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A nl~tht lu n U.1 "lon,,, p.tin giv, it .. rntr n th ~ f t1 n t -., tm with,, I{Fll l ":h p, in ordt:r to nM itnitc rh,.ir c"'pt:n n ,. t th 111 ht u dh tur, tM~. lw~,1n u~ln th RFID hip nMde b., t>n hlf t: " P"''v dl bt!lhr ~,rvkt to hi!'. u tClllll'f"S. ''I tx-11 '\' w ~ht ukf u to pi\ wide ()\If nt_:olutnl'I'S with the bt.~t eit'rvi('t' .md 1'ltt.-rt.unmtnt .. h 1 _ r

l n trod uction nurin~ Hw lnst 0 t'MS, the Unit d ~ltlh'S ~~pcri,n~;; ~1 th l'rusion ,,(ito; st 'adf.1st lt'.ldt.rshlp position in the manufacturing 1\l"l'tM. nw n.athm, fon~d with numerous hall n~c, t() rebuild .mtiqu(1ted factories,

r\!tool pn\CtucUon lines, ond nthink tndustrialJn,mJgcntnt pnrad1gms, lost ,, ~~~nlfiennt portion of its compdltivt t-dgc in nltmuffldurtng. 'The c 1sual rt.'t Y'' lr to ruvi~w y


especially when dealing with odd-sized components, a large variety of complicated machine tools, and tight tolerances. By taking some of the automation out of a facility, a U.S. manufacturer can ironically outdistance foreign competition in such critical measures as time to market and manufacturing flexibility.

General Electric (GE) is gaining an impressive market share abroad because of the exceptional time to market and environmental design of its locomotives at its 100-year-old Erie, Pennsylvania locomotive plant. GE invested 6 years and more than $250 million into creating a new locomotive that reduces emissions by 40%. The Evolution locomotive GE produced was the first to meet the U.S. EPA Tier 2 emissions standards.

Another example of flexible automation can be viewed at Alcan Aluminum's Oswego Works (Oswego, New York). Oswego Works recycles aluminum cans. In the process of recycling cans into aluminum, unmanned vehicles dart back and forth between the machines to deliver and pick up material. These office desk-sized vehicles are not similar to the carts in Japanese FMS instal-lations. The Japanese carts travel in rigid patterns along wire routes imbedd~d in the factory floor. Innovative technologtes allow the automated guided vehicles (AGVs) at Alcan to run around anywhere. Each vehicle has a range finder that bounces laser beams off targets placed around the factorr floor to let it know where it is headed. See F1gure 6-1. Computer-directed radio signals from a control center dictate the vehicle's pickups and deliveries. .

As one culls the literature associated wtth manufacturing and production enterprises, a huge assortment of technical acronyms becomes evident. Perhaps more than any. other discipline, the arra~ of_alp~anumenc abbreviations in manufactunng IS over-whelming. Most of you are at least somewhat

familinr with h'm'~ su h '' t\'"'1'11/t't itll:~nrfctl tlltl llu.firctu riiiS ( llvf). l'tli iiJ ' IIfl't , , f, fa', l l /,~ 1,~ 11 (CAD), n1111 pu t.r'ni,ifd 1 1111111 ~/i tct 11 "'''" ( 't\M ,, FM.S. just-i11timr (/ IT). 1111111'1'1 1/ '"'fll lnttu'll/.ol JIICIIIII iiiS (tdl\(l), and :; tt ll i:ltfco/J II\ll't'~'i t'l 'llt t'u/ (SPC). Rt.nnt )'t.'l\1'!-l lh\\'t' bl'nught lit' "'' \\'

con!\truct~, such ns le.m 1\\i\1\UI.wtmlnt), ' t;lh. nmnufnctmin~. mpld pr'llhll y pln~ (l~P), .\1\d CE. We nrc nl~,l being rhnll,nftd hl ' " ~ iplwr n host of 1ww ttrms nnd tlll'l l' " ., '" ~m~.

Tiu~~e ncmnyms includl' 11111111!/iht Ill' ill,!\ n-:;c,llrf t' Jlltlllllillg (Mf\P II), ~ t) IIIJ I trd/llcl/11~.'/ (C.'I'), -.\1\ I dts(o.: 11 ft~r llltHIIIfiJct rm mrd II:>S!'I///1/.'f (I >I'M/\ ). Ench of these tlchnicnlll't'ms is hhmtiflcd in the Key Cclllet'pt~ s linn. Rt~,,~nlz~ that this is only n ~mnll ~.Hllpllng, hnwtvcr, of what is t-vcryday j1\r.,;on in industry. Mnnufacturin.,; """"' cr:-> nrc cnntlnuoll)'

Figure 6-1. L1ser guictnncc for on AGV. n,is guiclm\(:c works by use of n ln~r scanner mmmt,d lmho.ll\l the AGV. Referencing on onboard mnp. of the. "'Y''ut of the fnctory, the vehicle dcl~rmlnts tl!'i posttlon by sweeping its bcnm ncrnss 1\'tlr


t84 Collternporary TecJmology

to learn about, evaluate, and being charged 1 t one or more of what

11 mp emen potentia Y 1 d . 1 rated automated process might be.labelel "' ~their firms into future teclmologzes, to aunc

essful ventures. . h succ f f this chapter is to dtscuss t e Thedo~:roging technologies affecting the new an e th United manufacturing environment m e States, as well as overseas. Some of the . . questions we address include the followmg.

0 Will integrated automated proc~ss technologies enable manufactunng enterprises to grasp and hold onto leadership positions in the global arena?

0 Why do some corporations rem~in. reluctant to recognize and enthusiastically support the procedures central to CE?

0 When should the decision to automate be made? Is there such a thing as too much automation on a production floor?

0 Assuming that lean manufacturing is more efficient than traditional manufacturing, what strategies can an organization use to become leaner and more agile?

0 What is the difference between MRP a~d }IT? What are the .advantages and disa.dvantages of each in a manufacturing environment?

0 How do present-day workers respond to the presence of robots in their daily work environments? ...... "', .

a What n~w man~facturlng ~nd ~rOd,uction en~erpnses are on the horizon? In h ' h d' ' }' ,W lC lS~l~ l~es do. they show the most

- promtsmg applica_tions?

Key Concepts As you review the material .

. h t h contilJn ...! this c ap er, you s ould learn th t~ in of the following terms: c l'llcanin~

agile manufacturing bar coding computer-aided design (CAD) computer-aided manufacturin C computer-integrated manufactu~~ AM) concurrent engineering (CE) g (U\f} design for manufacture and as b (DFMA) sem ly flexible manufacturing system (FMS group technology (GT) ) just-in-time OIT) lean manufacturing

man~acturin? resource planning (MRp D) matenal reqmrements planning (MRP) product lifecycle management (PLM)

software qua.lity function deployment (QFD) radio frequency identification (RFID) rapid prototyping (RP) statistical process control (SPC)

Organization of the Work. Environment

In one way or another, every new change on the production floor challenges traditional assumptions and contemporary procedures. Old ways in manufacturing . are slow to die. The horizon seems much .' .. brighter, however, than it did just a few : . : ; ye.ars ago. Is manufacturing on the rise in , ~ this country? Although the spread of new : technology and innovative strategies ac~ ~ -; the nation is uneven, the following discUssiOO : .. reveals numerous examples of an exciting . ~ U.S. manufacturing renaissance. . : ~:

As the average consumer attemptsto_ . .. ~ :i make sense of manufacturing bu7.zwords, . .- .; ..~.

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it becomes apparent that manufncturing-technology system~ gener~lly shnre thr~e

mmon featur~s: mtegrataon, automation, co . A . I I nd computerization. s1mp e exp anahon af any manufacturing system is an entity 0 . 1 . providing concep.t l":'P ementatton, s~art~ng with design, contmumg through reahzahon of the product, and culminating with customer satisfaction. A CIM setting implies a situation in which all components essen tin I to the production of an item are integrated.

In the brondest sense, computer-integrated mmwfacturittg (CIM) encompasses a diverse array of manufacturing strategies in use today. These strategies include the initinl stages of planning and design, all the way through the final stages of manufacturing, packaging, and shipping. In actuality, CIM is not a specific technology that can be purchased one week and installed the next. Even though much has been written about the CIM factory of the future, it is not as much a technology as it is a management philosophy of operation. CIM involves strategic and aggressive efforts to combine all available technologies to manage and control the entire business of bringing new products to market. Several of the manufacturing strategies that can make for a successful CIM enterprise include CAD, computer-aided manufacturing (CAM), artificial intelligence (AI), expert systems, GT, RP, automated materials handling (AMH), robotics, manufacturing planning and control systems, automated inspection methods, and continuous quality improvement.

COMI'UTEI{-INTEGRATED ~-, MANUFACTURING (CIM) . } A host of automation technologies in the manufacturing environment. This type of manufacturing does not refer to one specific technology, but to the integrated use of computers in all sections of the enterprise, from the planning of production, through the design and manufacture of a product, to the assurance of good quality.

Mnmifacturing and Production EnleT~JriSCS 185

Although CIM is a unifying philosophy of manufacturing production, almost every company using CLM implements it differently. Also, the tools each company uses in its CIM implementation arc dependent on many diverse factors. From this ever-expanding list of technology-based activities, it should be obvious that company-specific planning is imperative. While CIM might be regarded as a unifying force among the basic functional areas of design, production, and management, management is the central integrating force. The computer is a tool for execution. Basic to an effective CJM strategy is a strong commitment to intracompany communication. Success in the long-term requires a spirit of cooperation from the highest level of management, through each level of production, on down to the shop floor, sustained by employees who are not afraid to accept new technology.

Researchers involved with MIT's International Motor Vehicle Program initially popularized the term lean manufacturing.' To become leaner, manufacturers must remove obstacles preventing them from manufacturing with high velocity. Obstacles, such as complicated setups, excessive material handling, poor physical flow, and production interruptions, interfere with an organization's abi~ty to design and build .the best-quality products in the shortest time possible. Lean manufacturing often begins with lean design. Although lean manufacturing began in Japan, American and European manufacturers have adapted this philosophy into their manufacturing plants. One such plant is New United Motor Manufacturing, Inc. (NUMMI), a joint venture between General Motors and Toyota, located in Fremont, California. See Figure 6-2.

An essential element of a successful lean manufacturer is the use of conc:ilrrmt engineering (CE). This innovative approach . to product development is a method of -'

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1Womack, J., D. Jones, and D. Roos. 1991. The machine that changed the world: Tlte story of leat1 pnxluction. New Yorlc,;: ; -_- i Harper Perrenial. _ - . . . ... -~ >. -~ . , :.;. '.

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186

Figure 6-2. . t ~ NllMMI's production method is based on Toyota's lean production ~ystcrn . The sys~l'm , . an mttgrJ ~ approach to production using mach~ncry, material, and labor as efficiently ns posstblr.

simultaneously integrating the many aspects ?f product design, development, and manufacture. CE contrasts with the traditionnl linear ~pproach. In the linear approach,

ma~keting _experts conceptualize the product, destgn en~eers design the prototype, and the manufactunng and purchasing departments make all decisions regarding the production

f~ocess al nd parts-suppliers. Fundamentallv e resu ts of decisions d J'

in the traditional linear ~;p:o:~~~ch stage, product design h 0

' are t rown over the walls

metaphorically existing bctWL'Cil tl~c v~rious departments in an organization, wtth httl~, _ if any, interaction among dcpartnu~n~s. In contrast CE increases the interaction

' ' , bcfo~ between designers and mnnufacturcrs . f t 1g flotlr.-. the product goes to the manu ac urn . _ ..~ ..

d t . dcswntu, Under CE, once a new pro uc 1s o ,. there should be no problems in_ its h

. d' CO\'Ct I r manufncturing. As compatli


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Manufacturing atzd Production Enterprises 187

s n tool used for product simplification. ~is tool is an analysis technique requiring a strict evaluation of product complexity and

~ystematic development of desi?n alternatives that simplify the product and tmprove the incidence of defect-free manufac~ring.

The core objective of just-in-time (JIT) is to achieve low-cost, high-quality, on-time production by minimizing instances of idle equipment, facilities, or workers and reducing excess work in the process. Instead of making parts to stock,.JIT emphasizes having the right parts, at the right time, in the right quantities, on the manufacturing floor. JIT keeps inventory costs down. This philosophy, however, also demands well-structured supply lines and very cooperative employees.

Beginning in the 1970s, companies began -restructuring the management hierarchy. The organizational structures of companies began to flatten. Instead of six or seven layers of middle management, companies reduced middle management to one to three layers. This flattening of the organizational structure has a direct effect on manufacturing enterprises because it puts more responsibility and decision making in the hands of the assembly line workers and their first-line managers.

JUS 1"-IN-TlME ( IT) ' A manufacturing philosophy attempting to eliminate waste throughout the system, including inventory at both ends of pr~duction and all machinery and manpower not adding value directly to the product. JlT has its roots in the Japanese automobile industry, which sought to get rid of excess, waste, and unevenness.

In addition to the manufacturing changes in the last 30 years, organizations worldwide have undergone restructuring to reduce the layers of management and increase profits. These leaner manufacturers are fundamentally different from their historical counterparts. Traditionally, U.S. manufacturers had many layers of management separating the assembly line, or blue-collar workers, from the company's president. Each layer of management reported to and created reports for a higher layer. Most of the middle management existed to report and summarize the work of the employees below them and to give this analyzed information to the employees above them.

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These are not the only challenges for the modern manufacturer. There has been an increasing amount of competition in manufacturing, not only from traditional economic competitors such as Japan and European countries, but also from developing countries. A growing focus on the quality of products and quality assurance strategies remains in the forefront of operations planning. New and improved engineering materials are being introduced on a routine basis. Selecting the most effective manufacturing system takes time. Start-up costs are often exorbitant. Companies making systematic and informed choices will remain competitive and emerge as international manufacturing leaders well into the next century. These agile organizations will most probably be the ones contributing to the global market with a host of functional products made in. the United States. Manufacturing managerial decisions are constantly reshaping the profile of tomorrow's factories. The implementation of integrated, automated systems will most likely have a visible impact on the U.S. lead in production, as well as on the credentials of the present and future workforces of the United States.


188

Computer-~tegra~) Manufacturmg (C

kbone of a CIM system Forming ~he bache medlanical, ell.-ctrical,

is an integratl.on ot :ubsystems. A successful and informattOna . . . 'ble for the M ration makes Jt possl Cl ope k t fons that management, cort~puter w~a~~f~cturing personnel use to design;;~~te with one another. Oat~ can be co~ from the operations of the .entire plant. ~e resultant information is contmuously

sed Pdated and sent on demand to proces , u ' . . k any employee for efficient decJston ma m~. CIM allows in-plant design systems to obtam data from management, on the current co~t of raw materials, and also from manufacturmg, regarding ways to adapt design for more . efficient production. Likewise, manufacturmg cells on the factory floor have a direct link to design data, in order to more effectively plan the steps for making products. Finally, managers and operators at all levels can work from their computer terminals to acquire up-to-date information from both design and manufacturing databases. Ostensibly, this feature of CIM allows for maximum coordination and centralized control of many industrial engineering operations. See Figure 6-3. If one takes a bird's-eye view of a CIM enterprise, computers are foun? being used throughout to accomplish the following: 0 Provide design assistance. 0 Transl~te specifications into drawings,

parts lists, and routings. 0 Sc~~ule work based on machine ava '1-

abthty and eel 1 Reass' . promJs delivery dates. 0 . gn ~rsonnel to various tasks to k

m-process mventories at a m . eep 0 C m1mum ontrol machine tools. . 0 Provide vital up-to-the . inf . ' -mmute

ormation for management Q Ex t

ecu e routme clerical tasks.

None of th( department in a moct f . I . "" -~ l'fTI manuf. cturing ac 1ty can ue allowed to

consider itself a cl d Ct"ll. in ilb dA1ily operations. In order to ~ahze.all the~ benefits, all


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Mamifacturiug and Pntducticm Enlt'IJJYi~ 189

INTGRATED SYSTEMS

ARCHITECTURE

Figure 6-3. This ~chcmatic from the Society of Manufacturing Engineers (SME) illustrates one perspective via a logical dillgrnm identifying many of the foundational components of CIM. This framework implies the nrcd for critical integration among all subsystems of a manufacturing enterprise. CIM can include many other mnnufacturing processes. These processes include CAD, CAM, FMSs, and automated storage and retricvnl systems (ASRSs). (fechnical Council of the Computer and Automated Systems Association of Stvffi)

stnnding; faster product introduction; and increased flexibility in design, product mix, production volumes, and process routings.

The increasing use and availability of communication technologies, particularly tht! lnternt!t, has expanded the possibilities of CIM. Many companjes are integrating CAD, CAM, 3-D product visualization, nnd product lifecycle management (PLM) software to allow distributed design and engineering. Companies such as GE, United

Technologies, and Toyota use their tools, along with offshore engineering and manufacturing, to facilitate global product development. Boeing uses advanced product lifecycle

. management (PLM) softlVare that Dassault created, to allow an international comnlunity of people to use the Internet to collaborate in the design of Boeing's 787 Dreamliner. Boeing designers and engineers worked . directly with component suppliers virtually at 135 sites around the world during the


14JU l...Ufl u "'r'"" :J -

design process, thereby reducing th~ ~ime to market for the new plane. The ab.thty to work with suppliers during the dest~ ~tage dramatically reduced the cost of the fuushed product. Most successful manufa~t~rers . have recognized the need to m~xuruze. t~~tr in-house expertise and expand tt by utihzmg experts across the world to improve thei~ productivity to stay in business. To remam both solvent and competitive, manufacturers are learning to formulate ways to get new products into the marketplace at an ever-increasing rate of speed.

The Concurrent Engineering (CE) Design Environment

The CE approach to developing a new product is a way of integrating the many aspects of product design, development, and manufacture. The progression of steps central to product design must proceed concurrently within the boundaries of the manufacturing system's infrastructure. Contemporary design engineers must regard ~eir design function as a pervasive activtty mfluencing such labor functions as research, de~elopment, process planning,

manuf~ctunng, assembly, quality assurance packagmg, distribution, and marketing At ' the bott?m line, design must truly rep~sent the dechcated delivery of a solution to a problem within the parameters of profitability. custom_er satisfaction, and the prosperity of ' the soctal community.

There is no one set way for a new product to come to market The tim' ll to d 1 e a owed

eve op new products is shrinkin because of the competition existin g d Four years used to be g to ay. b common from th pro lem-definition stage to the 1 e the new product N re ease of t. . ow, we are seem me-to-market periods of g

Perhaps you hav 6 to 18 months. you can design it e heard the saying "If

' we can build it!" The

unspok~n cave~ t or on rn t-1 . h d . r r h ~ -wtt cost an hm~to-mtJrk t to !h>

the sky is not the limit, DPMA .1 Wt , , important a~pt?ct of E. AI " f . 1 rrw s d . fi ,(. . frtd t eszgn or manu1a lurnbillly (VIM 0 \ t a d . . h J, 11' v I o ensure ~gn m r ntly ff ' . "'< .,

. I t au nt econom1ca to make. The nv rail,, and of manufactur~ is dir ctly prnnr ru.Jrl1y

h f. , ,_- ~;rtu)natt to t e trm s succ~ s in contr


No matter what the tean\ composition, teams. the use of CE has significantly however, . b . .

d the time and cost m rmgmg a new reduce duct to market. pro

Lean Manufacturing a11d Agile Manufacturing

5 orts teams might be referred to as lean d ~"11 The connotation is one of streanilined an "K-'' .

fitness and competitive aggres~t~n. v\Then the word lean is use~ as a modtfte~ for tem1s

has production and mamifacturmg, we are sue d . L lined to think of the san\e escnptors. ean me f d . production, in contrast to era t pro uchon and mass production, relies on teams of multiskilled workers at all ~evels of the fim\. These workers operate flexible, automated workstations to produce items in varying lot sizes. The craft producer employs highly skilled workers or artisans to build very high-quality products customized for the consumer. The mass production methodology employs narrowly skilled p~op_le to design standardized products. Semiskilled laborers crank out these products in large volumes.

Lean-manufacturing environments tend to use fewer resources-less space, less inventory, and less workers-to manufacture a given product than traditional assembly lines do. Also, workers in a lean system are given more authority. Instead of qu~lity control occurring after the product IS completely built, the emphasis is on preven~on. Workers are encouraged to stop production if they find a defect and work together to solve any problems.

191

llli..lnuf.ldu~~ h,\\~ itni-'km nh'd 1 '.ln manubcturin~ tL"Chni l\ll'~. f ,,r th ':--l'

manuf.l~tu~t;, tlw n~ult h,l:' l '-'Cl\ ~n in n: '~' in produd "l\hllity ;)nd pn.xim:ti\ity. 171 iu~try \ \'tt.l:, ,, WL~klv bu~in~~s m.,~~.w.i nt:. lus ht n givin~ " \ks t P\,\nt" .\w.ud~ ~in ,~ thl.! l~.uly 199Th-. An nn~lv'i~ , f the winrwr~ ~hnw~ th has het'n added ~ ~ to the n1anufacturing lexicon. lf a person i." described as being agile or havin~ llgility,


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LOIUCIIIf'V'"' ~

ho moves 1 vision one w you most like y .en ith great balance, m a.

ckly and eas1ly, w How does this ~:;mingly effortless ~ann~~rprises? With ufactunng en 'd th

relate to man t' g worldwt e, e . scompe m .

more co~pame r or anizations to destgn pressure lS on fo g l'ty products in the

'ld the best-qua 1 and bm 'ble Delivering a top shortest time posst . res agility, as well performance today reqm as abil~ty. the agile manufacturer is

In mdustryk 't 'th the lowest total cost and fastest to mar e Wl .

btty to meet vaned customer the greatest a 1 1 f . nts The ultimate measure o tts

reqmreme fy t a ility is its ability to delight ~nd ~ahs. t ~ g t ers With this explanatton m mtnd, tt

cus om . . . . d try is logical to conclude that ~gthty .ts ~ us specific. The criteria for bern? a~tle m the textile industry are quite a btt dtffe~e~t than those the automotive industry speCifies. Even still, both types of manufacturing. enterprises must adopt strategies enablmg them to streamline the physical flow of materials; integrate processes; and close the distances among supply, production, assembly, distribution, and customer fulfillment.

are explained a bit further in later . of this chapter. It is essential ton t~ons

o e '"- particular influences on a compan , "1\.'lr . h' . ., y s

success m ac 1ev1ng agr e ma11Ufq t . First and foremost, if the productsc ~ttg. shipped are not acceptable to the C\1!, ng those customers will quickly take th:~rn~, orders elsewhere.

Supply-Chain Management In the 1920s, the Ford Motor Compan

River Rouge Complex was the ultimate y manufactur~g plant. ~ord. put all the steps in automobtle production m one location. These steps included blast furnaces, a glass-manufacturing plant, a tire plant, and the assembly line. At River Rouge, Henry Ford reached a level of total self-sufficiencv and a complete vertical integration in automobile production. Each part of the

Model~ vehicle was built at the River Rouge complex of plants. Today, companies no longer build all the assemblies and parts going into their products. Manufacturers are streamlining their operations and outsourcing their manufacturing to reduce the overall cost.

Companies are now using supply-chain management to make significant changes

Although there are similarities, agile manufacturing and lean manufacturing are not the same. Lean manufacturers see themselves in partnerships with their suppliers. They generally cultivate long-term relationships with suppliers to ensure quality. Agile manufacturers focus on the customer and meeting the customer's needs. They co~tinually find and switch suppliers, depending on their product needs. .

in the way they manufacture a product. Most companies, in contrast to the River Rouge plant, have always used supplier: to provide parts. The goal of supply-~ management is to manage these suppliers so production is maximized. Inventory

Whether a company is lean or agile, several of th~ ~t technologies underlying a firm's transtbon are also beneficial for reducing frodu.ct defects. On a short list of management echni~ues ~sed to reduce product defects you mtg~t find quality function deployment (QFD), nsk management DFMA d . for defect reduction d' . . ' estgn control {SPC) Se ' an statistical process

. veral of these concepts

is a key aspect of all supply chains. Too much inventory has a negative effect on the bottom line. Too little inventory causes t production delays. It is not only the :oun of inventory that matters, however. e d relationships among the manufacturer an its_ suppliers change as well. . emeJ\t

How does supply-chain ma~ag \0 work? Companies today, in theJr quests


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I an and agile, are specializing as never be e . 1' t' . before. As specta 1za 1on mcreases, there is re

dependence on external suppliers or rno f . d the outsOurcing o an mcrease percentage

f manufactured components. Since other ~ornpanies are now supplying critical components, a manufacturer becomes dependent on these external suppliers for the overall quality of the product. Part of supply-chain manag:ment includes the certification of suppliers. These suppliers then are considered part of the product team.

Boeing is using supply-chain management to achieve lean production. The company wanted to reduce the time a plane is at each workstation. Also, it desired to reduce the immense amount of inventory it had in stock. One technique was to have Boeing's parts suppliers do more work on the subassemblies before delivery. This way, the subassemblies could be delivered right to the assembly line. They could be installed faster at the assembly line. Boeing implemented lean manufacturing in its development and manufacture of the two X-32A Joint Strike Fighter concept demonstrator aircraft for the DOD. See Figure 6-4. The results of this lean manufacturing are staggering. Boeing was able to build these aircraft in half the time of previous.comparable aircraft with almost no rework. This is practically unheard of when building a plane for the first time. Also, the project came in under budget. Overall assembly costs were 30%-40% below the company's estimates. -

This company is not the only American company utilizing supply-chain management. Companies from Campbell Soup to Hewlett-Packard to Walmart have used

th~e .techniques to reduce costs. Although therr 1_mplementations of supply-chain m~agement differ, each of these companies b~t new and improved supplier relationships to Increase their efficiency and, in most cases, profitability. The widespread use of

M.anujacturi11g and Prod11ctio-n Entrrpri~ . 193

Figure 6-4. The structurally complete X-32A Joint Strike Fighter concept demonstrator is moved from fmal assembly to structural proof testing. (NASA)

the Internet in managing supply chains is a new development. Supply-chain-management software packages can link the manufacturer with its suppliers both in the United States and across the world. When part supplies run low, the software automatically notifies the suppliers to ship more parts through . the Internet.

Just-in-Time OIT) JIT is a management philosophy that has

been in practice in Japan's production facilities for over five decades. This philosophy was a crucial part of the systematic changes developed at Toyota beginning in the 1950s. The overall system is called the Toyota Production System. Many other companies . across the globe have imitated it since its . popularization in the 1980s. Interestingly, . . the model.for.the Toyota Production Systenl"

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was the American supennarket. Taiichi ?hno, To ota executive, traveled to the U~lted

a Y . the mid-1950s to visit Amencan States m hi t h was

b.l plants During s np, e automo I e . k . sed with American supermar ets :~:e way shoppers got the products they

ted in the amount they wanted, when ;~ w~nted them. Also, he noticed that the h lves were restocked quickly, either from

: s~ockroom or through deliveries. This observation led him to think of the Toyota

r factory as a type of a supermarket. Each ca I" fr workstation would get its supp tes om an upstream workstation-an ultimate, expression of the "supply and demand principle at work. .

This philosophy is an attempt to achieve agility by reducing work-in-process (WIP) to an absolute minimum. This attempt has gained notoriety and praise in a number of American firms. A core objective of JIT is the elinUnation of waste that interferes with agile performance. Waste appears in the manufacturing arena in many forms. These forms include lead times for start-up, setup, and changeover periods; defective parts; excess inventory; unsatisfactory raw materials; and unnecessary material handling.

Within a JIT operation, production processes are viewed as the only means of adding value to the product being manufactured. The indirect, but necessary, tasks of transportation, inspection, and storage are looked at as wastes that should be minimized or eliminated whenever possible. }IT managers recognize the dynamic nature of manufacturing and subscribe to a philosophy of continuous improvement, synchronization, and simplicity. In practice, JIT focuses on achieving integrated, highly consistent, short:-crcle operations requiring minimal WIP mventory. The JIT approach is a departure from conventional systems. In conventional systems, the emphasis is on

automating indirect p . erat.on

not add vnlue to the nrod ~ thd d I. . . . r Uct, r th- {) e 1mmahng tht- mdin:ct 0 r .a 'lt:r ~

conventional f?fforts can 1 ~ at.o~. li. " . ,, ead t . ~ .

automation. On the .. , .. 1 ISlaM. . . s and -~Of lack of contmUJty in the fl ' there

. ow of a between producton tag material JIT assume the produ ti

final assembly tage i sta~J 0~ rate at the the JIT plant, the company'se. u xte~l to expected to provide part in PPIer a!'\' on a continuous basis. A man rnf aller bat~

. h . u acture . rapport wtt 1ts supplier can uJr r close ensure quality material , as Well :'atel.y from the suppliers when they pahence

. are a ked to dehver smaller amounts mo ft reo en The hallmark of JTT purchasing

h 5eerns to require t e steady purchase of pa"-' I t " ~ m rnau o stzes \Just In hme for use on the line), as opposed to conventional purchasin

t . In . g prac I~es. conventional practices, raw matenals are ordered from suppliers in anticipation of future production. A major drawback of this approach occurs if a key supplier's plant shuts down due to a labor strike, natural disaster, or financial failure. Also, since there are reduced inventories, there must be increased quality, both from the parts suppliers and on the manufacturing floor. Since parts are ordered in the exact quantity needed, defects become more disruptive to the manufacturing line.

Another feature of JlT is the reduction or elimination of setup times at the individual machines. Ideally, all setup should. be done off-line. If a plant is making two differen~ products on a JIT line, the .setup ~or P;:uct two will be occurring off-hne while P . one is being assembled. It is then. a :~k switch to product ~o on .the mam am Je, it Although this is a fa1rly ~pie ~ce 0~ JIT illustrates a fundamental dJffere ~ ""

f ng Stnce u" from traditional manu actun ~~~ .... the prvuU'"

setup does not add value to . The line it should not be done on the bne.


ore efficiently used to produce the can J'e ~'The reduced setup times lead to pro ~~~r feature of ]IT -reduced lot sizes. a~ot .. setup times are reduced or moved Stnfcel. a smaller lot size of each product of. .ne, . Th' II be roduced at one time. as a ows can orep flexibility on the production floor (or nt d :1lso allows the company to produce the an d'ucts needed. Since the production floor hro more flexibility, a company can switch f~~1 one product to another if the sales den1a.nd changes.

One critical component of JIT production ntrol is the use of the kanban. The word

co II' b d"A kmzball translates to mean sagn oar . n 'tem called a lamban card or ticket usually ~ccompanies WIP parts. A withdrawal kanban reveals the type and amount of product the next process should withdraw from the preceding one. A production kanban specifies the type and quantity of product the upcoming process must produce. See Figure 6-5. The kanban tickets, illustrated in Figure 6-6, are used in place of job orders and routing sheets. They emphasize small lot sizes. Subsequently, less paperwork is required to coordinate planning and control operations. JIT is a pull system. In this system, the user department pulls

Matrufacturins ami PmJuctlo11 Ct~lcrpri~ 195

the pitrts or subassemblies from ~upplier dcpnrtments. The items necessary to keep production on schedule are pulled from the prcctding workstation only as required. This contrnsts with the push system charactcri tie ~)f traditional manufacturing. In this sys t(m, 1tcms arc pushed indiscriminately onto the succeeding workstation, even if that center is not ready to receive and process them. The basic difference between a pull sys tem and a push system is the relationships of these systems to demand. A pull system such as ]IT starts production as a reaction to current demand. A push system starts production in anticipation of future demand.

Most companies that have adopted the ]IT philosophy have also established quality circles in their workforces. These employl"'e groups are encouraged to make suggestions that might lead to improvements in the company's operations. They strive toward the goal of simplified synchronous production and often help to improve design methods, cut down lot sizes, reduce lead and setup times, minimize scrap losses, rearrange process flow, and solve vendor problems.

Through most of the last three decades, JIT strategies have been used for mass-produced items in the United States, Japan, and parts

Finished goods

-o~v-orvo~ Figure 6-5.

Production kanban

l


196 51 million per year. Medrad also 1._

d . . . b 4.llcre;~~~d . overall pro uctiv1ty y 30% and in ~ b lso' 1 crea


t. maticlllly fnr sortin~ Ot\l r v~ritk.\l$)n, andllll 0 U l' " 'b . t1011 md slunJm'M .1r l..:lh mg 4\lfl'~ts d' tn u ' r- ~~ lly every facet of the makn.\1-h.mdltn~~ v1rtull sequence. . .J 1 . 1 1 has been l'Stttnateo t 1nt, m lmutlt(\1\,\l

t f" turin\" environnwnts, maleri,\l maOU uL o . . .

. dJ'ni! l\nd a~soctatcd actwttic~ C\H\Slll\\l ' han I o . .i , t ' t

10re than 90% ot ~ pro(t\lCl s 11\\~ spc...n ~ tl manufacturmg cyde. hw thts 1~.\s,m 10 1e 11 ll ' 1 the effects of matt>na mm mh on a one, . .

duct quality demand senous .1ltl~nhnn. pro . ._ . . I n ma1or negative ctn~ct ot mnttna le \. . \ t handling on product qua tty nug \ ca~tse d . 1age to the point that the pmduclts no an . . 1 1 nger fit for use. lnappropnatc... mnlena -l~mdling methods can lea~ to P.t$du~tquality degradation, as a rc~~tlt ol postttonmg errors in fixtures or pgs, weather, dust, static electricity, or contaminnting vnpors. n1e selection of suitable matcrial-hnndling procedures requires the thoro~tgh annlysis of materials and process rcqmrements. Ideally, material-handling systems should be viewed as an integral part of process nnd facilities design. Specifically, qunlity a~sur.1ncc specialists must take into accot~nt the number of times each product ts hnndled, the distances over which moves occur, nnd the length of time the product spends being handled. Analysis and control of these tlu~c main variables should result in reduced incidences of product-quality degt-.1dation.

Some of the most common mntc rial quality-related characteristics a manufacturing firm must deal with aJe fragility, surface finish, sensitivity to electrostatic discharge, sensitivity to magnetic fields, sensitivity to the environment, and shelf life . From a material-handling perspective, fragility miHht translate into impact, vibration, temperature-change, friction, and weight-support toleranC\.'S. Furthermore, a product's sensitivitie~ to weather exposure, moisture, tempernture conditions, ambient pressures, dust, and contaminating vapors demand specific

llll l' l,\1\l'\'~ . . , '"':-' ' "'' '' "'""'' ~ ~"'' ~ ' '' l' li'l\tl k.h.l l\' d,,blol\-. 1 'f'"" H)~ ''l'I"')J-'ri l\ll' 1 \1,' t ~ r i,' l l '. \ 1 ',I II t '~ 1 '', t l ' , i\ l s, , , ' ' 'v t 1 ' \ l' 1 ' t i M t h~, 1\1 H l :HOI\ \ t\'-' h '"'' \lui\:. 'l\ , o d i f\' (' l

~h\\h.~~ il'. \1 :--,d "' ' '""""''' pn,duct qu.\ll t ' lhl'\ lugh'ultll\ " " '"u[.wht ri ll\ 1' 1'\ Kt..' . Ml' to minlm l ~.~. tlw 1\\un\l,r nf t lnw~ ll\1\kri.1ls

U\\l~ l b, " '""'''" """ "' ~h(\ 1 ll'l\ ''"' d b ll\1\ l'~ nf t r.w, I bd "'''''" '''( '""'="''' t h '"~ ~"' '' l' r,, I ',f t\w " \~ t nnd ''':HH \l muf., tud ll ~: :-: t rl\h~~l ,:-. d ~~ri\wd l '. rlk r ~,,m tn h'~Pl'"" d ll'l'l'll tu tJWSt' l\'~OH\ 1\\l'IH \,\t it \I\~ .

1\llnt 'rial Rcquir 'tl'\ 'nts Planning (tv\RP)

i\Jcat,riHI l'l'cJIIirtmcfll!'\ l'lcwllirrs (MHP) i~ a t dmiqul' f,w planning futtm pur \'"'~~ orders and m l\nufn turing h't:-< .Kn)r"lin~ h) wh.\l is t\'quitvd h' ( \H\\pll'll' ,, m.bh' r prndudion sdwdu\,. Mcuru.fircturius n.sou.rrr

~,,,.,,;,S (i\fi~P ll) b ,, domi1Mnl ,, pphc.,twn Stlftwat\' stru hm.' mlmuf4tcturin~ m~nn~l'l'S nrc using. MRP 11 C\ll\\ll\\lllly ind udes plnnning 'Pl'lkatinns, l'Ustomct'-St'rvirl~ . ,lpplk.llit\1\S, pt\ldw:til'll control, p un:hasmg. itwc...nlory l'"'dud - d,,t,, mnn.l~~mc...'nt. aml vnrious fin.1nr inl fum:lll\1\S. ~ .. Sl'ntinlly, tv\RP 11 ct\'nks n dyn.lm h.: dl.lScd-loop m.ma~lmcnt

~ystcm intcgt\llin~; nll tlu~ nmjor ~ub~y~tems of th' ~wgnnizntion . .

\Nhih .. J.lpnn ~e 1\\\ll\Ul.\chtt~r~ W e t'(\ adopting J lT in the \ 970~, ~meric:"'

mmlufnchu-cr~ were pursum~ n dtff"nnt nppro,\ . .'h to pl\)l\uctil'n ~~mtrol. This nppnxwh wn~ MRP. MRP '~ a computt~r-hn~

sv~tl'm dc~lg1\l'd to h,,nd\l' the m\.irrmh of ~ltppHe~ and the ~~hcdulin~ nf work in tl~l'

mnnufndurin~ phmt. J\n MRP ~y~h~m b mlds on n pl\)dud 's H~t of 1\\4'\tt'rinl~, l\11\ld n hill of uwtl'rial:' ( IJt >M). The M RP systl'n1 intcgrnh.~ nl\ thl' individual 130M~ and the fon.'Cn~tcd demand for the individun\ prt)(iucts into nn ovcmll mnSll'r P"lductin schedule. &)e }-:lgurc 67.


Demand forecasting provid\?s nn estimate of the dct~tnn~ for each type of product sold. An orgamzatton does long-ternt forecasting to develop an overall plan for one to five years, to allow the organization to acquire new facilities, hire people, and buy new equipment. Short-term forecasting is usually done from one tnonth to one year and focuses, instead, on the n1anufacturing of the company's products.

Once demand is detennined, an nru:,'Tegate production plan can be developed. Typicnlly, the sales and marketing departments make demand forecasts that are a combination of orders on hand and anticipated forecasts. These estimates nutst be reconciled with U1e manufacturing constraints of the plant (such as plant capacity and workforce). Since a firm can make thousands of products, this data is usually cmnbined at smne manageable aggregate level-therefore, the term aggregate planning. One of the major uses of an aggregate plan is to level the production schedule so production costs can be minimized. Since the aggregate plan does not provide a plan for individual manufactured products, this plan must be subdivided into another plan specifying quantities of manufactured items by time period. This resulting plan is the master production schedule. The master schedule states which items are going to be manufactured, the quantities of these items, and when these items are needed. This schedule divides the planning into several time periods. The duration of these time periods varies greatly from company to company.

After the master production schedule has been developed, rough cut capacity plam1ing (RCCP) is performed to determine if the master production schedule is feasible. In rough cut planning, some broad guidelines are used. The guidelines usually relate to a key resource (such as equipment or direct labor). If the master production schedule meets the rough cut capacity, the detailed production requirements can be planned..

Mmuifacturing arrd Production Entrrprises 199

O~ce MRP is completed, n dctaiJed capacaty nnalysis is done to determine whether or not the production schedule excec~s the capacity of the plant. If the capacaty limitations cannot be resolved, the master production schedule is altered. The pr~ccss repeats itself. The process of

e~nluating the cnpacity requirements begi:ns ~'tth the due dates of each order. Using lead tames, BOMs, and routings, each order is back sch~duled fror:" the due dnte through the requtred operattons to determine when individual workstations will be used.

As time passed, various operational function~ were added to extend the range of tasks m MRP systems. These extensions include master production scheduling (MPS), RCCP, capacity requirements planning (CRP), production activity control (PAC), and purchasing. The combination of these functions is termed closed loop MRP. With the addition of certain financial modules, as well as the extension of MPS to deal with master planning and the support of business planning in financial terms, this extended MRP was labeled MRP II. MRP can be used with JIT, although the structured environment of MRP makes JIT more difficult to accomplish. In these cases, JlT is used for parts ordering. The schedule is maintained through MRP.

Which is better-JIT or MRP? This is an impossible question to answer. In an assembly line where production is constant, MRP provides a stable way to manage and plan for production. In a factory where different products are produced on a daily or weekly basis, JIT is generally more successful. Either approach requires extensive training and expertise to operate efficiently.

.


t:'~11enret1t ~~latlttfactttrhlg OJ v Technologies

~ tutut\~ st,\tc 0 f th~ nl~U\ufa~turing . "'t""""'tJlh h'r tho' e hrms that t--nnn runl~n ~r''"" J ~ h.l'~ ~tl:'l'-hi\' impkml'l\ll~ k\tn-produchon ~ 1\..~" '" .:k~ .u\d Jn' str.lll1;it!S in all phases .. ,i t, ir' ~~r"ti lS, " ;ll mn.'t ,, s..,un..~H): it-...: tu~ ,1S~"-~ l'f ~'ft. cust\lm productiOn.

~ Il'..1m;f.l jurin_~ hrings yet anoth~r ~r ~"'-~ t\' ~ auh:ml.tti~n ~tix. This :x ui,.,"i\trim: ]di\"l''I"!' ,,, th tl much s~-.:cr ~.:iti~; t\' tht pl;mt . .. phisticatl~d

~ 1tWL'-n.""'t ri''~' mputer networks that ' lful lnd d ':\terous human workforce

t::i " :ld "P'-'rat~ ~pn...~nt th~ b.1ck~\l~\~ i wl'k1t n.~ r.,-pl'rts rd-er "'as the d1srtal

~,m.,. C mp..mit: ure di~"\J\erin~ th~y can t ~ i ~ n-xiu -ts Ht~r~tly in quantities

... _ whH~ c-humiJl$. them out at m~ss r:t ""tl"V\ ~pc ~s.

~ , tf they are f und at alt play le5S .,,nirn.~'-nt n'k in the soft-

rn u. ,urin~ finn. -..r the bst 25 yt-Llrs, a r. ~be-r f " m:muf.1cturers realizl'\.i that

hll'1h: ~on aut\,mJtion through hlJ.b~flr.riblt rnarmfachlring

_ :~ (E\Ii ctually cost them profi ts. ~ e_:q't"n.~\'\?'. mplkatt'\.i -)>stems

t ~~ rn \"Ulner.1blt! tl" failure than ~ ~~ !'f.. ~ mJn.ts~.lble rells f mrn:hines.

"> whr~ d xrerity ~1nd judgment arc ' h-un\.!I\ ~J.ron- .m.' ba k in a~~1bly.

' ~ I~-'iPl' ~ hift- "'Humans --eral well recognized

cum"!ltl}' reaping th~ rewards \ ru-.ro m.1n u f;1cturing. based ~ ill: - to utdistance foreign

::'1: ._. eti ~in such oitic,\l measures as time .. ::r ~r~ :.. Wlufacturing flexibility.

~' C0D t~uipme:l.t and RP machines .. t:-;ue t ~ 'he. the world ""'ill entl?r yet ~ '! ~ ~ of custmn manufacturing.

~.dt>d drsign (C.-\D) systems have

evolved from digital drafr digital prototype systems ~~g software t complete digital simulati at Provide ao

on of th end product. Where can a . e entire

I n avtd c 1. a rep acen1ent part for an Yc Ist finct Ducati motorcycle when ~t:cale Italian a country road in northern Mr~aks down 0

. , ame? In n short years, the nder might a few . stmpi

nde to the nearest town and h J catch a thumb drive containing all peat~ over a f. I f h r Inent d . 1 es or t e motorcycle to the 0 es1gn , perator t towns comer parts factory. You thou ~ the 24-hour copy shops were a conve g t

ntence' Contemporary manufacturing . . ts movm toward an era of mass customizatio l ATL g I . d l'k n. nnlle t liS soun s 1 e an oxymoron the ea 1

. , r 1er examples of agtle manufacturing hint at trend toward customized fabrication. Th a entire suite of sciences and technologies ~ve have referred to as rapid proto typing (RP) provides the foundation to this developing approach to manufacturing. This is indeed new territory. RP is ground, however, where U.S. R&D teams have already established solid footing. Researchers are presently experimenting with and creating intelligent materials that can anticipate failure, repair themselves, and adapt immediately to changes in the environment.

Rapid Prototyping (RP) Before any firm commits to the mass

. t b "Ids different production of a new 1tem, 1 u1 . prototypes for design, ergonomics, safety, ease of assembly, and fitness for use ed as (quality). In recent years, RI:' ha:;:~~in a well-regarded manufactunng . f RP

. t The aun the CE design env1ronmen typeS early systems is to make full use of :~~ify errors in the development stage to 1 odificatioOS in design and make necessary mthe potential This expanding technology has rototyPf to allow designers to prod~ce a ~AD within minutes of completing a


,ng of the part, thus obtaining a dr"' I f d d . I cal model o a proposeL csagn, whil P WSI ' " :fa'ng the lengthy and costly usc of ~\'OK .

.. "ntional toohng and castmg proces~cs . convt.: ~ Figure 6-8. .

RP systems use data from a 3-D CAD file to construct a model. Charles Hull pa tentt:!d

) of the first RP svstems in the mid-1980s, om: J ith the founding of 3-0 Systems, Inc., to ~cvelop comn1ercial applications for the ~roC\."55 he called stercolitlzogrnplzy. The number of commercially available RP sys tems has increased cons iderably to include laser modeling systems, solid ground curing, fused depo ition modeling, fast casting, and laminated-object manufacturing. The purchase of th~se highJ~ sophisticat~d sy. terns excltts tve ly for mterna l use 1s often pn)hibitively expensive for many compani~s . for this reason, a large number of compames outsourcc their rapid-prototype manufacturing n..quirements.

An RP System Figure 6-8.

Mtllllljilcl url11s ami fJroduc:l io11 Enterprises 201

Rem rnbcr our broken motorcycle? In an xampl ' of the u~ of prototyping to replace

th motor yclc part u~ing fused deposition tTH>dcling, a machine tool receives a geometric des ription of the broken part from the CAD -file on th disk. The program then divides the model into evenly spaced ]ayers. Each lay r is as small as a few thousandths of an inch. The model is built layer by layer from the bottom up. The program instructs the tool to deposit thin layers of liquid, one laye r at a time. These layers subsequently fuse together to build a complete part.

A new, and cheaper, RP technology has recently lmcrgcd on the market-3-D printing. 3-D printers work by printing new layers on top of existing layers to create a 3-D object. Unlike s tcreolithography, 3-D printing is faster, cheaper, and easier to use. This printing is particularly useful for companies in the conceptual stages of engineering design. In these s tages, they develop prototypes of

A Prototype

RP machines use high-performance engineering materials to create parts with superior strength, heat 1'\.'Sistance, and chemical resistance. The FDM Titan 1 M fTom Stratasys is the only RP system that can build p.uts from high-temperature, high-performance, and durable engineering plastics, such as polycarbonate, polyp~nylsuUonc (PPSF), and ABS plastic. This partially compJeted prototype of a model airpJane_. .. wa built using an RP machine. Ooe Hiemenz, Stratasys; Phoenix Analysis & Design Technologies) . ::. -


202

d a designer and P

roducts. Timberla.n , sed a 3-D printer new f footwear, u manufacturer o 1 ed to create new

deve op s Z Corporatwn CAD files. Prototype hoes from k prototype s $1200 and too one

that previously co~t st the company $35 k to carve no\\ co

wee inutes to create. . and take 90 m . e of Machiue Design,

Almost every ISS~ an advertisement klv contams a trade wee .'' ved es of product for new and tmpro. typdenying the benefits

ing There IS no prot~typ . Prototype parts can save of thts technology. allow the engineer and costs because they the final product early

anufacturer to see . ~the design stage. This saves expenstved d .. ns and rework RP itself has expan e

reVlSIO ' l' 0 into two additional areas: rapl~ too ~~g and rapid manufacturing. Rapid toohng refers to the use of RP to develop mo~ds ~or use in production. Rapid manufactur~g IS the use of RP for low-volume p~oductl?n. There is no doubt that its use will contm~e to expand in the future, as more comparues exploit this technology to decrease costs and reduce development time.

Cellular Manufacturing Cellular manufacturing is a type of

equipment layout in which the machines are grouped into cells, rather than being placed on an assembly line or divided into different functions (for example, all drills together or all lathes together). The parts produced in a particular cell determine the layout of the cell. Inoorder to have an effective cellular arrangement, a company has to group its products that use similar manufacturing processes. All parts in one group (called a family) follow the same route in the cell althou~ individual products might spe~d more time at a particular machine than other products in the same family 0

. I_-J~storically, the layout of ma~ufactUrin facilities was classified as a job sh fl . g shop, or fixed layout. Cellular ma:Jfa~:g

is a new type of pr duction ),1y teclmology (G~f) is used in urdcO~t. Cro,p cellular mllnufilcturing. GT 1 ...... r () ach, v.

o7 un ap to manufactunng that Slcks torn.-: _ rr~)ach production effic ic r~cy by gr upin ~~~r11'"' similar nnd rccurnng tClsk!, prcv- g' g thtr

' "-('(AUr problems, and bottlenecks. A key f . . , GT is the segrega tion of p&l r~ c1Cc t:dc1~Urt c,f

. f or 1n,. t their designs, mnnu &lctu ring feilt ,., 0 . . f " url~ 0 combmat10n o these. \rVhcn simil ' r a

J r PMt are grouped together, c.1ch collcct1 ~ on can ultimately share setups nnd machine t Thjs sharing reduces production cos~ ooJs, is applicable to both automntcd and GT nonautomated mnnufacturing nnd C;) be used in new or existing facili ties. n

This technology has attracted a gr t deal of inte~est from manufacturing fi~ becau~e of 1ts proven capncity to simplify matenal flo\v on the production floor. The GT approad1 is a marked improvement over traditional batch-processing methods

~xp~rts esti~ate that most manufacturing. IS still done m small batches, ranging from a single workpiece to several thousand pieces. In n1any cases, these parts cannot flow smoothly through the manufacturing process since different parts require different setups or must be transferred to another machine. The application of computerization to manufacturing enabled managers to improw the production of both small and large batches through the use of scheduling software, sequencing software, and MRP systems..

It also became feasible for companies ~o identify and track the thousands of different parts being produced through the use of . GT methods. Design engineers have found. they can use GT systems to detennine . whether or not an existing part can be used. in a new application, thus eliminating ~e need to design a new part. This potential to eliminate design duplication and the parallel need to build a new jig or ftxtttre can yield significant economic benefits..

. '


&ically, a GT database is a computerized . tem that speeds up the retrieval

fihJ"\S: information, facilitates the design 0~" and enhances the communication P g individual functional areas inside the ~~:~ GT y tems also impr~ve the acc~acy P. I"()C\:'SS planning and a1d m. the creatJon, 1 t ~ut., and operation of manufacturing cells. a) i a criricaJ building block for ClM. A GT d,atdba~ can contain detailed information bout the parts a company produces, the ~~and equipment available to produce th~ parts, and the ~t proces ing methods t c(ltnplete the job on time as promised.

her advantages of adopting GT trategies Uldud~ reduced material-handling costs, improved flow of ma~rials, small in-process inn"!ntory, reduced changes in production planning and control, 1 ~ floor pa e rweded, n.~u~'\."


- .. ~ ..:, l ' ! '

. , '

I

204 Conteinp~rary Technology

Under digit two, main shape, a code of

t .

faster, since parts are moved quickl . systematically from one workstatio~ :nd . next. This allows the manufacturer t 0 the inventories of partially finished pa t reduce representing significant cost savingr s, s.

. .

zero represents a smooth extern~! shape. A code of eight indicates the part 1s threaded similarly to a screw. The combination of ~o~es for each digit then gives a complete descnption of the part. The special codes following identify the specific design attributes of the Radio Frequency Identifica ti part. These attributes include it_s ?imensio_ns (RFID) _ . . . on and material. Using GT codes, 1t 1s far eas1er to locate one part fitting the current needs at d. ~ hand. The engineering department can then Ra w ,~equency identification (RFID) is avoid designing a brand new part. As a rule, an automdahc ltD _tdeclu~ofylogy that uses tags or

d transpon ers o 1 enti obJ"ects, collect data GT codes are assigned to both purchase items and fabricated parts. . and motst important~y, enter the data into a ' A

. l"f' d . f GT . . b h compu er system usmg a wireless netwo k srmp 1 le vers10n 1n a JO -s op Most RFID tags are attached to a productr

setting involves the sequencing of similar parts on a machine or series of machines. an animal, or a person and have two pa~ This job-shop facility can process a wide _ . These parts are an integrated circuit for . variety. of parts since it is still a job shop. storing and process~g information and an The parts are processed in families (using antenna to receive and send signals to the the GT code), however, to realize some of wireless network. There are also simpler the benefits of GT. RFID tags without integrated circuits that . A more sophisticated approach to GT can be printed directly on the product.

entails the creation of manufacturing cells. A ;rvtost early use of RFID was in supply-manufacturing cell is a collection of machine cham management. One of the early adopters tools and material-handling equipment of this technology was Walmart. As the .g~~uped together to process one or several . largest retailer in the United States, Walmart part families. Transfer of the piece from one uses RFID to read product information from process step to another within the cell and tags as products are moved from Walmart's possibly O!l to a different cell can-be automated. distribution centers into their stores. Walmart Essent_ia!ly, a manufacturing _cell is a hybrid uses passive RFID tags. These tags do not pro~uction system meeting:the needs .of a .. . . emit_a w~reless signaL Instead, a special specific .firpl. ~~ ~evelopment and application reader reads the tags. The use of RFID tags

of ~anufacturmg cells fii'e d.ependent on the allows Walmart to replace its stock faster . typ~ ~f manu,factur~g operations performed; and reduce excess inventory. In the last few

t:he life cycle 9f products f~brica:ted . the , . . years, other companies includmg Audi, _ produ~t mix; and projected ciist~mer - .. . : Sony, Dole Food; and Boeing have followed

dem~~ Cells_ are a b~end of job shops Walmart' s lead and set up RFID systems t9 _ -produ~m~ a large vanery_9f parts and flow: , ~ack products. At its Auburn, Washington

.. ~hops d~t~ated to the _mass production. of ~ne a~~~raft plant, Boemg uses RFID tags to . :. - .~ : proc;l~


.,-

'

' l I I l

206 Conttmrporary Ttdmology

:n supply-chain Since its adoption u . . d t RFID has been used m a Wl e

manas::en lications. The port of oakland, ran~ . PP RFID to track delivery trucks Cahfonu~ u~ . 1 terminal. RFID is entering lts mternationa also used in wireless-tool pass syste~s on the nation's highways. One of the blggest users is the U.S. DOD. The DOD ~gan using RFID to track cargo and vehicles during the 1991 Persian Gulf War. Tod~y, the DOD requires all suppliers, excluding those of bulk goods, to include RFID ~ags on their DOD supplies when they are delivered. Currently, all new pass~rts the U.S. . government issues contam an RFID c~tp . with the passport holder's nam~, nationality, gender, date of birth, place of birth, ~d digitized photo. The chip also co~t~s the passport number, issue date, exp1ration date, and type of passport.

RFID tags are not restricted to products and supplies. In the last two decades, millions of household pets have been implanted with RFID tags. The USDA has a new voluntary initiative. This initiative is the National Animal Identification System (NAIS). The NAIS identifies individual animals through imbedded RFID tags. The Department of Agriculture plans on using this animal-tracking feature to trace an animal-related disease back to its source within 24 hours, thereby reducing any further health threat to the U.S. public. Xmarl


leading to a more acute awareness of quality. public acceptance of manufactured goods is based on strict conformance to specifications. people commonly expect the products they purchase to be 100% defect free. They quickly lose confide~ce in a manufacturer when these expectations are not satisfied.

A widely accepted generic definition of q11a!ity is "fitness for use." The manufacturer views fitness for use from the perspective of its own ability to process and produce finished goods with less rework, less scrap, minimal downtime, and high output. Customers view fitness for use whenever they consider things such as product durability, availability of spare parts, identity, and comfort. Two main aspects of quality are the quality of design and the quality of conformance.

The quality of design involves the features obtained through changes in or manipulation of design parameters. Differences (not always improvements) in quality can be achieved by changing elements, such as the size of the item, the materials used in the product, the equipment used in production, and the tolerances during manufacturing. The quality of conformance is a measure of the extent to which the product conforms to the specifications and tolerances the design requires. Many factors influence this measurement, encompassing training, employee motivation levels, the complexity of the production process, and the quality assurance system being used.

Consumers evaluate a product's fitness for use through a review of certain quality characteristics. Depending on the item, any number of features might be critically considered. If the buyer expects the product to last fo~ a certain length of time, quality elements such as its warranty, serviceability, reliability, and maintainability are important. Ergonomic features, including comfort, size, and ease of use, fall into another category. Finally, one should not overlook the sensory-oriented qualities, such as the

Manufacturing and Production Enterprises 207

product's color, taste, fragrance beautv and ap ' .,, ' yearance. If you have ever been involved With the selection and purchase of a new a~tomobile, you should remember these thmgs well. Nothing quite compares to the new-car smell!

T~ere are several quality-management funchons that must be executed at different levels of the manufacturing process. The corresponding control activities and the types of data collected at each level tend to va~y considerably. Quality planning is a funchon parallel to process planning. For each workpiece handled, the measurement parameters, tolerances, and test sequences must be determined. It is also necessary to esta~lish sampling plans, process-capability stud1es, and the amount and type of quality data to be accumulated and stored. The company's quality expert normally completes this planning operation with or without the use of a computerized data storage-and-retrieval system.

As previously described, quality is the sum of all attributes and characteristics of a product or service contributing to the usefulness of the product or service or its ability to perform certain functions. Quality management is, therefore, a regulatory process through which performance is first measured and then compared with preset standards. If necessary, corrective action is taken. The backbone of an organization's quality-management system is the internal, national, and international standards it aspires to guarantee. These standards are essentially akin to a contractual agreement between the manufacturer and the customer. Adherence 'to publicly accepted standards is the aim of a quality assurance system. In recent years, many organizations have adopted the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 9000 standards as the basic foundation for their total quality management (TQM) system.


208 ry TecJmo/ogy

(IJtt tem para

ment system I' manage An efficient qua tty mplex adaptive

described as a co rties and can be All critical prope dentified control loop. standards are I roduct-perforrnanc~ t the factory: p d checked thtoug ou anl At receiving. h the parts originate

. I tion w ere 2. At the oca f turing process.

in the manu ac . bly stations. h 3. At subassemf. I acceptance test of t e 4 During the ma . f' . hed product. f tnts h the cause o any

Within the system, wf en rrence are known, d , t and its place o occu e,ec d feet's correction or measure~ forth~ . ~ t d Requisite corrective elimination are tmha e . fl r

. . ht take place at the factory- oo actions m1g k oduct level or might extend bac mto pr . design. An importan~ asp.ect of q~~tty management is reaction ttme. This ts the length of time (seconds, minutes, hours~ or days) between the inst~t ~he defect IS recognized and the instant tt IS corrected. Coordinated efforts between plant managers and shop personnel, combined with advanced computerization, will eventually lead to shorter reaction times and more efficient quality assurance programs. JIT production goes hand in hand with good quality. Poor quality requires buffers of inventory ready for use when bad or unacceptable parts are found during assembly. As stated earlier, one goal of lean production and JIT is to operate with gre~tly reduced inventory.

A new techn1que Motorola pioneered h~s been added to the TQM movement-Six S~: Six Sigma refers to the amount of vanation existing in a product Th product at e average of t . a company usually has a variation 6000oudr ~gma. This equates to more than eects pe u M r mJ. Ion. In the late 1980s

otorola started a cam . ' defects in its prod paign to reduce

. ucts. The comp a quality system re . any used " . . VIew to asses th

euectiveness of aU th . s e in Motorola. Motorol: md aJorl business units

eve oped the Six

Sigma concept to improve its processes increase pro~uct and process quality. Sixand Sigma is equtvalent to products that ar 99.9997/o acceptable or, in other words eh only 3.4 defects per million opportuniti ave In 1988, Motorola was the winner of th esfi:

d . N J Qu e rst Malcolm Bal nge ahona aJity Award The Six Sigma concept has spread to

hundreds of organizations since its establishment by Motorola. GE estimated that its profits in the late 1990s increased by $6 million because of its use of Six Sigrn Allied Signa) recorded more than $800 milli a.

S. s h on in savings. tx 1gma as spread beyond the manufacturing world and is used by organizations in many areas. These areas include banks, health-care providers, and schools. This concept represents a higher level of commitment by an organ.ization because it requires a paradigm shift in thinking about quality. Six Sigma focuses on selecting projects carefully targeted to improve selected business operations. The goal is to eliminate defects before they occur in an organization. Six Sigma is often implemented in conjunction with lean manufacturing.

Statistical Process Control (SPC)

While quality assurance has traditionally been accomplished through product control (such as inspection), the focus of process control is on individual operations and the roles they perform in manufacturing. Pr?cess-control strategies are prevention onente?, as opposed to inspection driven. The ultimate goal of process control is to have each operation functioning within its ~ormal capability limits. This type of control 15 often referred to as statistical process control (SPC).


\ '

~~ ~ "i JArtSTICAt PROCESS ~. CONTI~OL (SPC) ~ .. i~ \ l

An appnl.tdt to ')unhty a~surnnce differing fnHH the traditionnl policy of product (\Httrol vi.t inspt..'Ction. SPC is prevention oricnttd, versus in~pcction driven. This nppn,.tch involves statistical analysis and incn.ttst..'


. .

210 . . Contemporary Tee~ no logy ,-: >:. :, : :.! . : ~/??}j~,:~:~.n~:}?~\;f~ .J .. ,. ~ ~:-

. .. Quality F~ction Deploymeri~ -(QFP) . . . . .

As stated earlier, today's lean and agile . manufacturers are already th~king about

. qualitfoutcomes during the product . .

... : .. '

Most companies adapt. this form, howev _._. to serve their seeci,fi~needs.:A~eyto:au~r' . implementations is the foct1s ori the. cilsto .

. . . . . mer.

International Organization 'for Standardization (ISO) 9000-. and Standards-Based.. . . . Manufacturirig .

. design:.and-development stage. A technique known as qualittj fUnction deployment (QFD) has emerged in recent years. QFD .is a . , systematic way for the manufactunng firm to . identify customer requirements and convert Another significant change has been the

- , . = - therri into design and manufacturing needs. rise of the quality-standards movement. . _ . Essentially, it is a management planning tool ISO 9000 is the most popular quality standard . '- . that can be used in any phase of production. iri the world. Thousands of organizations

QFD helps all concerned personnel identify the have adopted it.- This standard is actua~ly a '. ,..: ~ critical desigri parameters. These parameters set of standards. The most recent standard, .

~- . are then optimized through quality engineering ISO 9001: 2000, applies to manufacturing, . to .mininlize variation during production. To service firms, and public agencies .. ISO 9001:

. . enstue custo'mer expectations are met in an 2000 is a series of three interrelated standards. economical fashion, adequate resources are A company f!rst develops a quality systein focused on anyareas that can cause failure. . meeting the standards. There are eight sections

The main feature of QFD is its focus to ISO 9001: 2000. The first. three sections . . . . . . . on meeting customer rieeds. This focus is . . ' provide background. Section 4-Qtiality . .

called the Voice of the Customer. The House Management Sy~tem-. requir~s a company .. . .. . of Quality is the inost recognizedtoolused to establish and_document its quality system ..

- ~. .in QFD.A multifunctional team takes the Th~ focus is on continuous improvement, .. . c~stomer requirement~ ?btaiite~from ; potll o(the product ~d of internal processes . . . . rr.tarket _resear~h an~ ben~hm~rking a~d' -: : . in the company. Section 5 foC\l~es


212

' i

Figure 6-12.

' v .,.,., r n ' f'![IC '

ALOM

ALOM Technologies, a small manufacturer and distribution center in Milpitas, California, proudly shO\vs it has l't.'('cived ISO 9002 certification. ALOM helps high-tech and e-commerce companies get their products manufactured and distributed to customers. ISO 9002 is the ISO standard for companies partidpating only in production, instaUation, and servicing.

the products have stringent requirements for safety and reliability. Even if a small companr d~ not seU directly in Europe, ISO certification can still be useful because the sma~ company might sell to other comparues that sell in Europe. Also, as a lcugeft ~mpany achieves ISO 900> certification o en tt pushes d thi ' _ . own s requirement to Its supphers.

With the globalization of busin(~ certification creates a standard corn 1

Pcln can rely on as they buy good and ~~ from across the world. Not surpri ingi l'5 numbe~ of ISO 9000-ccrtjfied compilnt' the is growmg each.~ear. ln 2006, th~ n~ of ISO 9000 cerhficate worldwide tot1l nearly 900,000. ISO certification will r"' ed_

f h dllc11n a large part o t e manufacturing world in the future.

Environmental Sustainability as a Business Practice

Over the past 1 0 years, a fundamental change has occurred in the philosophy of American businesses. Prior to 2


I .... .J' I

~ ' \' I ' . , .

,, Mnmtjilclurillg and Production Entc:rprists ' 21~~

,.\ .

1 able to red~cle itsthgreenhou~e-ga~ emissions Reusc-A-S.hoe progmm. This pro~ram b Uo/o, whi eat e same hme, mcreasing its 1 d n y 2Q01 S' 2001 recyc es lSCarded shoes into material ' Venue by over ttl. mce , Adobe th t re ed ffi a 15 used to cover sports surfaces, such Systems has unprov energy e aency at its as b k b 11 San J b 1 c as et n courts and tracks. Since the ,, headquarters in ose Y rmp ementing progmm began in 1993, Nike has processed everal green building techniques. Adobe 1 th 18 ~~ras able to reduce its irrigation-water use nore an million pairs of sht.">S.

.. Under the old model of manufacturing, by 76%, by install~g. drought-tolerant companies designed new products under a landscaping, and tts mternal-water use "cradle-to-gmvc" approach. After a product by 22%, by installing waterless urinals. ended its useful life, it was discarded. Today,

Sun Microsystems applies environmental most companies arc taking a different direction principles both in the design of its product and using a "cmdle-to-crad1e" approach to (computer servers) and in its own business product design and manufacturing. This practices. Sun's UltraSPAR~ server processors approach strives to make the entire product are the most energy efficient on the market. design and manufacturing waste free. In Sun encourages its employees to work from this way, a company takes responsibility for home, in flexible offices, and at satellite the disposal of its products and builds this locations. Today, over 50% of Sun employees disposal into the design. This philosophy no longer work from their offices. This saves transforms existing disciplines and practices both carbon emissions and real estate costs. into those promoting sustainability, encourages

Environmental sustainability, however, is technologically and economically viable not limited to companies based in California. products, and emphasizes the protection

A large multinational company, GE, invested of the earth. $200 million over four years to increase production of energy~efficient lighting in response to consumer demand. Alcan, one Advances in Automation of the globe's leading suppliers of bauxite, alwnina, and aluminum, has a comprehensive It is hard to believe, but the robot is well environmental strategy for all its business into its middle age. In 2002, the robot turned areas. One of its plants, the Alcan Packaging 40! According to Joseph Engleberger, who plant in Dublin, Ireland, drastically reduced is often referred to as the father of robotics, its waste from 2770 tons, in 1996, to 400 tons, Unimation installed the first industrial robot in 2005. Furniture-maker Herman Miller in the early 1960s on a production line at is 63% toward its commitment to achieve General Motors. Since that time, more than zero emissions in its manufacturing by 2020. 900 000 robotic units have been set to work Both Herman Miller and Nike were ranked in f~ctories around the world. Robots are . . as two of the most sustainable companies being used for a variety of operatic~~ !hey- . - .-: worldwide. Nike has focused on integrating are familiar entities in chemical-process~ _. ... . more environmentally friendly materials .. plants, automobile assembly. lines,~~ : . ". . . >"~: itlto its products, as well as controlling the : electronics-manufacturing ~cilities. Th~ ~ost' : ~ waste it produces._ Today, over 50% of all . . .- popular .applications ~_a~~dw.id~ .. ~~l~~~ arc. ~ : , ~ ~:. cotton garments Nike produ~es c~ntain at . - w~l4ing, spot ~eld.~~~ ~~ray p~~~~P~ . ...... least 5% organic cotton. Envuonmentally and tool hand~mg; ~~-.a~~m"~y .. ~~~~~ .. ~ .. : .:. . preferred rubber ~s used in over 50% o~ all. ~~~~~Y ~sed to ~~~c~.~~~ la ?~ ~:.~. : ,'_ .. . , Nike footwear. N1ke als~ create~ ~e ~~k~ ... ;i ~petitive,~~ po~~~~ ~~~.~~ - ~~: . . . ,,. . -. .. . , .. , ... ~ ' .. ~ . :: c;-::J.~~::

... ! t ~ .. .,.

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.- k in llllZlrdous conditions .. In l lu.y ,.m ~~ '~r , hh'h temperatures, toxtc tt '4i ~ \OilCilh(lO:;, o ~ lt:~c . ~ I' :lCtivc substances art! (hCn\lc,ll~. t)f r~lt. ~,s lllso moved into pn~nt. J{l)bOtl~ .' ? l d '('civin functions.

r ~lousing, slllppmg, till n . g ,, ~n: i"'.J t"' lled in some offces and Rob()t~ arc ~ .. . . l

f r"l"'"rvicc industncs. T lese tsc" 1 n r.c\'r '' "" ts ~ndtt~trics include hotels, hospitals, n.'Stauran , .md l;mdscaping. .

InJu trial robots arc a crih~nl component of factory automation. Alongsde .penpheral t lulologics such as CAD, n~mcncn! control, .uuJ .mtom.,tic 10, ttu-se t'vcr-mprovmg fa tory-tloor helpers come in all shnpcs and izcs. Very few of them bear ~ny resc~1blance

to thr humJnli~, tlndroids p1ctured m sci~ncc fiction movies. Most of them can \)( dcsnitx.-.d a~ cnmputer mechanisms, to which limb~, tools, and other appendages h.wc bt-cn t~ tt.1ched . Although somewhat

ll~S exotic, a more technical term for a pn.scnt-J,,y robot Ls an automatically controlled l'rngrmmmlblr m.tmirulalor. Titc most commonly

accepted definition still in use t d an industrial robot is "a reprograo ay for multifunctional manipulator d ~rnabJe,

. esignect move matenals, parts, tools, or s e . .to devices through variable motion~ f Ciahzect performance of tasks."2 Robots 0 or the , several degrees of freedom and ter~te With either fixed in place or mobile. Th a~ e in this. definition is reprogram mabie They Word

bl e. e reprogramma e robotic feature diff . industrial robots from other fonns oferentJates hard automation. These forms do not :~ed for easy changes. Research efforts in th .f of AI and expert systems will contin e 1ields expand the capabilities of these steel~~r[ employees. ar

Regardless of their size or functio industrial robots have three main pa nst 'Se F. 6 13 Th r s. e 1gure - . e ma.n body of the rob t. called the manipulator. The body's base0c~~ be fastened to the floor, modified to move on tracks, or hung from an overhead sup t Th h . por . e power mec antsm moving the arm of

---- Manipulator ----

Figure 6-13.

Office computer terminals

Networked to other systems

Controller

~ thn.~ nuin sv.;.t . . - ;. , J ~ ems of an mdustrial rob . - . . %.~ l~t~of A . . . ot are the controller, the manipuJat~r and the end effeetor.

m~c.l. 1981. World..;-' . ' . . nue Sllrvty alld di . .

rectory on mdustrU1/ robots. Dearborn, Ml. 1. .......

, - ,


s contingent on its size. Hydraulic the rob~t 1 sed (or heavier arms. Electric or power 1::u ower is used on lighter units.

euJllauC P . . . pn cal robots can return to a gavcn posat1on EleCtrl. ly and do it quicker and more tinve . repe atel than hydrauhc or pneumatic accur a~ On the other hand, these smallfr robots c . I d . 'l'h

. have a limited oa capacaty. c UJlltsb r of Joints, or degrees of freedom of nurn e h b , d .

rrn determines t e ro ot s cxtenty, as the a ' I . k . ll S its cost. For examp e, 1t ta cs SIX we a

degrees of freedom to emulate huml\n-arm tion (t\vo degrees of freedom at the shoulder,

rno at the elbow, and three at the wrist). one The second essential part of the robot an end effector. This is the gripper, the ~elding gun, or another tool allowing the arm to execute assigned tasks. Grippers arc normally custom-made. They vary a great deal from one application to another. A gripper designed to pick up a book looks quite different from one used to grasp an egg. The grasping of an item by a robot emulates human-finger motions. Some grippers can lift several heavy objects at one time. Other mechanisms can grasp a fragile component without damaging it. Examples of grippers include vacuum cups, hooks, electromagnets, clamps, scoops, or fingerlike devices.

The third essential part of a robot, the controller, is the program and computer used to activate the robot, guide it, and direct its movements. One very common way to program the unit is to lead it through the desired sequence of operations. A human operator moves the robotic arm physicaJly or with switches on a control panel. The controller records the path. This is an effective programming method for tasks such as recording the curved motions needed to produce an even coat of spray paint or to pick up parts from one location and move them to another. On the other hand, the path is difficult to edit or revise without completely rerecording or reprogramming the task.

)ff. Jaw proHr.muuing t wlwl\ m oplr.,tor wrih 1 tit'\\' pnl~f"" tl t rrninnl. ( ff .. Jirw pwgr,Ull! l\lll ltl "'' i thn wlthout int rrupling produ tlou. 'I ht c.m t'c t L J to i ~~ tu a dlfftnnt ~t't ,,( ln. tru tion~ ' " th robot that tlw ~itu.ttlon 1t h.uuf dlct.\tl~s (f r cxarnpll, If n(l part I. av.,ll.,hl (nr tn..llrnt.nt.

~ tny em hold and Wcllt (pr th next ify robots with respect to their ohililil~s . A point-to-point robot u~es rncchanical stops or limit ~witch~-s to go from one predefined point to ;mother. This type of robot is IL~s expensive nnd generally usccl for simple maneuvers. A controlled-path robot continuously follows a prescJected geometric path. A servo-controlled robot uses softworc to control its movements. This robot can senst points on o path and feed the information back so the controller can take alternntive nctions. Du~ to the greater flexibility and the controllability of the sequence of motions in scrvo-controlk~

robot~, most contcmpornry industrial robots arc servo controlled.

Applications in Industry and Elsewhere

Whether robots are simple or sophistirot\.~, the decision to implement robotk"S into manufacturing and production operations should be based on a comprehensive annlysis of the entire opcmtion. Until tht mid-1980s, the robotics industry grew fnst, as companil'S invested heavily in robots to automutt.:. their factories and replace blue--collar ~mployl.'L:.s. Industrial managers discovcn."'Ci industrial


216

,, ol' tiOlution, f


Manufacturing and Production Enterprises 217

EHONDA HMC Dltllll NYSf P~wering Dreams Together

,.1' , _____ ~

- "~

.... .

Figure 6-14. Advanced Step in Innovative MObility (ASIMO) first appeared in the United States on February 14, 2002. On this date, it rang the opening bell at the New York Stock Exchange. (American Honda)

a distance-telemedicine-allows a person to receive specialized care from a surgeon, using a robot. For example, people requiring medical assistance might find robotic devices have the capacity to save their lives, even when human surgeons are miles away. With the use of robots, it might be possible to perform complicated surgery at remote sites or even on the battlefield! See Figure 6-15.

Implications for Workers and Their Job Environments

Robots and other automation have been successfully integrated into the American manufacturing and production scene without

the catastrophic consequences some projected in the early 1980s. It was theorized that robots would migrate through factories and displace people. This problem never became a reality. The role of robotics in reducing the percentage of the workforce employed in manufacturing has not been as dramatic as initially projected. Industrial robots, similar to other forms of technology, are tools allowing people to become more productive and skillful. Industrial robots have not replaced shifts of workers. "Lights-out" factories are not expected to become a reality in the near future.

Employees might express concern about job security when confronted with a discussion on automation. The extent to which automation


218 try Tt.clt ttOIOS.If

Conlt!IIIJWfl

Figure 6-15. . . . A surgical team operating at a console in New York sent mstructwns to a set of robo tic arms that removed the gallbladder of a patient across the Atlantic in Strasbourg, France. "Operation lindbt?.r);h" was a world first in telesurgery. (IRCAD)

is successfully implemented is a reflection on the amount of cooperation and communication among management, supervisors, employees, and the design-engineering staff. In industries where automation is being implemented, employees must be open-minded in their reactio~ to changes in their work environment. . . An mdustrial organization's future success IS hnked directly to the organization's ability to manage and support a manufacturing system focusing on producing a high-qualit product at a competitive price Lab y continue to R bo . or costs

nse. o t-eqwpment prices dro Secondhand robots are a viable opt In p.

on.

instances when it is strategically and financially determined that a corporation's needs ca~ best be served through the use of indus~al robots, the decision to invest in the appropru1te equipment is a wise one. The primary . consideration for robotics implementatJO~

~cs must take into account product charc1ctens Plus the n1anufacturing processes required.

t1 . 111 ~ As previously s tated, not every ung c. ( h } lst' (' successfully automated throug t lC l ~ d

robots. A number of companies han~ foun they can be more compctiti\'e if they u~ ~t,f

d. . l ll I Ull\: softer perhaps even n1ore tr;-~ tttN ' ' I I \' human labor nnd rnnchine techno 0b.

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