate subduction are from Boothet al. (2012). Other data related to the Garzê–Litang, Jinshajiang, Ailaoshan, and Changning–Mmetamorphic rocks in the Longmu Tso–Shuanghu suture are from Li et al. (2006b), J.K. Li et alChangning–Menglian suture are same as Fig. 2. Stratigraphic unconformity are based on YNGet al. (2007), Y.L. Li et al. (2007), C. Li et al. (2010), Najman et al. (2010), Liu et al. (2011), Hua

east of the Lincang pluton in the Manghuai and Xiaodingyi areas(Fig. 2) (Peng et al., 2006; Y.J. Wang et al., 2010; W.G. Zhu et al., 2011;Chen et al., 2013).

3. Major continental blocks

3.1. Yangtze block

The Yangtze block is separated from the Simao block to the west bytheMojiang suture (Fig. 1b). Thewestern part of the Yangtze block con-sists of an Archean-Proterozoicmetamorphosed-folded basement and aPaleozoic sedimentary cover. Several Proterozoic metamorphic corecomplexes such as the Ailaoshan, Shigu and Diancangshan complexesoccur in the western margin of the Yangtze block. The Ailaoshan Com-plex predominantly comprises gneisses (1571–1737 Ma, zircon U–Pbages; Wang et al., 2000), amphibolite (1367 ± 46 Ma, Sm–Nd whole-rock isochron age; Zhong, 1998), marble, and minor granulites. Thewestern margin of the Yangtze block was modified by subduction-related magmatism from 865 Ma to 750 Ma (Zhou et al., 2002, 2006).The Paleozoic cover of the Yangtze block is dominated by marine sedi-mentary rocks and the ~260 Ma Emeishan continental flood basalts(Jian et al., 2009b; Deng et al., 2010). Triassic limestones and fine-grained clastic rocks, and Cretaceous terrestrial red beds are presentin the Mesozoic Chuxiong basin.

3.2. Simao block

The metamorphosed basement of the Simao block is composedof Meso- and Neo-Proterozoic meta-volcanic and meta-sedimentaryrocks of the Damenglong and Chongshan Groups (e.g., YNGMR, YunnanBureau of Geology and Mineral Resources, 1990; Zhong, 2000). Zirconsfrom migmatites of the basement have U–Pb ages of 833–843 Ma (Liuet al., 2008). Early-Ordovician sedimentary rocks, which are the oldestsedimentary rocks exposed in the area, are unconformably overlain bymiddle-Devonian to Triassic shallow-marine, paralic and continentalsuccessions, which in turn are overlain by Mesozoic red beds(YNGMR, Yunnan Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources, 1990;Metcalfe, 2006). Zhong (2000) suggested that the Simao block belongsto the Yangtze craton, whereas Metcalfe (2013) suggested that theSimao and Indochina blocks belong to a single Gondwana-derivedmicro-continent. Other researchers proposed that the Simao and Indo-china are separate Gondwana-derived micro-continents (Ferrari et al.,2008). Detrital zircons from the Indochina block show an age peak at~1.0 Ga, which is similar to age distribution of detrital zircons fromthe Indian block (Usuki et al., 2012). Such similarity in detrital zirconages suggests that these two blocks were together prior to Gondwanabreakup.

atism in the Sanjiang region. The chert radiolarian ages in theGarzê–Litang suture are fromare from Feng and Ye (1996), Sun et al. (1995, 1997), Wang et al. (2000), Q.F. Duan et al.e Changning–Menglian suture are fromWang et al. (1994), Feng and Ye (1996), Feng et al.re from Wu (2006), Zhu et al. (2006); those in the Nujiang suture are from Wang et al.(2002b), Ding (2003), Ziabrev et al. (2003), Sun et al. (2004), Y.L. Li et al. (2007), Wuu suture are from Zhai et al. (2007, 2010), Li et al. (2008a), L.Q. Wang et al. (2008), Shi2005), Bao et al. (2007), Zhang et al. (2007), Xia et al. (2008b), Qiangba et al. (2009), S.Q.alpas et al. (2003), Xia et al. (2003), Dubois-Côté et al. (2005), Zhou et al. (2005), Wang2009), Xia et al. (2008a), Bédard et al. (2009), Liu et al. (2010), Bezard et al. (2011), Daiing–Menglian sutures are the same as those given in Fig. 1. Zircon U–Pb ages of magmaticgmu Tso–Shuanghu ocean evolution are from Kapp et al. (2003), Li et al. (2006a), C. Li et al.008), Dong et al. (2010a, 2010b), Fu et al. (2010), Hu et al. (2010), Zeng et al. (2010), Pullen), Zhu et al. (2012), and those related to or contemporarywith theMeso-Tethys (Nujiang)009), Chiu et al. (2009), Zhai et al. (2009), Zhu et al. (2009), Xu et al. (2012). Magmatism inMeso-Tethys oceanic plate subduction and post-subduction extension are from Tao et al.al. (2012), Xu et al. (2012), and those in the northern Sibumasu and Lhasa blocks relatedet al. (2004), Chen et al. (2007), Liang et al. (2008), Chiu et al. (2009), Xie et al. (2010), Xu

englian ocean evolution are from the same data source in Fig. 2. Ages of the high pressure. (2007), Pullen et al. (2008), Zhai et al. (2011), X.Z. Zhang et al. (2010), and those in theMR (Yunnan Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources) (1990), C. Li et al. (2007), J.K. Ling et al. (2012), Zi et al. (2012c).


3.3. Baoshan and Tengchong blocks

The Bashan and Tengchong blocks are believed to be northernextension of the Sibumasu block by some researchers (e.g., Sone andMetcalfe, 2008). We concur with a general consensus that the Baoshanand Tengchong blocks were derived from the margins of Gondwanasupercontinent based on the occurrence of Permo-Carboniferousglacio-marine deposits and overlying post-glacial black mudstones, aswell as the Gondwana-like fossil assemblages in these blocks (Jin,1996). Detrital zircons from the Sibumasu area show a large agepeak at 1.0 Ga and a small age peak at 1.2 Ga, which are also presentin the Indian and Australian blocks, respectively (Sevastjanova et al.,2011; Hall and Sevastjanova, 2012). Based on the detrital zircon dataand Paleozoic glacimarine sedimentary sequences and faunas in dif-ferent blocks Metcalfe (2013) suggested that before Gondwanabreakup the Sibumasu block was attached to the Australian blockbut far from the Indian block and that the Indian block provided sig-nificant amounts of detrital materials to the basins in the Sibumasublock.

3.3.1. Baoshan blockThe metamorphosed basement of the Baoshan block is the

Neoproterozoic–Cambrian Gongyanghe Group. The Paleozoic and Me-sozoic sedimentary cover is composed of clastic rocks, carbonates andPermian volcanic rocks (Huang et al., 2012). Zircons from mafic rocksintruded to the meta-sedimentary strata of the Baoshan block yieldU–Pb age of ~499 Ma (Yang et al., 2012). Zircons from the Pinghemonzogranites in the Longling area give U–Pb ages of 500–455 Ma(S. Liu et al., 2009; Dong et al., 2012; Xiong et al., 2012). The Pinghemonzogranites are characterized by enrichments in LILE, LREE and Pb,depletions inHFSE, high initial 87Sr/86Sr from0.7132 to 0.7144, negativeɛNd(t) from−9.7 to−9.4, and negative ɛHf(t) from−13.1 to−3 (S. Liuet al., 2009; Dong et al., 2012). The Pingdajie granite pluton has zirconU–Pb ages of 472–466 Ma and negative ɛHf(t) from −4 to −12 (Chenet al., 2007).

Available geochronological data show a hiatus of felsic magmatismbetween ~450 Ma and ~270 Ma in the Baoshan block. Permianmagmatism in the Baoshan block is indicated by the Muchang A-typegranitic pluton which has a zircon U–Pb age of ~266 Ma and is charac-terized by depletions in Ba, Sr and Eu and enrichments in Zr, Hf, Nband Ta (Ye et al., 2010). Cretaceous magmatism in the Baoshan blockis indicated by the Zhibenshan granite pluton (Fig. 2). Zircons fromthis pluton yield an U–Pb age of 126.7 ± 1.6 Ma and is characterizedby negative ɛHf(t) from −0.7 to −8 (Tao et al., 2010).

U–Pb dating of two zircon crystals from a small ultramafic body inthe Longling area also provided rough ages in Permian (Zou et al.,2011a). The ultramafic rocks are characterized by negative ɛNd(t) from−6.2 to−10.6 and γOs(t) from−4.8 to 8.5, and thought to be relatedto continental rifting along the margin of the Baoshan block (Chu et al.,2009). Some researchers suggested that the Longling–Ruili shear zonebetween the Baoshan and Tengchong blocks was originally a collisionsuture between these two blocks (Mo et al., 1993). This needs to be ver-ified by future study.

3.3.2. Tengchong blockThe Tengchong block has a Mesoproterozoic metamorphic base-

ment (i.e., the Gaoligong Mountain Group), overlain by late-Paleozoicclastic sedimentary rocks and carbonates, Mesozoic-Tertiary granit-oids and Tertiary-Quaternary volcano-sedimentary sequences (YNGMR,Yunnan Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources, 1990). The GaoligongMountain Group is composed of quartzites, two-mica quartz schists,feldspathic gneisses, migmatites, amphibolites and marbles. Zirconsfrom a paragneiss sample and an orthogneiss sample give 1053–635 Maand 490–470 Ma, respectively (Song et al., 2010). The Paleoozoicsedimentary strata are dominated by Carboniferous clastic rocks,late-Triassic to Jurassic turbidites, Cretaceous red beds and Cenozoic

sandstones (YNGMR, Yunnan Bureau of Geology and MineralResources, 1990; Zhong, 2000).

Granitoids with zircon U–Pb ages of 232–206 Ma are present in theTengchong bock (H.Q. Li et al., 2011; Zou et al., 2011a). The granitoidsare characterized by peraluminous compositions, depletions in Ba, Nb,Sr, and Eu and negative ɛHf(t) varying from −1 to −8.5, and arehence interpreted to be the products of crustal melts mixing with onlysmall amounts of mantle-derived magma (H.Q. Li et al., 2011; Zouet al., 2011a). We suggest that the crustal anatexis in this region wastriggered by flat subduction of the Meso-Tethyan oceanic plate at thetime. This remains to be tested in the future.

Younger granitoids with zircon U–Pb ages of 127–115 Ma are com-mon in the east part of the Tengchong block (Fig. 2) (Tao et al., 2010;Xie et al., 2010; Cong et al., 2011a, 2011b; Qi et al., 2011; Zou et al.,2011b; Luo et al., 2012; Xu et al., 2012). These felsic intrusive rocksare mostly S-type granites and characterized by negative zircon ɛHf(t)values from −2 to −12, enrichments in LILE and depletions in HFSE(Cong et al., 2011a, 2011b). Comagmatic diorite enclaves in the granit-oids have higher ɛHf(t) values from 3.6 to 6.2, which are consistentwith mixing between mantle-derived mafic magma and crust-derivedgranitic melt for the diorites (Cong et al., 2011a, 2011b). Contemporarymagmatic rocks occurred in eastern Lhasa block was explained to be in-duced by slab break-off after the Nujiang-Bitu ocean was consumed up(Fig. 4e) (Zhu et al., 2009). While during this time, the slab of the Shanboundary oceanwas subducted along thewesternmargin of Tengchong(Fig. 4e) (Boonchaisuk et al., 2013).

Late-Cretaceous S-type and A-type granites with zircon U–Pb ages of76–68 Maand variable ɛNd(t) values from−12 to 0.5 are also present inthe Tengchong block (Fig. 2) (Jiang et al., 2012; Xu et al., 2012;Ma et al.,2013). In addition, granites with zircon ages as young as 66–52 Ma havebeen foundnear the border between China andBurma in the Tengchong(Booth et al., 2004; Liang et al., 2008; Chiu et al., 2009; Xie et al., 2010;Xu et al., 2012). These youngest granites include I-type granites withɛHf(t) varying from −4 to +6 and S-type granites with ɛHf(t) varyingfrom −12 to −2 (Xu et al., 2012).

4. Evolutions of the Tethys oceans

The existence of a Proto-Tethys ocean is evidenced from the473–439 Ma ophiolite complexes (B.D. Wang et al., 2013; C.M. Wanget al., 2013) in the Changning–Menglian belt, the 502–455 Masubduction-related magmatism (Chen et al., 2007; S. Liu et al., 2009;Dong et al., 2012; Xiong et al., 2012) in margins of the Lhasa, Baoshanand Tengchong blocks, and the 421–401 Ma subduction-related igne-ous rocks in the Simao block (Mao et al., 2012; Ru et al., 2012). Basedon paleogeographic reconstruction, during the initial stage of Gondwa-na breakup in early Paleozoic, the Simao block and the Indochina blockwere together; they were separated from the Lhasa and Sibumasublocks (Usuki et al., 2012). According to this model, the 502–455 Maarc magmatism in the Lhasa and Sibumasu blocks can be explained bythe subduction of the branch ocean beneath these blocks whereas the421–401 Ma arc magmatism in the Simao block can be explained bythe subduction of the main Proto-Tethys ocean beneath the Simao–In-dochina block.

Available data given above show that the Changning–Menglianmain ocean and the Ailaoshan and Jinshajiang branch oceans lasteduntil middle-Triassic whereas the Garzê–Litang branch ocean lasteduntil late-Triassic (Fig. 4a, b, c, d). The westward subduction of thebranch oceans and the eastward subduction of the main ocean resultedin the formation of multiple, sub-parallel Paleozoic continental arcterranes on both sides of the Simao and East Qiangtang blocks. Calc-alkaline volcanic-intrusive rocks in the arc terranes are the expressionof subduction-related magmatism as a result of flux melting in themantle wedge whereas the associated, younger S-type granitoids arethe expression of post-subduction magmatism as a result of crustalanatexis possibly related to post-collisional extension.

Fig. 4. Schematic models for the Tethys oceans evolution in the Sanjiang region.


image of Fig.�4


Themain units of the Paleo-Tethys in the Sanjiang region include theChangning–Menglian main ocean, and the Ailaoshan, Jinshajiang andGarzê–Litang branch oceans. Radiolarian fossils and radiometric datingreveal that the Longmu Tso–Shuanghu ocean and the Changning–Menglian ocean were possibly connected to each other from Devonianto Triassic (Fig. 3) (K.J. Zhang et al., 2011; T.N. Yang et al., 2011). The vol-canic arc along the Longmu Tso–Shuanghu suture zone (Zhu et al., 2012,

2013) is comparable with the Yunxian–Jinggu arc in the age of arcmagmatism andmagma types.Most of the volcanic rocks in these arc ter-ranes are interpreted to have formedduring the subduction of the oceanicplates beneath the Simao and East Qiangtang micro-continents (Fig. 4c).

The subduction of the Proto-Tethys oceanic plate underneath theSimao–Indochina block was coupled with the opening of the Paleo-Tethys ocean. It is suggested that the East Qiangtang and Simao blocks,

image of Fig.�5


two important Gondwana-derived micro-continents, were amalgamat-ed to the South China block through the westward (with current orien-tation as reference) subduction of Paleo-Tethys oceanic plates (Fig. 4d).Subsequently, the West Qiangtang and Sibumasu blocks, which areinterpreted by us to have been derived from the Indian and Australianmargins of the Gondwana supercontinent, respectively, were accretedto the East Qiangtang and Simao blocks by eastward subduction of thePaleo-Tethys oceanic plate beneath both East Qiangtang and Simaoblocks. Then, the Lhasa and West Burma blocks, which are believed tohave been derived from the Australian margin of the Gondwana super-continent (Zhu et al., 2013), were accreted to the West Qiangtang andSibumasu blocks by northward-eastward subduction of the Meso-Tethys oceanic plate beneath the continental blocks. Evidences for suchinterpretation include the occurrence of ophiolites with zircon U–Pbages varying from 260 to 130 Ma in the Nujiang suture zone (Ye et al.,2004; Nimaciren et al., 2005; Bao et al., 2007; Zhang et al., 2007; Xiaet al., 2008b; Qiangba et al., 2009; Qu et al., 2010; S.Q. Fan et al., 2010). Fi-nally, the northward subduction of the Neo-Tethys oceanic plate beneaththe Lhasa and West Burma blocks after Cretaceous completed the amal-gamation of the micro-continents in the Sanjiang region. In this model,oceanic subduction was coupled with the birth of a new ocean (Fig. 4).This implies that oceanic subduction was the main driving force ofgeodynamics in the Sanjiang region from Paleozoic to Mesozoic.

5. Distribution of mineral deposits in time and space

5.1. VMS deposits

Several VMS deposits have been found in the Sanjiang region. Theseinclude the Dapingzhang Cu-Zn–Pb–(Au–Ag), Laochang Pb–Zn–Ag–Cu,Luchun Cu–Zn–Pb and Gacun Ag–Pb–Zn–Cu deposits. The Dapingzhangdeposit is associated with bimodal volcanic rocks in the southwestmargin of the Simao block. Bulk chemistry of the volcanic rocks wascharacterized by Na2O N K2O, Ba–Nd–Sm enrichments, and Nd–Sr–Tidepletions, suggesting an island arc setting (Li et al., 2003; Zhonget al., 2004). The mineralization occurs as stratiform layers and lensesof massive sulfides in the upper parts plus sulfide veins anddisseminated sulfides in the lower parts of ore bodies. Chalcopyrite,sphalerite, galena, and pyrite are most common sulfide minerals in theores. The 34S values of the sulfides are close to zero. The H–O isotopesof fluid inclusions indicate the involvement of both seawater andmagmatic fluid. The Re–Os ages of molebdymite from theDapingzhang deposit are 442.4 ± 5.6 and 428.8 ± 6.1 Ma (Fig. 5) (C.Li et al., 2010;W.C. Li et al., 2010). A late granodiorite porphyry dike cut-ting the volcanic host rocks has a zircon U–Pb age 401 Ma (Ru et al.,2012). The age of theDapingzhang deposit is similar to that of the oldestophiolites in the Ludlow in the Changning–Menglian suture zone andthe Dazhonghe arc-like igneous rocks in Yunxian–Jinggu arc. The tem-poral relationships support the interpretation that the Dapingzhang

Fig. 5. Spatial distribution of mineral deposits related to the evolution of Tethys oceans in the SaSn deposit; 2. Dongzhongda Sn–Cu polymetallic deposit; 3. Dingqinnong Ag-polymetallic dedeposit; 6. Shengmolong Pb-polymetallic deposit; 7. Gala Au deposit; 8. Zhailong Sn deposi11. Nongduke Au–Ag deposit (Huan et al., 2011); 12. Xionglongxi Au deposit (Huan et al., 2011deposit; 15. Jiaogenma Sn–Zn-polymetallic deposit; 16. Xiasai Ag-polymetallic deposit (Ying etposit (Huan et al., 2011; Zhang et al., 2012); 19. Najiaoxi Pb–Zn deposit; 20. Manzong Ag-polym(Zhan et al., 1999; Y.B.Wang et al., 2010; X.A. Yang et al., 2011); 24. Luchun Cu–Pb–Zn deposit (Zdeposit (J.K. Li et al., 2007); 27. Erze Au deposit (Zheng et al., 1995); 28. Suoluogou Au depoHongshan Cu–Mo–Pb–Zn deposit (Xu et al., 2006; X.S. Wang et al., 2011); 33. Xuejiping Cu dCu–Mo deposit (Cao et al., 2007; S.X. Wang et al., 2008; W.C. Li et al., 2011b); 35. Chundu C2012); 38. Baji Sn deposit (Xu et al., 2012); 39. Sanjiacun Pb–Zn deposit; 40. Shiganghe Sn–WDaxueshan Cu–Ni deposit; 44. HetaopingPb–Zn deposit (Tao et al., 2010); 45. JinchangheCu–Pb(Xu et al., 2012; Ma et al., 2013); 48. Jiagushan Sn-polymetallic deposit; 49. Dadongchang Pb–ZFe–Sn deposit; 52. Baohuashan Sndeposit; 53. Caoziwa Pb–Zn deposit; 54. Baihuanao RareMetadeposit; 57. Lailishan Sn–W deposit (Xu et al., 2012); 58. Erkunshan Pb–Zn deposit; 59. Xiydeposit (Dong et al., 2013); 63. Yangmeitian Cu deposit; 64. Dakuagnshan Pb–Zn deposit; 65. MCu–Pb–Zn deposit (F.L. Zhu et al., 2011); 68. Wumulan Sn deposit (Ye et al., 2010); 69. Xiaogang72. Amo Sn–Wdeposit; 73. Laochang Pb–Zn deposit (Chen et al., 2010); 74. Dapingzhang Cu–Pdeposit; 77. Santaishan Cu deposit; 78. Bulangshan Sn deposit; 79. Mengsong Sn deposit.

deposit formed in a back arc spreading environment during the subduc-tion of the Proto-Tethys (Li et al., 2003).

The Laochang deposit is situated in the Changning–Menglian suturezone (Fig. 5). It is hosted in a basaltic–andesitic volcanic sequencewhichis characterized by enrichments in LILE and LREE, elevated Pb isotopicratios (206Pb/204Pb = 18.595–18.685, 207Pb/204Pb = 15.597–15.672)and low ɛNd(t) from 0.3 to 0.9 (Chen et al., 2011). The U–Pb age ofzircons from the volcanic rocks is 323 Ma (Chen et al., 2010). The min-eralization occurs as stratiform lenses and veins in trachyandesite tuffs,and stratiform lenses in the overlying limestones. Pyrite, sphalerite andgalena are the major sulfide minerals and molybdenite, chalcopyrite,arsenopyrite, orpiment and realgar are the minor phases in the ores.

The Luchun deposit is associated with post-collisional rhyoliticvolcanic–sedimentary sequence in the Weixi arc. Magmatic zirconsfrom the volcanic rocks give U–Pb ages of 249–247 Ma (B.D. Wanget al., 2011). The sulfide mineralization occurs as multiple sheets orlenses plusminor stringers. Laminated, banded, massive and brecciatedtextures are common in the ore bodies. Pyrite, sphalerite, galena andchalcopyrite are the major sulfide minerals in the ores.

The Gacun deposit occurs within the accretionary Yidun arc terrane.It formed during the westward subduction of Ganzê–Litang oceanicplate beneath the Yidun terrane. Themineralization is hosted in a volca-nic sequence dominated by felsic rocks. The deposit is composed of alower stringer–stockwork zone (pyrite–sphalerite–galena) within thedacitic–rhyolitic and rhyolitic–volcanic units and an upper massivezone (alternating sulfide and sulfate thin layers) associated withexhalative sedimentary rocks. The sulfide ores yield a Re–Os isochronage of 217 ± 28 Ma (Fig. 5) (Hou et al., 2003b, 2007).

Most VMS deposits are believed to have formed in the supra-subduction zone, post-subduction rift, and oceanic island setting. Onlya few of them, such as the Tongchangjie Cu deposit (Yang and Mo,1993), may have formed in oceanic rifting environment. The depositmetal species are under the control of the tectonic settings, e.g., theOIB setting tends to develop Pb–Zn–Ag mineralization.

5.2. Porphyry-skarn Cu–Mo deposits

5.2.1. Porphyry-skarn deposits in the Yidun arcIn the southern Yidun arc, numerous Late Triassic intermediate-

felsic high Sr/Y porphyry bodies, which intruded volcanic–sedimentaryrocks, host porphyry-type or skarn-type deposits containing valuableCu plus other base metals. The porphyry bodies occur in two separatebelts, an eastern belt and a western belt separated by the Geza River(YNGMR, Yunnan Bureau of Geology and Mineral Resources, 1990;W.C. Li et al., 2011a). The eastern belt hosts the Pulang, Langdu andQiansui deposits; the western belt hosts the Xuejiping, Lannitang, andChundu deposits (Fig. 5). The ages and characteristics of mineralizationin both belts are similar (Leng et al., 2012).

njiang region. Abbreviation: Mo, Molybdenite; Sd, Siderite; Sul, Sulfide; Zr, Zircon. 1. Jilingposit (Dong, 2004); 4. Jiaduoling Fe deposit (Dong, 2004); 5. Gayiqiong Ag-polymetallict; 9. Saibeinong Sn–W deposit; 10. Gacun Ag-polymetallic deposit (Hou et al., 2003b);); 13. Cuomolong Sn-polymetallic deposit (Reid et al., 2007); 14. Hailong Sn-polymetallical., 2006); 17. Gongecuo Sn-polymetallic deposit (Reid et al., 2007); 18. Ajialongwa Au de-etallic deposit; 21. Naxue Cu deposit; 22. ZhunuoW deposit; 23. Yangla Cu–Pb–Zn deposithao et al., 2011); 25. XiuwacuW–Modeposit (J.K. Li et al., 2007); 26. Relin Ag-polymetallicsit; 29. Qiansui Fe–Cu deposit; 30. Langdu Cu deposit; 31. Lannitang Cu–Au deposit; 32.eposit (Lin et al., 2006; Cao et al., 2009; Ren et al., 2011b; Leng et al., 2012); 34. Pulangu deposit; 36. Tuoding Pb–Zn deposit; 37. Tongchanggou Mo–Cu deposit (W.C. Li et al.,deposit (Tao et al., 2010); 41. Fenshuiling Fe–Cu deposit; 42. Yunlong Sn–W deposit; 43.–Zndeposit; 46. Diantan Sn–Fe deposit (Chen, 1987); 47. Xiaolonghe–DasongpoSndepositn deposit (Dong et al., 2005); 50. Dengcaoba Sn deposit (Xu et al., 2012); 51. Tieyaoshanl deposit (Xu et al., 2012); 55. Xinqi Sn–Wdeposit (Xu et al., 2012); 56. Laopingshan Sn–Wi Pb–Zn deposit; 60. Haobadi Sn deposit; 61. Dongshan Pb–Zn deposit; 62. Donghe Snengnuo Pb–Zn deposit; 66. Tongchangjie Cu deposit (Yang and Mo, 1993); 67. Luziyuanou Au deposit; 70. Jinchang Au deposit (Xie et al., 2004); 71. Weihongmaoling Sn deposit;b–Zn deposit (C. Li et al., 2010;W.C. Li et al., 2010); 75. Aozizhai Sn deposit; 76. Huimin Fe


The Pulang deposit is the largest one in the eastern belt. Its orebodiesare hosted in a quartz monzonite porphyry dike that cut a quartz–dioriteporphyry dike. From core to margin, silicic, potassic, phyllic (quartz–sericite), propylitic, and hornfels zones are present in the mineralizedporphyry bodies. Themineralization occurs as disseminated chalcopyritein the potassic and phyllic zones or chalcopyrite veins within the alter-ation zones. Outside the host porphyry body, chalcopyrite mineralizationoccurs in hydrothermal breccia zones, and small sphalerite–galena veinsoccur in the nearby fractures (W.C. Li et al., 2011b). Re–Os dating ofmolybdenite associated with chalcopyrite in the main ore bodies ofthe Pulang deposit gives 235.4 ± 2.4 to 221.5 ± 2.0 Ma. These ages arewithin the range of zircon U–Pb ages (228–206 Ma) of the associatedporphyry bodies (S.X. Wang et al., 2008; Pang et al., 2009; Q. Wanget al., 2011).

The Xuejiping deposit is the largest one in the western belt. It ismainly hosted in quartz–dioritic and quartz–monzonite porphyry bod-ies that intruded the clastic–volcanic rocks of the late-Triassic TumugouFormation. From core to margin, potassic, strong silicific and phyllic,argillic, and propylitic alteration zones occur in themineralized porphy-ry bodies. Copper mineralization is most closely associated with silicicand phyllic alterations, and occurs as stockwork and veins of variablesizes. Chalcopyrite and pyrite are the major phases, and chalcocite,cuprite, galena, sphalerite, and molybdenite are the minor phases inthe ore bodies. Re–Os dating of molybdenite from the deposit yieldsan age of 221.4 ± 2.3 Ma (Leng et al., 2012).

The Yidun arc also hosts some important Cretaceous hydrothermaldeposits such as the Lianlong Sn–Ag deposit, the Xiasai Ag deposit, theXiuwacu W–Mo deposit, the Tongchanggou porphyry Mo deposit andthe Hongshan porphyry Mo–Cu deposit. The molybdenite Re–Os ageof the Tongchanggou deposit is 88–82 Ma (W.C. Li et al., 2012) andthat of the Hongshan deposit is 77 ± 2 Ma (Xu et al., 2006), whichare similar to the zircon U–Pb age of 81.1 ± 0.5 Ma for the associatedporphyry bodies (X.S. Wang et al., 2011).

In the Yidun arc, the deposits associated with late-Triassic porphyrybodies are dominated by Cu with minor Mo–Au. The younger depositsassociated with late-Cretaceous porphyry bodies are dominated by Mowith minor Ag, W, and Sn. The temporal variation could be due todecreasing contribution of metals from the mantle with time. This isan interesting topic to investigate in the future.

5.2.2. Yangla skarn deposit in the Jinshajiang sutureCopper mineralization in Yangla skarn-type deposit in the

Jinshajiang suture occurs as disseminated sulfides in the contact zonesbetween granodiorite intrusion and country rocks (sandstone, marble,sericitic slate) and as veins in the fractures within the immediate coun-try rocks. Sulfide minerals in the ore bodies are chalcopyrite, pyrite,bornite, chalcosite, pyrrhotite, galena, sphalerite and magnetite.Skarn-type mineral assemblages include garnet and diopside, quartzand calcite. Re–Os dating of molybdenite from the deposit yields230 Ma (X.A. Yang et al., 2011). These ages are similar to the zirconU–Pb age of 239–214 Ma for the associated granodiorite intrusion thatis believed to have formed by crustal anatexis in a post-subductionsetting (Gao et al., 2010; Y.B. Wang et al., 2010; X.A. Yang et al., 2011;J. J. Zhu et al., 2011).

5.3. Skarn and hydrothermal Sn–W deposits

The Yunlong Sn–W deposit in the northern Baoshan block isinterpreted to be a metamorphic deposit (Jiang and Yu, 2004; Jianget al., 2004). It is hosted in high-grade metamorphic rocks includingmigmatites of the Chongshan group. Orebodies occur as cassiterite–quartz–tourmaline veins. Tourmaline and cassiterite are characterizedby LREE enrichments relative to HREE and variable Eu (0.16–2.51)and Ce (0.95–3.75) anomalies, indicating a parental metamorphicfluid (Jiang et al., 2004).

A cluster of polymetallic deposits with ages varying from 125 to118 Ma (Chen, 1987; Dong et al., 2005; Xu et al., 2012) occurs in theNE corner of the Tenchong block. These include the Dadongchangskarn-type Pb–Zn–Sn deposit and the Tieyaoshan and Diantan skarn-type Sn deposits. In the central part of the Tengchong block, several hy-drothermal Sn–Wdeposits such as the Xiaolonghe–Dasongpo and Xinqigreisen-type Sn–Wdeposits are found to be associatedwith theGuyongpluton with zircon U–Pb ages from 76 to 68 Ma (Xu et al., 2012; Maet al., 2013). In the SW part of the Tengchong block, Paleogene depositssuch as the Lailishan greisen-typeW–Sn deposit with U–Pb age of 53 Mafor zircons from the associated felsic intrusive rocks (Xu et al., 2012) arepresent. In the western Simao block, several hydrothermal deposits suchas the Songshan skarn-type Sndeposit and the Bulangshan skarn–greisenSn deposit associated with the Lincang pluton (zircon U–Pb ages of230–219 Ma) are found (C.M. Wang et al., 2013). These Sn and W de-posits are interpreted to have formed by hydrothermal activities asso-ciated with the evolution of the peraluminous granitoids in the region.The granitoids are interpreted to have formed by crustal melting fromthe waning stage of subduction to post continental collision.

5.4. Skarn and hydrothermal Pb–Zn deposits

In the Baoshan block, both skarn-type and vein-type Cu–Pb–Zn (–Au)deposits are common. The former group includes the Jinchanghe,Hetaoping and Luziyuan deposits and the latter group includes the Xiyi,Mengxing and Yangmeitian deposits. The skarn-type deposits are associ-atedwith granodiorite–granite plutons that intruded theUpper Cambrianstrata whereas the vein-type deposits are controlled by faults and frac-tures in meta-sedimentary rocks.

The styles ofmineralization of the skarn-type deposits in the Baoshanblock are similar. The skarn-type mineral assemblages are garnet andcalcic pyroxene which has been partially altered to actinolite, tremolite,epidote and chlorite in place. The associated mineralization containssphalerite, galena, chalcopyrite, pyrite and magnetite, and gangue min-erals such as quartz, calcite, and dolomite. Most important ore bodiesoccur in the contact zones between the intrusions and carbonate countryrocks. However, some orebodies are present in the nearby factures in thewallrocks, such as in the Hetaoping deposit (Xue et al., 2008). Outwardmineral zonation from the contact with the intrusion due to decreasingtemperature is clear in the Jinchanghe deposit (Zhou et al., 2008). Rb–Sr isotopes of sulfides and co-existing quartz and K-feldspar from theLuziyuan deposit yield an isochron age of 141.9 Ma (F.L. Zhu et al.,2011) and an isochron age of 116.1 ± 3.9 Ma for the Hetaoping deposit(Tao et al., 2010). H–O–S–Si–Pb isotopes of mineralized samples fromthe Hetaoping and Luziyuan indicate that magmatic fluids and mantle-derived components played major role in ore formation (Xia et al.,2005; Xue et al., 2008).

The styles of mineralization of vein-type deposits in the Baoshanblock are variable. The Yangmeitian deposit is controlled by faults be-tween carbonates and clastic rocks of late-Ordovician strata. Theminer-alization is composed of azurite, bornite, chalcocite and tetrahedriteplus minor pyrite, galena and sphalerite. Gangue minerals are quartzand calcite. The orebodies of the Mengxing deposit are controlled byfaults in the carbonates, clastic rocks and phyllite of middle-Silurianstrata. The orebodies of the Xiyi occur within the fault zones in early-Carboniferous strata as veins composed of sphalerite, galena and pyriteplus minor calcite, quartz and barite.

5.5. Hydrothermal Au deposits

Several Carlin-like Au deposits, such as Gala, Ajialongwa, Xionglonxi,and Suoluogou, occur within the Garzê–Litang suture zone (Fig. 5)(Zhang et al., 2012). The zircon fission-track ages of the deposits varyfrom 120 Ma to 80 Ma (Huan et al., 2011). Hydrothermal Au-bearingdeposits, e.g., Erze with a siderite Rb–Sr age of 118 ± 26 Ma (Zhenget al., 1995), which is similar to those of the Carlin-type Au deposits

Fig. 6. Temporal distribution of the evolution of Tethys oceans and the related ore deposits in the Sanjiang region. The sources of data are the same as in Figs. 2 and 3.


image of Fig.�6


have also been found within the Yidun arc terrane. As described above,the Yidun arc terrane was likely an accretionary arc terrane formed be-fore Jurassic. Cretaceous granitoids are present in the Yidun arc terrane.The post-accretion granitic magmatism and hydrothermal activity inthe Yidun arc terrane clearly postdated the closure of the Meso-Tethysbut coincidedwith the subduction of the Neo-Tethys whichwas a coupleof micro-continental blocks away from the Yidun arc. Based on these re-lations,we suggest that the subduction of theNeo-Tethys to thewestwasthe driving force for crustal extension and associated graniticmagmatismand hydrothermalmineralization in the Yidun arc terrane. This is anotherinteresting topic to study in the future.

The Jinchang Ni–Au deposit occurs in the Ailaoshan ophiolitemélange. This fracture-controlled deposit was hosted in the Devonianstrata and highly-altered ultramafic rocks. Reliable mineralization agesare currently not available due to lack of suitable minerals for dating(Ying et al., 2005; L.Q. Yang et al., 2010, 2011). Hence, the origin of thisdeposit in the context of tectonic evolution in the region is stillunknown.

6. Summary

In the Sanjiang region, the Proto-Tethys oceanwas present from 502to 401 Ma based on recently discovered ophiolites and igneous rocks.The closure of the Proto-Tethys branch ocean in early-Devonian wassucceeded by the Paleo-Tethys ocean. The Paleo-Tethys comprised amain ocean and three branches, Ailaoshan, Jinshajiang and Garzê–Litang. They were bounded by Gondwana-derived continental blocksand were consumed by oceanic subduction which lasted until late-Triassic. Hereafter, the evolution of the Baoshan and Tengchongblocks was largely influenced by eastward oceanic subduction of theMeso- and Neo-Tethys from late-Permian to middle-Cretaceous andfrom late-Cretaceous to ~50 Ma, respectively.

Many important mineral deposits in the Sanjiang region are linked tothe evolution of the Proto-Tethys and Paleo-Tethys oceans. Themost im-portant VMS deposits in this region occur in themiddle-Silurian back-arcbasins, Carboniferous oceanic islands, and Triassic rifted zones in conti-nental margins (Fig. 6). The most important porphyry deposits in the re-gion occur in the Yidun arc, associatedwith granodiorite–granite plutonsformed during the subduction of the Garzê–Litang oceanic plate beneaththe Zhongza block. The production of the Cretaceous granitoids in theYidun arc was contemporary to the subduction of Neo-tethys oceanicplate subduction, and thereby it was considered to be triggered by thelater. Another possible factor contributing to the magmatism is the clo-sure of the Shudu arc-back basin developed in the Paleo-Tethys oceanicsystem, which could result in a thickened crust. The Yidun terrane islikely a composite arc terrane formed by accretion prior to late-Triassic.The formation of Cretaceous granitoids and contemporaneous depositsin the Yidun arc and the Carlin-like Au deposit in the Garzê–Litang suturecoincided with the subduction of the Neo-Tethys which was present acouple of micro-continental blocks away from the Yidun Mesozoic arcterrane.

Crustal anatexis after the closure of the Nujiang-Bitu ocean tookplace in the Tengchong and Baoshan blocks, possibly due to theunderplating of mantle-derived mafic magma under the backgroundof the Shan boundary oceanic slab subduction to the west and thebreak-off of the Nujiang-Bitu oceanic slab to the north (Figs. 2, 4e, 6).The resultant granitoids appear to have controlled the distribution ofimportant Cretaceous skarn-type and vein-type Pb–Zn deposits inthese two blocks (Fig. 6).

TheNeo-Tethys ocean in the region developed in themiddle-Jurassicand was closed before 50 Ma (Fig. 3). The late-Cretaceous to early-Paleogene felsic magmatism in the Tengchong–Burma region tookplace during such period of time. Many important hydrothermalW–Sn deposits have been found to be associated with the S-typegranites with ages varying from late-Cretaceous to early-Paleogenein the region.

Acknowledgments

We thank the two anonymous reviewers for their constructive com-ments, and Prof. M. Santosh for careful editorial handling. This workwas supported by the National Key Basic Research Development Pro-gram (973 Program) (2009CB421008), IGCP project (IGCP/SIDA-600)and the Program of Introducing Talents of Discipline to Universities(B07011).

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http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11430-009-0132-x

http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11430-009-0132-x



















http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2011TC002937
















Tethys tectonic evolution and its bearing on the ...

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