Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are...

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Tecnología y Estructura de Costos

Transcript of Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are...

Page 1: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Tecnología y Estructura de Costos

Page 2: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Technologies

A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output.

E.g. labor, a computer, a projector, electricity, and software are being combined to produce this lecture.

Page 3: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Technologies

Usually several technologies will produce the same product -- a blackboard and chalk can be used instead of a computer and a projector.

Which technology is “best”? How do we compare technologies?

Page 4: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Input Bundles

xi denotes the amount used of input i; i.e. the level of input i.

An input bundle is a vector of the input levels; (x1, x2, … , xn).

E.g. (x1, x2, x3) = (6, 0, 93).

Page 5: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Production Functions

y denotes the output level. The technology’s production

function states the maximum amount of output possible from an input bundle.

y f x xn ( , , )1

Page 6: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Production Functions

y = f(x) is theproductionfunction.

x’ xInput Level

Output Level

y’y’ = f(x’) is the maximal output level obtainable from x’ input units.

One input, one output

Page 7: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Technology Sets

A production plan is an input bundle and an output level; (x1, … , xn, y).

The collection of all feasible

production plans is the technology set.

Page 8: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Technology Sets

y = f(x) is theproductionfunction.

x’ xInput Level

Output Level

y’

y”

y’ = f(x’) is the maximal output level obtainable from x’ input units.

One input, one output

y” = f(x’) is an output level that is feasible from x’ input units.

Page 9: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Technology Sets

x’ xInput Level

Output Level

y’

One input, one output

y”

The technologyset

Page 10: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Technology Sets

x’ xInput Level

Output Level

y’

One input, one output

y”

The technologysetTechnically

inefficientplans

Technicallyefficient plans

Page 11: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Technologies with Multiple Inputs

What does a technology look like when there is more than one input?

The two input case: Input levels are x1 and x2. Output level is y.

Suppose the production function is

y f x x x x ( , ) .1 2 11/3

21/32

Page 12: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Technologies with Multiple Inputs

E.g. the maximal output level possible from the input bundle(x1, x2) = (1, 8) is

And the maximal output level possible from (x1,x2) = (8,8) is

y x x 2 2 1 8 2 1 2 411/3

21/3 1/3 1/3 .

y x x 2 2 8 8 2 2 2 811/3

21/3 1/3 1/3 .

Page 13: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Technologies with Multiple Inputs

The y output unit isoquant is the set of all input bundles that yield at most the same output level y.

Page 14: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Isoquants with Two Variable Inputs

y

y x1

x2

Page 15: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Technologies with Multiple Inputs

The complete collection of isoquants is the isoquant map.

The isoquant map is equivalent to the production function -- each is the other.

E.g. 3/12

3/1121 2),( xxxxfy

Page 16: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Technologies with Multiple Inputs

x1

x2

y

Page 17: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Cobb-Douglas Technologies

A Cobb-Douglas production function is of the form

E.g.

with

y Ax x xa anan 1 2

1 2 .

y x x 11/3

21/3

n A a and a 2 113

131 2, , .

Page 18: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

x2

x1

All isoquants are hyperbolic,asymptoting to, but nevertouching any axis.

Cobb-Douglas Technologies

y x xa a 1 21 2

Page 19: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

x2

x1

All isoquants are hyperbolic,asymptoting to, but nevertouching any axis.

Cobb-Douglas Technologies

x x ya a1 2

1 2 "

y x xa a 1 21 2

Page 20: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

x2

x1

All isoquants are hyperbolic,asymptoting to, but nevertouching any axis.

Cobb-Douglas Technologies

x x ya a1 2

1 2 '

x x ya a1 2

1 2 "

y x xa a 1 21 2

Page 21: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

x2

x1

All isoquants are hyperbolic,asymptoting to, but nevertouching any axis.

Cobb-Douglas Technologies

x x ya a1 2

1 2 '

x x ya a1 2

1 2 "

y" y'>y x xa a 1 2

1 2

Page 22: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Fixed-Proportions Technologies

A fixed-proportions production function is of the form

E.g.

with

y a x a x a xn nmin{ , , , }.1 1 2 2

y x xmin{ , }1 22

n a and a 2 1 21 2, .

Page 23: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Fixed-Proportions Technologiesx2

x1

min{x1,2x2} = 14

4 8 14

247

min{x1,2x2} = 8min{x1,2x2} = 4

x1 = 2x2

y x xmin{ , }1 22

Page 24: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Perfect-Substitutes Technologies

A perfect-substitutes production function is of the form

E.g.

with

y a x a x a xn n 1 1 2 2 .

y x x 1 23

n a and a 2 1 31 2, .

Page 25: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Perfect-Substitution Technologies

9

3

18

6

24

8

x1

x2

x1 + 3x2 = 18

x1 + 3x2 = 36

x1 + 3x2 = 48

All are linear and parallel

y x x 1 23

Page 26: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Marco de tiempo para las decisiones

Para estudiar la relación entre la decisión de producción de una empresa y sus costos, distinguimos dos marcos de tiempo para las decisiones:

1. El corto plazo

2. El largo plazo

Page 27: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Marco de tiempo para las decisionesEl corto plazo y el largo plazo

El corto plazo

Es un marco de tiempo en el que las cantidades de algunos recursos productivos (o factores) son fijas, y las cantidades de los otros factores de la producción pueden variarse.

El largo plazo

Es un marco de tiempo en el que las cantidades de todos los recursos de la producción pueden variar.

Page 28: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Marco de tiempo para las decisionesEl producto total

Es la cantidad total producida.El producto marginal

Es el cambio en la producción total causado al añadir una unidad de insumo variable (L) mientras todos los demás insumos permanecen constantes

El producto promedio

Es el producto total dividido entre la cantidad de trabajo empleada (insumo variable).

Page 29: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Producto total, producto marginal y producto promedio

Producto Producto Producto Trabajo total marginal promedio (trabajadores (camisas (camisas por (camisas por día) por día) trabajador adicional) por trabajador)

a 0 0

b 1 4

c 2 10

d 3 13

e 4 15

f 5 16

Page 30: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Producto total, producto marginal y producto promedio

Producto Producto Producto Trabajo total marginal promedio (trabajadores (camisas (camisas por (camisas por día) por día) trabajador adicional) por trabajador)

a 0 0

b 1 4

c 2 10

d 3 13

e 4 15

f 5 16

4

6

3

2

1

Page 31: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Producto total, producto marginal y producto promedio

Producto Producto Producto Trabajo total marginal promedio (trabajadores (camisas (camisas por (camisas por día) por día) trabajador adicional) por trabajador)

a 0 0

b 1 4 4.00

c 2 10 5.00

d 3 13 4.33

e 4 15 3.75

f 5 16 3.20

4

6

3

2

1

Page 32: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Alcanzable

Curva del producto total

0 1 2 3 4 5Trabajo (trabajadores por día)

5

10

15PT

No alcanzable

Pro

duct

o (c

amis

as p

or d

ía)

a

b

c

d

e f

Page 33: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Curva del producto marginal El producto marginal se mide también por

la pendiente de la curva del producto total.

Ley de los rendimientos decrecientes

Principio que afirma que más alla de cierto punto el producto marginal disminuye a medida que se agregan unidades adicionales de un factor variable a un factor fijo.

Page 34: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Producto marginal

0 1 2 3 4 5

Trabajo (trabajadores por día)

5

10

15 PT

Pro

ducc

ión

(cam

isas

por

día

)

0 1 2 3 4 5

Trabajo (trabajadores por día)

2

4

6

Pro

duct

o m

argi

nal

(cam

isas

por

día

por

trab

ajad

or)

4

3

13

PM

c

d

Page 35: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Marginal (Physical) Products

The marginal product of input i is the rate-of-change of the output level as the level of input i changes, holding all other input levels fixed.

That is,

y f x xn ( , , )1

ii x

yMP

Page 36: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Marginal (Physical) ProductsE.g. if

y f x x x x ( , ) /1 2 1

1/322 3

then the marginal product of input 1 is

Page 37: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Marginal (Physical) ProductsE.g. if

y f x x x x ( , ) /1 2 1

1/322 3

then the marginal product of input 1 is

MPyx

x x11

12 3

22 31

3

/ /

Page 38: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Marginal (Physical) ProductsE.g. if

y f x x x x ( , ) /1 2 1

1/322 3

then the marginal product of input 1 is

MPyx

x x11

12 3

22 31

3

/ /

and the marginal product of input 2 is

Page 39: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Marginal (Physical) ProductsE.g. if

y f x x x x ( , ) /1 2 1

1/322 3

then the marginal product of input 1 is

MPyx

x x11

12 3

22 31

3

/ /

and the marginal product of input 2 is

MPy

xx x2

211/3

21/32

3

.

Page 40: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Marginal (Physical) Products

The marginal product of input i is diminishing if it becomes smaller as the level of input i increases. That is, if

.02

2

iiii

i

x

y

x

y

xx

MP

Page 41: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Marginal (Physical) Products

MP x x1 12 3

22 31

3 / / MP x x2 1

1/32

1/323

and

E.g. if y x x 11/3

22 3/ then

Page 42: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Marginal (Physical) Products

MP x x1 12 3

22 31

3 / / MP x x2 1

1/32

1/323

and

so MPx

x x1

11

5 322 32

90 / /

E.g. if y x x 11/3

22 3/ then

Page 43: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Marginal (Physical) Products

MP x x1 12 3

22 31

3 / / MP x x2 1

1/32

1/323

and

so MPx

x x1

11

5 322 32

90 / /

MPx

x x2

211/3

24 32

90 / .

and

E.g. if y x x 11/3

22 3/ then

Page 44: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Marginal (Physical) Products

MP x x1 12 3

22 31

3 / / MP x x2 1

1/32

1/323

and

so MPx

x x1

11

5 322 32

90 / /

MPx

x x2

211/3

24 32

90 / .

and

Both marginal products are diminishing.

E.g. if y x x 11/3

22 3/ then

Page 45: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Returns-to-Scale

Returns-to-scale describes how the output level changes as all input levels change in direct proportion (e.g. all input levels doubled, or halved).

Page 46: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Returns-to-ScaleIf, for any input bundle (x1,…,xn),

f kx kx kx kf x x xn n( , , , ) ( , , , )1 2 1 2

then the technology described by theproduction function f exhibits constantreturns-to-scale.E.g. (k = 2) doubling all input levelsdoubles the output level.

Page 47: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Returns-to-Scale

y = f(x)

x’ xInput Level

Output Level

y’

One input, one output

2x’

2y’

Constantreturns-to-scale

Page 48: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Returns-to-ScaleIf, for any input bundle (x1,…,xn),

f kx kx kx kf x x xn n( , , , ) ( , , , )1 2 1 2

then the technology exhibits diminishingreturns-to-scale.E.g. (k = 2) doubling all input levels less than doubles the output level.

Page 49: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Returns-to-Scale

y = f(x)

x’ xInput Level

Output Level

f(x’)

One input, one output

2x’

f(2x’)

2f(x’)

Decreasingreturns-to-scale

Page 50: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Returns-to-ScaleIf, for any input bundle (x1,…,xn),

f kx kx kx kf x x xn n( , , , ) ( , , , )1 2 1 2

then the technology exhibits increasingreturns-to-scale.E.g. (k = 2) doubling all input levelsmore than doubles the output level.

Page 51: Tecnología y Estructura de Costos. Technologies u A technology is a process by which inputs are converted to an output. u E.g. labor, a computer, a projector,

Returns-to-Scale

y = f(x)

x’ xInput Level

Output Level

f(x’)

One input, one output

2x’

f(2x’)

2f(x’)

Increasingreturns-to-scale