Teaching Idioms Through Role-play 3

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION1. Argument.2. Structure of the P!er ..1. INTRODUCTION TO LE"ICOLO#$.1.1. Lnguge n% S!eech& #ener' O(er()e*1.2. Le+)co'og, - Brnch of L)ngu)-t)c-..2. ORD STUD$.2.1. The or%. /or!heme ./en)ng. Root. Stem. Aff)+..2.2. or% #rou!-& Co''oct)on. Phr-' 0er-. S,)ng-. Pro(er-.2.. A--oc)t)on. Com!r)-on. Re-em'nce& /et!hor. /eton,m,. S,nec%oche2.3. E+!re--)(ene-- )n Lnguge& Co''o4u)' Lnguge. C')ch5. 6rgon. Argot.

S'ng. Eu!hem)-m2.7. The Conte+t. IDIO/S.....1. Def)n)t)on-..2. Or)g)n of I%)om-.. The Im!ortnce of I%)om-..3. Feture- of I%)om-..7. The Pro'em of Trn-'t)on......3. /ET8ODOLO#ICAL ASPECTS OF TEAC8IN# 0OCABULAR$.3.1. Tech)ng /etho%-3.2. Tech)ng 0ocu'r,3.. or%9/emor):)ng Techn)4ue-.3.3. P'nn)ng n% Pre!rt)on..3.7. Le--on P'n7. TEAC8IN# IDIO/S T8ROU#8 ROLE9PLA$.7.1. Ro'e9!',)ng - Tech)ng Strteg,7.2. C'-- Act)()t)e- U-)ng /etho%- of Tech)ng I%)om-7.. Te-t)ng I%)om-APPENDI"..

A. Eng')-h I%)om- Re'te% toB. Prct)-)ng )- ;no*)ng..

CONCLUSIONBIBLIO#RAP8$

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INTRODUCTION

1. Argument

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Lern)ng 'nguge men- m-ter)ng '' the four 'nguge -@)''-9re%)ng *r)t)ng

')-ten)ng n% -!e@)ng. In or%er to c4u)re the-e -@)''- one h- to 'ern (ocu'r, n%

grmmt)c' -tructure- ut grmmr cnnot e 'erne% *)thout gr-!)ng -ome -)c

(ocu'r, f)r-t. Lern)ng (ocu'r, )n !rt)cu'r )- ecom)ng )nforme% out the *or%-

the)r funct)on n% men)ng the)r 'nguge n% -emnt)c re't)on-.

Se(er' metho%o'og)c' !!roche- to 'nguge tech)ng h(e %e(e'o!e% -)nce the

'te 1=th centur, n% the, re')e% mo-t', on the tech)ng n% 'ern)ng of grmmt)c'

-tructure-. There h- een re()(' of )ntere-t )n (ocu'r, tech)ng )n recent ,er- %ue to

the recent ()')')t, of com!uter):e% %t-e- of *or%- n% the %e(e'o!ment of ne*

!!roche- to 'nguge tech)ng *h)ch re more *or%9centre% Thornur,& ()

T,!)c' techn)4ue- )n c4u)r)ng fore)gn 'nguge (ocu'r, m)n', re-)%e )n

%r)'')ng e+erc)-e- t 'o*er 'e(e' e.g. cert)n !ttern )- re!ete% )n -e(er' utternce-

re%)ng e+erc)-e- ).e. (ocu'r, )- u-e% )n conte+t n% the men)ng of ne* *or%- )-

%e%uce% from )t *or@)ng *)th the %)ct)onr, *r)t)ng e+erc)-e- ).e. !ro%uc)ng *r)tten

te+t- of %)fferent 'ength )n *h)ch ne*', 'erne% (ocu'r, )- e)ng u-e% etc.

Ac4u)r)ng *)%e (r)et, of )%)om- )- feture of (er, r)ch (ocu'r, tht

-tu%ent- cn get %ur)ng the 'ern)ng !roce--. Eng')-h )- @no*n to e the r)che-t 'nguge

concern)ng the numer of )t- *or%-. Be'ong)ng m)n', to the )nform' 'nguge )%)om- cn

e oth ch''enge n% n eff)c)ent *, to commun)cte e-!ec)'', )n %,9to9%,

-)tut)on-. On the other *, Romn)n -tu%ent- m, f)n% th)- *, of 'ern)ng )%)om- n%)%)omt)c e+!re--)on- r)%ge et*een the)r mother tongue n% Eng')-h - -econ%

'nguge g)(en the fct tht t cert)n !o)nt the, re tem!te% to f)n% e4u)('ent- )n the)r

f)r-t 'nguge !!e')ng oth to trn-'t)on or )nter!rett)on.

Concern)ng the ro'e9!',)ng metho% of c4u)r)ng Eng')-h )n n )nterct)(e n%

eff)c)ent *, -tu%ent- *)'' e (er, )ntere-te% to u-e the)r @no*'e%ge )n !rct)-)ng -!e@)ng

-@)''- -)c'',. The techer- m)n ro'e )- to mon)tor the -tu%ent- ct)()t, %ur)ng the)r

con(er-t)on- ''o*)ng them to ct the)r ro'e-. The %)'ogue- cn e oth !re9!re!re% or

on9the9-!ot. Pe%gog)c'', -!e@)ng -uch metho% )- recommen%e% to tho-e -tu%ent- *ho

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re -h, n% h(e %)ff)cu't, )n commun)ct)ng the)r thought-. Once the, re )n the)r

chrcter- -hoe- the, re re%, to commun)cte n% fee' t e-e )n )nterct)ng *)th the

other-.

P)r9*or@ tech)ng metho% )- mong the mo-t u-u' n% mo-t eff)c)ent t,!e- of

ct)()t)e- u-e% )n !rct)-)ng the 'nguge. Th)- mo%ern metho% g)(e- the -tu%ent- the

o!!ortun)t, to get (er, )n(o'(e% %ur)ng the ct)()t, ut )t '-o h- m)n %r*c@ tht )-

the 'oc@ge )n commun)ct)on %ue to e)ther the -tu%ent- !er-on')t, or the)r 'c@ of

mot)(t)on.

It )- e(en hr%er no*%,- to mot)(te -tu%ent- )n 'ern)ng fore)gn 'nguge. A-

'ong - the, -t, )n -choo' the, -ee 'ern)ng - -ometh)ng com!u'-or, n% therefore

re-ent )t - -uch. It )- much 'ter )n ')fe *hen the, confront *)th the 'our mr@et or *hen

the, ecome )ntere-te% )n em)grt)ng tht the, f)n% n )ntr)n-)c mot)(t)on for 'ern)ng

fore)gn 'nguge.

A- techer I h(e *)tne--e% th)- 'c@ of mot)(t)on *)th -tu%ent- n% I h(e '-o

not)ce% tht *h)'e )n -choo' the, re %)ff)cu't to !er-u%e out the %(ntge- n%

o!!ortun)t)e- the m-ter, of fore)gn 'nguge h- to offer. A'though )t h- een -)% tht

-tu%ent- ecome mot)(te% *hen the, h(e to !erform )n re' ')fe9')@e -)tut)on- the)r

)ntere-t *)'' on', '-t unt)' the t-@ h- een fu'f)''e% e+ce!t )f the, ctu'', h(e to fce

-uch -)tut)on-.

There re -e(er' techn)4ue- I h(e ttem!te% to c'-- -o - to get m, -tu%ent-

)ntere-te% )n u-)ng the Eng')-h 'nguge& !ro()%)ng them *)th (r)ou- t,!e- of (ocu'r,

e+erc)-e- -e'ect)ng re%)ng te+t- on to!)c- of the)r cho)ce %o)ng 'ot- of ')-ten)ng ct)()t)e-

gett)ng them )n(o'(e% )n !roect- *r)t)ng )nform' rt)c'e- or !oetr, for the -choo'

mg:)ne m@)ng !o-ter- -choo' com!et)t)on- n% rec)t'-. /n, of them re @een on

')-ten)ng -ome of them ')@e %o)ng *r)tten (ocu'r, e+erc)-e- fe*er re )ntere-te% )n

re%)ng )n Eng')-h *h)'e (er, -m'' numer of -tu%ent- !refer *r)t)ng t-@-.

Ro'e9!',)ng - 'ern)ng ct)()t, !ro()%e- f(our'e en()ronment of e+!re--)on

for '' -tu%ent- for the etter one- - *e'' - for the *e@er one- efore '' chnce to

!rt)c)!te. Stu%ent- gener'', -!e@)ng ')@e to e -omeone e'-e or -ome of them ')@e

%rm n% ct)ng. I h(e '-o een 'oo@)ng for goo% metho% of !ro()%)ng m, -tu%ent-

*)th e-, n% eff)c)ent *, of c4u)r)ng )%)om- )n 'ern)ng Eng')-h -uch - )ntro%uc)ng

ne* (ocu'r, *)th the he'! of !)r9*or@ n% %)'ogue-. Te+too@- - re-ource on the

other -)%e %o not offer -uch t,!e of ct)()t)e- ut )n (er, -m'' mount. Th)- 'e% me to the

%ec)-)on of 'oo@)ng for more re-ource- of -tu%,)ng (r)ou- t,!e- of t-@- -e% on 'ern)ng


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)%)om- through ro'e9!', for %)fferent 'e(e'- of -tu%, or %)fferent 'nguge -@)''- n% more

)m!ortnt', of u-)ng them )n c'-- - men- of 'nguge tech)ng.

The ro'e9!',)ng cn e u-e% )n the !rct)c' !rt of the 'e--on fter the

!re-entt)on n% efore the !ro%uct)on or )t cn co(er *ho'e c'-- )n *h)ch the techer

)m- to get the -tu%ent- )n(o'(e% )n -!e@)ng ct)()t)e-. /emor):)ng ')-t of )%)om- or

e+!re--)on- )- not '*,- the e-t -o'ut)on to 'ern fore)gn 'nguge ut u-)ng them )n

con(er-t)on cn e oth funn, n% n e-, *, to rememer them. Stu%ent- *)''

!ro', rememer -uch ct)()t)e- - e)ng e+tror%)nr, for 'ong t)me.

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2. STRUCTURE OF THE PAPER

Th)- !!er )- )nten%e% to %emon-trte the 'rge !!')c)')t, of c4u)r)ng )%)om- )n

'ern)ng the Eng')-h 'nguge - fore)gn 'nguge n% n eff)c)ent metho% of 'ern)ng

tht of ro'e9!',)ng. A'though there re 'ot- of re-ource- of )ntro%uc)ng the )%)omt)c

e+!re--)on- )n 'ern)ng Eng')-h the ro'e9!',)ng metho% )- -t)'' (er, ')tt'e u-e% )n c'-- -

there m)ght !!er -ome %)-turnce- mong -tu%ent- n% the techer mu-t e *e''

!re!re% to fce n% (o)% -uch un!'e-nt -)tut)on-. ;no*'e%ge cn e c4u)re% not on',

through c'--)c' metho%- of 'ern)ng ut '-o through mo%ern one- -tu%ent- re '*,-

o!ene% to tr,)ng -ometh)ng ne*. The conc'u-)on *)'' !o)nt out tht greter em!h-)- -hou'%

e !'ce% on tech)ng )%)om- - feture- of -!o@en )nform' Eng')-h n% ro'e9!',)ng -

n )nterct)(e *, of 'ern)ng the Eng')-h 'nguge.

The !!er h- f)(e m)n !rt- ech of them %e')ng *)th %)fferent -!ect- of

(ocu'r, the '-t one focu-)ng on the to!)c of m, the-)-. I h(e een u-)ng -uch t,!e- of

ct)()t)e- )n c'-- %ur)ng m, re-erch n% I h(e een not)c)ng ho* the, h(e een u-e% ,

-tu%ent-.

The f)r-t !rt Intro%uc)ng to Le+)co'og, )- -hort )ntro%uct)on )nto the 'nguge

n% h)-tor)c' !!roch of u-)ng the 'nguge - men- of commun)ct)on.

The -econ% !rt the or% )- -hort )n-)ght )nto the 'e+)c' -!ect- of the Eng')-h

'nguge -trt)ng *)th the %ef)n)t)on of the *or% n% the men)ng of the *or%- - 'e+)c'

un)t-. It cont)nue- *)th r)ef n',-)- of mor!heme- - the m)n)mum crr)er- of men)ng

n% *)th the -emnt)c chnge- the *or% un%ergoe- %e!en%)ng on conte+t n% co9te+t. In the

E+!re--)(ene-- -uch!ter I ttem!te% -hort com!r)-on et*een c')ch5 rgon rgot

-'ng eu!hem)-m - feture- of )nform' 'nguge.

The th)r% m)n !rt of m, !!er )- the m)n )--ue of the to!)c )ntro%uc)ng )%)om-

referr)ng to %ef)n)t)on- the)r or)g)n the)r )m!ortnce n% the '-t ut not the 'e-t )--ue the

!ro'em of trn-'t)on e-t')-h)ng to *ht e+ten% -hou'% the mother tongue e u-e% )n

'ern)ng the Eng')-h 'nguge - fore)gn 'nguge.

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The fourth !rt con-t)tute- the /etho%o'og)c' A-!ect- of Tech)ng 0ocu'r,

Tech)ng /etho%-. 8ere I too@ )nto con-)%ert)on the %)fferent !r)nc)!'e- of 'nguge

tech)ngG'nguge 'ern)ng tht n e+!er)ence% n% tr)ne% techer h- to h(e )n m)n%

*hen %e-)gn)ng the !'n for the tech)ng H 'ern)ng !roce--. The gener' frme of tech)ng

metho%- n% !!roche- %e(e'o!e% )n the 2thcentur, n% *h)ch 'e% to the !!ernce of

n Ec'ect)c A!!roch9 com)nt)on of the !o-)t)(e -!ect- from '' the !re()ou- one- *)''

!rt)cu'r):e )nto (ocu'r, 'ern)ng techn)4ue- n% ct)()t)e- tht re !re-ent', e)ng u-e%

)n fore)gn 'nguge c'--e-. P'nn)ng n% !re!rt)on refer- to the -ett)ng of oect)(e- tht

re to e fu'f)''e% n% the -e4uence- of -tge- )n fore)gn 'nguge 'e--on. 8ere I '-o

)nc'u%e% 'e--on !'n -m!'e tht cn e t@en )nto ccount *hen %e-)gn)ng 'e--on or n

ct)()t, *)th)n 'e--on.

The f)fth ch!ter %e'- *)th the tech)ng metho% u-)ng the ro'e9!',. Tech)ng

)%)om- through ro'e9!', re!re-ent- the e+!er)ment' -tge n% )t )- ment to !ro(e the

!!')c)')t, of ro'e9!',)ng - u-efu' techn)4ue )n tech)ng )%)om-. Te-t)ng I%)om- %e'-

*)th *,- of --e--)ng the @no*'e%ge c4u)re% , -tu%ent- )n or%er to further )m!ro(e

tech)ng n% 'ern)ng techn)4ue-.

I h(e '-o con-)%ere% tht th)- !!er cn e u-e% - tech)ng )% )n c'-- -o the

A!!en%)+ cont)n- t*o !rt-& Eng')-h I%)om- Re'te% to %e')ng *)th the e+!'nt)on- of

the men)ng- of -er)e- of )%)om- n% )%)omt)c e+!re--)on- n% Prct)-)ng )- ;no*)ng

g)()ng *)%e rnge of e+erc)-e- ment to e u-e% on three %)fferent 'e(e'- .

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1. INTRODUCTION TO LEXICOLOGY

1.1.Language an S!ee"#$ Genera% O&er&'e(

Language )- -,-tem of r)trr, ')ngu)-t)c -,mo'-. It con-)-t- of *or%-

orgn):e% )n -,-tem of grmmt)c' !ttern- e-t')-he% , 'ong u-ge un%er-too% n%

u-e% , 'rge -oc)' commun)t, )n the !roce-- of commun)ct)on. The -,-tem of n,

'nguge )- the re-u't of 'ong -!ontneou- n% gr%u' orgn):t)on chrcter):e% ,

mn, chnge- m%e , )nnumer'e genert)on- )n the !rct)ce of -!e@)ng. One cnnot

-tu%, 'nguge )n gener' - there re on', individual languages e.g.EnglishRomanian

Russian 'nguge- e)ng %)fferent from ech other. hen -ttement- re m%e out

'nguge- )n gener' the, refer to ')ngu)-t)c- un)(er-'- theoret)c' ent)t)e- *h)ch re-u't

from !h)'o-o!h)c' !!roch to 'nguge !ro'em- *h)ch tr)e- to )%ent)f, ')-t of

common !ro!ert)e- of -e(er' 'nguge-.

In h)- fmou- Cours de linguistique generale Fer%)nn% %e Su--ure )n-)-te%

u!on the conce!t- of langue langage n% parole. The 4uott)on- *)'' e g)(en )n the

Eng')-h (er-)on of Su--ure- cour-e& But *ht )- 'nguge langueJ It )- not to e

confu-e% *)th humn -!eech langage of *h)ch )t )- on', %ef)n)te !rt though cert)n',

n e--ent)' one. It )- oth -oc)' !ro%uct of the fcu't, of -!eech n% co''ect)on of

nece--r, con(ent)on- tht h(e een %o!te% , -oc)' o%, to !erm)t )n%)()%u'- to

e+erc)-e tht fcu't,. Fer%)nn% %e Su--ure 1=


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f)''e% , the memer- of g)(en commun)t, through the)r ct)(e u-e of -!e@)ng

grmmt)c' -,-tem tht h- !otent)' e+)-tence )n ech r)n or more -!ec)f)c'', )n the

r)n- of grou! of )n%)()%u'-. For 'nguge )- not com!'ete )n n, -!e@er )t e+)-t-

!erfect', on', *)th)n co''ect)()t,. In -e!rt)ng 'nguge from -!e@)ng *e re t the

-me t)me -e!rt)ng& 1 *ht )- -oc)' from *ht )- )n%)()%u' n% 2 *ht )- e--ent)'

from *ht )- cce--or, n% more or 'e-- cc)%ent'. Lnguge )- not funct)on of the

-!e@er )t )- !ro%uct tht )- !--)(e', --)m)'te% , the )n%)()%u'. S!e@)ng on

the contrr, )- n )n%)()%u' ct. It )- *)''fu' n% )nte''ectu'. Fer%)nn% %e Su--ure

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et*een com!etence n% !erformnce )- centr' !ro'em - Performnce !ro()%e-

e()%ence for the )n(e-t)gt)on of com!etence. At the -me t)me !r)mr, )ntere-t )n

com!etence ent)'- no %)-regr% for the fct- of !erformnce n% the !ro'em of e+!')n)ng

the-e fct-. On the contrr, )t )- %)ff)cu't to -ee ho* !erformnce cn e -er)ou-', -tu%)e%

e+ce!t on the -)- of n e+!')c)t theor, of the com!etence tht un%er')ne- )t n% )n fct

contr)ut)on- to the un%er-tn%)ng of !erformnce h(e 'rge', een ,9!ro%uct- of the

-tu%, of grmmr- tht re!re-ent com!etence. Chom-@, Nom 1=


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The correct un%er-tn%)ng of the h)-tor, of 'nguge )- )m!ortnt )n ch)e()ng

-oun% conce!t)on concern)ng the ')ngu)-t)c !ro'em- (o)%)ng r)trr, )nter!rett)on-

regr%)ng -u!er)or n% )nfer)or form- of 'nguge. No ')ngu)-t)c form cn e con-)%ere%

-u!er)or to other- from -tr)ct', ')ngu)-t)c !o)nt of ()e*. The -oc)' -ttu- of ')ngu)-t)c

form- )- %)fferent from the)r ')ngu)-t)c funct)on. D)'ect' *or%- for e+m!'e re )n no

re-!ect )nfer)or to -tn%r% one- -er()ng commun)ct)on *)th)n the ')m)t- of nt)on'

'nguge or )nternt)on' commun)ct)on. The %)fference )- )n the -ttu- ut - fr -

correctne-- )- concerne% the, re e4u' to ech other.

The ten%enc, of -!ec)'):t)on mn)fe-te% )n '' f)e'%- of humn ct)()t, e+!')n-

*h, 'e+)co'og)-t- m, e %)()%e% )nto -!ec)')-t- )n the er')er !er)o%- of 'nguge

%e(e'o!ment n% re-ercher- -!ec)'):e% )n !re-ent9%, e(o'ut)on of 'nguge-. Though

the former grou! m)ght -eem to %o!t on', the %)chron)c !!roch to 'nguge !ro'em-

the, u-e )n fct oth metho%- of re-erch !o)nt)ng out the chrcter)-t)c tr)t- of ech

-tge of %e(e'o!ment. On the other hn% the re-ercher of !re-ent9%, Eng')-h mu-t t@e

)nto con-)%ert)on the 'te-t %e(e'o!ment- )n 'nguge though h)- *or@ )- -)c'',

-,nchron)c the %)chron)c ()e*9!o)nt cnnot e )gnore%. Lnguge h- !-t !re-ent

n% future n% n, ')ngu)-t)c theor, )nc'u%)ng the 'e+)co'og)c' one cnnot )gnore them

*)thout m)--)ng the !o)nt.

The %)chron)c !!roch !re()'- )n the -tu%, of et,mo'og, the rnch of

'e+)co'og, tht -tu%)e- the *or% or)g)n-.

The *or%- )f 'nguge m, e e)ther of nt)(e or)g)n )nc'u%)ng co)nge- -e%

on )ntern' re-ource- or the, m, e orro*e% from other 'nguge- )nc'u%)ng

translation loans tht )- *or%- n% !hr-e- co)ne% on the -)- of the nt)(e 'e+)c'

re-ource- ut ccor%)ng to fore)gn !ttern- .

The et,mo'og)c' -tu%, of *or%- com!r)-e- !hono'og)c' mor!ho'og)c' n%

-emnt)c -!ect- - )t m, %e' *)th !hono'og)c' chnge- tht too@ !'ce )n 'nguge

oth )n nt)(e n% )n orro*e% *or%- !r%)gmt)c re't)on- mong *or%- n% chnge-

of men)ng.

The synchronic approach !re()'- )n the lexical morphology of !re-ent9%,

Eng')-h *h)ch -tu%)e- 'e+)c' un)t- !hr-eo'og, *or%9u)'%)ng e.g. derivation

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composition contraction blending back formation n% )n semantics the rnch of

'e+)co'og, tht -tu%)e- the men)ng- of *or%- n% !hr-e-. The %)chron)c !!roch cn e

)n(o'(e% )n the -tu%, of the chnge- )n the)r men)ng.

Semantics *h)ch h- c4u)re% the 'e%)ng !'ce )n mo%ern 'e+)co'og, m, e )n

)t- turn %)()%e% )nto morphosemantics connecte% *)th mor!ho'og)c' -!ect- of *or%9

men)ng lexicosemantics connecte% *)th the men)ng of 'e+eme- n% syntactic

semantics '-o c''e%semantic syntax *h)ch -tu%)e- the taxonomic hierarchies ).e. the

*, sememes mu-t e com)ne% )n or%er to form men)ngfu' n% not non-en-)c'

utternce-.

exicologistics%e'- *)th the e+!re--)(e -)%e of 'nguge %)-cu--)ng the -t,')-t)c

('ue- of the (r)ou- 'e+)c' -trt )n 'nguge the funct)on of f)gure- of -!eech n%

other -)m)'r -!ect- concern)ng the (ocu'r, of 'nguge.

Another )m!ortnt rnch of 'e+)co'og, )- 'e+)cogr!h, *h)ch %e'- *)th the

com!)')ng of %)ct)onr)e-. Intere-t )n 'e+)co'og)c' -tu%, h- een (er, much -t)mu'te% ,

the *or@ of 'e+)cogr!her- *ho nee%e% theoret)c' -u!!ort )n the)r *or@. The h)-tor, of

Eng')-h 'e+)co'og, )- c'o-e', connecte% *)th the %e(e'o!ment of 'e+)co'og, )n Eng'n% ut

no*%,- the recent %e(e'o!ment- )n -emnt)c- %eterm)ne mo%)f)ct)on- )n the *or@ of

%)ct)onr, m@er- -ugge-t)ng ne* ')ne- of e(o'ut)on *h)ch re 're%, e()%ent )n !'nn)ng

of the %)ct)onr)e- of the future.

There re -choo'- of ')ngu)-t)c- *h)ch *ere on', %)chron)c. The, fo''o* the

metho%- of re-erch *or@ )m!o-e% , the re!re-entt)(e- of the com!rt)(e metho% -uch

n e+m!'e e)ng offere% , the -choo' of -emnt)c recon-truct)on , et,mo'og)-t- from

'' o(er the *or'% n% , tho-e *ho -tu%, -emnt)c !r)m)t)(e- 'rge', %)-cu--e% ,

De-crte- P-c' n% Le)n)t: )n the 1< thcentur, n% re()(e% )n the 2 thcentur, E. S!)r

S*%e-h /. B)er*)-ch Ko'@o(-@) E. Co-er)u . Other -choo'- f(our the -,nchron)c

!!roch e.g. the Prgue Schoo' Romn 6@o-on the -tructur' Amer)cn -choo'

Leonr% B'oomf)e'% Ch. 8oc@ett ;enneth L. P)@e n% the #ermn -choo' of ')ngu)-t)c-

re!re-ente% , 6. Tr)er L.e)-gerer n% E. Le)-) or the Eng')-h -choo' re!re-ente% , R.

u)r@ S. #reenum n% 6. S(rt()@ - *e'' - the trn-formt)on' genert)(e grmmr

-choo' of Nom Chom-@, n% h)- fo''o*er-.

11


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The %)-!ute et*een -,nchron)c n% %)chron)c re-ercher- h- ne(er -to!!e% -)nce

the !!ernce t the en% of the 1=thcentur, of -,nchron)c %e-cr)!t)(e ')ngu)-t)c- n% )t-

r!)% %e(e'o!ment t the eg)nn)ng of the 2th centur,. 8enr, S*eet the O+for%

!honet)c)n *ho )n-!)re% Bernr% Sh* )n cret)ng the fmou- chrcter 8enr, 8)gg)n- )n

P,gm')on %emon-trte% )n 1>


13/148

2. /ORD STUDY

2.1. T#e /*r. 0*r!#eme. 0ean'ng. R**t. Stem. A').

T#e /*r

The %ef)n)t)on of the *or% - *e cn f)n% )t )n !ebster"s Encyclopedic #ictionary

-oun%- - fo''o*-&

un)t of 'nguge con-)-t)ng of one or more -!o@en -oun%- or the)r *r)tten

re!re-entt)on tht cn -tn% - com!'ete utternce or cn e -e!rte% from the e'ement-

tht ccom!n, )t )n n utternce , other -uch un)t-. or%- re com!o-e% of one or more

mor!heme- *)th re't)(e free%om to enter )nto -,ntct)c con-truct)on- n% re e)ther the

-m''e-t un)t- -u-ce!t)'e of )n%e!en%ent u-e or con-)-t of t*o or three -uch un)t- com)ne%

un%er cert)n ')n@)ng con%)t)on- - *)th the 'o-- of !r)mr, ccent *h)ch %)-t)ngu)-he-

blackbird from black bird. or%- re t,!)c'', thought of - re!re-ent)ng n )n%)()-)'e

conce!t ct)on or fee')ng or - h()ng -)ng'e referent re u-u'', -e!rte% , -!ce- )n

*r)t)ng n% re %)-t)ngu)-he% !hono'og)c'', - , ccent )n mn, 'nguge-.

1==?& 1?3

Accor%)ng to The Shorter $xford English #ictionary on %istorical &rinciples)t )-

An e'ement of -!eech& com)nt)on of (oc' -oun%- or one -uch -oun% u-e% )n

'nguge to e+!re-- n )%e e.g. to %enote th)ng ttr)ute or re't)on n% con-t)tut)ng

n u't)mte m)n)m' e'ement of h()ng men)ng - -uch.

!ebster"s Third 'ew nternational #ictionary %ef)ne- )t - A -!eech -oun% or

-er)e- of -!eech -oun%- tht -,mo')-e- n% commun)cte- men)ng *)thout e)ng

%)()-)'e )nto -m''er un)t- c!'e of )n%e!en%ent u-e& ')ngu)-t)c form tht )- m)n)mum of

form the ent)re -et of ')ngu)-t)c form- !ro%uce% , com)n)ng -)ng'e -e *)th (r)ou-

)nf'ect)on' e'ement- - ff)+e- *)thout chnge )n the !rt of -!eech.

Accor%)ng to#ic)ionarul limbii rom*ne the *or% )- n e'ement of humn -!eech

con-)-t)ng of !honeme or com!'e+ of !honeme- to *h)ch men)ng )- ttche% *h)ch

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)- ')'e to grmmt)c' u-ge n% *h)ch cn e un%er-too% , humn grou! -tructure% )n

h)-tor)c' commun)t,.

No mtter ho* -hort or 'ong *or% )- ).e. of ho* mn, mor!heme- )t con-)-t-

*e cnnot )%ent)f, )t )n -e4uence of *or%- tht m@e %)-cour-e un'e-- )t )- @no*n , u-

)n %(nce. Th)- )m!')e- the @no*'e%ge of the 'nguge *)th)n *h)ch *or%- re )%ent)f)e%

or e'-e the, rem)n unrecogn)-e%. Th)- )- %ue to the fct tht ech *or% h- %ou'e fce&

symboln% reference. Other term- e+!re--)ng th)- re't)on-h)! resignificantn%signifie

formn% meaning or expressionn% content. A'' the-e term- h)gh')ght the -me )%e.

0*r!#eme

/or!ho'og, )- the -tu%, of mor!heme- n% the)r rrngement- )n form)ng *or%-.

0*r!#eme, re the -m''e-t men)ngfu' un)t- *h)ch m, con-t)tute *or%- or !rt- of

*or%-. The, re -m''e-t or m)n)m' )n the -en-e tht the, cnnot e ro@en %o*n

further on the -)- of men)ng - ;tm !ut- )t & mor!heme- re the tom- *)th *h)ch

*or%- re u)'t ;tm 1==3 !. 3 4uote% )n 6c@-on n% Am(e' 2 !. 2 . The,

re men)ngfu' ecu-e *e cn -!ec)f, the @)n% of re't)on-h)! the, h(e *)th the non9

')ngu)-t)c *or'%.

e con-)%er the fo''o*)ng )tem-& ct ch)'% *)th -'ee!)ng rmch)r- frmer. A

c'o-e e+m)nt)on -ho*- tht cat childn% with cnnot e n',-e% further - -'ee! M )ng

rm M ch)r M- n% frm M er. The )tem- cat child with sleep +ing arm chair +s

farm n% ,erre '' mor!heme-. Some re -)m!'e *or%- -uch - cat child with sleep

arm chair n%farm *h)'e other- re on', !rt- of *or%- -uch -,ing 9- n%,er. On the

one hn% the, re m)n)m' -)nce the, cnnot e ro@en %o*n )nto further men)ngfu'

un)t- on the other hn% the, re men)ngfu' ecu-e the, cn e-t')-h -t'e

re't)on-h)! et*een ech )tem n% the non9')ngu)-t)c *or'% of e+!er)ence. For e+m!'e the

reference- of ct frm n% ch)r cn e e+!')ne% , !o)nt)ng or ct)ng out the men)ng -

)n Th)- )- ch)r or Tht )- frm It )- %ome-t)c n)m' tht goe- m)o*. The

men)ng of *)th m, e g)(en - )n com!n, of )n ntgon)-m to tht of ,s- !'ur'

*h)'e tht of,erm, e e+!re--e% - fo''o*-& 9ercom)ne- *)th the !rece%)ng 'e+)c'

)tem to %e-)gnte th)ng- or !er-on- *)th funct)on %e-cr)'e )n term- of the men)ng of

13


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the !rece%)ng mor!heme. For e+m!'e the men)ng of Her )n farmer n% dreamer )-

%e-cr)'e )n term- of tho-e of frm n% %rem *)th *h)ch the mor!heme Her)- com)ne%.

/or!heme- tht cn occur 'one - )n%)()%u' *or%- re "free" morphemes. Tho-e

tht cn occur on', *)th nother mor!heme re "bound" morphemes. Thu- the mor!heme-

ct frm re free *h)'e9)ng 9- n% 9er re oun% )n%)cte% , the h,!hen 9.

An, concrete re'):t)on of mor!heme )n g)(en utternce )- c''e% mor!h. 8ence the

form- ct ch)r frm 9)ng 9- n% Her re '' mor!h-.

An e+m)nt)on of numer of mor!h- m, -ho* tht t*o or more mor!h- m,

(r, -')ght', n% -t)'' h(e the -me men)ng. For e+m!'e the )n%ef)n)te rt)c'e m, e

re'):e% e)ther - a or -an %e!en%)ng on the -oun% not the 'etter t the eg)nn)ng of the

fo''o*)ng *or%. /or!h- *h)ch re %)fferent re!re-entt)on- of the -me mor!heme re

referre% to - allomorphs of tht mor!heme from #ree@ alloother n% morph form .

For e+m!'e&

a context(-. an index

a battle(-. an apple

a union(-. an onion-

The ''omor!h- a n% )t- counter!rt an re mutu'', e+c'u-)(e n% re -)% to e

)n com!'ementr, %)-tr)ut)on9 the tot' -et of ')ngu)-t)c conte+t- )n *h)ch g)(en form

occur- -omet)me- un%er %)fferent mor!ho'og)c' -h!e-. For e+m!'e the %)-tr)ut)on of

the )n%ef)n)te rt)c'e %e-cr)e% o(e m, e %ef)ne% -& aefore con-onnt -oun%- e.g. a

tt'e n% anefore (o*e' -oun%- e.g. an!!'e.

e no* turn our ttent)on to the re't)on et*een mor!ho'og, on the one hn% n%

-)m!'e com!'e+ n% com!oun% *or%- on the other. S)m!'e *or%- -uch - %oor @no *)'%

n)m' re '' free mor!heme-. The, re therefore mor!ho'og)c'', unn',-'e. Com!'e+

or %er)(e% *or%- -uch - spoonful wildish reanimate mentallyfarmerre forme% from

-)m!'er *or%- , the %%)t)on of ff)+e- or -ome other @)n% of mor!ho'og)c' mo%)f)ct)on.

The ')m)t)ng c-e for com!'e+ *or%- )- tht of :ero mo%)f)ct)on or con(er-)on - )n

answer call n% question *h)ch m, e e)ther noun- or (er- or clean dirty n% dry

*h)ch m, e e)ther %ect)(e- or (er- *)thout the %%)t)on of further -oun%-G'etter-.

Com!oun% *or%- or -)m!', com!oun%- re forme% , com)n)ng t*o or more *or%-

17


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free mor!heme- *)th or *)thout mor!ho'og)c' mo%)f)ct)on e.g. door+knob

cheeseburgerpound saver wild+animal+tamer. It -hou'% e !o)nte% out tht the %)-t)nct)on

et*een *or% com!oun% -o')% n% h,!hente% n% !hr-' com!oun% o!en )- not (er,

c'er )n Eng')-h. Th)- fct )- ref'ecte% , the )ncon-)-tenc, *)th *h)ch -!ce- n% h,!hen-

re u-e% *)th com!oun%- )n *r)tten Eng')-h 6c@-on n% Am(e' 2 !!. 93

0ean'ng

/en)ng %)fferent)t)on %)ctte- 'mo-t e(er,th)ng t '' the other 'e(e'- of the

'nguge -trt)ng *)th the -ttu- of !honeme- n% f)n)-h)ng *)th the !ur!o-e of

commun)ct)on %)-cour-e -t,')-t)c funct)on n% trn-'t)on e4u)('ent.

There re t 'e-t t*o !o--)'e t,!e- of men)ng *h)ch cn e con(e,e% , oth

mor!heme- n% *or%-& funct)on' men)ng n% nother -ort of men)ng *h)ch for

*or%- cou'% e c''e% 'e+)c' men)ng *here- *)th mor!heme- )t )- c''e% %er)(t)on'

men)ng.

.unctional meaning )- feture -hre% , oth *or%- n% mor!heme- *h)ch

-)gn'- tht -ome grmmt)c' ctegor, o!erte- t tht !o)nt )n the utternce. For )n-tnce

the !!ernce of +ing -)gn'- the !re-ence of the !rogre--)(e -!ect +s h- the tr)!'e

men)ng& !'ur' gen)t)(e n% th)r% !er-on -)ngu'r In%)ct)(e Pre-ent. Such *or%- - the

an -)gn' %ef)n)tene-- or non9%ef)n)tene-- of *ht fo''o*-.

#erivational meaning )- e+c'u-)(e', n ttr)ute of mor!heme- n% -)gn'- the

mor!ho9-,ntct)c grou! to *h)ch *or% cont)n)ng tht mor!heme e'ong-. For e+m!'e

+ness-)gn'- noun gener'', n -trct one +ly%)fferent)te- the gret u'@ of %(er-

n% fe* %ect)(e- from the re-t of the *or%- +ate-ho*- (er %enot)ng ct)()t, of

%o)ng -ometh)ng *)th n o!t)on' re!et)t)(e nunce. The-e re not *ht cou'% e c''e% fu''

'e+)c' men)ng- ecu-e the, %o not %enote not)on-.

exical meaning/ notional meaning or full meaning)- on', n ttr)ute of *or%-

n% refer- to the conce!t not)on or oect *ho-e ment' )mge the, e(o@e. The

contr%)ct)on re')e- )n the fct tht -ome *or%- con-)-t of mor!heme ut there )- on',

homon,m, et*een mor!heme- n% *or%- con-)-t)ng of mor!heme. A mor!heme )-

chrcter):e% fun%ment'', , )t- com)ntor, ('ence tht )- , )t- '))')t, to e

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ttche% to other mor!heme- *h)ch thu- ecome stems. A *or% %oe- not h(e n,

com)ntor, ('ence )t )- -et -tructure to *h)ch noth)ng cn e %%e% n% from *h)ch

noth)ng cn e remo(e% n, more. Ttru 22 !. 12

R**t

The root )- the -)c mor!heme from *h)ch *or% )- %er)(e% , !honet)c chnge-

or re!'c)(e - )n mou-e Hm)ce %r)(e 9 %ro(e H %r)(en *h)ch )- )rre%uct)'e from

mor!ho'og)c' ()e*!o)nt )- common to '' *or%- from the -me --oc)t)on grou! fm)',

of *or%- n% er- the men)ng of the *or%. In the --oc)t)on grou! synonym

synonymic/ synonymics/ synonymity/ synonymicon/ synonymies/ synonymy/ the root )-

-,non,m ecu-e )t )- the e'ement *h)ch rem)n- fter the remo(' of '' endings.

Root- re thu- the nece--r, n% -uff)c)ent -tructur' con-t)tuent for *or% to

e+)-t the, re free form- )f the, re homon,mou- to *or% )n the 'nguge n% crr, the

not)on' men)ng on th)- *or% )nto the ne* *or% the, form.

Stem

The -tem )- the !rt of n )nf'ecte% *or% tht t@e- !rt )n the formt)on of ne*

*or% u-u'', more com!'e+ one )n )t- -tructure n% *h)ch rem)n- unchnge%

throughout g)(en )nf'ect)on. The -tem m, e e)ther )%ent)c' *)th the root or %er)(e%

from the root *)th the he'! of formative suffix.

A')

The ff)+ )- n %%)t)on to the -tem or root )n or%er to u)'% ne* *or%. It )-

prefix *hen the %%)t)on -tn%- t the eg)nn)ng of *or% n% )t )- suffix*hen the

%%)t)on -tn%- t the en% of *or%. The !roce-- of u-)ng ff)+e- )- c''e% ff)+t)on. It )-

(er, !ro%uct)(e *, of *or%9u)'%)ng )n Eng')-h. Aff)+e- re '' oun% form- n% the, cn

e %er)(t)on' or funct)on' ccor%)ng to the t,!e of men)ng the, con(e, n% to the)r

funct)on.

hen one ff)+ h- een -tr)!!e% *, from the *or% *ht *e ot)n )- the stem

of tht *or%. Or !utt)ng )t con(er-e', the -tem of *or% )- tht !rt of )t from *h)ch one

cn ot)n the g)(en *or% , %%)ng one more ff)+ to )t.

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Ttru e+!')n- the men)ng of -tem )n the fo''o*)ng e+m!'e 22 !. 2 &

For )n-tnce -hou'% *e con-)%er the *or% imponderability one !o--)'e -tem of

th)- *or% )-9 ponderability *h)'e nother )- )m!on%er)')t,9 The f)r-t -tem )-

homon,mou- to *or% con-e4uent', )t )- free. Shou'% *e con-)%er )t- homon,m

ponderability )t- -tem )-ponderabil9 oun% -tem t f)r-t -)ght )f one %oe- not con-)%er

the fct tht ecu-e of et,mo'og)c' re-on- the homon,m, *)th ponderable)- not

!!rent.

Root- re con-e4uent', *ht rem)n- of *or% fter '' ff)+e- h(e een

remo(e% n% the)r fun%ment' chrcter)-t)c )- tht the, re not further %)()-)'e )nto other

con-t)tuent !rt- tht -hou'% h(e men)ng. Un'e-- the, re com)n)ng form- root- h(e

not)on' men)ng. The, cn form ne* *or%- , ecom)ng -tem-.

2.2. /*r Gr*u!,$ C*%%*"at'*n. P#ra,a% er,. Sa+'ng,. Pr*&er,

C*%%*"at'*n

)th)n the re of cor!u- ')ngu)-t)c- collocation%ef)ne- -e4uence of *or%- or

term- tht co9occur more often thn *ou'% e e+!ecte% , chnce. The term )- often u-e% )n

the -me -en-e - ')ngu)-t)c go(ernment.

Co''oct)on- %ef)ne- re-tr)ct)on- on ho* *or%- cn e u-e% together for e+m!'e

*h)ch !re!o-)t)on- re u-e% *)th go(erne% , !rt)cu'r (er- or *h)ch (er- n%

noun- re t,!)c'', u-e% together. An e+m!'e of th)- from /)che' 8'')%, )- the

co''oct)on strong tea. h)'e the -me men)ng cou'% e con(e,e% through the rough',

e4u)('entpowerful tea the fct )- tht te )- thought of e)ng -trong rther thn !o*erfu'.

A -)m)'r o-er(t)on ho'%- for powerful computers *h)ch )- !referre% o(er strong

computers.

Co''oct)on- re e+m!'e of 'e+)c' un)t-. Co''oct)on- -hou'% not e confu-e% *)th

)%)om- 'though oth re -)m)'r )n tht there )- %egree of men)ng !re-ent )n the

co''oct)on or )%)om tht )- not ent)re', com!o-)t)on'. )th )%)om- the men)ng )-

com!'ete', non9com!o-)t)on' *here- co''oct)on- re mo-t', com!o-)t)on'.

1>


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Co''oct)on e+trct)on )- t-@ tht e+trct- co''oct)on- utomt)c'', from

cor!u- u-)ng com!utt)on' ')ngu)-t)c-.

Common features

There )- n r)trr, re-tr)ct)on on the -u-t)tut)on of the e'ement- of co''oct)on.

e cn -, highly sophisticated n% *e cn -, extremely happy. Both %(er- h(e the

-me 'e+)c' funct)on- tht )- %%)ng the %egree of mgn)f,)ng the )m!ct of the %ect)(e-

sophisticated happy. 8o*e(er the, re not )nterchnge'e. St)'' other %(er- -uch -

very cn re!'ce oth highlyn% extremely.

Syntactic modifiability

Un')@e the mor)t, of )%)om- co''oct)on- re -uect to -,ntct)c mo%)f)ct)on.

For e+m!'e *e cn -, effective writingn% write effectively.

Expanded definition

If the e+!re--)on her% often trn-m)tt)ng )t-e'f m)met)c'', the *or%- ecome

g'ue% together )n our m)n%-. Cr,-t' c'er m)%%'e mngement nuc'er fm)', n%

co-met)c -urger, re e+m!'e- of co''octe% !)r- of *or%-. Some *or%- re often foun%

together ecu-e the, m@e u! com!oun% noun for e+m!'e r)%)ng oot- or motor

c,c')-t.

Co''oct)on- cn e )n -,ntct)c re't)on -uch - (er9oect& m@e n%

%ec)-)on 'e+)c' re't)on -uch - nton,m, or the, cn e )n no ')ngu)-t)c'', %ef)ne%

re't)on. ;no*'e%ge of co''oct)on- )- ()t' for the com!onent u-e of 'nguge&

grmmt)c'', correct -entence *)'' -tn% out - *@*r% )f co''oct)on' !reference- re

()o'te%. Th)- m@e- co''oct)on n )ntere-t)ng re for 'nguge tech)ng.

Co''oct)on- m, e set expressionsn%free combinations. Set e+!re--)on- re

-ucce--)on of *or%- tht mu-t e 'erne% - )f the, *ere -)ng'e *or%. The, cnnot e

%)()%e% )nto the)r con-t)tuent e'ement- *)thout %e-tro,)ng the)r men)ng. Bet*een the)r

!rt- of -et e+!re--)on there )- n )ntr)n-)c connect)on ).e. )t- e'ement- cnnot e re!'ce%

, other e'ement- *)thout chng)ng the men)ng of the rem)n)ng e'ement-. The men)ng

1=


20/148

of co''oct)on )- u-u'', e+!re--e% , -)ng'e *or%. From grmmt)c' !o)nt of ()e*

co''oct)on- re complex parts of speech.

P#ra,a% er,

Aphrasal verb)- com)nt)on of (er n% !re!o-)t)on (er n% %(er or

(er *)th oth n %(er n% !re!o-)t)on n, of *h)ch re !rt of the -,nt+ of the

-entence n% -o the, re com!'ete -emnt)c un)t. Sentence- m, cont)n %)rect n%

)n%)rect oect- )n %%)t)on to the !hr-' (er. Phr-' (erre !rt)cu'r', fre4uent )n the

Eng')-h 'nguge. A !hr-' (er often h- men)ng *h)ch )- %)fferent from the or)g)n'

(er.

Accor%)ng to Tom /cArthur& .. the term !hr-' (er *- f)r-t u-e% , Logn

Per-'' Sm)th 1=27 )n *h)ch he -tte- tht the OED E%)tor 8enr, Br%'e, -ugge-te%

the term to h)m.

A'ternt)(e term- for !hr-' (er re com!oun% (er (er9%(er

com)nt)on (er9!rt)c'e con-truct)on Am. E. t*o9!rt *or%G(er n% three9!rt

*or%G(er %e!en%)ng on the numer of !rt)c'e- n% mu't)9*or% (er /cArthur 1==2

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0er n% %(er con-truct)on- cn '-o e-)', e un%er-too% *hen u-e% ')ter'',&

She o!ene% the -hutter- n% looked outside.

hen he her% the cr-h he looked up.

An %(er )n ')ter' !hr-' (er mo%)f)e- the (er )t )- ttche% to n% !re!o-)t)on

')n@- the (er- to the oect.

diomatic usage

It )- ho*e(er the f)gurt)(e or )%)omt)c !!')ct)on )n e(er,%, -!eech *h)ch

m@e- !hr-' (er- -o )m!ortnt.

I ho!e ,ou *)''get over,our o!ert)on 4u)c@',.

or@ hr% n%get,our e+m)nt)on over with.

The ')ter' men)ng of to get o(er )n the -en-e of to c')m o(er -ometh)ng to get

to the other -)%e no 'onger !!')e- to e+!')n the -uect- en%ur)ng n o!ert)on or the

-tre-- of n e+m)nt)on *h)ch the, h(e to o(ercome. It )- *hen the com)ne% men)ng of

(er !'u- %(er or (er !'u- !re!o-)t)on )- tot'', %)fferent from ech of )t- com!onent

!rt- tht the -emnt)c content of the !hr-' (er cnnot e !re%)cte% , )t- con-t)tuent

!rt- n% -o ecome- much more %)ff)cu't for -tu%ent 'ern)ng Eng')-h to recogn):e.

In her )ntro%uct)on toongman #ictionary of &hrasal 0erbs/ !hat This #ictionary

Contains Ro-emr, Courtne, )nc'u%e- th)r% ctegor,.

I%)om- *h)ch re forme% from !hr-' (er- -uch - let the cat out of the bag.

The-e )%)om- re !r)nte% )n he(, t,!e. I%)om- h(e men)ng *h)ch )- %)fferent from the

men)ng of the -)ng'e *or%- n% u-u'', h(e f)+e% *or% or%er. Courtne, 1=>=.

Courtne, then c)te- mong mn, other e+m!'e- )n the %)ct)onr, -uch !hr-e- -&

to add insult to in1ury/ to add fuel to the flames/ to leave someone in the lurch/ to scare

someone out of their witsetc.

&hrasal verb pattern

A !hr-' (er cont)n- e)ther !re!o-)t)on or n %(er or oth n% m, '-o

com)ne *)th one or more noun- or !ronoun-.

&article verbs

Phr-' (er- tht cont)n %(erre -omet)me- c''e% !rt)c'e (er- n% re

re'te% to -e!r'e (er- )n other #ermn)c 'nguge-. There re t*o m)n !ttern-&

)ntrn-)t)(e n% trn-)t)(e. An )ntrn-)t)(e !rt)c'e (er %oe- not h(e n oect.

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hen I entere% the room he looked up.

A trn-)t)(e !rt)c'e (er h- nom)n' oect )n %%)t)on to the %(er. If the oect

)- n or%)nr, noun )t cn u-u'', !!er on e)ther -)%e of the %(er 'though (er, 'ong

noun !hr-e- ten% to come fter the %(er&

Switch offthe ')ght.

Switch the ')ghtoff-

Switch offthe ')ght- )n the h''*, ne+t to the e%room )n *h)ch the !re-)%ent )- -'ee!)ng.

)th -ome trn-)t)(e !rt)c'e (er- ho*e(er the noun oect mu-t come fter the

%(er. Such e+m!'e- re -)% to )n(o'(e )n-e!r'e !hr-' (er-&

The g-gave offfume-. not The g-gavefume- off.

Accor%)ng to Cambridge nternational #ictionary of &hrasal 0erbs/ 2nglais+

.rancais 1==> -t)'' other trn-)t)(e !rt)c'e (er- re4u)re the oect to !rece%e the

%(er e(en *hen the oect )- 'ong noun !hr-e&

I cnnot tellthe %og- apart. not I cnnot tell apartthe %og-.

I cnnot tellthe u''%og- n% the !ug- *ho 'oo@ ')@e them apart.

8o*e(er -ome uthor- Fr-er Bruce 1=


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&repositional verbs

Pre!o-)t)on' (erre !hr-' (er- tht cont)n !re!o-)t)on *h)ch )- '*,-

fo''o*e% , )t- nom)n' oect. The, re %)fferent from )n-e!r'e trn-)t)(e !rt)c'e (er-

ecu-e the oect -t)'' fo''o*- the !re!o-)t)on )f )t )- !ronoun&

On Fr)%,- *e look afterour grn%ch)'%ren.

e look afterthem. not lookthem after.

The (er cn h(e )t- o*n oect *h)ch u-u'', !rece%e- the !re!o-)t)on.

She helpedthe o, ton e+tr !ort)on of !ottoe-.

)th !ronoun-& She helpedh)m to -ome.

Pre!o-)t)on' (er- *)th t*o !re!o-)t)on- re !o--)'e&

e talked tothe m)n)-ter aboutthe cr)-)-.

&hrasal+prepositional verbs

A !hr-' (er cn cont)n n %(er n% !re!o-)t)on t the -me t)me. Ag)n the

(er )t-e'f cn h(e %)rect oect&

no %)rect oect& The %r)(ergot offto f',)ng -trt.

%)rect oect& On'oo@er- !ut the cc)%ent %o*n to the %r)(er- 'o-- of concentrt)on.

&hrasal verbs and modifying adverbs

hen mo%)f,)ng %(erre u-e% 'ong-)%e !rt)c'e %(er- )ntrn-)t)(e', -

!rt)c'eG%(er !o-)t)on-&

8e unh!!)', looked round.

8e lookedunh!!)', round.

8e looked roundunh!!)',.

The !rt)c'e %(er here )- roun% n% the mo%)f,)ng %(er )- unh!!)',.

Roun% )- !rt)c'e ecu-e )t )- not )nf'ecte%9%oe- not t@e ff)+e- n% 'ter )t- form.

Unh!!)', )- mo%)f,)ng %(er ecu-e )t mo%)f)e- the (er 'oo@ . )th trn-)t)(e

!rt)c'e (er the %(er goe- e)ther efore the (er or fter the oect or !rt)c'e

*h)che(er )- '-t&

8e cheerfully pickedthe oo@ up.

8epicked upthe oo@ cheerfully. not picked cheerfully up the oo@

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8epickedthe oo@ up cheerfully.

Pre!o-)t)on' (erre %)fferent from trn-)t)(e !rt)c'e (er- ecu-e the, ''o* %(er-

to !!er et*een the (er n% the !re!o-)t)on

8e cheerfully looked afterthe ch)'%ren.

8e looked afterthe ch)'%ren cheerfully.

8e looked cheerfully afterthe ch)'%ren.

Phr-' (ercom)ne% *)th *h9c'u-e- n% tht9c'u-e-.

Sentence- *h)ch )nc'u%e (erM!rt)c'eMoect-M*h9c'u-e-

The techer tr)e- to dictate to h)- c'-- what the right thing to do is trn-)t)(e

(erM!re!o-)t)on %)ctte to M )n%)rect oect h)- c'-- M *h9c'u-e *ht the r)ght th)ng

to %o )- .

/, fr)en%- called for me when the time cametrn-)t)(e (erM!re!o-)t)on c''e% for

M!ronoun me M)n%)rect oect h)- c'-- M*h9c'u-e *hen the t)me cme .

!atch out that you don"t hit ,our he% on the 'o* em.)ntrn-)t)(e (erM%(er *tch

out Mtht9c'u-e tht ,ou %ont h)t ,our he% on the 'o* em.

Phr-' (ercom)ne% *)th (er9)ng form-&

$ou cnt !re(ent me from -ee)ng her. trn-)t)(e (erM!ronoun !re(ent me

M!re!o-)t)on from M(er9)ng form -ee)ng M!ronoun her .

Sa+'ng, an Pr*&er,

Sa+'ng, n% !r*&er, e'ong to the -me ')terr, genre - the aphorism/ the

maxim/ the apophthegmn%the paradox-

h)'e !hor)-m- m+)m- n% !r%o+e- u-u'', )m!', @no*n uthor-h)! e(en )f

the u-er %oe- not @no* the)r uthor !ro(erre common !ro!ert,. Somet)me- the, re

noth)ng other thn !hor)-m- m+)m- etc. *h)ch g)ne% 'rge c)rcu't)on n% f)+e%

form. In Sh@e-!ere- !',- there re -e(er'!hor)-m- *h)ch c)rcu'te - !ro(er-. It )-

not -ure *hether Sh@e-!ere orro*e% them from !o!u'r *)-%om or )f on the contrr,

Sh@e-!ere- 'rge !o!u'r)t, %eterm)ne% the)r %o!t)on n% chnge% )nto common

!ro!ert,.

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Another )m!ortnt -ource of !ro(er- )- fo'@9'ore. Tht )- *h, mn, !ro(er- n%

-,)ng- m, e met )n %)fferent 'nguge- *)th ')tt'e mo%)f)ct)on- *h)'e other- re

ent)re', %)fferent. Re')g)on n% e-!ec)'', the B)'e nc)ent n% me%)e(' cu'ture n%

-oc)' ')fe of mn, nt)on- f(oure% the -hr)ng of 'rge -toc@ of !ro(er- *h)'e the

chrcter)-t)c- of e(er, nt)on n% the -!ec)f)c nt)on' 'nguge -tructure encourge%

%)fference- )n e+!re--)on.

The term !ro(er )- the more -!ec)f)c of the t*o -tre--)ng the e!)grmmt)c

chrcter of the -ttement n% tht )t )- !o!u'r ,*or%. S,)ng )- more gener' !o)nt)ng

out f)r-t tht )t )- -ometh)ng tht )- -)%& th)- *, )t cn e ttr)ute% to -!ec)f)c !er-on or

e common', re!ete% n% gener'', cce!te% -ttement e.g. !ro(er.

/o-t Eng')-h -,)ng- n% !ro(er- cnnot e trn-'te% )nto Romn)n *or% ,

*or% the, mu-t e re!'ce% , the Romn)n e4u)('ent *or% , *or% the, mu-t e

re!'ce% , the Romn)n e4u)('ent of the )%)om e.g.

A % e+cu-e )- etter thn none9 /) un o -cu: t)c'u)t %ecQt un nero-t)t

A % !enn, '*,- come- c@9 Bnu' ru ntot%enu -e ntorce

A foo' @no*- more )n h)- o*n hou-e thn *)-e mn )n nother- 9 Un !ro-t t)e m)

mu'te %e-!re c- - %ecQt un ne'e!t %e-!re c- 'tu).

A'' )- not go'% tht g')tter-9 Nu tot ce :or -e mnQnc

Dont cr, o(er -!)'t m)'@ 9 Ce9) fcut e un fcut

A- ,ou m@e ,our e% -o ,ou -h'' ')e on )t 9 Cum ) tern) (e) %orm)

here there- *)'' there- *, 9 C)ne (re !ote.

$ou cnt h(e ,our c@e n% et )t too 9 ) cu (r: un- ) cu -'n)n n !o% nu -e

!ote. Dent 1=?= .

Pro(erre more o()ou- )n -!eech n% *r)t)ng ecu-e there )- n )ncongru)t,

et*een the ')ter' men)ng of !ro(er n% the conte+t to *h)ch )t refer-. hen *e -,

4ou can"t have your cake and eat it *e re not u-u'', referr)ng to ')ter' c@e. e re

u-)ng the !ro(er - gr!h)c *, of -,)ng to -omeone tht the, h(e to choo-e one of

t*o o!t)on- the, cnnot h(e the %(ntge- of choo-)ng oth. Pro(erre!re-ent

common cu'tur' fun% of fo'@ @no*'e%ge n% *)-%om tht *e cn c'' on to *rn or

re!r)mn% -omeone )n the --urnce tht the, *)'' cce!t the -)- of th)- common *)-%om

*here more %)rect !er-on' !!roch *ou'% f)'. Or *e u-e !ro(er- to comment on or

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come to term- *)th ')fe- e+!er)ence- e.g. 4ou can"t win them all -)% - con-o')%t)on

fo''o*)ng %)-!!o)ntment or f)'ure. 8ere re -ome e+m!'e- of !r(er-& e.g. 2 bird in the

hand is worth two in the bushH )- u-e% *hen *e m, h(e the o!!ortun)t, of -ome

%(ntge )mme%)te', ut m)ght !refer to *)t for -u!!o-e% greter though , no men-

cert)n %(ntge )n the future.&eople who live in glass houses shouldn"t throw stones H )t

)- u-e% *hen -!e@)ng of -omeone *ho -u!!o-e%', -uffer- from the -me fu't the, re

cr)t)c):)ng )n nother. 2 stich in time saves nine H )- u-e% to !er-u%e -omeone to t@e

)mme%)te ct)on efore !rocr-t)nt)on m, men tht t-@ *)'' e more %)ff)cu't n%

com!'e+ thn )t )- no*.

2.3.A,,*"'at'*n. C*m!ar',*n. Re,em%an"e$ 0eta!#*r. 0et*n+m+. S+ne"*"#e

0eta!#*r

F)gure- of -!eech h(e een --oc)te% for 'ong t)me *)th the )%e of -emnt)c

chnge. Ar)-tote' )n The Poet)c- con-)%ere% tht to m@e goo% met!hor- )m!')e% n e,e

for re-em'nce *h)ch *- con-)%ere% mr@ of gen)u-.

S)nce the Stg)r)te- remr@ the 'og)co9rhetor)c' c'--)f)ct)on- h(e !ro')ferte%.

The, -ho* un4ue-t)on'e %)%ct)c %(ntge- ut on the other hn% the, f)' )n

e+!')n)ng the cu-e of -emnt)c chnge-. The )m!ortnce of the -tu%, of met!hor)c

trn-fer- of men)ng *- !o)nte% out , 0o--'er *ho -)% tht)t )- met!hor *h)ch mu-t

e the -o'e concern of the ')ngu)-t )n h)- )n(e-t)gt)on of -emnt)c chnge 4uote% ,

Ste!hen U''mn 1=?

T*o th)ng- cn e connecte% , humn m)n% )n (r)ou- *,-. A f)r-t o()ou- t,!e

of --oc)t)on )- tht re!re-ente% ,simile e.g. as old as the hills/ as good as gold/ a heart

as hard as flint/ cheeks like roses-

/et!hor '-o )n(o'(e- the !roce-- of comparison ut )t )- not n e+!')c)t one )n

*h)ch there )- n e+chnge et*een the men)ng- of t*o *or%-. In met!hor *or% )-

u-e% to men -ometh)ng %)fferent from *ht )t u-u'', men- th)- !henomenon e)ng

!o--)'e ecu-e of n )m!')e% re-em'nce.

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Accor%)ng to C. ;. Og%en n% I.A. R)chr%- !. 111 hene(er term )- t@en

out-)%e the un)(er-e of %)-cour-e for *h)ch )t h- een %ef)ne% )t ecome- met!hor n%

m, e )n nee% of fre-h %ef)n)t)on. Though there )- more )n met!hor thn ')fe *e h(e

here n e--ent)' feture of -,mo')c met!hor)c' 'nguge.

In nother %ef)n)t)on I. A. R)chr%- 1=? !. = con-)%er- tht In the -)m!'e-t

formu't)on *hen *e u-e met!hor *e h(e t*o thought- of %)fferent th)ng- ct)(e

together n% -u!!orte% , -)m!'e *or% or !hr-e *ho-e men)ng )- re-u'tnt of the)r

)nterct)on. I.A. R)chr%- %r*- ttent)on u!on the %nger of )nter!ret)ng met!hor on', -

(er' mtter -h)ft)ng n% %)-!'cement of *or%- *here- fun%ment'', )t )-

orro*)ng et*een intercourse of thoughts trn-ct)on et*een conte+t-. Thought )-

met!hor n% )t !rocee%- , com!r)-on n% the met!hor- of 'nguge %er)(e therefrom.

Ste!hen U''mn 1=?? !. 172 re)nforce- th)- )%e on re'te% !'ne *hen he -,-

tht mn, of the mo-t con()nc)ng )mge- )n !oetr, n% e(en )n !ro-e re )n-e!r'e

from the )%e the, e+!re-- n% the 'tter cou'% ne(er h(e r)-en *)thout the met!hor )n

*h)ch )t )- emo%)e%. Perh!- one -hou'% go e(en further. Lnguge n% thought re not

on', )n%)--o'u'e )ntert*)ne% ut the, m, ctu'', -t)mu'te ech other..

L)ngu)-t)c met!hor- h(e )n mo-t c-e- %)fferent funct)on' -ttu-. The, %o not

re!'ce nme- ut the, re the nme- them-e'(e- - the th)ng t'@e% out h- no other

nme. hen one t'@- of radar beam or ra5or"s edge of bluebell rainbow

forget+me+not of scarecrow *hen one -,- tht -omeo%, has been brain+washed or

tht -omeo%, -)% a left+handed compliment *hen one c''- -omeo%, Shakespeare

Robinson Crusoe 6achiavelli etc. there )- !rct)c'', no *, of -,)ng the -me th)ng

)n nother *, e+ce!t , u-)ng met')ngu)-t)c !roce--. E(en *hen there re -,non,m)c

form- the, cn e other met!hor-.

0et*n+m+ an S+ne"*"#e

The term metonymycome- from the #ree@ meta/men)ng chnge n% onyma/

men)ng nme. Synecdoche)- of #ree@ or)g)n too com)ng fromsyn men)ng together

n% ekdechesthai/men)ng to rece)(e.6etonymy )- more gener' term thnsynecdoche/

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)nc'u%)ng the 'tter *hen u-e% )n ro% -en-e. 0r)ou- -ource- con-)%er tht meton,m,

con-)-t- )n the u-e of the nme of one th)ng for tht of -ometh)ng e'-e *)th *h)ch )t )-

u-u'', --oc)te%. Th)- cn e -)gn)f)cnt ttr)ute of n oect or nother oect

orgn)c'', connecte% to the former.

/eton,m)c' -emnt)c chnge- re -e% on re't)on- *h)ch h(e 're%, een

e-t')-he% et*een th)ng- n% *or%- tht )- to -, there )- connect)on et*een *or%

or !hr-e n% the oect or )%e to *h)ch )t refer-. The meton,m, board and bedmen-

foo% -er(e% t t'e n% 'o%g)ng.7oard*- u-e% for 'ong t)me *)th the men)ng

t'e u-e% for me'- bed)- n e--ent)' e'ement )n the ccommo%t)on for re-t t n)ght

).e. for 'o%g)ng. The trn-fer of nme- )- e()%ent', -e% on conce!tu' --oc)t)on- of

the contiguity type n% not on tho-e ofsimilarity type. The re't)on- et*een the e'ement-

re not e-t')-he% through ment' !roce-- tht ')n@- )n%e!en%ent th)ng-. In meton,m, the

t*o e'ement- re )n cert)n !ro+)m)t, or contct.

Though (r)ou- mo%ern -tu%)e- concentrte m)n', on the referent)' funct)on on

meton,m, on )t- !ro()%)ng un%er-tn%)ng n% ')ngu)-t)c -u-t)tut)on , offer)ng cce-- to

nother conce!t one -hou'% ne(er forget tht 'nguge reect- !erfect -,non,m, no mtter

)n *ht f)e'% )t ten%- to mn)fe-t )t-e'f. There )- -o'ute', no re-on to crete ne*

')ngu)-t)c -,mo' e )t meton,m un'e-- there )- the -')ghte-t %)fference )n connotation

*h)ch concern- the expressive side of language. O()ou-', the one *ho -,- %e has

chosen the bottle h- -ometh)ng more to -, thn tht -omeo%, )- u-er of alcoholic

drink. E(en )f thestylistic implicationsm, e -omet)me- o(er'oo@e% , the 'ong u-e of

-ome meton,m- the)r cret)on n% e(en the)r -ucon-c)ou- u-e , -!e@er- h- cert)n

-t,')-t)c )m!')ct)on-. To )''u-trte )t one *)'' c'' -omeo%, &hilistine on', one

con%emn- !er-on *ho )- unrece!t)(e to or ho-t)'e to*r%- cu'ture n% rt-. )thout the

e+!re--)(e %)men-)on n, %)-cu--)on of meton,m, ecome- c%em)c !ure', theoret)c'

or -!ecu't)(e n% r)g)%.

/eton,m)e- cn ffect )%)omt)c !hr-e- - *e''. Some gener' e+m!'e- re& to

earn one"s bread and butter8 crust/ to give somebody a light/ to give somebody a lift/ to lose

one"s head/ to know one"s own mind/ as good as gold/etc.

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Synecdoche)- -!ec)' t,!e of meton,m, con-)-t)ng )n the u-e of the !rt for the

*ho'e of !'ce *ht )t re!re-ent- n% of the *ho'e for the !rt or the genu- )- u-e% for

the -!ec)e- n% ()ce (er- e.g.

army for -o'%)er

eye/ face for !er-on

hand for *or@er n% *or@

roof for hou-e

printer"s ink for !r)nte% te+t

sailfor -h)! e.g.

8e h- no roofo(er h)- he%.

8e )- Conservative. memer of the Con-er(t)(e Prt,

I rememer '' m,atin. The Lt)n 'nguge *h)ch I *- tught.

It- ro% of bloodn% ()o'ence.

Rome )- m%mn- %rem the !o')t)c' !o*er #. B. Sh*

I h(e 'eft fr eh)n% the world the flesh n% the devil"- the -oc)et, the %o%)',

!'e-ure- the tem!tt)on #.B. Sh*

In -uch e+m!'e- the )n%)()%u' oect !o--e--e- the chrcter)-t)c- of the c'-- to

*h)ch e'ong- or ()ce (er-.

2.4. E)!re,,'&ene,, 'n Language$ C*%%*5u'a% Language. C%'"#6. 7arg*n. Arg*t. S%ang.

Eu!#em',m

The f)r-t )m of n, 'nguge )- communication. hen utter)ng -entence n,

-!e@er tr)e- to con(e, )nformt)on n% he %oe- th)- , u-)ng *or%- *h)ch re(e' the)r

men)ng )n %)fferent conte+t-. But n, 'nguge h- -ome ')ngu)-t)c feture- , men- of

*h)ch n, -!e@er m, con(e, more thn )nformt)on. B, u-)ng them he m, e+!re-- n

tt)tu%e -ugge-t cert)n tmo-!here or ch)e(e cert)n effect. A'' the-e e'ement- e'ong

to the e+!re--)(e -)%e of 'nguge. In Ste!hen U''mnn- *or%-& E(er,th)ng tht

trn-cen%- the !ure', referent)' n% commun)ct)(e -)%e of 'nguge e'ong- to the

!ro()nce of e+!re--)(ene--. U''mnn 1=?


30/148

No effect)(e co'our)ng cn e ren%ere% , n, -!e@er !rt from tho-e *h)ch re

e+!re--e% , 'nguge *h)ch )- co''ect)(e n% h)-tor)c' cret)on. On the other hn%

'nguge !ro()%e- the -!e@er *)th the nece--r, men- to e+!re-- h)- emot)on- n%

tt)tu%e- or *)th the men- c!'e of cret)ng the %e-)re% conte+tu' tmo-!here. The-e

men- re foun% )n the !hono'og)c' 'e+)c' n% -,ntct)c' f)e'% out of *h)ch n, -!e@er

choo-e- the nece--r, men- ccor%)ng to h)- -@)'' )n u-)ng the g)(en 'nguge. Accor%)ng

to the o(e ment)one% f)e'%- the -t,')-t)c -tu%, )- common', cce!te% - -hr)ng three

-!ect-& the stylistics of the sound the stylistics of the word n% the stylistics of the

sentence. U''mnn 1=?


31/148

Though h()ng !rt)cu'r u-ge )n #ret Br)t)n n% )n the Un)te% Stte-

co''o4u)')-m- re un%er-too% , ner', e(er,one )n the Eng')-h9-!e@)ng *or'%.

C%'"#6

Clich9h- together *)th1argon the 'o*e-t 'e(e' of e+!re--)(e force -ome*here

roun% . The former )- '-o he'% - the 'o*e-t )n !u')c e-teem though from !rct)c'

!o)nt of ()e* )t )- common', u-e% , n,one.

Clich9con-)-t- of tr)te or -tereot,!e% !hr-e or e+!re--)on. It h- een often

moc@e% t )n *or@- of (r)ou- *r)ter- ut ne(erthe'e-- )t )- con-)%ere% to !',

!rom)nent !rt )n !u')c -!eeche- of %)fferent t,!e-.

C')che- m)ght e regr%e% - @)n%- of o--)f)e% co''oct)on-. In cert)n conte+t- the

mutu' e+!ectnc, of 'e+eme- h- ecome f)+e%. The re-u't )- 'o-- of men)ng ecu-e

there )- no 'onger n e'ement of cho)ce or contr-t. For e+m!'e *e r)%)cu'e e-tte gent-

%(ert)-ement- for %e-cr))ng hou-e- - %e-)r'e re-)%ence-. The 'e+eme residence )t-e'f

h)gh -t,'e -,non,m for house -eem- to e '*,- ccom!n)e% , desirable)n f)+e%

e+!re--)on n% *e re% )t no 'onger - h()ng the men)ng %e-)r'eMre-)%ence ut

mere', - !hr!hr-e for house& )t h- ecome c')ch5 of e-tte gent-rgon. S)m)'r',

)n !o-t' %(ert)-)ng )n !rt)cu'r the noun owner )- )n(r)', ccom!n)e% , the

%ect)(eproud& $ou cou'% e the !rou% o*ner of . Other e+m!'e- of c')che- re& a

real bargain/ an unbeatable offer/ a genuine price reduction/ difficult decisions/ dangerous

precedents/ real progress/ flat refusal.

7arg*n

6rgon )- the techn)c' or e(en -ecret (ocu'r, the chrcter)-t)c )%)om of

-!ec)')-t- or *or@er- )n !rt)cu'r ct)()t, or )n n re of @no*'e%ge. In )t- c!c)t, of

(ocu'r, of -c)ence rt -ect or !rofe--)on )t h- no e+!re--)(e force for tho-e *ho

-!e@ )t ut )t h- g)ne% cert)n !re-t)ge mong out-)%er-. Th)- )- e-!ec)'', the c-e of

me%)c' term- the me%)c' rgon e)ng one of the mo-t h)gh', %e(e'o!e%. Though *e

cnnot -!e@ no*%,- of the -ecret chrcter of th)- rgon the truth )- tht )t )-

1


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un)nte'')g)'e to tho-e *ho h(e not een tr)ne% to un%er-tn% )t. Though '' -c)ent)f)c

f)e'%- %e(e'o! o*n rgon- the-e re u-u'', more cce--)'e thn the me%)c' one.

Ne(erthe'e-- term- *h)ch re u-u'', un%er-too% on', , -!ec)')-t- re rther fre4uent.

e re to )''u-trte th)- through -ome term- t@en from&

. the field of linguistics -c)ence *h)ch u-u'', h- term)no'og, tht )- e-)',

un%er-too%. Such term- re idiolect/ idiosyncracy/ metalanguage/ portmanteau/ fricative/

competence/ performance/ deep and surface structure/ transformation etc.

. the field of literature -uch - picaresque/ bathos/ acrostic/ burlesque/ causerie/

meiosis/ simile/ metaphor/ metonymy etc.

c. the law e.g. ad1udge/ agreed verdict/ aid and abet/ assay/ disapprobation/ electee/

fraud/ 1udgement+roll/ nonconstitutional/ nonliability/ made and signed/ null and of no

effect/ successor and assigns etc.

%.political thought e.g. civil society/ deterrence/ good offices/ 1urisprudence/ minimax/

monism/ peace and quiet/ understood and agreed.

Ne(erthe'e-- )t *ou'% e n e+ggert)on to c')m tht e(er, -c)ent)f)c rnch h-

)t- o*n rgon. In fct mn, of them -hre 'ot of term-. For e+m!'e -t)mu'u-9re-!on-e

m, e met t the -me t)me )n the medical 1argon )n the 1argon of biologists or in the

pedagogical 1argon-

The nerer the !rofe--)on- the more term- the, *)'' -hre e.g. *r)ter- ourn')-t-

e%)tor- n% !r)nter-. The former t*o on the one hn% n% the 'tter t*o on the other hn%

h(e more term- )n common thn *r)ter- *)th !r)nter- - on', !rt of *r)ter- rgon

co)nc)%e- *)th tht of !r)nter-.

B, rgon the ')ngu)-t often men- h,r)% -!eech of %)fferent 'nguge- or of

cert)n c'--. S)'or- for e+m!'e (er, fre4uent', u-e -uch m)+ture *)th the *or%- of the

nt)(e-.

A !retent)ou- n% e+oter)c term)no'og, )- often u-e% )n -c)ent)f)c !!er- )n *h)ch

Lt)n n% #ree@ term- re un%nt. Th)- cn e-)', f'' )nto gobbledygook/ the 1argon of

bureaucrats *h)ch u-u'', )m- t conce')ng thought- n% m@e- 'nguge %)ff)cu't to e

un%er-too% , out-)%er-.

2


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In e'e(te% con(er-t)on f-h)on'e *or%- n% !hr-e- e-!ec)'', t@en from

French n% It')n ref'ect the t-te of !rt)cu'r grou!- of !eo!'e. It m)ght e *orth

ment)on)ng tht th)- ten%enc, )- , no men- - common or *)%e-!re% - )t u-e% to e

ecu-e of the gr%u' %ec')ne )n the -ttu- of French - the 'nguge of cu'ture n%

ref)nement !r e+ce''ence.

Arg*t

The term- cantn% argotre fre4uent', u-e% *)th the -me -en-e -1argon. Cant

u-u'', re!'ce- three term-& argot 1argon n%slang e)ng thu- the mo-t m)guou- of

them ''.

2rgotu-u'', %enote- the -!ec)' (ocu'r, n% )%)om of !rt)cu'r -oc)' grou!

c'-- or !rofe--)on *e m, -!e@ of the argot of sports the argot of teen+agers ut (er,

fre4uent', )t refer- to the -!ec)' (ocu'r, n% )%)om u-e% , -ome un%er*or'% grou!-

e.g. urg'r- !)c@!oc@et- eggr- etc.

If rgon un%er-too% - !rofe--)on' 'nguge e.g. term- -uch - c-e

!tho'og, --ermnn 'oo% count etc. h- no e+!re--)(e force rgot un%er-too% -

the -!eech of -ome un%er*or'% grou!- )- on the contrr, (er, e+!re--)(e. The -t,')-t)c

('ue of th)- (ocu'r, )- (er, h)gh - *or%- u-u'', e+!re-- the -!e@er- tt)tu%e *h)ch

u-t)f)e- the e+ten-)(e u-e of met!hor.

SLANG

S'ng )- -u-et of 'nguge u-e% , one !rt)cu'r grou!. It con-)-t- of *or%-

n% e+!re--)on- *h)ch *)'' not e foun% )n the %)ct)onr, n% cn e %)-tort)on- of e+)-t)ng

*or%- or ent)re', )n(ente% term-. It )- u-e% )n )nform' -)tut)on-. It )- not !!ro!r)te )n

form' -)tut)on-.

S'ng )- u-e% , '' @)n%- of !eo!'e *ho -hre -)tut)on- or )ntere-t-. The grou!

*h)ch u-e- the-e *or%- re '*,- )n the m)nor)t, n% often u-e -'ng to -et them-e'(e-

!rt to m@e )t %)ff)cu't for or%)nr, !eo!'e to un%er-tn% them. hen !rt)cu'r ne*

e+!re--)on )- @no*n n% u-e% , 'rge mor)t, of the !o!u't)on )t )- no 'onger -'ng


34/148

ut !rt of the regu'r 'nguge or u-ge. Note& S'ng n% Inform' Eng')-h re NOT the

-me. Some -'ng cn e u-e% )n )nform' -)tut)on- n% -ome of the *or%- tht cn on',

e u-e% )n )nform' -)tut)on- re not -'ng-.

S'ng fu'f)'- t 'e-t t*o %)fferent funct)on- %e!en%)ng on *ho-e !o)nt of ()e*

,ou t@e. For the grou!- tht u-e -'ng )t )- *, to -et them-e'(e- !rt to e+!re--

them-e'(e- )n %)-t)nct n% )n%)()%u' *, n% -omet)me- to @ee! -ecret- from e)ng

@no*n , other-. But for the -oc)et, )n gener' n% the %e(e'o!ment of the 'nguge -'ng

!erform- nother ro'e. For the 'nguge -'ng )- ')@e ')ngu)-t)c 'ortor, *here ne*

*or%- n% form- cn e te-te% out !!')e% to (r)et, of -)tut)on- n% then e)ther

n%one% or )ncor!orte% )nto the regu'r 'nguge. It )- ')@e tr)' !er)o% for ne* *or%-.

If the, ''o* !eo!'e to -, -ometh)ng tht cnnot e -)% u-)ng tr%)t)on' 'nguge n%

mor)t, of !eo!'e cce!t them then the-e *or%- n% e+!re--)on- o)n the)r regu'r

'nguge.

After !er)o% of et*een fe* month- n% mn, ,er- -'ng )- u-e% , ')m)te%

grou!- *)th -ometh)ng )n common. The fr mor)t, ne(er rech the !o!u'r)t, n% 'e(e' of

u-e to ecome regu'r *or%- n% re -oon forgotten n% not u-e%. A fe* rech *)%e-!re%

u-ge n% cn e foun% )n ech ne* e%)t)on of the !o!u'r %)ct)onr)e-. /n, of the *or%-

*e u-e e(er,%, n% cn e foun% )n the %)ct)onr, egn ')fe - -'ng. E(en Sh@e-!ere

u-e% -'ng.

The mo-t -)gn)f)cnt chrcter)-t)c of -'ng o(er',- *)th %ef)n)ng chrcter)-t)c

of1argon& -'ng )- m@er of )n9grou! -o')%r)t, n% -o )t )- corre'te of humn grou!-

*)th -hre% e+!er)ence- -uch - e)ng ch)'%ren t cert)n -choo' or of cert)n ge or

e)ng memer of cert)n -oc)'', %ef)n'e grou! -uch - hoo@er- un@)e- ::

mu-)c)n- or !rofe--)on' cr)m)n'-. ;e)th A''n n% ;te Burr)%ge& .orbidden !ords

Cmr)%ge Un)(er-)t, Pre-- 2? S'ng -er(e- the out- - *e!on g)n-t the )n-. To

u-e -'ng )- to %en, ''eg)nce to the e+)-t)ng or%er e)ther o@)ng', or )n erne-t ,

refu-)ng e(en the *or%- *h)ch re!re-ent con(ent)on- n% -)gn' -ttu- n% tho-e *ho re

!)% to !re-er(e the -ttu- 4uo re !rom!te% to re!re-- -'ng - the, re !rom!te% to

re!re-- n, other -,mo' of !otent)' re(o'ut)on. S'e%% 1=?7

3


35/148

hen *e refer to foo% - gru )t )- !erh!- hr% to re'):e tht the *or%

goe- c@ to O')(er Crom*e''- t)me from er', 1>thcentur, come mo n% '-o @noc@

off to f)n)-h n% from er', 1= thcentur, the -rc-t)c u-e of c'er - mu%.Pu' Be'e

e%)tor of Prtr)ge- Concise #ictionary of Slang and :nconventional English

Rout'e%ge1==1

Examples of slang 6ohn A,to 1==> &

$nion1>= e-!ec)'', )n the !hr-e of one- on)on m% cr:,. 8.# e''-& 8e cme

home one %, -,)ng Tono Bung, t)'' I thought he *- c'en off h)- on)on.

&ommy/ pommie/ pom 1=12 . /)n', Au-tr')n n% Ne* Ke'n% often !!')e%

-!ec)f)c'', to n Eng')-h )mm)grnt !o--)', -hort for o-o'ete !omm,grnt ocu'r

'en% of !omegrnte n% )mm)grnt.

!hat"s your name 1> Or)g)n n% m)n', US o(er9ref)ne% mn %n%,. /rt)n Am)-& I th)n@ m, %og

go )te of them *h)te %u%e- 1=>3

;id 1?= 9 ,oung got *)th the -en-e ch)'%. Lor% Shfte-ur,& P--e% fe* %,-

h!!)', *)th m, *)fe n% @)%-. 1>31

7ud1?13 Recor%e% )n Br)t)-h Eng')-h )n the 1


36/148

&eanuts 1=? Or)g)n US !!')e% e-!ec)'', to )n%e4ute !,ment -ometh)ng -m'' or

tr)()'. Scot-mn& A -'r, of V ,er )- !enut- for mn t the to! of h)-

!rofe--)on 1=1 9 to -tu%, hr%. Or)g)n un)(er-)t, -'ng u-e% to %enote )nten-)(e tech)ng or

-tu%, )n !re!rt)on for n e+m from the not)on of forc)ng @no*'e%ge )nto -omeone. E.6.

oro)-e& She cn crm for n e+m)nt)on. 1>>1

%ang 1. U-e% )n rnge of m)'% oth- u-u'', e+!re--)ng )rr)tt)on or )m!t)ence9

e+ecute , -u-!en%)ng from ro!e. A.P. 8erert& Im f)::, n% f)er, n% fru)t, n% ten-e

-o 'et- h(e -un%e n% hng the e+!en-e. 1=2<

.or


37/148

For@- 1


38/148

E%*r% 6err)nghm @ef)e'%-& A%(enture- )n Ne* Ke'n% 1>37 )n *h)ch he )nc'u%e-

n ccount of the ourne, from the U; to the Southern 8em)-!here& The !rofoun%

contem!t *h)ch the *h'er e+!re-- for the lubber of a 1immy+grant - he c''- the

em)grnt. ho 6)mm, #rnt *- )- not c'er.

The f)r-t to recor% rh,m)ng -'ng )n n, -,-temt)c *, *ere Ducnge Ang')cu-

)n& The 0u'gr Tongue. A #'o--r, of S'ng Cnt n% F'-h Phr-e- u-e% )n Lon%on from

1>= to 1>7= n% , 6ohn Cm%en 8otten )n& A D)ct)onr, of /o%ern S'ng Cnt n%

0u'gr or%- 1>7=.

Ang')cu- )nc'u%e- the-e e+m!'e- '' %te% 1>77 n% m%e no reference to rh,m)ng

-'ng.

8otten *- the f)r-t to !!', the nme rh,m)ng -'ng to the form )n h)- 1>7=

%)ct)onr,& The cnt *h)ch h- noth)ng to %o *)th tht -!o@en , the co-ter9monger- )-

@no*n )n Se(en D)'- n% e'-e*here - the Rh,m)ng S'ng or the -u-t)tut)on of *or%-

n% -entence- *h)ch rh,me *)th other *or%- )nten%e% to e @e!t -ecret. I 'ern tht

rh,m)ng -'ng *- )ntro%uce% out t*e'(e or f)fteen ,er- go.

The -'ng form *- not @no*n )n the USA unt)' 'te )n the 1= thcentur,. There )- n

e+m!'e )n the L)m T)me- Democrt Se!t 1>=3 ent)t'e% The S'ng of Lon%on *h)ch

%e-cr)e- rh,m)ng -'ng t 'ength n% )- c'er', )nten%e% for n u%)ence *ho re ne* to )t&

Rh,m)ng S'ng )- !ecu')r to Eng'n% n% I e')e(e to Lon%on.

>


39/148

Rh,m)ng S'ng %)% not ecome Coc@ne, Rh,m)ng S'ng unt)' 'ong fter mn, of

)t- e+m!'e- h% tr(e''e% *or'%9*)%e. Coc@ne, ccor%)ng to the -tr)ct %ef)n)t)on refer- to

tho-e orn *)th)n the -oun% of Bo* Be''-. Coc@ne, Rh,m)ng S'ng )- u-t -horthn% for

Lon%on or Eng')-h rh,m)ng -'ng. A- nme Coc@ne, Rh,m)ng S'ng )- 2thcentur,.

The term coc@ne, or)g)n'', ment -omeone *ho *- orn *)th)n the -oun% of

the Bo* Be''- of St. /r,9'e9Bo* Church )n Che!-)%e Lon%on u-t %o*n the ro% from

St. Pu'- Cthe%r'. In tho-e %,- '' of the c)t, of Lon%on *ou'% h(e een *)th)n tht

-oun%.

To%, (er, fe* !eo!'e *ou'% e orn *)th)n the -oun% of Bo* Be''-. The re )-

'rge', f)''e% *)th n@- f)nnc)' )n-t)tut)on- n% off)ce-.

Rh,m)ng -'ng '*,- )n(o'(e- t*o *or%- of the !)r or !hr-e *)'' rh,me *)th

the trget *or%. So apples and pears*)'' menstairs linen draper*)'' menpaper-

In con(er-t)on on', the f)r-t *or% of the !hr-e *)'' e u-e%& Im u-t go)ng u!

the !!'e- or There- not -u-ge 'eft.

The men)ng of the !hr-e )- un')@e', to h(e n, re't)on-h)! *)th the men)ng

of the trget *or%9 )t )- the rh,me tht )- )m!ortnt.

At t)me- there cn e connect)on () humour -uch - 6ae !estfor chest/or trick

cyclistforpsychiatrist.

Some rh,m)ng -'ng *or%- re u-e% )n e(er,%, 'nguge *)thout !eo!'e re')-)ng the)r

or)g)n -uch - :se your loaf.

or%- ')@e r-!err, n% Ber@ re '-o u-e% e(er, %, )n !o')te -oc)et, *)thout

mo-t !eo!'e re')-)ng *here the, come from.

Rh,m)ng -'ng -trte% %e(e'o!)ng from roun% the 'te 1>thcentur, n% the er', 1= th

centur,.

There -eem- to e no %ef)n)t)(e re-on - to *h, )t -trte% ut the mo-t !o!u'r

theor)e- re&

1. It *- %e(e'o!e% - goo%9humoure% o@)ng , Coc@ne,- -o tht out-)%er- -uch -

the gng- of Ir)-h n()e- *or@)ng on cn' n% r)'*, con-truct)on cou'% not

un%er-tn% them.

=


40/148

2. It *- -trte% , th)e(e- n% cr)m)n'- to commun)cte )n !u')c *)thout e)ng

un%er-too% , out-)%er-.

3. An o!!re--e% %e(e'o!)ng -ecret 'nguge - %efence me-ure to g)(e them )t

more )nner -trength.

In %ue cour-e rh,m)ng -'ng h- come from other -ource-. From Ire'n% come -uch

*or%- -&Rory $"6ore9 %oor cowhide9 *)%e ).e. *re of


41/148

The too f)e'%- of (ocu'r, ref'ect the too f)e'%- of humn ')fe )n g)(en

-oc)et, t g)(en t)me. Po')t)c' eu!hem)-m *h)ch )ncre-e- !ermnent', )- u-e% to

!re-ent th)ng- )n m)'%er ')ght )n or%er to ecome cce!t'e e.g. the con4uer)ng of

terr)tor, ecome- the absorbing of an area. Author)t)e- re-ort to eu!hem)-m to h)%e the

gr()t, of c)rcum-tnce- - )n hostage situation/ sabotage situation/ border incident/ bad

cop/ attend the hang+fair !u')c e+ecut)on , hng)ng make redundant.

D)fferent !eo!'e- m, h(e %)fferent too f)e'%- ut gener'', -!e@)ng there re

-ome -!here- on *h)ch mo-t !eo!'e- )m!o-e the -me n& re')g)on -*er)ng !rt- n%

funct)on- on the o%, %re-- et)ng !h,-)c' %)-)')t, )''ne-- n% %eth -ome !rofe--)on'

ct)()t)e- n% -oc)' -ttu-.

Th)- enumert)on of the mor f)e'%- )- -)gn)f)cnt of the tt)tu%e to*r%- *or%- n%

of the e+!re--)(e 'o% of too *or%-. The re-on- for reect)on m, e (r)ou-& fer

e-!ec)'', connecte% *)th re')g)ou- term- the regr% for one- fee')ng- e-!ec)'',

connecte% *)th n un!'e-nt or !)nfu' re')t, n% %ecenc, )n the c-e of (u'gr term-.

Among -uch eu!hem)-m- there re affair/ liaison/ gigolo/ toy+boy/ massage parlour.

E+c)tement n% fun on the other hn% re other !eo!'e- re-on- for u-)ng them.

2.:. T#e C*nte)t

/n %oe- not u-e *or%- 'one - ent)t)e- ut )ncor!orte% )n !hr-e- c'u-e- n%

-entence- )n cert)n -tructure- ment to -er(e commun)ct)on. E(en *hen *or% -eem- to

e u-e% 'one )t )- )n fct u-e% )n one9*or% -entence. Th)- one9*or% -entence )- generte%

)n ccor%nce *)th cert)n c)rcum-tnce or -er)e- of e(ent- n% )n mo-t c-e- )n

conte+t of other *or%- *h)ch !rece%e or fo''o* )t *)th *h)ch )t !!er- *hen )t )- t@en

)nto con-)%ert)on.

A- 're%, ment)one% *or% m, e !o',-emnt)c the re't)on -oun%9men)ng

rem)n)ng (')% for ech men)ng. An e+m!'e *- g)(en , the *or% pipe *h)ch m,

h(e -e(er' men)ng-. If *e t@e )nto con-)%ert)on the fct tht mo-t *or%- re

!o',-emnt)c n% ech men)ng )- re(e'e% )n cert)n c)rcum-tnce- )t *)'' e o()ou- tht

31


42/148


43/148

!ord+order con-)%ere% - n e'ement of conte+t contr)ute- to %)fferent)te

homo!hone- e'ong)ng to %)fferent !rt- of -!eech e.g. cellN -m'' room

com!rtment )n 'rger -tructure etc. n% sell0 g)(e )n e+chnge for mone,

dearA% n% dearN fareN n% fairA% heal0 n% hee'N heard0 n%

herdN etc.

Lnguge chnge- !ermnent', through gr%u' chnge- )n the men)ng of *or%-.

/n, -!e@er- ten% to crete ne* -h%e- of men)ng n% th)- !roce-- )- fc)')tte% ,

the conte+t )n *h)ch the *or%- re u-e%. Ne(erthe'e-- the ten%enc, to )m!o-e ne*

men)ng- n% -h%e- )- often -to!!e% , the o'% n% -trong !ttern- e+)-t)ng )n n,

'nguge *h)ch %o not !erm)t them-e'(e- to e re!'ce% e-)', , ne* one-. For

e+m!'e the *or% meatonce ment foo% )n One mn- met )- nother mn-

!o)-on Pro(er no* men)ng f'e-h n)m' u-e% for foo% the term rem)n)ng )n the

-me semantic field. A- re-u't the conte+t cnnot e u!he'% - e)ng -o'ute. It

cnnot he'! the enco%er to !-- e,on% the !o--))')t)e- of (r)t)on of ech *or% tht

)- to -, )t )- -uect to the !o--))')t)e- of (r)t)on *h)ch re chrcter)-t)c of the

nuc'eu- of ech *or%.

Accor%)ng to S.I. 8,@* !. ?3& A %)ct)onr, %ef)n)t)on. )- n )n(r)'e

gu)%e to )nter!rett)on. or%- %o not h(e -)ng'e correct men)ng the, !!', to

grou!- of -)m)'r -)tut)on- *h)ch m)ght e c''e% re- of men)ng. It )- for %ef)n)ng

the-e re- of men)ng tht %)ct)onr, )- u-efu'. In ech u-e of n, *or% *e e+m)ne

the !rt)cu'r conte+t n% the e+ten-)on' e(ent- %enote% )f !o--)'e to %)-co(er the

!o)nt )nten%e% *)th)n the re of men)ng.

Am)gu)t, )n *or%- !',- %)fferent funct)on- )n (r)ou- conte+t-. Am)gu)t, m,

h(e the *or-t re-u't- )n -c)ent)f)c *r)t)ng- or %)-cour-e- - the)r !r)mr, funct)on )-

tht of !rec)-e commun)ct)on. /)-un%er-tn%)ng )n -uch c-e- m@e- commun)ct)on

)m!o--)'e n% ren%er- the )%e men)ng'e--. But )n ')terture )n gener' n% )n n,

form- of !oetr, )n !rt)cu'r the (r)ou- men)ng- of *or% or !hr-e cn c4u)re m,

contr)ute to the gener' !oet)c effect or -ugge-t more com!rehen-)(e )nter!rett)on

of -ttement.

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the, re fre4uent', noth)ng more thn ()gorou- re()t)on- of common !hr-e-..

The, re terror to n, -tu%ent *)th 'og)c' n% or%er', m)n%. /n, of them )n%ee%

re e,on% n, commonG -en-)'e e+!'nt)on *hte(er Other- re -e% on !--ge-

from the B)'e Sh@e-!ere on !ro(er- n% )n fct on n,th)ng *h)ch cn e

em!'o,e% to con(e, one- thought- r)ef', n% effect)(e', etc Freemn 1=37 !!.


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./c/or%)e )nc'u%e- un%er )%)om !ecu')r u-e- of !rt)cu'r *or%- n% '-o

!rt)cu'r !hr-e- or turn- of e+!re--)on *h)ch from 'ong u-ge h(e ecome

-tereot,!e% )n Eng')-h hen *e -, of *omn tht she has a tongue


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S)nce the *or% idiom%oe- e+)-t n% eno,- -o *)%e c)rcu't)on )n Eng')-h )t- t*o

men)ng- idiom )n the -en-e of 'nguge etc. h- no concern here m)ght e

)nter!rete% - fo''o*-&

9 )n ro% -en-e n )%)om )- 'ong9')(e% grou! of *or%- chrcter)-t)c of

'nguge -omet)me- )m!o--)'e to trn-'te % ')tterm )nto nother 'nguge

com!r)-)ng grmmt)c' co''oct)on- n% !hr-e- fu-)on- un)t- n% free

com)nt)on- mo-t of them e)ng -e% on %egr%e% met!hor-

9 )n -tr)ct -en-e n )%)om )- tntmount of !hr-eo'og)c' fu-)on.

An idiom)- *or% or !hr-e *h)ch men- -ometh)ng %)fferent from *ht )t -,-9 )t )-

u-u'', met!hor. I%)om- re common !hr-e- or term- *ho-e men)ng- re not ')ter'

ut re f)gurt)(e n% on', @no*n through the)r common u-e-.

Becu-e )%)om- cn men -ometh)ng %)fferent from *ht the *or%- men. It )- %)ff)cu't

for -omeone not (er, goo% t -!e@)ng the 'nguge to u-e them !ro!er',. Some )%)om- re

on', u-e% , -ome grou!- of !eo!'e or t cert)n t)me-. The )%)om shape up or ship out- )t *- not common for th)-

nocturn' ct)()t, en% u! )n %og fo''o*)ng f'-e -cent n% - re-u't r@)ng

m)-t@en', un%er tree *)th no rccoon h)%)ng )n )t.

7eat around the bush9 /en)ng to e e(-)(e or )n%)rect th)- )- nother hunt)ng

reference *h)ch %te- c@ hun%re%- of ,er- *hen hunt)ng )r%- numer of

!rt)c)!nt- )n hunt)ng !rt, *ou'% -t)r u! the )r%- , ')ter'', et)ng u-he- *h)'e

other- *)te% re%, to c!ture the f'ee)ng )r%-.

#ead as a doornail9 The or)g)n of th)- )%)om %te- c@ to the 13 thcentur,. It *-

u-e% Sh@e-!ere )n 17= )n ;)ng 8enr, 0I. The e+ct re-on eh)n% the u-ge of

%oorn)' )- not 4u)te c'er ut one e+!'nt)on cn e foun% )n cr!entr,. A %oorn)' )-

*)%e9he%e% n)' tht once hmmere% through the !rotru%)ng en% of the n)' *ou'%

norm'', e ent )n to -ecure )t n% !re(ent )t- remo(' hence the n)'- %e%ne--.

ike the #ickens9 /en)ng 'ot or )n 'rge mount- th)- -,)ng h- noth)ng to %o

*)th the *r)ter Chr'e- D)c@en-. A eu!hem)-m for %e()' or %e()')-h D)c@en- *- ')@e',

-hortene% form of the *or% %e()'@)n-.

3=
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n a pickle9 To e )n !)c@'e )- to f)n% one-e'f )n %)ff)cu't !o-)t)on. It -eem- tht )n

1?11 Sh@e-!ere *- the f)r-t to u-e the ctu' !hr-e )n !)c@'e )n The Tem!e-t

'though the reference- to )'' !)c@'e- n% th)- !)c@'e cn e trce% to the 17-.

Eating %umble &ie9 Dur)ng me%)e(' t)me- hum'e !)e or um'e !)e *- n ctu'

%)-h m%e out of entr)'-9 hert ')(er )nte-t)ne- n% the ')@e9 tht *- -er(e% to -er(nt-

n% 'o*er c'--e-. To h(e to et hum'e !)e men- to e -um)--)(e or !o'oget)c

e-!ec)'', *hen %m)tt)ng *rong. S)m)'r to th)- )-Eating crow.

%appy as a clam9 The men)ng of th)- -,)ng )- 4u)te o()ou- ut whyeh)n% )t-

u-ge t@e- ')tt'e %)gg)ng. Th)- Amer)cn -,)ng u-e% to h'f -econ% h'f& h!!, -

c'm t h)gh t)%e . D)gg)ng for c'm- h- to e %one t 'o* t)%e )n or%er to h(e n,

-ucce--. At h)gh t)%e the c'm- -fe n% -oun% un%er the *ter m@)ng for h!!,

c'm.

2 drop in the bucket>/en)ng -m'' )n-)gn)f)cnt !ort)on of the *ho'e th)- )%)om

h- )t- gene-)- )n the B)'e. I-)h 3&17 'ew nternational 0ersion re%- Sure', the

nt)on- re ')@e %ro! )n uc@et the, re regr%e% - %u-t on the -c'e- 8e *e)gh-

the )-'n%- - though the, *ere f)ne %u-t.

7y the skin of your teeth9 Another O'% Te-tment B)')c' reference men)ng to

re', or nrro*', e'u%e -ometh)ng. In 'ment)ng h)- tr)u't)on- 6o 1=&2 ;ing

=ames0ersionG-tte-& /, one c'e(eth to m, -@)n n% to m, f'e-h *)th the -@)n of

m, teeth.

2 load of codswallophttp388clatters-tripod-com8idiom-htmG 'ot of non-en-e ru)-h.

Co%% *- 0)ctor)n u-)ne--mn n% *''o! *- n)neteenth centur, -'ng for eer.

In 1>


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h(e ho'e- )n them through *h)ch -!o@e cou'% e thru-t )n or%er to !re(ent or -'o*

the crt from runn)ng *, %o*nh)''.

2t the end of my tether t the !o)nt of fru-trt)on or t the en% of one- en%urnce.

A tether )- ro!e *h)ch )- u-e% to re-tr)ct the free%om of gr:)ng n)m'- , t,)ng one

en% roun% the)r nec@ n% the other to -t@e )n the groun%.

To hang fire to %e', to e !en%)ng

In %,- gone , *hen the m)n chrge )n n rt)''er, !)ece *- -'o* to f)re )t *-

-)% to e hng)ng f)re. No* the term )- u-e% to %e-cr)e -ometh)ng *h)ch )- he'% u!

or %e',e%.

$n the grapevine go--)! or rumour through n )nform' chnne'.

In the ,er- fter the )n(ent)on of the Te'egr!h there *- m% ru-h to erect

te'egr!h- to - mn, !'ce- - !o--)'e )n the -horte-t t)me. In 1>7= Co'one' Bee !ut

')ne u! et*een P'cu()''e n% 0)rg)n) C)t,. 8e u-e% tree- to crr, the *)re- )n-te% of

te'egr!h !o'e-. The)r mo(ement -tretche% n% tng'e% the *)re- unt)' the, fe'' to the

groun% 'oo@)ng -)m)'r to the *)'% ()ne- foun% )n C')forn). Dur)ng the Amer)cn

C)()' r me--ge- tht *ere rece)(e% () the te'egr!h tht *ere thought to e m)-9

)nformt)on or )nccurte *ere -)% to h(e rr)(e% on the gr!e()ne te'egr!h

moc@)ng reference to Co'one' Bee- (enture.

To kick the bucket to %)e

In -'ughterhou-e- the r)' on *h)ch !)g- re hung fter -'ughter to %r)n off the

'oo% )- @no*n - the uc@et r. /u-c'e- -!-m fter %eth -omet)me- 'e% to the %e%

!)g t*)tch)ng - )f to @)c@ the uc@et r hence the e+!re--)on.

Accor%)ng to $xford #ictionary of dioms Second Edition 23 !. 17=the uc@et

)n th)- !hr-e m, e !)' on *h)ch !er-on comm)tt)ng -u)c)%e m)ght -tn% @)c@)ng

)t *, efore the, hnge% them-e'(e-. Another -ugge-t)on )- tht )t refer- to em on

*h)ch -ometh)ng cn e hung u! )n Norfo'@ %)'ect the em from *h)ch -'ughtere%

!)g *- -u-!en%e% , )t- hee'- cou'% e referre% to - uc@et.

Though the ')-t of commonly used sayings)- more numerou- thn the %, )- 'ong

th)- r)ef ')-t g)(e- ')tt'e )n-)ght - to ho* the-e -,)ng- egn n% e+ct', *ht )t )- thn

the, men9 e(en )f not much ')ght )- -he% on *h, the, cont)nue to e )n -uch gret u-e.

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3.3.T#e Im!*rtan"e * I'*m,

T@)ng )nto con-)%ert)on tht )%)om- re !ttern- of )nform' 'nguge mo-t of

the non9nt)(e -!e@er- m)ght f)n% the c4u)r)ng of )%)omt)c e+!re--)on 4u)te *@*r%

n% not t hn%. I%)om- re to e 'erne% n% c4u)re% m)n', through 'ot- of

!rct)c)ng. Stu%ent- -trt to get fm)')r):e% *)th the (ocu'r, of the Eng')-h

'nguge t n er', ge )n(o'()ng the cogn)t)(e -tructure of m)n% through ()-u' n%

u%)t)(e techn)4ue- then the, %e(e'o! the)r @no*'e%ge through !ro%uct)(e metho%-

-uch - -!e@)ng n% *r)t)ng.

The -!o@en Eng')-h !!e'- mo-t', to -!e@)ng -@)''- *h)ch )n(o'(e- @no*)ng

*or%- n% the)r men)ng-. #rmmt)c' -tructure- re un%er-too% *)th the he'! of

form' 'ern)ng )n -choo' *h)'e the c4u)-)t)on of e+!re--)on- -uch - -'ng

co''oct)on- f)+e% !hr-e- !ro(er- n% )%)om- re mo-t of the t)me t@en from the

')()ng 'nguge the -treet 'nguge tht )- the non9form'G)nform' 'ern)ng.

$oung !eo!'e re more e+!o-e% to -uch -)tut)on- - the, cn get )nto contct

*)th %)fferent !eo!'e e'ong)ng to %)fferent c@groun%- or -oc)' -ttu-. The, cn fce

-er)e- of -)tut)on- *hen the, h(e to u-e (r)et, of (ocu'r,. The, -!e@ )n

cert)n *, to the)r techer- )n %)fferent *, to the)r fm)', n% fr more %)fferent',

to the)r !eer-.

Let- t@e 'nguge -tu%ent tten%)ng %)', c'--e-. The, -tu%, the grmmr the

form')t)e- the -ut'e %)fference- et*een 'oo@ t n% *tch. The, !ro%uce 'o(e',

coherent -entence- n% con(er-t)on-. T@e th)- -tu%ent out of the c'--room n% *,

from the te+too@- though n% the, *)'' encounter *or'% of 'nguge tht re@-

tho-e ru'e-. In %(ert)-)ng on')ne n% )n con(er-t)on 'nguge ecome- fr 'e--

-tructure%. T@)ng the t)me to un%er-tn% -'ng n% )nform' -!eech m)ght -(e

-omeone *ho'e 'ot of confu-)on.

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3.4. Feature, * I'*m,

I%)om- re chrcter):e% ,&

B- exical complexity

B, 'e+)c' com!'e+)t, of n )%)om )- un%er-too% tht the men)ng of n )%)om )-

not %er)('e from the men)ng- of )t- )n%)()%u' !rt- n% tht the con-t)tuent- of the

)%)om c4u)re ne* men)ng - *ho'e.

For e+m!'e the men)ng of e% of n)'- %oe- not h(e n,th)ng to ne)ther *)th

e%- nor *)th n)'- )t )- n )%)om referr)ng to !ro'emt)c or uncomfort'e -)tut)on.

H- nvariability8 .ixed form

Th)- men- tht the numer of !r%)gmt)c (r)nt- )f there re n, of n )%)om

re ')m)te%. The chrcter)-t)c of f)+e% form g)(e- the )m!re--)on tht the )%)om- re not

f'e+)'e ut th)- )- true on', to cert)n e+tent. Some )%)om- %o h(e (r)nt-&

grammatical variants

9 m@e the e%Gm@e u! the e%

9 et the u-he-Get roun% the u-he-

lexical variants

9 h)t the ce)')ngGh)t the roof

9 @ee! ,ou on the e%ge of ,our -etG@ee! ,ou on the e%ge of ,our ch)r

syntagmatic variants

9 !ut ,our hou-e )n or%erG!ut ,our o*n hou-e )n or%er

geographical variants

9 -@e'eton )n the c'o-et Amer)cn Eng')-h G -@e'eton )n the cu!or% Br)t)-h

Eng')-h

..igurativeness8 6etaphorical meaning

Not '' )%)om- re e4u'', f)gurt)(e. The, cn '-o e ctegor):e% )n %)-t)nct)(e

grou!-&

9 -o'ute', non9mot)(te% )%)om-$

fencehanger one *ho h- not m%e %ec)-)on

9 !rt)'', mot)(te% )%)om-&

a fly on the wall n un-een o-er(er or ')-tener

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Accor%)ng to Ne*mr@ 1=>1 !. the (er, -)gn- of trn-'t)on cn e trce% c@

- fr - B.C. A !o!u'r ()e* )- tht trn-'t)on )- 'mo-t - o'% - 'nguge )t-e'f

*here there h- een 'nguge there h- '*,- een '-o trn-'t)on. De-!)te the fct tht

trn-'t)on h- ecome )ncre-)ng', )m!ortnt )n recent %ec%e- trn-'t)on -t)'' cont)nue-

to e -ome*ht un%er('ue%. The common m)-conce!t)on -eem- to e tht n,one *ho

m-ter- nother 'nguge )n %%)t)on to the)r nt)(e one )- '-o c!'e of !ro%uc)ng

-mooth trn-'t)on- et*een the-e 'nguge- 4u)te e-)', n% *)thout n, con-)%er'e

effort. A- B--nett n% Lefe(ere 1==> !. 2 !ut )t !eo!'e often --ume tht te+t- on', nee%

to e trn-ferre% mechn)c'', )nto nother 'nguge *)th the he'! of %)ct)onr)e-. An%

-)nce e(er,one cn 'oo@ u! *or%- from %)ct)onr, trn-'tor- *or@ )- often not much

('ue% or !!rec)te%. 8o*e(er *e on', nee% to t@e 'oo@ t -ome ()e*- on the go'- of

trn-'t)on to un%er-tn% tht the !roce-- of trn-'t)on )- not -)m!'e n% -tr)ghtfor*r%

mtter - one m)ght --ume.

Trn-'t)on )- u-u'', %ef)ne% - !roce-- of -u-t)tut)ng -ource 'nguge te+t ,

trget 'nguge te+t *here the )m )- to !re-er(e the men)ng n% content of the or)g)n'

te+t - ccurte', - !o--)'e. Th)- )- o()ou-', n )mmen-e', -)m!')f)e% %ef)n)t)on of

!roce-- *h)ch m)ght -eem re't)(e', -)m!'e on the out-)%e ut )- ctu'', much more

com!')cte% !roce-- )n re')t,.

Throughout the h)-tor, of trn-'t)on theor, there h- een con-tnt %ete out ho*

f)thfu' the trn-'t)on mu-t e to the or)g)n' te+t n% ho* much free%om the trn-'tor-

ctu'', h(e )n the)r *or@. Er')er the em!h-)- *- on trn-'t)ng te+t- - ')ter'', -

!o--)'e , crefu'', -u-t)tut)ng ech -ource 'nguge *or% , trget 'nguge *or%

*h)ch h- the -me men)ng. No*%,- the !ur!o-e of trn-'t)on )- no 'onger to mere',

mtch *or%- of one 'nguge , tho-e of nother ut the -tre-- )- no* rther ')% on the

funct)on of the te+t B--nett n% Lefe(ere 1==> !.. Free trn-'t)on )- thu- no*%,-

!referre% to ')ter' trn-'t)on. Free trn-'t)on )m- t con(e,)ng the )nformt)on' content

of the me--ge n% !re-er()ng the -t,'e of the or)g)n' ut )t '-o t@e- e4u' not)ce of the

trget 'nguge- e+)genc)e-.

No*%,- )t )- '-o common cce!te% )n trn-'t)on theor, tht )n or%er to !re-er(e

the men)ng of the me--ge the form mu-t 'mo-t e 'tere% to -ome e+tent. For )n-tnce

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N)% n% Ter 1=?= !. 17 -tte tht *hen me--ge )n one 'nguge )- trn-ferre% to

nother 'nguge )t )- the content *h)ch t@e- !r)or)t, o(er the form n% mu-t therefore e

ret)ne% t '' co-t-. In other *or%- the men)ng mu-t e !re-er(e% t the e+!en-e of the

form. Trn-'t)on -hou'% therefore '*,- )m t con(e,)ng the men)ng of the or)g)n'

me--ge - crefu'', - !o--)'e e(en )f )t men- trn-formt)on- )n the form or chnge- )n

the -,ntct)c -tructure. Of cour-e )%e'', the or)g)n' -entence -tructure -hou'% e

!re-er(e% ut %ue to %)fference- et*een t*o 'nguge- th)- )- often -)m!', not !o--)'e.

Translating idioms

In '' 'nguge- there re gret numer of )%)om- H un)4ue 'nguge f)+e%

e+!re--)on- *ho-e men)ng cnnot e %e%ucte% from the )n%)()%u' *or%- of the !hr-e.

S)nce ech 'nguge h- )t- o*n *, of e+!re--)ng cert)n th)ng- )%)omt)c e+!re--)on- re

'*,- 'nguge9n% cu'ture9-!ec)f)c. An e+!re--)on )n one 'nguge m, not e+)-t )n -ome

other 'nguge or the 'nguge m, h(e (er, %)fferent e+!re--)on to con(e, the -me

men)ng. Th)- )- *h, the trn-'t)on of )%)om- m, -omet)me- e rther !ro'emt)c.

Due to the 'nguge9-!ec)f)c nture of )%)om- the)r trn-'t)on cn e -ome*ht

ch''eng)ng t t)me-. I%)om- mu-t e recogn):e% un%er-too% n% n',:e% efore

!!ro!r)te trn-'t)on metho%- cn e con-)%ere%. One mu-t f)r-t of '' e 'e to -!ot

)%)om- from te+t9 )t )- -o'ute', cruc)' tht trn-'tor recogn):e- n )%)om *hen -Ghe

-ee- one. The )')t, to )%ent)f, )%)om- )- of enormou- )m!ortnce -)nce the)r men)ng

-hou'% ne(er e un%er-too% ')ter'',. The trn-'tor mu-t f)r-t n',:e *ht the *r)ter h-

)nten%e% to -, efore -Ghe cn e(en th)n@ of trn-'t)ng the e+!re--)on. Accor%)ng to

Lr-on 1=>3 !. 13 the f)r-t cruc)' -te! )n the trn-'t)on of )%)om- )- to e -o'ute',

cert)n of the men)ng of the -ource 'nguge )%)om.

Therefore the mo-t )m!ortnt )--ue )n trn-'t)ng )%)om- )- the )')t, to %)-t)ngu)-h the

%)fference et*een the ')ter' men)ng n% the re' men)ng of the e+!re--)on Ingo 1==

!. 23>. Th)- )- *h, recogn):)ng n% e)ng 'e to u-e )%)om- !!ro!r)te', re4u)re-

e+ce''ent commn% o(er the -ource 'nguge.

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It )- thu- on', fter )%ent)f,)ng the non9')ter' men)ng of the )%)om tht trn-'tor

cn e(en th)n@ of trn-'t)ng the e+!re--)on )nto the trget 'nguge. In %%)t)on to e)ng

'e to recogn):e )%)om- )n -ource te+t the trn-'tor mu-t '-o e 'e to u-e )%)om-

f'uent', n% com!'ete', )n the trget 'nguge Lr-on 1=>3 !. 11?. Not on', %oe-

trn-'tor nee% to m-ter the -ource 'nguge ut -Ghe mu-t '-o e 'e to e+!re--

h)mGher-e'f )n the trget 'nguge f'uent', n% -mooth',. Lr-on ))%. -tre--e- the

)m!ortnce of the )')t, to u-e trget 'nguge )%)om- ntur'', ecu-e tht en-ure- tht

the trn-'tor cn !ro%uce -mooth n% ')(e', trget 'nguge te+t - *e'' - !re-er(e the

-t,')-t)c feture- of the -ource te+t.

In gener' trn-'t)on theor)-t- recogn):e three %)fferent trn-'t)on -trteg)e- for

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Teaching Idioms Through Role-play 3

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