Test and Measurement

The Newnes Know It All Series

PIC Microcontrollers: Know It AllLucio Di Jasio, Tim Wilmshurst, Dogan Ibrahim, John Morton, Martin Bates, Jack Smith, D.W. Smith, and

Chuck Hellebuyck

ISBN: 978-0-7506-8615-0

Embedded Software: Know It All

Jean Labrosse, Jack Ganssle, Tammy Noergaard, Robert Oshana, Colin Walls, Keith Curtis,

Jason Andrews, David J. Katz, Rick Gentile, Kamal Hyder, and Bob Perrin

ISBN: 978-0-7506-8583-2

Embedded Hardware: Know It All

Jack Ganssle, Tammy Noergaard, Fred Eady, Lewin Edwards, David J. Katz, Rick Gentile, Ken Arnold,

Kamal Hyder, and Bob Perrin

ISBN: 978-0-7506-8584-9

Wireless Networking: Know It All

Praphul Chandra, Daniel M. Dobkin, Alan Bensky, Ron Olexa, David A. Lide, and Farid Dowla

ISBN: 978-0-7506-8582-5

RF & Wireless Technologies: Know It AllBruce Fette, Roberto Aiello, Praphul Chandra, Daniel Dobkin, Alan Bensky, Douglas Miron, David Lide,

Farid Dowla, and Ron Olexa

ISBN: 978-0-7506-8581-8

Electrical Engineering: Know It AllClive Maxfield, Alan Bensky, John Bird, W. Bolton, Izzat Darwazeh, Walt Kester, M.A. Laughton,

Andrew Leven, Luis Moura, Ron Schmitt, Keith Sueker, Mike Tooley, D.F. Warne, and Tim Williams

ISBN: 978-1-85617-528-9

Audio Engineering: Know It AllIan Sinclair, Richard Brice, Don Davis, Ben Duncan, John Linsley Hood, Eugene Patronis,

Andrew Singmin, and John Watkinson

ISBN: 978-1-85617-526-5

Circuit Design: Know It AllDarren Ashby, Bonnie Baker, Stuart Ball, John Crowe, Barrie Hayes-Gill, Ian Grout, Ian Hickman,

Walt Kester, Ron Mancini, Robert A. Pease, Mike Tooley, Tim Williams, Peter Wilson, and Bob Zeidman

ISBN: 978-1-85617-527-2

Test and Measurement: Know It AllJon Wilson , Walt Kester, Stuart Ball, G.M.S de Silva, Dogan Ibrahim, Kevin James, Tim Williams,

Michael Laughton, Douglas Warne, Chris Nadovich, Alex Porter, Ed Ramsden, Tony Fischer-Cripps, and

Steve Scheiber

ISBN: 978-1-85617-530-2

Wireless Security: Know It AllPraphul Chandra, Alan Bensky, Tony Bradley, Chris Hurley, Steve Rackley, James Ransome,

John Rittinghouse, Timothy Stapko, George Stefanek, Frank Thornton, and Jon Wilson

ISBN: 978-1-85617-529-6

For more information on these and other Newnes titles visit: www.newnespress.com

Test and Measurement

Jon WilsonWalt KesterStuart Ball

G.M.S de SilvaDogan Ibrahim

Kevin JamesTim Williams

Michael LaughtonDouglas WarneChris Nadovich

Alex PorterEd Ramsden

Tony Fischer-CrippsSteve Scheiber

Newnes is an imprint of Elsevier

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Printed in the United States of America.

08 09 10 11 12 13 6 5 4 3 2 1

Table of Contents

About the Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii

Part I: Measurement Technology and Techniques. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Measurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31.2 Fundamental Concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Chapter 2: Sensors and Transducers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2.1 Basic Sensor Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152.2 Sensor Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312.3 Application Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362.4 Sensor Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382.5 System Characteristics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382.6 Instrument Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382.7 Data Acquisition and Readout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422.8 Installation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432.9 Measurement Issues and Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Chapter 3: Data Acquisition Hardware and Software. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

3.1 ADCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493.2 Types of ADCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513.3 ADC Comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613.4 Sample and Hold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623.5 Real Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643.6 Microprocessor Interfacing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653.7 Clocked Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713.8 Serial Interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723.9 Multichannel ADCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773.10 Internal Microcontroller ADCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 783.11 Codecs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

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3.12 Interrupt Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803.13 Dual-Function Pins on Microcontrollers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803.14 Design Checklist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

Part II: Measurement Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Chapter 4: Overview of Measurement Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

4.1 Transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 854.2 Methods of Measurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864.3 Sensitivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 874.4 Zero, Range, Linearity, and Span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 894.5 Resolution, Hysteresis, and Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904.6 Fourier Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 924.7 Dynamic Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 934.8 PID Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 954.9 Accuracy and Repeatability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 964.10 Mechanical Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

Chapter 5: Acceleration, Shock, and Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1015.2 Technology Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1025.3 Selecting and Specifying Accelerometers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1185.4 Applicable Standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1215.5 Interfacing and Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1235.6 Machinery Vibration Monitoring Sensors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

References and Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

Chapter 6: Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1536.2 Differential Pressure Flowmeters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1536.3 Turbine Flowmeters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1596.4 Vortex Shedding Flowmeters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1606.5 Electromagnetic Flowmeters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1616.6 Ultrasonic Flowmeters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1626.7 Hot Wire Anemometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1636.8 Mass Flowmeters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

Chapter 7: Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169

7.1 Temperature Scales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1697.2 Types of Temperature Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

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7.3 Measurement Errors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1737.4 Selecting a Temperature Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1757.5 Thermocouple Temperature Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1757.6 RTD Temperature Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1807.7 Thermistor Temperature Sensors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1947.8 Integrated Circuit Temperature Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

Chapter 8: Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219

8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2198.2 SI and Other Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2198.3 Absolute, Gauge, and Differential Pressure Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2208.4 Primary Standards. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2218.5 Spinning Ball Gauge Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2248.6 Secondary Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2258.7 Working Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2268.8 Pressure Measuring Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2328.9 Calibration of Pressure Standards and Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

Chapter 9: Position. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255

9.1 Mechanical Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2559.2 Potentiometric Sensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2569.3 Capacitive Transducer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2589.4 LVDT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2609.5 Angular Velocity Transducer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2619.6 Position-Sensitive Diode Array. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2629.7 Motion Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264

Chapter 10: Strain Gauges, Load Cells, and Weighing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267

10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26710.2 Stress and Strain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26810.3 Strain Gauges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27010.4 Bridge Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27210.5 Load Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27610.6 Weighing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

Chapter 11: Light. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281

11.1 Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28111.2 Measuring Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28211.3 Standards of Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

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11.4 Thermal Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28411.5 Light-Dependent Resistor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28611.6 Photodiode. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28711.7 Other Semiconductor Photodetectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28911.8 Optical Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29011.9 Photomultiplier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291

Part III: Instrumentation Design Techniques for Test and Measurement . . . 295

Chapter 12: Signal Processing and Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

12.1 Conditioning Bridge Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29712.2 Amplifiers for Signal Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371

Chapter 13: Interfacing and Data Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373

13.1 Interfacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37313.2 Input/Output Ports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37413.3 Polling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37613.4 Interrupts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37713.5 Direct Memory Access (DMA). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37913.6 Serial Port . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38013.7 Serial Port Addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38113.8 Serial Port Registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38313.9 Serial Port Registers and Interrupts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38413.10 Serial Port Baud Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38513.11 Serial Port Operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38613.12 Parallel Printer Port. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38713.13 Parallel Port Registers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38813.14 Parallel Printer Port Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39013.15 Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39113.16 Byte-to-Serial Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39313.17 RS232 Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39413.18 Synchronization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39513.19 UART (6402) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39613.20 Line Drivers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39913.21 UART Clock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40013.22 UART Master Reset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40013.23 Null Modem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40213.24 Serial Port BIOS Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40313.25 Serial Port Operation in BASIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40513.26 Hardware Handshaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406

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13.27 RS485 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40713.28 GPIB. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40913.29 USB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41013.30 TCP/IP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413

Chapter 14: Data Acquisition Software. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415

14.1 An Overview of DA&C Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41514.2 Data Acquisition and Control in Real Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41914.3 Implementing Real-Time Systems on the PC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43414.4 Robustness, Reliability, and Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457

Chapter 15: Scaling and Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459

15.1 Scaling of Linear Response Curves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46115.2 Linearization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47015.3 Polynomial Linearization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47215.4 Interpolation between Points in a Lookup Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49015.5 Interpolation vs. Power-Series Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49815.6 Interactive Calibration Programs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49915.7 Practical Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504

Chapter 16: Synthetic Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505

16.1 What Is a Synthetic Instrument? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50616.2 History of Automated Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50616.3 Synthetic Instruments Defined . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51016.4 Advantages of Synthetic Instruments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51516.5 Synthetic Instrument Misconceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51916.6 Synthetic Measurement System Hardware Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52316.7 System Concept—The CCC Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52316.8 Hardware Requirements Traceability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53616.9 Stimulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53716.10 Stimulus Digital-Signal Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53716.11 Stimulus Triggering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54316.12 The Stimulus D/A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54516.13 Stimulus Conditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54716.14 Stimulus Cascade—Real-World Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55216.15 Real-World Design: A Synthetic Measurement System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55516.16 Universal High-Speed RF Microwave Test System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55616.17 System Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557

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16.18 DUT Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56016.19 Calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56116.20 Software Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56316.21 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566

Chapter 17: Real-World Measurement Applications: Precision Measurementand Sensor Conditioning. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567

17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56717.2 Applications of Precision-Measurement S-D ADCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56917.3 Weigh Scale Design Analysis Using the AD7730 ADC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57217.4 Thermocouple Conditioning Using the AD7793 ADC. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58017.5 Direct Digital Temperature Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58217.6 Microprocessor Substrate Temperature Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58717.7 Applications of ADCs in Power Meters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595

Part IV: Circuit and Board Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597

Chapter 18: Testing Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599

18.1 The Order-of-Magnitude Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59918.2 A Brief (Somewhat Apocryphal) History of Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60218.3 Test Options. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60518.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 649

Chapter 19: Boundary Scan Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651

19.1 Latch-Scanning Arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65119.2 Enter Boundary Scan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65419.3 Hardware Requirements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65919.4 Modes and Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66319.5 Implementing Boundary Scan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66519.6 Partial-Boundary-Scan Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66919.7 Other Alternatives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67419.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676

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Chapter 20: Inspection Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679

20.1 Striking a Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68120.2 Postpaste Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68420.3 Postplacement/Postreflow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68620.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713

Part V: EMC and RF Emissions Testing and Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . 715

Chapter 21: EMC Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717

21.1 What Is EMC? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71721.2 Compatibility between and within Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727

Chapter 22: Measuring RF Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729

22.1 Emissions Measuring Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73022.2 Transducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74022.3 Sites and Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 760

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769

Chapter 23: Test Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771

23.1 Test Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77123.2 Test Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77423.3 Tests above 1 GHz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77623.4 Military Emissions Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77923.5 Measurement Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 781

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791

Chapter 24: Test Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793

24.1 The Need for a Test Plan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79324.2 Contents of the Test Plan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79624.3 Immunity Performance Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811

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Part VI: Accelerated Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813

Chapter 25: Accelerated Testing Fundamentals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 815

25.1 Scenario 1. A Key Physical Property Is Wrong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81925.2 Scenario 2. A Primary Failure Mode of a Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82025.3 Scenario 3. The Mean Time to Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820

Chapter 26: HALT and FMVT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827

26.1 A Typical HALT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82826.2 Hot Temperature Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83126.3 Cold Temperature Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83326.4 Ramp Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83426.5 Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83626.6 Combined Run . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83926.7 Business Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83926.8 Failure-Mode Verification Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84126.9 Development FMVT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84326.10 More about Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84726.11 What Can Break the Product? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84726.12 More about Failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85326.13 More about Setup and Execution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85326.14 More on Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85426.15 Comparison FMVT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86026.16 Method 1. Time to First Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86126.17 Method 2. Failure-Mode Progression Comparison. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86126.18 FMVT Life Prediction—Equivalent Wear and Cycle Counting . . . . . . . . 86226.19 FMVT Warranty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86226.20 More on Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86326.21 Reliability and Design Maturity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86626.22 Business Considerations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 867

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868

Appendix: Standard Interfaces. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871

1 IEEE 1451.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8712 4–20-mA Current Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8733 Fieldbus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 873

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 877

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xii Table of Contents

About the Authors

Steven Arms (Online Chapter: Wireless Systems) is a contributor to Sensor Technology

Handbook. Mr. Arms received his Master’s Degree in Mechanical Engineering at the

University of Vermont in 1983. He has been awarded 25 US patents and has over

10 pending. He has contributed to 18 journal publications, as well as 44 abstracts/

presentations, in areas of advanced instrumentation, wireless sensing, and energy

harvesting. Mr. Arms is founder and President of MicroStrain, Inc., a Vermont

manufacturer of micro-displacement sensors, inertial sensing systems, and wireless data

logging nodes for recording and transmitting strain, vibration, temperature, and

orientation data. MicroStrain has been recognized as an innovator in the sensors industry.

As of 2008, the firm has received nine Best of Sensors Expo Gold awards for its new

products. MicroStrain has received funding from the U.S. Navy and the U.S. Army to

develop wireless sensor networks which use strain energy harvesting to eliminate battery

maintenance.

Craig Aszkler (Chapter 5) is a contributor to Sensor Technology Handbook. Craig is a

Vibration Products Division Manager at PCB Piezotronics, Inc.

Stuart Ball, P.E. (Chapter 3 and the Appendix), author of Analog Interfacing to

Embedded Microprocessor Systems, is an electrical engineer with over 20 years of

experience in electronic and embedded systems. He is currently employed with Seagate

Technologies, a manufacturer of computer hard disc drives.

Dr. G.M.S de Silva (Chapters 1 and 8), author of Basic Metrology for ISO9000

Certification, is a Chartered Engineer (C.Eng) and holds degrees in Physics, B.Sc

(Hons), from the University of Ceylon; Instrument Technology, M.Sc, from the

University of Technology, Loughborough; and Electrical Materials, Ph.D, from the

Imperial College of Science, Medicine and Technology, University of London, where

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he was also employed as a researcher in surface roughness metrology. Dr. de Silva

has held senior positions in the fields of metrology, standardization, and quality

management in a number of national and international organizations during the past 35

years. At present, he is the Chief Technical Advisor for a number of United Nations

Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) projects for development of metrology

and standardization of infrastructure in the South Asian and South East Asian region,

(Bangladesh, Nepal, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia, and Lao PDR). His past

experiences include Associate Professor and Manager, Measurement Standards

Laboratory, Research Institute, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals,

Dhahran, Saudi Arabia; Director General of Sri Lanka Standards Institution, the

national standards body of Sri Lanka; UNIDO international metrology consultant to the

African Regional Organization for Standardization (ARSO); and Commonwealth Fund

for Technical Co-operation consultant in metrology to Grenada Bureau of Standards,

Grenada. He is a long standing member of the Institute of Measurement and Control,

United Kingdom, and a member of a number of other technical societies.

Tony Fischer-Cripps (Chapters 4, 9, 11, and 13) is the author of Newnes Interfacing

Companion. Tony is a Project Leader in the Division of Telecommunications and

Industrial Physics of the Commonwealth Scientific & Industrial Research Organization

(CSIRO), Australia. He was previously lecturer, University of Technology, Sydney,

Australia, and has also worked for the National Institute of Standards and Technology,

USA.

Timothy Geiger (Chapter 5) is a contributor to Sensor Technology Handbook. Timothy

graduated with a BBA from the University of Notre Dame in 1987 and a MBA from the

University of Chicago in 1992. He originally worked in various accounting and

financial positions prior to joining PCB Piezotronics, Inc. Currently, Tim holds the role

of Division Manager for the Industrial Sensors Division.

Dr. Prof. Dogan Ibrahim (Chapter 7) is the author of Microcontroller-Based

Temperature Monitoring Control. He is currently the Head of the Computer

Engineering Department at the Near East University in Cyprus. He is the author of over

50 technical books and 200 technical articles. Prof. Ibrahim’s interests are in the field of

microprocessor and microcontroller based automatic control, digital signal processing,

and distant engineering education.

Kevin James (Chapters 14 and 15 and Online Chapter: Sampling), author of PC

Interfacing and Data Acquisition, has a background in Astrophysics and Applied

Nuclear Science. As a research physicist he designed numeric models for applications

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xiv About the Authors

as diverse as radiometric thermometry and high-energy neutron dosimetry. He also

spent much of his time developing computer-based laboratory instrumentation for use in

geological and archaeological research. Since 1988, Dr. James has specialized in

producing data-acquisition software for a broad range of manufacturing and quality

control applications. He has designed test and measurement systems for the aircraft,

automobile, rail, process-engineering, and civil-engineering sectors and has developed

interfacing software for the PC as well as real-time firmware for a variety of embedded

systems. He has also designed and coded a number of Internet-based applications.

Dr. James is a Fellow of the Institution of Analysts and Programmers and has been a

freelance consultant since 1991. He has published numerous academic papers and

written extensively on the subjects of data acquisition, control, and interfacing. He is

currently engaged in database design.

Thomas Kenny (Chapter 2) is a contributor to Sensor Technology Handbook. Thomas

has always been interested in the properties of small structures. His Ph.D research was

carried out in the Physics Department at UC Berkeley where he focused on a

measurement of the heat capacity of a monolayer of helium atoms. After graduating, his

research at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory focused on the development of a series of

microsensors that use tunneling displacement transducers to measure small signals.

Currently, at Stanford University, research in Tom’s group covers many areas including

MEMS devices to detect small forces, studies of gecko adhesion, micromechanical

resonators, and heat transfer in microchannels. Tom teaches several courses at Stanford,

including Introduction to Sensors. Tom’s hobbies include Ultimate Frisbee, hiking,

skiing, and an occasional friendly game of poker.

Walt Kester (Chapters 12 and 17) is a corporate staff applications engineer at Analog

Devices. In his more than 35 years at Analog Devices, he has designed, developed, and

given applications support for high-speed ADCs, DACs, SHAs, op amps, and analog

multiplexers. Besides writing many papers and articles, he prepared and edited eleven

major applications books which form the basis for the Analog Devices world-wide

technical seminar series including the topics of op amps, data conversion, power

management, sensor signal conditioning, and mixed-signal and practical analog design

techniques. He is also the editor of The Data Conversion Handbook, a 900þ page

comprehensive book on data conversion, published in 2005 by Elsevier. Walt has a

BSEE from NC State University and a MSEE from Duke University.

Professor Michael Laughton (Chapters 6 and 10) BASc, (Toronto), Ph.D (London),

DSc.Eng (London), FR.Eng, FIEE, C.Eng, is the editor of Electrical Engineer’s

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xvAbout the Authors

Reference Book, 16th Edition. He is Emeritus Professor of Electrical Engineering and

former Dean of Engineering of the University of London and Pro-Principal of Queen

Mary and Westfield College. He is currently the UK representative on the Energy

Committee of the European National Academies of Engineering and a member of the

energy and environment policy advisory groups of the Royal Academy of Engineering,

the Royal Society, the Institution of Electrical Engineers, and the Power Industry

Division Board of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers. He has acted as Specialist

Adviser to UK Parliamentary Committees in both upper and lower Houses on

alternative and renewable energy technologies and on energy efficiency. He was

awarded The Institution of Electrical Engineers Achievement Medal in 2002 for

sustained contributions to electrical power engineering.

Chris Nadovich (Chapter 16) is the author of Synthetic Instrumentation. Chris is a

working engineer with over 20 years of experience in the design and development of

advanced instrumentation for RF and microwave test. He owns a private consulting

company, Julia Thomas Associates that is involved in many electronic automated test-

related design and development efforts at the forefront of the Synthetic Instrumentation

revolution. In addition to his hardware engineering work, Nadovich is an accomplished

software engineer. He owns and manages an Internet provider company, JTAN.COM.

Nadovich received BSEE and MEEE degrees from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in

1981. While working in industry as an engineer, he was also a competitive bicycle

racer. In 1994, Nadovich united his skills as an engineer with his love for bicycle racing

when he designed the 250 meter velodrome used for the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta. He

currently resides in Sellersville, PA along with his wife, Joanne, and their two children.

E.A. Parr (Chapters 6 and 10) M.Sc, C.Eng, MIEE, MInstMC CoSteel Sheerness, is a

contributor to Electrical Engineer’s Reference Book, 16th Edition.

Alex Porter (Chapters 25 and 26) is the author of Accelerated Testing and Validation.

Alex is the Engineering Development Manager for Entela, Inc. and has been with the

company since 1992. Since 1996, he has been developing accelerated testing methods

for mechanical components and systems. Alex has three patents related to accelerated

testing equipment and has published over thirty articles, technical papers, and

presentations on accelerated testing. Alex is chairing an SAE committee that is writing

an Accelerated Testing Supply Chain Implementation Guide. His work in the past has

included implementation of FEA in a laboratory setting and development of a thermal

management system for an advanced data acquisition package developed by NASA’s

Drydon Flight Research facility. Alex is a member of SAE and IEEE. He holds a B.S. in

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xvi About the Authors

Aircraft Engineering and an M.S. in Mechanical Engineering, both from Western

Michigan University.

Edward Ramsden, BSEE, (Online Chapter: Hall-Effect Sensors) is the author of

Hall-Effect Sensors. Ed has worked with Hall-effect sensors since 1988. His experiences

in this area include designing sensor integrated circuits and assembly-level products

as well as developing novel magnetic processing techniques. He has authored or

co-authored more than 30 technical papers and articles and holds ten U.S. patents in

the areas of electronics and sensor technology.

Steve Scheiber (Chapters 18, 19, and 20), author of Building a Successful Board-Test

Strategy and Principal of ConsuLogic Consulting Services, has spent more than 30

years exploring electronics manufacturing and test issues at all levels. A noted author

and lecturer, Steve has served as Contributing Technical Editor and Senior Technical

Editor for Test & Measurement World, for more than 25 years, and as Editor of Test &

Measurement Europe. His textbook, Building a Successful Board-Test Strategy,

published by Butterworth-Heinemann, is now in its second edition. Steve wrote

companion books, published by Quale Press, including A Six-Step Economic-Justification

Process for Tester Selection, Economically Justifying Functional Test, and Building

an Intelligent Manufacturing Line (all of which are available directly from

ConsuLogic). He has also written hundreds of technical articles for a variety of trade

publications. Steve’s areas of expertise include manufacturing and test strategy

development, test and general-purpose software, economics, and test-program

management. Steve has spent much time in the past 15 years teaching seminars on

economics and cost-justification of capital expenditures to engineers and managers. His

other seminar and technical-article subjects have included automatic-program

generation, concurrent engineering, design-for-testability, simulation, device and board

verification, inspection, environmental stress screening, and VXI. Steve holds

Bachelor’s and Master-of-Engineering degrees from Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute.

Chris Townsend (Online Chapter: Wireless Systems) is a contributor to Sensor

Technology Handbook. He is Vice President of Engineering for MicroStrain, Inc., a

manufacturer of precision sensors and wireless sensing instrumentation. Chris’s current

main focus is on research and development of a new class of ultra low power wireless

sensors for industry. Chris has been involved in the design of a number of products,

including the world’s smallest LVDT, inertial orientation sensors, and wireless sensors.

He holds over 25 patents in the area of advanced sensing. Chris has a degree in

Electrical Engineering from the University of Vermont.

www.newnespress.com

xviiAbout the Authors

Douglas Warne (Chapters 6 and 10) is the editor of Electrical Engineers Reference

book, 16th Edition. Warne graduated from Imperial College London in 1967 with a

1st-class honors degree in electrical engineering. During 1963–1968 he had a student

apprenticeship with AEI Heavy Plant Division, Rugby. He is currently self-employed,

and has taken on such projects as Coordinated LINK PEDDS program for DTI and the

electrical engineering, electrical machines and drives, and ERCOS programs for

EPSRC. Warne initiated and managed the NETCORDE university-industry network for

identifying and launching new R&D projects. He also acted as coordinator for the

industry-academic funded ESR Network, held the part-time position of Research

Contract Coordinator for the High Voltage and Energy Systems group at University of

Cardiff, and monitored several projects funded through the DTI Technology Program.

Tim Williams (Chapters 21, 22, 23, and 24) is the author of The Circuit Designer’s

Companion, 2nd Edition. He works at Elmac Services which provides consultancy and

training on all aspects of EMC, including design, testing, and the application of

standards to companies manufacturing electronic products and concerned about the

implications of the EMC Directive. Tim Williams gained a B.Sc in Electronic

Engineering from Southampton University in 1976. He has worked in electronic

product design in various industry sectors including process instrumentation and audio

visual control. He was design group leader at Rosemount Ltd. before leaving in 1990 to

start Elmac Services. He is also the author of EMC for Product Designers (now in its

fourth edition, Elsevier 2006), and has presented numerous conference papers and

seminars. He is also author of EMC for Systems & Installations with Keith Armstrong.

He is an EMC technical assessor for UKAS and SWEDAC.

Jon Wilson, (Chapters 2, 5, 12, and Online Chapter: Wireless Systems) is editor of

Sensor Technology Handbook; Test Engineer, Chrysler Corporation; Test Engineer, ITT

Cannon Electric Co.; Environmental Lab Manager, Motorola Semiconductor Products;

Applications Engineering Manager and Marketing Manager, Endevco Corporation;

Principal Consultant, Jon S. Wilson Consulting, LLC; Fellow Member, Institute of

Environmental Sciences and Technology; Sr. Member, ISA; and Sr. Member, SAE.

He has authored several text books and short course handbooks on testing and

instrumentation and many magazine articles and technical papers. He is a regular

presenter of measurement and testing short courses for Endevco, Technology Training,

Inc., the International Telemetry Conference, and commercial and government

organizations.

www.newnespress.com

xviii About the Authors