Terrorism offending in New South Wales AND JUSTICE ...
Transcript of Terrorism offending in New South Wales AND JUSTICE ...
AIM TodescribeterrorismoffencesfinalisedinNewSouthWales(NSW)criminalcourtssincetheintroductionofspecificterrorismoffencesinAustraliain2002,andtoprovideanoverviewofthecharacteristicsandoffendinghistoryofoffenderswhohavebeenconvictedoftheseoffences.
METHOD DataonallterrorismoffencesfinalisedinNSWcourtswereextractedfromtheNSWBureauofCrimeStatisticsandResearchRe-offendingDatabase.Thenumberandtypesofterrorismoffencesarepresented,andfrequenciesofbothnon-terrorismandtotaloffencesarepresentedtodeterminethedegreetowhichoffendersspecialiseinterrorismoffending.Demographicandcriminogeniccharacteristics,includingLevelofServiceInventory-Revised(LSI-R)scores,arethenexaminedforbothspecialistandnon-specialistterrorismoffenders.
RESULTS BetweenJuly2002andMay2020,72proventerrorismoffenceswerefinalisedinNSWcriminalcourtsfor48offenders.Approximatelytwothirdsofallprincipalterrorismoffencesrelatedtotheproactivepolicingofterrorism.Forty-twopercent(n=20)ofterrorismoffenderswereconvictedofonlyterrorismoffences.Theremaining58percentwere,orhadpreviouslybeen,convictedofatleastonenon-terrorismoffence,mostcommonlyoffencesagainstjusticeprocedures,governmentsecurityandgovernmentoperations.Whilethedemographicprofileofthosewhocommittedterrorismoffenceswasfairlysimilar,terrorismoffendersconvictedofonlyterrorismoffencesvariedintermsoftheircriminogeniccharacteristics.
CONCLUSION Terrorism-relatedchargesareuncommoninNSWcriminalcourts,andmostcommonlyrelatetoproactivepolicing.
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terrorism offenders specialisation criminogenic riskKEYWORDS
CRIME AND JUSTICE STATISTICS
BUREAU BRIEF
Terrorism offending in New South WalesStewart Boiteux
NUMBER 150 | JANUARY 2021
Suggestedcitation:Boiteux,S.(2021).Terrorism offending in New South Wales(BureauBriefNo.150).Sydney:NSWBureauofCrimeStatisticsandResearch.
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INTRODUCTIONWhileterrorismoffendingisnotanewphenomenon,itwasnotuntiltheeventsofSeptember112001intheUnitedStates,andtheresultingResolution 1373 of the United Nations Security Council 2001,thatspecificoffencestocriminaliseterrorismwerecodifiedintoAustralianlaw(undertheSecurity Legislation Amendment (Terrorism) Act 2002 (Cth); Williams,2011).Priortotheenactmentofthislegislation,terrorismoffenceswereprosecutedunderexistingcriminallaw.Aprimarymotivationforthedirectcriminalisationofterrorismwastheneedtoreacttoterrorismproactively,focusingonthedeterrenceandpreventionofterroristoffendingratherthantheprosecutionofterrorismonceithadoccurred(Ruddock,2007).Broadly,theamendinglegislationcreatednewoffencesintheCriminal Code Act 1995(Cth)tocriminaliseterrorismontwolevels–offencesthatwhencarriedoutwouldconstituteterrorismoffending,andproactivepolicingoffences(McCulloch&Pickering,2010).
SincetheinitialintroductionofterrorismoffencesinJuly2002,thelegislativeenvironmentgoverningterrorismoffendinginAustraliahasexpandedrapidly,incorporatingfurthermechanismstoallowforproactivepolicingofterrorismoffending.Theseincludetheintroductionofcontrolandsupervisionorderstorestricttheactionsofsuspectedandpreviouslyconvictedoffenderswhoposeanunacceptableriskofcommittingaseriousterrorismoffence,andarangeofcriminaloffencesforbreachingtheseorders(McCulloch&Pickering,2010;Smith&Nolan,2016).
Whilesomelegalscholarshavedescribedthelegislativeenvironmentasoneof“hyper-legislation”(Roach,2011),pointingtothe82anti-terrorlawsthathavebeenenactedsince2001(McGarrity&Blackbourn,2019),littleresearchexistsexaminingtheextenttowhichtheselawshavebeenutilisedorthecharacteristicsofoffenderswhohavebeenconvictedofterrorismoffences.Despitetherepeatedrecommendationforroutinegovernmentreportingonterrorismoffending,nogovernmentagencyinAustraliahasadoptedthepractice(IndependentNationalSecurityLegislationMonitor[INSLM],2020).
Indesigningapproachestocombatterrorismoffending,acommonthemeofresearch,policydiscussionsandtargetedpreventionprogramshasbeenanemphasisonthecriminogenicneedsandmotivesofterrorismoffenderscomparedwithmoregeneraloffenders(RTIInternational[RTI],2017).Thisdifferentiationisoftenjustifiedonthebasisthatterrorismoffendingisfundamentallydifferentfromothertypesofcrime,asitrequiresadistinctanduniquesocio-politicalmotive.Thisassumeddifferencehasmotivatedthewidespreaddevelopmentofterrorismspecificpreventionandcounteringviolentextremismprograms,withloworotherwiseunknowndegreesofsuccess(Harris-Hogan,2020;Lum,Kennedy,&Sherley,2006).Thetreatmentofterrorismoffendersasahomogeneousgroupmayhoweverbeproblematicgivenboththewiderangeofoffencesthatconstituteterrorismoffending,andthatthedegreetowhichoffendersspecialiseinthesetypesofcrimesiscurrentlynotwellunderstood.
Australian evidence
Akeylimitationofexistingresearchonterrorismoffendingisthatresearchershavetypicallyreliedonsecondarysourcesofinformationsuchasbooks,articlesandmediareportingratherthanquantitativeanalysisofprimarydatafromlargescaleadministrativedatasets(Schuurman,2018).Thesesecondarydatasourcesmaycontaininaccurateorincompleteinformation,and/orreflectbiasesinthereportingofparticularcases(Dugan&Distler,2016).ThisisalsotrueofAustralianresearchundertakentodate.Shanahan(2020),forexample,constructedaterrorismeventdatabasefrompubliclyavailablemediainformationtoquantifyterrorismrelatedoffendingbyAustralianJihadis.1Ofthetotalsampleof183people(86fromNewSouthWales[NSW]),mostoffenderswereidentifiedasbeingmale(83percent)andtheaverageageatthetimeofoffencewas24years.TheaverageAustralianJihadiwasalsoreportedtohavenoprioroffendinghistory.WhilethisstudyprovidesvaluableinformationonthebackgroundofJihaditerroristsinAustralia,therestrictedsample,theinabilitytoverifythequalityofunderlyingdata,andthehighdegreeofmissinginformationinthesample,limitstheusefulnessoftheseresults,particularlyforgeneralisingtothebroaderoffenderpopulation.
1 DefinedasindividualswhoareknowntohavejoinedradicalIslamistterroristorganisationsorthosethathavebeenchargedwithterrorismoffences.
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AmoreconcentratedanalysiswasrecentlyundertakenbyVictoriaPolice(2018).TheyreportedthenumberofterrorismoffencesproceededagainstbypoliceinVictoriabetween2005and2018,aswellasthecharacteristicsofoffenderschargedwiththeseoffences.TheresultsareconsistentwiththosereportedbyShanahan(2020).Ofthe41peoplechargedwithaterrorismoffenceduringthisperiod,allbutonewasmaleand47percentwereagedbetween21and25years.Atthetimeofpublication,only19ofthe41peoplechargedwithaterrorismoffenceinVictoriahadbeenfoundguilty.Afurther9peoplehadbeenacquittedofallterrorismcharges,orhadtheirterrorismchargeswithdrawnorstruckout,2 while13werestillonbailorremandpendingfinalisationoftheirmatterincourt.
The current study
ThecurrentstudyusesNSWpopulationlevelinformationfromalinkedadministrativedatabaseofcourtfinalisationstodescribethefullpopulationofoffendersconvictedofaterrorismoffence.Thepurposeofthisbriefistoanswerthreequestions:
1. Howmany,andwhattypeof,terrorismoffenceshavebeenfinalisedinNSWcriminalcourtssincetheintroductionofspecificoffencestocriminaliseterrorismin2002?
2. HowmanyoffendershavebeenchargedwithaterrorismoffenceinNSW?Whatarethedemographicandcriminogeniccharacteristicsoftheseoffenders?
3. Towhatdegreeareterrorismoffendersspecialists?Whattypesofnon-terrorismoffencesarecommittedbyterrorismoffenders?
METHOD
Data source
InformationonfinalisedcourtappearanceswassourcedfromtheNSWBureauofCrimeStatisticsandResearchRe-offendingDatabase(ROD)forallindividualschargedwithatleastoneterrorismoffencebetweenJuly2002andMay2020.TheRODprovidesinformationonallfinalisedcourtappearancesinNSWsince1994.Thefinalsamplecomprisedinformationon53peoplechargedwithaterrorismoffence,ofwhom48hadatleastoneterrorismchargeproven.Ofthefivepeoplewithoutaproventerrorismcharge,threewerefoundguiltyofconcurrentnon-terrorismchargesandtwohadnooffencesproven.Thedatasetcontainedinformationonthetypeofterrorismoffences,whethertheterrorismoffencewastheprincipaloffenceinthatmatter,priorandconcurrentoffendingofthedefendant,andanypenaltiesimposedbythecourt.Forthisanalysistheprincipaloffencewasdefinedastheoffencewhichreceivedthemostseriouspenaltyattheindexcourtappearance.3Notethatinafewcaseswheretheterrorismoffencewasproven,itwasnottheprincipaloffence.
Definition of a terrorism offence
ThedefinitionofterrorismoffencesusedinthestudybroadlyfollowstheAustralianlegaldefinitionofterrorism.ThisisdefinedinSection3oftheCrimes Act 1914(Cth),toincludeanoffenceagainst:
y SubdivisionAofDivision72oftheCriminalCodeAct
y SubdivisionBofDivision80oftheCriminalCodeAct
2 “WhentheCourthasclosedacase,usuallywiththerightforthecasetobebroughtagainatalaterdate.ThistermalsoreferstowhentheCourtrulesthatpartsofaclaimordefencecannotbereliedonandthesepartsarestruckout”(SupremeCourtofVictoria,2020).3 Iftherewasmorethanoneoffencewhichreceivedthesamequantumofthesamepenaltytype,includingthesamequantumoftotalsentenceandnon-paroleperiod,theoffencewiththehighestMedianSentenceRanking(MSR)wasselectedastheprincipalterrorismoffence.TheMSRisarankingmeasureofoffenceseriousnessthatisassociatedwiththeAustralianandNewZealandStandardOffenceClassification(ANZSOC)groupofeachoffence(seeMacKinnell,Poletti,&Holmes,2010).
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y Part5.3or5.5oftheCriminalCodeAct
y Part 4oftheCharter of the United Nations Act 1945(Cth)
y Part5oftheCharteroftheUnitedNationsAct,totheextentthatitrelatestotheCharter of the United Nations (Sanctions—Al‑Qaida) Regulations 2008(Cth)
AdditionaloffencesareincludedfromNSWlegislation,specificallythoserelatedtocompliancewithinterimandextendedsupervisionordersunder:
y Section30oftheTerrorism (High Risk Offenders) Act 2017 (NSW)
Indevelopingarobustmeasureofterrorismoffences,additionaloffenceswhichmightbeconsideredtobeterrorismrelatedwereidentified,andconvictionsundertheseoffencesinNSWwerealsoexamined.Ofalladditionaloffencesidentifiedforpotentialinclusion,nonehadbeenusedtoconvictanoffenderinNSW.
Descriptive statistics
Frequencycountsofterrorismoffenceswereexaminedbyoffencetype,andthecumulativefrequencyofprincipalterrorismoffencetypeswereexaminedbyyearofoffence.Inassessingthedegreetowhichterrorismoffendersspecialise,anyotherprovenoffences(i.e.non-terrorismoffences)werealsoconsidered.Terrorismoffendingasaproportionoftotaloffending,aswellasfrequencycountsofnon-terrorismoffending,wereexaminedbyAustralianandNewZealandClassificationofOffences(ANZSOC)divisioncategory(seeABS,2011).Terrorismoffenderswithnoprovenpriororconcurrentnon-terrorismoffenceswereclassifiedasspecialistterrorismoffendersforfurtheranalysis.
Thedemographicandcriminogeniccharacteristicsofoffendersconvictedofatleastoneterrorismoffencewerethenexaminedbywhetheranoffenderspecialisedinterrorismoffending.Demographiccharacteristicsincludedage,sex,Aboriginality,4socioeconomicdisadvantage,5andgeographicremoteness.6Criminogeniccharacteristicsincludedwhetheranoffenderhadanypriorcourtappearanceswithaprovenconvictionorprisonpenalty.RiskcategoriesandaveragescoresfromtheLevelofServiceInventory-Revised(LSI-R)7werealsoexamined.WhiletheLSI-Rhasnotbeenvalidatedforthepurposeofassessingre-offendinginaterrorismcontextandhasknownproblemsinpredictingcriminogenicneedsofterrorismoffenders(Pressman&Flockton,2014;Rafter,2018),itcapturesdescriptiveinformationaboutoffendersonfifty-fouritemsacrosstensubscales,including:
1. CriminalHistory
2. Education/Employment
3. Financial
4. Family/Marital
5. Accommodation
6. Leisure/Recreation
7. Companions
8. Alcohol/DrugProblem
9. Emotional/Personal
10.Attitudes/Orientation
4 ThestudyclassifiesanoffenderasanAboriginalpersoniftheywereeverrecordedasbeinganAboriginalpersonbytheNSWPoliceForce.5 SocioeconomicdisadvantageismeasuredusingtheSocio-EconomicIndicesforAreas(SEIFA)IndexofRelativeDisadvantage(seeAustralianBureauofStatistics[ABS],2016a).Foreaseofinterpretation,SEIFAscoresarebrokenintoquartilesreflectingrelativesocioeconomicdisadvantageinthepopulation.6 GeographicremotenessisorganisedintofivecategoriesusingtheAccessibilityandRemotenessIndexofAustralia(ARIA+),ameasurebasedonrelativeaccesstoservicesineacharea(seeABS,2016b).7 TheLSI-Risavalidatedriskassessmenttooldesignedtomeasurebothre-offendingriskassociatedwithgeneraloffending,andanindividual’scorrectionaltreatmentneedstoreducethisrisk(seeAndrews&Bonta,1995).
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RESULTS
Terrorism offences
Table1showscountsofproventerrorismchargesbyoffencetype.Sincespecificterrorismoffenceswereintroducedin2002,therehavebeen72proventerrorismchargesfinalisedinNSW,involvingatotalof48uniqueoffendersacross49cases.Themajorityoftheseoffencesrelatetolegislationthathasenabledtheproactivepolicingandpreventionofterrorism-relatedactivities.Themostcommonoffencecategory,terrorismplanningoffences,comprisedapproximately39percentofallproventerrorismcharges.Thesecondlargestcategory,breachesofcontrolandsupervisionorders,comprisedafurther21percentofallproventerrorismcharges.Foreignincursionandrecruitmentoffencesaccountedfor6percentofallproventerrorismcharges,withthreequartersoftheseoffences(4percentoftotalproventerrorismcharges)beingoffencesrelatedtotheproactivepolicingofterrorism.Overall,36percentofproventerrorismchargesrepresentedoffencesthatwerecarriedoutbyoffenders(hereafter,enactedoffences),withthemajorityrelatingtothecollection,manufactureorpossessionofterrorismrelateditems(18percent).Fromtheinceptionofterrorism-specificlawsinAustralia,onlythreechargesrelatingtoaterroristacthavebeenfinalisedwithaguiltyoutcomeinNSWcriminalcourts.Thisrepresentsslightlymorethan4percentofallproventerrorismchargesinNSW.
Table 1. Proven terrorism offence charges by type
Terrorism offence typeNumber of
offencesNumber of offenders
Average offences per
offender
% of all terrorism offences
Planning offences 28 25 1.1 38.9
Control and supervision order offences 15 5 3.0 20.8
Collect/make/possess terrorism item offences 13 10 1.3 18.1
Terrorism financing offences 5 4 1.3 6.9
Foreign incursions and recruitment offences 4 4 1.0 5.6
Terrorist organisation offences 4 3 1.3 5.6
Terrorist act offences 3 3 1.0 4.2
Total 72 48 1.5 100.0Note.Frequenciescorrespondtothetotalnumberofprovencharges,withsomeoffendershavingbeenchargedwithmultipleoffences
inasinglecase.Assuch,countsinthecolumnlabellednumberofoffendersdonotsumtothetotalnumberofterrorismoffenders. Percentagecolumnsmaynotsumtothetotalduetoroundingerrors.
Principal terrorism offences
Figure1showsthefrequencydistributionofprovenprincipalterrorismoffencesbytype,andbywhethertheywererelatedtoeithertheproactivepolicingofterrorismortheprosecutionofanenactedoffence.Slightlymorethantwothirdsofallterrorismoffendershadaproactivepolicingoffenceastheirprincipalterrorismoffence,withoverhalfofthesebeingaplanningoffence.
Fifteenpeoplehavebeenconvictedofenactedterrorismoffencesastheirprincipaloffence,withnearlyhalfoftheseoffencesrelatingtothecollection,manufactureorpossessionofterrorismitems.AmoredetailedlistofallprovenprincipalterrorismoffencesandchargesispresentedinAppendixTableA1.
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Proactive policing offences Enacted offences
Foreign incursions and recruitmentoffences (proactive policing)
Control and supervision order offences
Planning offences
Foreign incursions and recruitmentoffences (enacted)
Terrorism financing offences
Terrorist organisation offences
Terrorist act offences
Collect/make/possess terrorism itemoffences0
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Num
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f pr
inci
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erro
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off
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sFigure 1. Proven terrorism offences by offence type
Penalties imposed for terrorism offences
Table2showsthepenaltiesimposedonoffendersincasesinvolvingaproventerrorismoffence.Ofthoseconvictedofterrorismoffences,94percent(n=46)receivedaprisonsentence,withamedianimprisonmentdurationof108months.Theremaining6percentreceivedacommunity-basedorder(i.e.,communitycorrectionorderwithsupervision,intensivecorrectionorder,orbondwithoutsupervision)withamedianorderdurationof48months.Totalimprisonmenttermsforterrorismoffenderswerewidelydistributedwithaninterquartilerange(IQR)of216months.
Table 2. Type of penalty received by offenders with a proven terrorism offenceNumber of offenders
receiving penalty type
Principal penalty value
(months)
Duration of total term for principal penalty
(months)
n % Median IQR Median IQR
Community-based sentencea 3 6.1 48 24
Imprisonment 46 93.9 108 160 144 216Note.Forprisonpenalties,theprincipalpenaltyvaluecorrespondstothenon-paroleperiod. aAcombinationofcommunitycorrectionorderswithsupervision,intensivecorrectionorders,andbondswithoutsupervision.
Terrorism offenders over time
Figure2showsthenumberofoffendersbytypeofprincipalterrorismoffenceandyearofoccurrence.8 Thetimingofterrorismchargesfordifferentdefendantsisstronglycorrelated.Thisisexpectedasmultipleterrorismoffendersareoftenproceededagainstsimultaneouslyaspartofaspecialpoliceoperation.Forexamplethespikeinoffenderscommittingterrorismoffencesin2005seeninFigure2coincideswithawell-knownanti-terrorismoperation,OperationPendennis(seeAustralianSecurityIntelligenceOrganisation[ASIO],2019).Priorto2014only13offendershadcommittedterrorismoffencesthatwerefinalisedinNSWcourts.
8 Whenconsideringthetimingofterrorismoffences,itisimportanttonotethatdatainthisstudyonlyrepresentterrorismoffencesthathavebeenfinalisedincourt.Itispossiblethattherearemorerecentterrorismoffences,yettobefinalised,thatarenotincludedinthestudy.AppendixFigureA1showsthecumulativefrequencydistributionofterrorismoffencecourtfinalisationsbythenumberofyearsbetweentheoffenceandcourtfinalisation.Halfofallterrorismoffenceswerefinalisedwithin3years,and94percentwerefinalisedwithin5years.
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InAustralia,theFederalGovernmentcommunicatesthelikelihoodofanactofterrorismoccurringthroughtheNationalTerrorismThreatAdvisorySystem;afive-tierriskcategorisationthatbroadlyoutlinesexpectedrisk.In2014,thethreatlevelwasraisedfromthesecondtier“Possible”tothethirdtier“Probable”,beingdefinedasthelevelatwhichindividualsorgroupshavedevelopedbothanintentandcapabilitytoconductaterroristattackinAustralia(DepartmentofHomeAffairs,2020).Sincethethreatlevelwasraisedin2014,atleasttenmajorcounter-terrorismdisruptionoperationshavebeenruninNSW(ASIO,2019),withafurther35offenderscommittingterrorismoffencesthathavebeenfinalisedincourtduringthisperiod.
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Num
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Figure 2. Number of offenders with a proven terrorism offence by year
Foreign incursions and recruitment offences(enacted)
Terrorism financing offences
Terrorist organisation offences
Terrorist act offences
Collect/make/possess terrorism item offences
Foreign incursions and recruitment offences(proactive policing)
Control and supervision order offences
Planning offences
Non-terrorism offending and specialisation by terrorism offenders
Table3showsthecountsofprovenpriorandconcurrentnon-terrorismchargesforoffenderswithatleastoneproventerrorismoffence,brokendownbyoffencetype.Numbersandpercentagesofoffenderscorrespondtothecombinedcountofpriorandconcurrentoffences.Onlyeightoffenders(17percent)hadprovenconcurrentnon-terrorismcharges,and27offenders(56percent)hadprovenpriornon-terrorismcharges.Whiletherewerealargevarietyofoffencescommittedbyterrorismoffenders,afewoffencecategoriesstandoutasparticularlycommon.Themostcommonnon-terrorismoffenceswereoffencesagainstjusticeprocedures,governmentsecurityandgovernmentoperations(28percentofallnon-terrorismoffences).Itisinterestingtonotethatwhilethelargenumberofoffencesofthistype(n=124)doesnotincludeterrorismoffences,thisistheANZSOCdivisionintowhichterrorismoffenceswouldotherwisebecategorised.Thenextmostcommonnon-terrorismoffencesweretheftandrelatedoffences(12percentofnon-terrorismoffences),closelyfollowedbyactsintendedtocauseinjury(11percentofnon-terrorismoffences).Notably,noterrorismoffendershadpriororconcurrentprovenchargesforsexualassaultandrelatedoffences.Ofthosewithanyprovenpriororconcurrentnon-terrorismoffences(n=28),theaveragenumberofnon-terrorismoffencesperpersonwas16offences.Non-terrorismoffencesaccountedforapproximately87percentofalloffencescommittedbyterrorismoffenders,withterrorismoffencesrepresentingtheremaining13percent.
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Table 3. Non-terrorism offences by terrorism offenders
Offence type
Number of prior offences
Number of prior and
concurrent offences
Number of
offenders
Average number of non-terrorism offence type per
offender
Percentage of all
non-terrorism offences
Percentage of all offences committed
by terrorism offenders
Homicide and related offences 0 1 1 1.0 0.2 0.2
Acts intended to cause injury 49 50 12 4.2 11.2 9.7
Sexual assault and related offences 0 0 0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Dangerous or negligent acts endangering persons 14 14 6 2.3 3.1 2.7
Abduction, harassment and other offences against the person 10 11 5 2.2 2.5 2.1
Robbery, extortion and related offences 20 20 7 2.9 4.5 3.9
Unlawful entry with intent/burglary, break and enter 28 28 3 9.3 6.3 5.5
Theft and related offences 52 52 10 5.2 11.7 10.1
Fraud, deception and related offences 5 6 5 1.2 1.4 1.2
Illicit drug offences 18 18 9 2.0 4.0 3.5
Prohibited and regulated weapons and explosives offences 26 31 10 3.1 7.0 6.0
Property damage and environmental pollution 24 24 5 4.8 5.4 4.7
Public order offences 36 37 10 3.7 8.3 7.2
Traffic and vehicle regulatory offences 28 28 9 3.1 6.3 5.5
Offences against justice procedures, government security and government operations 112 124 13 9.5 27.8 24.1
Miscellaneous offences 2 2 2 1.0 0.5 0.4
Total a 424 446 28 15.9 100.0 86.8Note.Priorandconcurrentchargesrelatetothefirstterrorismoffencecommittedbyterrorismoffenders.
Numbersandpercentagesofoffenderscorrespondtothecombinedcountofpriorandconcurrentoffences. Percentagecolumnsmaynotsumtototalduetorounding. Offenderfrequenciescorrespondtothetotalnumberofprovencharges,withsomeoffendershavingbeenchargedwithmultipletypesofoffence. Assuch,countsinthenumberofoffenderscolumndonotsumtothetotalnumberofterrorismoffenders.
aTotalnumberofoffendersandaveragenumberofnon-terrorismoffencesperoffenderrelatetothenumberofoffenderswithanyprovennon-terrorism offences.
Giventhatoffencesagainstjusticeprocedures,governmentsecurityandgovernmentoperationsrepresentalargeproportion(28percent)ofallnon-terrorismoffendingbyterrorismoffenders,thisoffencetypeisinvestigatedfurthertoprovideamorecomprehensiveviewofnon-terrorismoffendingbyterrorismoffenders.Table4presentsthecountofoffencesagainstjusticeprocedures,governmentsecurityandgovernmentoperationsbytheANZSOCgroupassociatedwitheachoffence.Thisbreakdownisshownseparatelyforprioroffencesonly,andforpriorandconcurrentoffencescombined.Roughlyonethirdofnon-terrorismoffencesofthistypewereoffencesagainstjusticeproceduresnotelsewhereclassified.9Thiswascloselyfollowedbybreachofbond–probationoffences,whichrepresentedslightlyoveronequarterofnon-terrorismoffencesagainstjusticeprocedures,governmentsecurityandgovernmentoperations.
9 ThisANZSOCgroupincludesoffencessuchas:accessoryafterthefact;misprision(concealingknowledge)offelony;contemptofcourt,notinvolvingtheperversionofjusticeproceedings;makefalsereporttopolice;andfailtoappearbeforecourt.
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Table 4. Offences against justice procedures, government security and government operations committed by offenders charged with a terrorism offence
Number of prior offences
Number of prior and concurrent offences
n % n %
Breach of bond - other 18 16.1 18 14.5
Breach of bond - probation 31 27.7 38 30.7
Breach of violence order 2 1.8 2 1.6
Offences against justice procedures, nec 39 34.8 40 32.3
Prison regulation offences 1 0.9 1 0.8
Resist or hinder police officer or justice official 17 15.2 20 16.1
Subvert the course of justice 0 0.0 1 0.8
Other a 4 3.6 4 3.2
Total 112 100.0 124 100.0Note.Priorandconcurrentchargesrelatetothefirstterrorismoffencecommittedbyterrorismoffenders.aAcombinationofbreachesofcommunityserviceorders,community-basedorders,andsuspendedsentences.
Byconsideringtheproportionofeachoffender’stotalprovenchargesthatareterrorismoffences,itispossibletogaugethedegreetowhicheachoffenderspecialisesinterrorismoffending.Table5describesthenumberofproventerrorismandnon-terrorismchargescommittedbyterrorismoffenders,accordingtotheextentofspecialisation.Thefirstcolumnseparatesoffendersintogroups,basedonthepercentageoftheirtotaloffenceswhichareterrorismoffences.Thesecondandthirdcolumnsdescribethenumberandpercentageofallterrorismoffendersineachgroup,respectively.Thefourth,fifthandsixthcolumnsrespectivelydescribetheaveragenumberoftotal,terrorism,andnon-terrorismoffencescommittedbyoffendersineachcategory.Theremainingcolumnsdescribethefrequencyoftotal,terrorismandnon-terrorismoffencescommittedbyoffendersineachcategory.Focusingonthethirdcolumn,42percentofallterrorismoffenders(n=20)wouldmeetourdefinitionforspecialisinginterrorismoffending,havingnoprovenpriororconcurrentchargesfornon-terrorismoffences.Thisgroupisresponsibleforatotalof27terrorismoffences,representingslightlymorethanoneoffenceperoffender.Conversely,19percentofallterrorismoffenders(n=9)haveterrorismchargesrepresentinglessthan10percentoftheirtotalprovenoffences.Thisgroupmightbeconsideredmoregeneraloffenders.Theseoffendershadthelargestnumberofoffencesofanysub-group,andwereresponsibleforanaverageof43offenceseach,42ofwhichwerenon-terrorismoffences.
Table 5. Offending frequency by percentage of terrorism offences in criminal career
% of offences in career that are terrorism offences
Number of offenders
% of all terrorism offenders
Average number of offences
Average number of terrorism offences
committed
Average number of
non-terrorism offences
committedTotal
offences
Total terrorism offences
committed
Total non-terrorism
offences committed
0-9.9% 9 18.8 43.4 1.0 42.4 391 9 382
10-24.9% 6 12.5 7.0 1.0 6.0 42 6 36
25-49.9% 5 10.4 3.8 1.0 2.8 19 5 14
50-84.9% 8 16.7 4.4 2.6 1.8 35 21 14
85-99.9% 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0
100% 20 41.7 1.4 1.4 0.0 27 27 0Note.Priorandconcurrentoffencesrelatetothefirstterrorismoffencecommittedbyterrorismoffenders.
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Demographic and criminogenic characteristics of offenders
Table6showsthefrequencydistributionofdemographicandcriminogeniccharacteristicsofterrorismoffendersbywhethertheyspecialisedinterrorismoffending.TerrorismoffendersinNSWwerelargelysimilarintheirdemographiccomposition:96percentweremale,90percentwerenon-Aboriginal,mostresidedinamajorcity,andthemajoritylivedinanareaassociatedwiththehighestlevelofsocioeconomicdisadvantageatthetimeofoffence.Overhalfofallterrorismoffendershadatleastonepriorcourtappearancewithaprovenconviction,andonequarterhadpreviouslyreceivedaprisonpenalty.Themedianageofterrorismoffendersatthetimeofcourtfinalisationwas26years.Agewasweaklyrelatedtowhetheranoffenderwasaspecialistterrorismoffender,withtheagedistributionforspecialistterrorismoffendersskewingslightlyolder.Whileonly4percent(n=2)ofallterrorismoffenderswerefemale,femaleoffenderscomprised5percentofallspecialistterrorismoffenders(n=1).
Ofthe48offenderswithaproventerrorismoffenceinNSW,77percent(n=37)hadavalidLSI-Rscorerecorded.Table7showsthefrequencydistributionofLSI-Rriskcategoriesfortheseoffendersbywhethertheyspecialisedinterrorismoffending.Inlinewithconcernsaboutthevalidityandusefulnessofthetoolformeasuringre-offendingriskinthecontextofterrorismoffending(Pressman&Flockton,2014;Rafter,2018),themajorityofterrorismoffenderswithavalidLSI-Rscore(84percent)wereratedashavingalowtomediumriskofre-offending.
Whilethere-offendingriskmeasurefromtheLSI-Rmaynotbeaccuratewhenassessingthelikelihoodofterrorismoffending,LSI-RsubscalescoresprovidedescriptiveandcontextualinformationregardingthecriminogenicriskprofileofterrorismoffendersinNSW.Table8describestheaverageLSI-Rsubscaleandtotalscoresofterrorismoffendersbywhethertheyspecialisedinterrorismoffending.AhigherLSI-Rscoreisrelatedtoahigherriskofgeneralre-offending.TheaverageterrorismoffenderhadatotalLSI-Rscoreof25,interpretedasamediumriskscoreontheLSI-Rscale.Averagesubscalescoresforterrorismoffendersasagroupsuggestthattheyhavedisplayedlowre-offendingriskintermsofcharacteristicsrelatedtotheirfamilyandmaritalbackground,alcoholanddruguse,andbothemotionalandpersonalcharacteristics.Whilesmallsamplesizeprecludesformalstatisticaltestsofdifference,aninformalcomparisonofmeansubscalescoressuggeststhatspecialistterrorismoffendershavedisplayedaquitedifferentsetofriskcharacteristics.Overall,specialistterrorismoffendershadameanLSI-Rscoreapproximately20percentlowerthannon-specialistterrorismoffenders.Asexpected,thisdifferenceislargelydrivenbydifferencesinthecriminalhistorysubscalescoreasspecialistterrorismoffendershadnopriorprovengeneraloffencesrecorded.Differencesintheaveragecriminalhistorysubscalescoreaccountfor2.6,ornearly45percent,ofthe5.9differenceintotalLSI-Rscorebetweenspecialistandnon-specialistterrorismoffenders.Beyondthisexpecteddifference,averagescoresforspecialistterrorismoffenderswerealsolowerornearequalacrossalltenLSI-Rsubscaledomains.Afteraccountingforaveragedifferencesbetweenspecialistandnon-specialistterrorismoffendersinthecriminalhistorysubscale,thelargestdifferencesweredrivenbythesubscalescoresforalcoholanddruguse(29percentofthedifference),emotional/personal(20percentofthedifference),educationandemployment(5percentofthedifference),andtypeofcompanions(3percentofthedifference).
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Table 6. Demographic and criminogenic characteristics of terrorism offenders by specialisation status
Non-specialist terrorism
offendersSpecialist terrorism
offenders Total
n % n % n %
N 28 100.0 20 100.0 48 100.0
Sex Female 1 3.6 1 5.0 2 4.2
Male 27 96.4 19 95.0 46 95.8
Age 10-17 1 3.6 0 0.0 1 2.1
18-29 21 75.0 13 65.0 34 70.8
30-39 2 7.1 5 25.0 7 14.6
40+ 4 14.3 2 10.0 6 12.5
Socio-economic disadvantage
Quartile 1 15 53.6 11 55.0 26 54.2
(Most disadvantaged)
Quartile 2 3 10.7 1 5.0 4 8.3
Quartile 3 4 14.3 0 0.0 4 8.3
Quartile 4 1 3.6 2 10.0 3 6.3
(Least disadvantaged)
Missing 5 17.9 6 30.0 11 22.9
Remoteness a Major cities 21 75.0 14 70.0 35 72.9
Inner or outer regional 2 7.1 0 0.0 2 4.2
Missing 5 17.9 6 30.0 11 22.9
Aboriginality Aboriginal 3 10.7 0 0.0 3 6.3
Non-Aboriginal 24 85.7 19 95.0 43 89.6
Missing 1 3.6 1 5.0 2 4.2
Prior court appearances
None 1 3.6 20 100.0 21 43.8
One 9 32.1 0 0.0 9 18.8
Two or more 18 64.3 0 0.0 18 37.5
Prior prison penaltiesb
None 16 57.1 20 100.0 36 75.0
One 6 21.4 0 0.0 6 12.5
Two or more 6 21.4 0 0.0 6 12.5Note.aNooffenderswerefoundtohaveresidedinremoteorveryremoteareas.
bIncludingjuvenilecontrolorders.
Table 7. LSI-R risk categories by specialisation status
Non-specialist terrorism
offendersSpecialist terrorism
offenders Total
n % n % n %
Valid LSI-R score 24 100.0 13 100.0 37 100.0
LSI-R risk category < Medium 9 37.5 7 53.8 16 43.2
Medium 9 37.5 6 46.2 15 40.5
> Medium 6 25.0 0 0.0 6 16.2
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Table 8. Average LSI-R subscale scores by specialisation status
Non-specialist
terrorism offendersSpecialist terrorism
offenders Total
mean mean mean
LSI-R subscale scores Criminal history (0-10) 5.4 2.8 4.5
Education/ employment (0-10) 6.1 5.8 6.0
Financial (0-2) 1.0 0.9 1.0
Family/ marital (0-4) 1.4 1.6 1.5
Accommodation (0-3) 1.3 1.4 1.4
Leisure/ recreation (0-2) 1.8 1.7 1.7
Companions (0-4) 2.5 2.3 2.5
Alcohol/ drugs (0-9) 2.3 0.6 1.7
Emotional/ personal (0-5) 2.3 1.1 1.8
Attitudes/ orientation (0-4) 2.9 2.8 2.9
LSI-R score Overall score (0-54) 27.0 21.1 24.9
Note.Numbersinbracketsrefertothepossiblerangeofeachscore.
DISCUSSIONThepurposeofthisbriefwastoanswerthreequestions:
1. Howmany,andwhattypeof,terrorismoffenceshavebeenfinalisedinNSWcriminalcourtssincetheintroductionofspecificoffencestocriminaliseterrorismin2002?
2. HowmanyoffendershavebeenchargedwithaterrorismoffenceinNSW?Whatarethedemographicandcriminogeniccharacteristicsoftheseoffenders?
3. Towhatdegreeareterrorismoffendersspecialists?Whattypesofnon-terrorismoffencesarecommittedbyterrorismoffenders?
SincetheintroductionofspecificoffencestocriminaliseterrorisminJuly2002,therehavebeen72proventerrorismchargesfinalisedinNSW,involvingatotalof48offenders.Themajorityoftheseoffencesrelatetolegislationthathasallowedproactiveandpreventativepolicingofterrorism-relatedactivities.Focusingonoffenders’principaloffences,theanalysisshowedthat52percentofallterrorismoffenders(n=25)wereconvictedofplanningoffences,11percent(n=5)wereconvictedofcontrolandsupervisionorderoffences,and6percent(n=3)wereconvictedofforeignincursionsandrecruitmentoffencesrelatedtotheproactivepolicingofterrorism.Theremaining31percentofoffenders(n=15)wereconvictedofenactedterrorismoffences.Theseincludedoffencesrelatingtothecollection,manufactureandpossessionofterrorismitems(15percent,n=7),terroristactoffences(6percent,n=3),terroristorganisationoffences(6percent,n=3),terrorismfinancingoffences(2percent,n=1),andenactedforeignincursionsandrecruitmentoffences(2percentn=1).ThemajorityoftheseterrorismoffenceswerefinalisedinNSWcourtswithinthelastsixyears;coincidingwiththeFederalGovernmentraisingtheNationalTerrorismThreatto“Probable”in2014.
InlinewithexistingAustralianevidence(Shanahan,2020;VictoriaPolice,2018),terrorismoffendersinNSWareahomogenousgroupintermsoftheirobservabledemographiccharacteristics.Theaverageterrorismoffendercouldbedescribedasanon-Aboriginalmale,agedbetween18and30yearsatthetimeofcourtfinalisation,fromamajorcity,andpredominantlyfromanareaofsocioeconomicdisadvantage.Despitethestrongdemographicsimilaritiesbetweenterrorismoffenders,itisimportanttorecognisethatnotableoutliersexist.Forexample,whilethemajorityofterrorismoffenderswerefromanareaassociatedwiththehighestlevelofsocioeconomicdisadvantage(54percent),someoffenderswerefromareasassociatedwiththelowestlevelofsocioeconomicdisadvantage.
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Despitebeingbroadlysimilarintermsoftheirobserveddemographiccharacteristics,ouranalysissuggeststhattherearesignificantdifferenceswithregardtopriorcontactwiththecriminaljusticesystemandotherriskfactorsassociatedwithgeneraloffending.Over40percentofterrorismoffendersinoursample(n=20)couldbeconsideredspecialists,havingnoprovenpriororconcurrentchargesfornon-terrorismoffences.Conversely,for19percentofalloffendersinoursample(n=9)terrorismchargesrepresentedlessthan10percentoftheircriminalconvictions.FurtherexaminationoftheaverageLSI-Rsubscalescoresforthespecialistoffendergroupsuggeststhattheymayhavedifferentriskprofilestothosewhohavecommittedothernon-terrorismrelatedoffences;scoringloweronseveraldomainsincludingalcoholanddruguse,employmentandeducation,andemotional/personal.Whilethisresultprovidessomesupportforthenotionthataproportionofterrorismoffenderscanbeconsideredasadistinctgroupwithcriminogenicneedsandmotivesthatdifferfrommoregeneraloffenders,furtherresearchisclearlyneeded.Amorecompleteunderstandingofthedegreetowhichterrorismoffendersspecialiseisparticularlyimportantforthedesignofprogramsorinterventionsaimedatreducingterrorismoffendingaswellasforthedevelopmentofvalidriskassessmenttools.
ThisbriefhasprovidednewdataonthenumberandbackgroundofoffendersfoundguiltyofterrorismoffencesinNSW.Therearehoweverkeylimitationsofthisresearchwhichpreventtheextrapolationoftheresultstoterrorismoffendersasawhole.Mostnotably,whileterrorismoffendingandtheoperation/structureofcounter-terrorismagenciescrossjurisdictionalboundaries,thecurrentstudyislimitedtoprovencasesofterrorismfinalisedinNSWcourts.ThismeansthatwehavebeenunabletocapturethefullextentofterrorismoffendinginAustralia,orindeedinNSW,asonlyoffencesthathavebeensuccessfullyprosecutedinthisjurisdictionareincludedhere.Acknowledgingtheselimitations,andinlinewiththerepeatedcallforroutinegovernmentreportingonterrorismoffending(INSLM,2020),furtherworkutilisingdataatanationallevelisneededtoquantifythecross-jurisdictionaluseofspecificterrorismoffencestoconvictoffenders,andtoexaminethedemographicandcriminogeniccharacteristicsofoffenderswhohavebeenconvictedofterrorismoffences.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSTheauthorwouldliketothankcolleaguesfromTheOfficeofCommunitySafetyandCohesionandtheCommunityProtectionteamwithintheLegalDepartmentoftheDepartmentofCommunitiesandJustice,particularlyNatashaO’Farrell,EmmaCutmoreandPhoebeZhou,fortheirguidanceandassistanceincompilingalistofterrorismrelatedoffencesforthereport.TheauthorwouldalsoliketothankcolleaguesatBOCSAR,particularlyClareRingland,SuzannePoyntonandEvarnOoi,fortheircommentsondraftsofthereport,andFlorenceSinfordesktoppublishingthebrief.
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Figure A1. Time between offence and court finalisation
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APPENDIX Table A1. Terrorism offence frequency and groupings
Offence group 1
Offence group 2 Offence description
Law part code
Number of proven charges
Number of proven principal terrorism
offences
Enacted offences
Collect/make/possess terrorism item offences
Knowingly possess thing connected with terrorism 51390 5 1
Recklessly possess thing connected with terrorism 51391 1 1
Knowingly collect/ make document connected with terrorism
51409 7 5
Terrorist act offences Commit terrorist act 51385 3 3
Terrorist financing offences
Knowingly make funds available to terrorist organisation
58898 4 0
Recklessly make funds available to terrorist organisation
58901 1 1
Terrorist organisation offences
Knowingly be member of terrorist organisation 51414 1 1
Knowingly give support/ resources to terrorist organisation
51425 3 2
Foreign incursions and recruitment offences
Engage in hostile activity in foreign country 85236 1 1
Proactive policing offences
Prepare to engage in commission of offence against s 119.1
85238 2 2
Give/ receive goods/ services to promote s 119.1 offence
85242 1 1
Control and supervision order offences
Contravene control order 58911 8 2
Fail to comply with extended supervision order 91744 4 1
Fail to comply with interim supervision order 91745 3 3
Planning offences Do act in preparation/ planning for terrorist act 51411 28 25
Note.Offencesareincludediftheycorrespondtoatleastoneprovencharge.