Temples of ancient traders There were created several groups of stylistically similar, important early Buddhist rock-cut temples

along the ancient trade route from Arabian Sea to Deccan region – Karla Caves, Bedse Caves and also the Bhaja Caves.

Bhaja caves are cut in steep cliff face 120 m above the surrounding plain, all looking to the west. Bhaja Caves are famed due to their ornate facades. It is believed that this ancient architecture is

influenced by even older cave temples – Barabar Caves. Many elements hint that stone cutters copied the elements of ancient wooden architecture.

Stone carvings in Bhaja caves are not very deep, style is similar to the one of the moulded terracottas. Sculptures in Bhaja have elaborate headdress, garlands, jewellery. It is possible that initially these sculptures were covered with plaster and painted in bright colors.

As it is characteristic for early Buddhism, the religious art of caves is characteristed with symbolic representation of Buddha. Sculptures from later times, created after 4 century AD though present Buddha in his physical forms as well – thus the largest shrine contains paintings of Buddha.

The chaityagriha The most impressive is Cave No 12 – a shrine, chaitya. The entrance in this temple belongs to the most

photographed monuments in region – the sight of this enormous, ornate horseshoe arch has no look-alikes.

This is also the earliest known large chaitya – chaityagriha(chaityagrha) – in Indian rock-cut caves, although its architecture shows that there existed comparable wooden buildings.

Entrance in this cave temple is completely open now – but in earlier times there was a wooden facade below the arch. Facade imitates fine woodwork and is adorned with human figures leaning over balconies creating impression of abundance of life.

Hall behind the facade is circa 17 m x 8 m large (diverse sources show slightly different values), up to 8.8 m high. 27 octagonal pillars divide it in aisles and allow circumabulatory passage around the stupa. These pillars lean inwards thus imitating wooden structures.

On the top there were added wooden ribs further imitating a freestanding wooden building – these 2,200 years old wooden details are the oldest wooden structural elements here. Wooden beams contain incsriptions left by the benefactors of temple.

Chaitya contains stupa at its far end with a diameter 3.45 m, with a hole in the top for wooden umbrella.

Other caves Most of caves in Bhaja are viharas – ancient Buddhist monasteries. Seven caves contain inscriptions

informing about their benefactors, such as inscription left by Maharathi Kosikiputi Vihnudata in 2nd century AD.

Interesting and somewhat mysterious monument is an irregular excavation some 50 metres from the great chaitya. It contains a group of rock-cut stupas. 5 of these stupas are located inside a rock-cut chamber and 9 – outside. It is identified as a cemetery. Some stupas are inscribed with the names of sthaviras – early orthodox Buddhists.

One of the last caves to the south, vihara (Cave No. 18.) contains rectangular hall with a front pillared verandah. This vihara contains two cells – one at the back and one – at the right side. Pillars have square base and top and octagonal middle part.

Verandah of cave No.18. contains some of the most interesting sculptural groups in Bhaja, such as: a royal person with two woman attendants, driving a chariot by four horses, trampling some

demonish figure. Some consider that royal figure is Sun god Surya vanquishing the demon of darkness – then it is the oldest depiction of this deity.

a deity – identified as Indra – driving an elephant with attendants carrying a banner and spear. Also this could be the oldest known depiction of Indra.

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Additional beauty to this area is added by a small waterfall with a pool below it. It is located south from the caves and has water during the monsoon period.

Stupa in chaityagriha. Entrance in chaityagriha

CHAITYAS Chaitya grihas or halls of worship were built all over the country either of brick or excavated from

rocks. Ruins of a large number of structural Buddhist chaity grihas are found in the eastern districts of Andhra Pradesh, in valleys, near rivers and lakes.

The ruins located in the districts of Srikakulam at Salihundam, of Visahkapatnam at Kotturu, of West Godavari at Guntapalli, of Krishna at Vijayawada, of Guntur at Nagajunakonda and Amaravati belong to the 3rd century BC and later. The largest brick  chaitya hall was excavated at Guntapalli.

Some of the most beautiful rock-cut caves are those at Ajanta, ElIora, Bhaja, Karle, Bagh, Nasik and Kanheri. Some of the chunar sand-stone rock-cut chaityas of Bhaja. Kondane. Karle and Ajanta, all in Maharashtra state are earlier excavations and belong to the first phase or Hinayana creed of Buddhism and are similar to the brick and wooden structures of Ashokan times.

Some of the chaityas show that wood had been used in the roofing and entrance arches. The chaitya at Bhaja is a long hall 16.75 metres long and 8 metres broad with an apse at the end.

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The hall is divided into a central nave and an aisle on either side flanked by two rows of pillars. The roof is vaulted. The rock-cut stupa in the apse is crowned by a wooden harmika.

The chaitya has a large arched torana or entrance with an arched portico. 

Bhaja, Rock-cut Chaitya Hall 

Hinayana rock architecture reaches the peak of excellence in the splendid chaitya at Karle. An inscription in Karle mentions Bhutapala, a banker to be the founder of the chaitya hall but later scholars identify him with Devabhuti, the last of the Sunga rulers.

The chaitya has a double-storeyed facade and has three doorways in the lower part. It has an upper gallery over which there is the usual arch.

The walls of the vestibule to the chaitya hall are decorated with sculptured figures of couples. The pillars separating the central nave from the aisles have a pot base, an octagonal shaft, and inverted

lotus capital with an abacus. The abacus has exquisitely carved pairs of elephants kneeling down, each with a couple in front and

caparisoned horses with riders on them. The stupa at the apse end is tall and cylindrical with two tiers of railings around the drum. It is crowned

by the original wooden chhatra. This is the most beautiful of the chaityas.

Karli, Chaitya Hall

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Facade, Cave 19, Ajanta 

The most perfect of this group of chaitya grihas is cave 19. Excavated at the end of the 5th century AD it is similar to the other chaityas in its plan and ribbed vaulted ceiling except for its single doorway and elaborate ornamentation.

It has a pillared portico in front leading into a courtyard with the walls on either side heavily sculptured with figures. The interior pillars are well decorated with cushion shaped capitals.

The corbel brackets are richly sculptured. The drum of the central stupa is elongated and carved. Projecting from the drum is an arched nasika or niche with the figure of a standing Buddha carved in it.

The rounded dome of the stupa ~ is surmounted by a harmika and three tiers of chhatras, diminishing in size and supported by figures on four sides. On top of the chhatras and touching the ceiling is another small stupa with a miniature harmika.

Site Plan plan of Chaitya Cave 26

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The largest Chaitya cave in Ajanta, Cave 26, end of 5th c. The terrace in front of the Chaitya Window was destroyed.

A lot of Buddha statues are seen on the walls, due to the age of Mahayana Buddhism.

In 1819, army officer John Smith, separated from his party following the attack of a tiger, fled into deep mountain jungle. This commander of the British stationed troops was invited to the hunting by the Nizam (ruler) of the Princely state of Hyderabad. Ajanta was in its territory at that time. A rock wall of a curious shape covered with a thicket caught his eye. Getting close to it, he found that it was a horseshoe shaped window excavated on the rock with minute carvings as ornamentation.

VIHARAS Viharas or monasteries constructed with brick or excavated from rocks are found in different parts of

India. Usually built to a set plan, they have a hall meant for congregational prayer with a running verandah on three sides or an open courtyard surrounded by a row of cells and a pillared verandah in front. These cells served as dwelling places for the monks.

These monastic buildings built of bricks were self-contained units and had a Chaitya hall or Chaitya mandir attached to a stupa - the chief object of worship.

Some of the important Buddhist viharas are those at Ajanta, Ellora. Nasik, Karle, Kanheri, Bagh and Badami.

The Hinayana viharas found in these places have many interesting features which differentiate them from the Mahayana type in the same regions.

Though plain from the point of view of architecture, they are large ha1ls with cells excavated in the walls on three sides.

The hall has one or more entrances. The small cells, each with a door have one or two stone platforms to serve as beds.

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Rock-cut Vihara, Nasik  The excavations of viharas at Nagarjunakonda show large rectangular courtyards with stone-paved

central halls. Around the courtyard, the row of cells, small and big, suggest residences and dining halls for monks.

Twenty-five of the rock-cut caves of Ajanta are viharas and are the finest of monasteries. Four of the viharas belong to the 2nd century BC. Later, other caves were excavated during the reign of the Vakataka rulers who were the contemporaries of the Gupta Rulers. Some of the most beautiful viharas belong to this period.

The finest of them. Cave 1, of the Mahayana type consists of a verandah, a hall, groups of cells and a sanctuary. It has a decorated facade.

The portico is supported by exquisitely carved pillars. The columns have a square base with figures of dwarfs and elaborately carved brackets and capitals.

Below the capital is a square abacus with finely carved makara motifs. The walls and the ceilings of the cave contain the most exquisite paintings.

The viharas of Ellora dated 400 AD to 7th century AD are of one, two, and three storeys and are the largest of the type. They contain sculptured figures and belong to both Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism.

Three Storeyed Vihara, Ellora

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Map of former provinces of Gandhara, Kapisa, Bactria, and neighboring regions Seated Buddha, from Gandhara. c. 2nd to 3rd century A.D.

The ruins of the Takht-I-Bhai monastery from the Gandhara period The ruins of the Takht-I-Bhai monastery from the Gandhara period, in northwest Pakistan, Asia

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Julian Monastery An aerial view of Dharamrajika Buddhist monastery and stupa

The 'throne of origins', an early 1st cent. buddhist monastery, the best preserved in Gandhara (the cradle and home of the golden age of buddhism). "Owing to its location on the crest of a high hill, it escaped successive invasions." (Unesco)

Taken in the Court of the Stupas, surrounded by alcoves or chapels which held plaster statues of buddha.- Gandhara was ruled by Persians (who reintroduced writing to India here), Greeks briefly, Mauryans (the first Mauryan emperor, Chandragupta, Ashoka's grandfather, got his start here in 305 BC), Graeco-Bactrians, Sakas, Parthians, and the Kushans from 75 AD who ushered in a golden age until the Huns came in 450.

The area's "littered with ruins of stupas and buddhist monasteries [from the Kushan] period, when Gandharan art flourished and produced some of the best pieces of sculpture of all time" (Greek culture and art had great influence here, famously in buddhist sculpture).

A great empire grew and stretched from Bengal to Central Asia, and buddhism and buddhist art spread to the Far East over the Pamir where the Kushan empire (aka the kingdom of Gandhara) met China's Han empire. Kushan missionary monks were active in the Chinese capital Luoyang, the first to translate buddhist scriptures into Chinese, and Chinese pilgrims would come to Gandhara to visit monuments associated with buddhist legends. 

The 'throne of origins', an early 1st cent. buddhist monastery, the best preserved in Gandhara (the cradle and home of the golden age of buddhism).

"Owing to its location on the crest of a high hill, it escaped successive invasions." (Unesco)

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Excellent Jain architecture and sculpture can be seen in their Stupas and rock-cut caves found in Mathur

a, Bundelkhand, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa cave temples. A number of rock-cut caves have been discovered in Udaigiri and Khandagiri, twin hills in Puri District of Orissa and in Ellora in Maharashtra.

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The Udayagiri Hill(Picture courtesy Archaeological Survey of India) 

Indrasabha, Cave 33, Ellora(Picture courtesy Archaeological Survey of India) Excavated mainly as retreats for Jaina ascetics, they belong to the first century and second century BC. The eighteen Udaigiri and fifteen Khandagiri caves differ in plan from the rock-cut viharas of the Buddhists. The Jain viharas here do not have the assembly or prayer hall surrounded by cel1s nor a sanctuary like the Buddhist viharas. Excavated at different levels, the cells are narrow with low ceilings. There are no niches in the walls. The cells are small and plain, in keeping with the rigorous asceticism of Jain monks. Some of the cells have shelves cut across the walls. The doorways are small and one has to bend or crawl to enter a cell. In some of the cells the floor is raised at the rear end to serve as a pillow. Some cells have low raised platforms for beds. The lay-out of the cells is such that they get sufficient light - the cells opening on to a verandah. The Udaigiri caves are double-storeyed and have a courtyard in front. 

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Rani Gumpha(Picture courtesy Orissa Tourism) The largest and finest of the Udaigiri caves is Cave 1 called the Rani-Gumpha or Rani cave. (Gumpha the local word tor cave). The Rani-Gumpha is important for its heavily sculptured friezes. The architecture of the cave is simple, having been excavated on three sides of a quadrangle. The roof of the verandah projects outwards like an overhanging cornice (eave). Pillars have been cut to support the roof giving the caves an effect of structural houses. The right wing of the lower storey has one cell with three small entrances and a pillared verandah. Two armed dwarapalas stand guard on either side of the verandah. Though the pillars have collapsed, the capitals with sculptured bulls and lions are to be seen intact. The entrances to the cells are arched with motifs of the lotus and creepers coming out of the mouths of animals. The back wall of the verandah is covered with a frieze of elaborately carved figures. The left wing has three cells and the main wing has four cells. The doorways of all the cells are decorated with sculptured pilasters and arches. Carved friezes depicting the reception of a king returning victorious from a battle adorn the rear walls of the verandahs. In the upper storey also, the plan is the same - with four cells in the main wing and one cell each on either side. Each cell has two doorways with curved arches and engraved pilasters Symbol, auspicious for the Jains are carved in the space between the arches. The workmanship in the upper storey is superior to that of the lower. On the whole the figures are shown in easy natural poses with their faces in various profiles and moods. The designs on the pillars are similar to those used in Buddhist caves. The inscriptions on the cave walls give valuable information about the rulers and dynasties of that period. The cave is a good exhibit of the water supply system at the time. As there was no worship of images then, there is no Jain thirthankara in the original carving. Figures of thirthankaras carved on the walls of the cells are a later addition to the Khandagiri caves which were redone in about the 11th and 12th centuries A.D. to serve as sanctuaries. 

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Khandagiri, Hathi Gumpha(Picture courtesy Orissa Tourism) The Hathigumpha is important for its rock-cut inscription of King Karavela of Orissa which describes chronologically the events of his rule.Jain architecture reached the peak of excellence in the 11th and 12th century AD as can be seen in their temples in Rajgir in Bihar and Palitana in Kathiawar. 

Khandagiri Jaina Temple

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Temples of Orissa are famous all over the world for their rich cultural heritage, art and architecture. These temples have been mostly built in Indo -Aryan Nagara style. Most of the Orissa temples have a rich historical background. Some of the most well-known Orissan temples are Sun temple at Konark, Lingaraja temple at Bhubaneshwar, Jagannath temple at Puri. Bhubaneshwar, the capital of Orissa is the abode of most of the temples.

Most of the Orissan kings in order to show their devotion towards the respective gods and goddesses built innumerable temples. These temples display the rich culture and tradition of the then kings. Some of the temples are exquisitely designed and they portray the lives of the kings and queens who ruled the kingdom of Orissa. Most of the temples built in Orissa follow a typical structure. The temples are mostly divided into two sections. Usually the "bhogmandir" and the "natmandir"can be found in the frontal region of the jaganmohan.

Shree Jagannath temple located centrally at Puri was built in the 12th century. The temple displays to their visitors the excellent Kalinga architectural style. The Black Pagoda or the Sun temple at Konark is an exquisite piece of art in the history of temples. Lingaraj temple is another of its kind that is named after the priapic symbol enclosed in it. There are around 65 temples under the Lingaraj temple. Satrughaneshwar temple built in the 6th century is one of the oldest temples of Orissa. It has been built in the style of a Sikhara temple. The temple is known for its rich architecture and sculptures. Swarnajaleswar temple depicts the image of Lord Shiva's nuptial ceremony.

The Orissa temples have their own distinct style which gradually evolved into a more elaborate plan, highly decorative plastic figures and taller sikharas.The Mukteswara temple belonging to the 19th century AD. is the most elegant example of the changing style and is said to be “A gem of Orissan architecture in sandstone”. It is a small temple and stands 10.50 metres high. Every available inch of the exterior wall is decorated with intricate sculptures or graceful figures in different poses and depict stories from the Panchatantra written by Vishnu Sharma of Orissa. The ceiling of the Hall of Audience has a beautiful canopy of an eight-petalled lotus with an icon sculpted on each petal. The vertical ribbed shikhara is made up of towers which are miniature shikharas. The elaborately carved stone arched gateway or torana in front of the temple is an exquisite piece of architecture and is a particular feature of this temple only. 

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Mukteswar Temple, Bhubaneshwar.(Picture courtesy Orissa Tourism) The temples of Bhubaneshwar and Jagannath Puri built between the 11th and 13th  centuries AD are typical specimens of the Orissan style of architecture. The characteristic features of these temples are the Viman or sanctuary, the Jagmohan or assembly hall, the Nat mandir or dancing hall and the Bhog mandir or hall of offerings. The halls usually have no pillars. The exterior of the temples is adorned with sculptures whereas the interior is bare.The most famous temples of this type are the Rajarani temple and the Lingaraja temple in Bhubaneshwar, the Jagannath temple in Puri and the Sun temple in Konark. 

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 Rajarani Temple, Bhubaneshwar(Picture courtesy Orissa Tourism)

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Origin of the Name Rajarani

Sectional digram (Sketch courtesy: Narayan Sanyal)Apart from Lingraj, the names of the Shive Temples of Bhubaneswar ends with an “Eshwar” like Mukteshwar, Parsurameshwar, Sideshwar, Rameshwar, Brahmeshwar etc. While the Shakti and Bishnu temples are named after the respective Gods and Goddesses, like Vaital, Gouri, Anantabasudev, etc. Strangely Rajarani follows neither of the two.

With the absence of dedicatory plaque nothing is known about the date of construction or the name of the creator off Rajarani Temple, and historians are totally in the dark.

Rajarani happens to be an abandoned temple, with an empty inner sanctum. Some historian opine that the temple was never established while others suggest that it was abandoned at a later date.

The Rajarani name probably originated from the reddish Rajarani sandstone by which the temple is constructed. Incidentally Rajarani is the only temple in Orissa which is constructed by the reddish Rajarani sandstone. The other temples of Orissa are made of the conventional yellowish sandstone.

Shape of Rajarani’s SpireThe spires of Oriya temple consists of a single spire, with horizontal ridge lines, known as rekh.

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Left to right: Sectional digram of different spires (Kalinga, Khajuraho & Rajarani), photo of Rajarani spire, horizontal cross section of base of Rajarani spire (Sketch Courtesy: Narayan Sanyal)The spire of Rajarani Temple doesn’t follow the conventional Oriya rekh style, in fact it has remarkable reassemble with the spires of Khajuraho Temples. The spire of Rajarani Temple consists of a central spire flanked by 32 smaller spires arrange in two different stages. The inner stage contains 8 minor spires and the outer stage contains 24 minor spires.

Rigged Inner Sanctum of RajaraniAlthough the outer walls of Oriya temples have projections, known as rath but inner plan of the Jagmohan and Garbagriha (inner sanctum) are rectangles or squares with straight walls.

Floor plan of Biman (Left: rigged interior of Rajarani, Right: plane interior of typical Oriya Temple) (Sketch Courtesy: Narayan Sanyal)Strangely both the Jagmohan and Garbagriha (inner sanctum) of Rajarani Temple are not rectangles or squares with straight walls but have projections similar to those of the outer walls. This again is not only a dissimilarity with the Oriya style but also a similarity with the Khujuraho style.

Presence of female figurines in RajaraniAlthough female figurines are not uncommon on the outer walls of Oriya temples but the female figurines of Rajrani Temples differs considerably.

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Intricate sculptures Rajarani Temple, Bhubaneswar The Lingaraja temple was built in the 11th century AD by a ruler of the Ganga Dynasty. It has all the typical features of an Orissa temple. Situated in a quadrangular enclosure it has a vimana and a Garbha GrihaThe construction over the garbha griha is the shikhara - a lofty ribbed curvilinear spire, 55 metres high which curves in at the top and is surmounted by an amalaka or large rounded block of stone. On this stands the golden vase shaped Kalasa with a trisul. The sanctum rests on a basement of fine mouldings. The lower part of the wall on three sides has niche projections with icons of Ganesh, Parvati and Kartikeya. Opposite the main shrine is the assembly hall  The tiers of the roof have exquisitely carved friezes of processions and other scenes. Other structures are the Nat mandir and the Bhog mandir. There are a number of smaller shrines around the main temple. The exterior of the shikhara like all Orissan temples has horizontal mouldings and small carved replicas of the spire filling the spaces in between. 

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Lingaraj Temple, Bhubaneshwar(Picture courtesy Orissa Tourism) The Jagannath temple in Puri is a larger replica of the Lingaraja temple. It was built in the 12th century AD and has a tower 65 metres high.   

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Jagannath Temple, Puri(Picture courtesy Orissa Tourism) The greatest achievement of the Orissa style is the Sun Temple at Konark about 32 km. from Puri. It represents the final phase of Orissa temple architecture. It was built by Narsingha Deva of the Ganga Dynasty in the 13th century A.D. Dedicated to Surya the Sun God, it is called the Black Pagoda. Shaped like a Ratha or chariot drawn-by seven richly caparisoned horses in motion it represents Time - the Sun God driving across the sky. The basic structure is an immense terrace with twelve huge wheels, each nearly 3 metres high on either side. The temple stands in a courtyard. Entrance to it is by a flight of steps, flanked by two huge sitting elephants with a huge lion on each of them. Though the spire of the temple has collapsed the pyramidal roof of the Hall of Audience is intact.The outer walls of the temple are decorated with exquisite sculptures of dancers in various poses, musicians, lions, horses, elephants etc. covering every aspect of life besides erotic figures which are believed to have been sculptured due to the rampant influence of tantrism at the time. The three main images of Surya in green chlorite are pieces of sculpture with elaborately embellished carvings all round from the plinth to the tiered pyramidal roof has rightly been described as a “Poem in Stone”.    

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Sun Temple, Konark, Orissa(Picture courtesy Archaeological Survey of India) 

 Konarak, Sun Temple, Wheel

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Kandariya Mahadeva TempleKhajuraho, India

View from the southwest. Dating from the mid-11th century, this east-facing Shiva temple is a culmination of the design seen earlier in Lakshmana and Vishvanatha temples. Kandariya Mahadeva's shikara rises about 30m (100 feet) above the platform which it shares with the older Devi Jagadambi temple. 84 fractal replicas adorn the main tower in a soaring, mountainous profusion.

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Cave temple, Badami(Picture courtesy Archaeological Survey of India) The temples at Aihole are closed square mandaps standing on a basement. They have a hall with four central pillars supporting a flat roof. The sloping periphery of the roof is supported on two rows of pillars, the one on the periphery shorter than the other. The space between the two rows of pillars is closed by perforated stone-slabs. The main mandap contains a Nandi. The flat roof has another shrine, the walls of which are made of slabs. The sloping roof helped to drain off the rain water. 

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Virupaksha temple, Pattadakal(Picture courtesy Archaeological Survey of India) The Virupaksna temple at Pattadakal is the earliest temple complex of the Chalukyas. It consists of a high vimana, mandaps and smaller shrines around the courtyard enclosed by a wall. The front and rear walls have large gopura entrances. The smaller shrines are two-storeyed and have vaulted halls. The main square structure has a tall four-storeyed vimana. The mandapa pillars are richly sculptured. The temples at Pattadakal represent both the Northern and Southern style of architecture. . 

Cave Temple, Ellora(Picture courtesy Archaeological Survey of India) The large cave temples excavated by the early Chalukyas are located in Badami, Aihole, Ellora and in the Guntur and Krishna districts of Andhra Pradesh. Of the three brahmanical caves at Badami two are dedicated to Vishnu and one to Shiva. These temples consist of a rectangular pillared verandah, a square pillared hall with a

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small shrine cell at the back. Excavated in an axial plane, they have flat roofs like the mandapa type temples. Wide entrances, tall pillars with cushion type capitals supporting the roof and overhanging eaves are the main features of these cave temples. Figures of animals, humans and divine beings adorn the brackets.The two cave temples at Aihole are dedicated to Shiva and have rock-cut lingas in them. The cave temples at Ellora are also dedicated to Shiva and contain images of Mahesa, Linga and Nandi. One of the caves is double-storeyed.         The cave temples in Andhra Pradesh contain relief sculptures of Ganesha, Brahma, Vishnu, Linga and NandiPALLAVA or DRAVIDIAN ARCHITECTURE  

The South Indian temples have made a rich contribution to temple architecture in India. The development of the Bhakti Cult in the form of Saivism and Vaishnavism resulted in the worship of idols and construction of temples.  Starting with the rule of the Pallavas in the 7th Century A.D. temple architecture gradually continued to develop during the Chola Period (900 – 1150 A.D.), the Chalukya and Hoysala Period (10th to 12th Century A.D.), the Pandya Period (1100 A.D. to 1350 A.D.), the Vijayanagar Period (1350 A.D. to 1565 A.D.) culminating in the final phase of the Dravidian style during the rule of the Nayak rulers of Madurai.The South Indian temples are institutions by themselves and are centres of community life – Public and Religious.  Here, people gathered to worship, discuss social, political and religious matters.  They were centres for music, dance and drama.  They had schools and colleges attached where free secular and religious instruction were given as per the Agama Shastras, they maintained people of various crafts and occupations as temple staff to serve the needs of the community.  They have thus contributed to the all-round development of the individual in Society. The Dravidian or Pallava style was introduced during the Pallava Rule.  The earlier form of this style is seen in the rock cut temples or Rathas of Mahabalipuram.  Known as the Seven Rathas and named after Ganesh, Draupadi and the Five Pandava brothers, these temples are cut out of solid rock, have mandaps and pillared halls.  They are monolithic shrines. Mahabalipuram or Mamallapuram, 59 Kms. south of Madras, was founded by Narasimhavarman I Pallava who ruled over the area in the 7th Century A.D.  There are a number of cave temples with beautiful mandaps and figures of lions – the symbols of the Pallava Simha Vishnu prominently displayed.The Seven Rathas were excavated during the reign of Narasimhavarman 1.  The Dharmaraja Ratha is the largest of the group and is 12.8 mtrs. long.  Its height is 12.3 mtrs feet.  Built on a square base, it has a 3-tier pyramidal superstructure with a stupa adorn it on top.  The Draupadi Ratha is the smallest and most elegant.  Dedicated to Saivism, these rathas have around them images of lions, elephants and bulls carved on rocks as symbols of Durga, Indra and Shiva respectively.The temples, mostly pyramidal structures have either a square or rectangular base.  The superstructure of the Bhima Ratha is different and is semicircular in shape like the vaulted roof of a wagon.  The mandaps and Rathas are adorned with beautiful sculptured figures and panels.  The most beautiful and well-known of these is that showing the ‘penance of Arjuna’ or as described by some artists the ‘Descent of Ganga’.  

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Dharmaraja Ratha, Mahabalipuram

(Picture courtesy Archaeological Survey of India)

 

 

SHORE TEMPLE, MAHABALIPURAM  The Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram, built during the reign of Narasimha 11 is on the seashore.   Facing east, the temple has a small gopuram with a pradakshina path between the temple and the outer wall.   The main shrine contains a broken fluted Shiva linga.  Opposite the gopuram is the dwaja sthamba.  The outer walls of the temple are covered with carved panels separated y lions.  Many of these have been destroyed by the dashing waves of the sea.  Behind this shrine is another cell with a figure of Vishnu reclining on the serpent sesha.  Next to this and facing west is another shrine dedicated to Shiva.  Opposite the Temple is the Balipitha or altar.  The courtyard is surrounded by rows of Nandis.  Rocks carved with the eight-armed Durga on a lion can also be seen near the temple.  

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 Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram

(Picture courtesy Archaeological Survey of India)

 The second phase of Pallava art begins towards the end of the 7th  century AD and continues in the 8th century AD in the form of structural monuments. Splendid temples were constructed during this period. The characteristic feature of these temples is the high shikharas ascending tier upon tier, diminishing in size. The most beautiful examples of this style are the Kailashnath Temple dedicated to Shiva and the Vaikuntha Perumal Temple to Vishnu both located at Kanchipuram. These are a development on the style of previous temples and contain a flat roofed mandap surrounded by numerous cells. Rock and brick were used in the construction.The Kailashnath Temple of Shiva was built by Rajasimha Pallava and his son Mahendravarman. Built of coarse sandstone, it has a four-storeyed square vimana. The sikhara is octagonal. Three of the four storeys of the vimana are decorated with miniature vimanas and the fourth has four nandis on the four corners. The bases of the mandapa pillars have lions sculptured on them. The temple has a courtyard on all four sidesin which there is a row of fifty four small shrines. A temple wall encloses the temple complex. The inner and outer walls of these shrines are adorned with fresco paintings while the walls of the main temple are profusely decorated with sculptures.

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Kailashnath Temple, Kanchipuram

(Picture courtesy Archaeological Survey of India)

 

The Vaikuntha Perumal Temple was constructed by Nandivarnam in the 7th century AD and is dedicated to Lord Vishnu. It is built on a plan similar to the Kailashnath Temple. Built of sandstone and granite, it is a large square temple with a four storeyed vimana. The temple contains three garbha-grihas or sanctum cells, with an idol of Vishnu sitting, standing and reclining. The walls of the storeys and the mandapa have beautiful sculptures on them. A pillared cloister surrounds the shrine. The temple is important for the series of inscriptions describing the wars between the Pallavas and the Chalukyas and the sculptured panels depicting the history of the Pallava rulers.Pallava art was also carried across the seas to South-East Asia. An example of Pallava art is seen in the Temple of Angkor Vat in Cambodia built by King Suryavarman.  Dedicated to Shiva, it is the largest temple in the world. The temple is built on a vast terrace and has many spires and towers. It has three terraces or galleries one above the other getting smaller in size as they go up. They are connected by stairs. A pyramidal temple, the central tower is the highest of the twelve surrounding towers. The temple walls and galleries are adorned with fine sculptures of birds, flowers, dancers and scenes from the Ramayana and Mahabharata and the puranas. The temple is enclosed by a boundary wall and a moat. Built by Indian builders it is a magnificient structure.

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The Kailasa or the Kailasanatha, is the unrivaled centerpiece of Ellora. This is designed to recall Mount Kailash, the abode of Lord Shiva – looks like a freestanding, multi-storeyed temple complex, but it was carved out of one single rock, and covers an area double the size of Parthenon in Athens.[8] INitially the temple was covereed with white plaster thus even more increasing the similarity to snow covered Mount Kailash.

he scale at which the work was undertaken is enormous. It covers twice the area of the Parthenon in Athens and is 1.5 times high, and it entailed removing 200,000 tonnes of rock. It is believed to have taken 7,000 labourers 150 years to complete the project.

The rear wall of its excavated courtyard 276 feet (84 m) 154 feet (47 m) is 100 ft  (33 m) high. The temple proper is 164 feet (50 m) deep, 109 feet (33 m) wide, and 98 feet (30 m) high. 

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