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2016

kōrero nehe

history

hs2000cacourse and assessment guide

ncea level 2

© te aho o te kura pounamu

Cover image Poster: Dawn Of The Century, © UPPA/Photoshot, Ref: B196_095067_4819.

Copyright © 2012 Board of Trustees of Te Aho o Te Kura Pounamu, Private Bag 39992, Wellington Mail Centre, Lower Hutt 5045,

New Zealand. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means without

the written permission of Te Aho o Te Kura Pounamu.

history (hs2000)teacher contact detailsWhen you first make contact with your teacher, please fill out their details below, for future reference.

name:

telephone: 0800 65 99 88 ext:

alternative telephone number:

email address:

Private Bag 39992, Wellington Mail Centre, Lower Hutt 5045

Please keep your (HS2000) Course and assessment guide in a safe place so that you can use it to plan your study and to record your assessment results.

For further information about courses at this level, please refer to Student Guide to Years 11–13 and the Student Guide to National Certificates, both available on the school website (www.tekura.school.nz).

1HS2000CA© te aho o te kura pounamu

1 Welcome to HS2000

2 Getting started information

3 HS2000 course outline

4 Assessment summary

5 Additional course materials

6 Assessment information

7 History year planner

8 My History assessment record (HS2000)

9 History reference dictionary

contents

2 HS2000CA © te aho o te kura pounamu

1 welcome to hs2000

Welcome to the Level 2 History (HS2000) course offered by Te Aho o Te Kura Pounamu.

overview of hs2000This course follows the NCEA Level 2 History curriculum guide. It gives you the opportunity to gain up to six Level 2 achievement standards (28 credits) towards your National Certificate of Educational Achievement (NCEA). Three of these achievement standards are internally assessed. The rest are gained by sitting an external examination at the end of the year.

in this course you will develop: • a knowledge of forces which have shaped the modern world such as nationalism,

international relations, economic development, suffrage and imperialism.

• an understanding of key concepts such as the nature of cause and effect or the existence of continuity and change in past societies

• information gathering skills: defining, selecting, recording

• information processing skills: classifying, weighing evidence, recognising different viewpoints, establishing relationships, forming judgements, making generalisations, arguing a case.

• presentation skills: setting out material accurately and logically; using a variety of forms such as essays, role plays, posters, CDs.

• an understanding of past events that are of significance to New Zealanders.

After completing HS2001, you may study the History topics (such as Origins of World War I, or Vietnam and the conflict in Indochina) in any order. Let your teacher know if you want to change the sequence. It is not necessary to complete every History topic. Most students try to complete two but your teacher will advise you on how many you should do. See also the information in the ‘History Year Planner’ section, later in this guide.

achievement standard assessment activitiesYou will have the opportunity to gain credits for the three internally assessed achievement standards. You will also be able to do practice activities to prepare you for three externally assessed achievement standards.

You have the choice whether to do all, some or none of these achievement standard assessments. Consult your teacher about which ones you should do.

forms of assessment • Three achievement standards (2.1, 2.2 and 2.4) which you may gain this year are internally

assessed. This means that:

– your teacher will mark these assessments

– grades awarded for 2.1, 2.2 and 2.4 will be sent to the New Zealand Qualifications Authority.

• Three achievement standards (2.3, 2.5 and 2.6) are gained by external assessment, by sitting a national examination at the end of the year.


welcome to hs2000

• To help develop your skills, your teacher will also mark 2–3 other short activities in most of the booklets you complete.

hs2000 course structureAfter HS2001 (giving an introduction to the course) content and skills relating to the external standards (2.3, 2.5 and 2.6) are taught in these booklets and cover these History topics:

HS2002–2004 The origins of World War I

HS2006–2008 Women, Family and Work in New Zealand 1880–1960

HS2013–2015 Vietnam and the Conflict in Indochina 1945–1975

There is also a final revision booklet (HS2016).

This year, you don’t have to study all three of the History topics listed above. However, we recommend that you try to study two.

Once related topic work has been done, you can gain these internally assessed standards (2.1 and 2.2) by doing research on your choice of one of these:

either: HS2005 ‘The war is over’ – the end of World War I

or: HS2009 An aspect of life on the home front in New Zealand during World War II.

Once you’re underway, more information on this choice will be sent to you by your History teacher.

A further internally-assessed standard (2.4) can be gained by completing a formal assessment in HS2003 or HS2007 or HS2015.

resultsTo gain an achievement standard, your work must meet the achievement criteria for that standard. Answers will be awarded one of four possible grades: Achievement (A), Achievement with Merit (M), Achievement with Excellence (E) or Not achieved (N).

endorsementThis course can be endorsed with Merit or Excellence if in a single year you gain 14 or more credits at Merit and/or Excellence within Level 2 History. At least three of these credits must be from externally assessed standards and three from internally assessed standards.


getting started information2

how this course is delivered HS2000 is a print-based course, with course material and supplementary material accessed from the online teaching and learning environment (OTLE). Dual enrolled students are expected to access material from OTLE. Other enrolled students may request printed materials to be posted, accepting there will be a delay between enrolment and receiving the first posting.

You will receive an email explaining how to log in to OTLE. This email includes a link to set your password if you have not logged into the OTLE before.

You can access OTLE by clicking on www.tekura.school.nz/login. It is recommended that you bookmark this site in your browser. This will take you to a page with links to your courses.

Your username and initial password is your Te Kura student ID number. You will be asked to set a new password when you first log in. After that, if you need to reset your password you can click on the ‘Forgot password’ link on the OTLE login page. If you have difficulties logging in, please email: [email protected]

organising your studyPlan a regular time to study. Some people learn best from frequent short sessions while others do better with fewer, longer sessions. It is important to have a plan or a timetable and to keep to it.

There is a suggested planner in the back of this guide for you to plan your programme of study. You may wish to consult with your subject teacher to help you decide on your plan.

Getting your study underway is very important. Your first return of work should be two to three weeks after you first received your initial work. If you have any issues returning your work within this time please contact your subject teacher.

For more information on how to study successfully, refer to the Student Guide to Years 11–13 (www.tekura.school.nz).

te kura codesYour course code is: HS2000. HS is the code for History and 2 refers to Level 2.

‘HS2003’ refers to a booklet that covers a particular learning topic in the HS2000 course. ‘HS2003Y1’ refers to the first assessment for an Achievement Standard (AS91232) for HS2003. ‘AS’ is the code for Achievement Standard.

resources you need to get goingThe initial dispatch of booklets sent to students enrolling in HS2000 is usually HS2001–HS2002, the first two booklets in the course. Unless told otherwise, start by doing HS2001. Most History booklets consist of ten lessons. Each lesson will take you about an hour to complete. Therefore, if you do a lesson per day, after two weeks you will have finished all of the work for that booklet.To do the work in the course you need to have pens, a ruler and A4 pad paper. Computer access to the internet would also be helpful for history research that you do later in the course.


getting started information

choosing topics and standardsNZQA advises that a one-year course should lead to 18–20 credits. You may only wish to do some topics. For example, you may only want to do internal standards in this course. You should look carefully at the course outline and make your choices. It is important to consider how well this will meet your learning goals (such as gaining enough credits to achieve your NCEA Level 2, or meeting the entry requirements for your tertiary course or any future study). You should discuss this with your learning advisor and teacher.

completing your history workWhen studying History at Te Kura, try to do these things:

• Answer all activities in each booklet that you study. Aim to complete one lesson of work per day.

• Write your answers on A4 lined pad paper i.e. on loose pages. It’s best not to write answers in an exercise book or on the printed booklet itself (unless you’re actually asked to do this).

• Once all work is done, cut off the back cover from the booklet you have been working on. Staple it (at top left) to the front of your written answers and write your name and ID number on the top panel.

• At the end of each lesson, mark your practice work (✓/✗) from the Answer guide. Add any corrections/amendments in a different colour.

• Once all work is done and the cover sheet is filled in, signed and attached, your work is ready to send in to the school.

Note: Keep the printed booklet. Don’t send this in as you need to be able to refer to it later.

self-markingMany activities are self-marked. You’ll find an Answer guide in each resource. Use these answers to mark your own work and make corrections where necessary. Self-marking is very important as it gives you instant feedback on how well you understand the ideas, concepts or information that have been covered.

assessmentStudents are required to send in their self-marked and teacher-assessed work. Teachers return student work with feedback and advice in preparation for NCEA internal and external assessments.

internal assessmentsAll internally assessed work in this course is ‘open book’. Therefore, you may consult books or other materials when answering an internally assessed activity in this subject. However, the answers that you write must be your own. You will have the opportunity to gain these internally assessed standards:

• History 2.1 and 2.2. For History 2.1, you will do a piece of historical research (you ‘carry out an inquiry’). Then you examine the significance of the event you have researched, for History 2.2. A ‘choices’ sheet may be sent to you once you’re under way with your studies so you can choose whether to do the research in booklet:

– HS2005, on the end of World War I, or

– HS2009, on an aspect of life on the home front in New Zealand during World War II.



• History 2.4. For this standard, you must demonstrate your understanding of different views or perspectives that people at the time had about an event. You can gain this standard by completing one of these assessments: HS2003Y1, HS2007Y1 or HS2015Y1. Once the standard has been awarded, you do not need to answer any of the later assessments. However, if you wish, you have the right to answer one further assessment, making a maximum of two of these assessment activities that you may attempt in any school year. In this situation, the highest grade awarded will be the final grade that you receive.

the te kura practice examinationExternally assessed achievement standards in this course are gained by sitting an external examination at the end of the year. Te Kura holds a practice examination for New Zealand students early in September. This practice examination is closed book and must be sat under strict examination conditions. No books or other materials can be consulted when you sit this practice examination.

further information on assessmentThe detailed criteria for achievement standards will be given in the relevant booklets. They can also be found by searching the subject and level in the NCEA part of the NZQA website (www.nzqa.govt.nz) and then finding the relevant standard(s).

External assessment preparation includes:

• practice external assessments in particular booklets

• the Te Kura practice examination.

time commitmentThere are 13 booklets in this course. Each booklet indicates how many study hours it is likely to require. Most booklets will take about 12 hours to complete at the normal pace, representing about two weeks of work at six hours per week. However, the internally-assessed research that you do in HS2005 or HS2009 will take longer than this. Plan to spend 24 hours (four weeks) on this work. It is done in three stages and the work for each stage has to be sent to your teacher. You will also need to allow for the time it will take to send each stage to your teacher and to receive it back again.

Before deciding on your pace of learning, read through this Course and assessment guide and ask yourself the following:

• How much time can I set aside for study each week?

• Will I be attempting both externally and internally assessed standards?

• Will I be able to keep a steady pace of six hours of study each week?

• Do I intend to sit the external examination at the end of the year?

• Do I need specific external or internal credits for next year’s study or work?



normal pace of learningAs a guide, expect to do at least six hours work per week. This means completing three to four booklets each term so that you complete the course before the external examinations at the end of the school year.

flexible pace of learningIf you have less than a year because you start later or need to finish earlier, you can decide the pace at which you work. You could still complete the whole course by devoting more time and effort to it. Your teacher can ensure that you receive the resources you need in time to do this.

cover sheetsDetach the back cover of the booklet; this becomes the cover sheet for your work. Fill it in, sign it and attach to the front of your work before sending back to Te Kura. If applicable, your supervisor also signs this sheet as part of our authenticity requirements.

All students are encouraged to submit as much as possible of their work online via the OTLE Dropbox. When work requires authentication, students will follow the instructions provided in OTLE.

queries about your workIt is important to contact your teacher if you have any queries about your work. It helps to have your ID number, booklet code (for example, HS2001) and the activity or question number when you contact your teacher, but it is not essential.

other informationA ‘research choice sheet’ may be sent to you, once your studies are underway.Your History teacher will write to you with each piece of marked work.Feel free to contact your History teacher if you have any questions or concerns.


hs2000 course outline

Course item/booklet

Title Learning outcomes

Standard Further assessment opportunity

HS2001 Forces that shaped the modern world (Introduction to the course)

HS2002 The great powers of Europe (Origins of World War I pt 1)

HS2003 Tensions mount (Origins of World War I pt 2)

Interpret perspectives in an historical event

Internally assessed activity for History 2.4

Yes, in HS2007, or HS2015*

HS2004 Conflict erupts (Origins of World War I pt 3)

Practice activity for History 2.5


HS2005 History research (‘The war is over’ – the end of World War I)

Carry out an inquiry of an historical event


Yes, in HS2009

Examine significance of an historical event


HS2006 At home (Women, Family and Work in New Zealand 1880–1960 pt 1)

HS2007 Out of the house (Women, Family and Work in New Zealand 1880–1960 pt 2)




HS2008 In the community (Women, Family and Work in New Zealand 1880–1960 pt 3)



3


hs2000 course outline

HS2009 History research (An aspect of life on the home front in New Zealand during World War II)

Carry out an inquiry of an historical event


Yes, in HS2005

Examine significance of an historical event


HS2013 Nationalists v imperialists (Vietnam and the Conflict in Indochina 1945–1975 pt 1)

HS2014 Divided Vietnam (Vietnam and the Conflict in Indochina 1945–1975 pt 2)


HS2015 The end of the American War (Vietnam and the Conflict in Indochina 1945–1975 pt 3)





HS2016 Revision Practice activity for History 2.3

*Note: A maximum of two assessment activities for the same internally-assessed standard may be attempted in a given school year.


assessment summary

credits offered: 28 ncea level 2 subject (hs2000)

Standard number

Standard title Study material (code)

AS91229History 2.1

Internal4 credits

Carry out an inquiry of an historical event or place that is of significance to New Zealanders

HS2005 or HS2009

AS91230History 2.2

Internal5 credits

Examine an historical event or place that is of significance to New Zealanders

HS2005 or HS2009

AS91231History 2.3

External4 credits

Examine sources of an historical event that is of significance to New Zealanders

HS2016

AS91232History 2.4

Internal5 credits

Interpret different perspectives of people in an historical event that is of significance to New Zealanders

HS2003, or HS2007 or HS2015*

AS91233History 2.5

External5 credits

Examine causes and consequences of a significant historical event

HS2004, HS2008, and HS2014

AS91234History 2.6

External5 credits

Examine how a significant historical event affected New Zealand society

HS2004, HS2008, and HS2015

*A maximum of two assessment activities for the same internally-assessed standard may be attempted in a given school year.

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additional course materials

additional course materials/resources

Item Description

HS2000CA – History reference dictionary

There is a History reference dictionary at the back of this Course and assessment guide and a Glossary of key terms can be found in each booklet. When bold text is used for new terms in booklets you are studying, check the glossary in that booklet or refer to the History reference dictionary for a definition of that term. Highlight the definitions as you read them if this helps you to remember.

Audio CD information on these CD-ROMs: HS2006D, HS2007D, HS2008D and HS2014D

These CDs contain audio teaching information that you will use with these printed booklets:HS2006–2008 (Women, Family and Work in New Zealand 1880–1960)HS2014 (Vietnam and the Conflict in Indochina 1945–1975)

online resouces

assessment tasks

the self-check activitiesAs you work through the course you will find that some activities have answers at the back of the booklet. You should mark this work yourself, at the end of each day. Use another colour when you do this. Tick/cross your answers and jot in extra ideas that you may have missed. You will find that checking your own work in this way will help you with your learning.

teacher-marked assessmentsYour teacher will mark the teacher-marked activities that occur within each booklet as well as any formal achievement standard assessments that you complete. With the teacher-marked activities, feedback and feed-forward comments will be added to assist you with your studies. A grade will be awarded with marked formal assessments.

5

Resource Description Website

Te Kura website information, OTLE

Revision materials and activities

www.tekura.school.nz

New Zealand History online

A very useful site for History students

www.nzhistory.net.nz

Te Kete Ipurangi website

Exemplars of internal and external assessments, with examples of answers.

www.tki.org.nz/e/community/ncea/history-lvl2.php

NZQA website Information about the standards, conditions of assessment, past exams and assessment schedules

www.nzqa.govt.nz/qualifications-standards/qualifications/ncea/subjects/history/levels/

http://www.tekura.school.nz

http://www.nzhistory.net.nz

http://www.tki.org.nz/e/community/ncea/history-lvl2.php

http://www.tki.org.nz/e/community/ncea/history-lvl2.php

http://www.nzqa.govt.nz/qualifications-standards/qualifications/ncea/subjects/history/levels/




assessment information

standardsThe National Qualifications Framework has two types of national standards: Achievement and Unit Standards. Credits from both Achievement Standards and Unit Standards count towards NCEA.

Please refer to our Student Guide to National Certificates or Te Kura (www.tekura.school.nz) and NZQA websites (www.nzqa.govt.nz) for more information about National Certificates of Educational Achievement, and assessment.

internal assessmentSome Achievement Standards in the HS2000 course are internally-assessed. This means that your teacher sets and marks all assessments that count towards credits gained for these standards.

external assessmentExternal assessment means that an external examiner marks your assessment work. This may be through NZQA examinations at the end of the year or (for subjects such as Graphics, Technology and Art) by submitting a portfolio or project. You will be able to complete practice assessments and Te Kura examinations for external standards in this subject.

te kura practice examinationsStudents should complete the Te Kura practice examinations for any external standards with an end of year examination they have entered. It is important that students complete all practice external assessments and examinations. If for some reason, such as illness, you are unable to sit the examinations at the end of the year you will only be eligible for consideration for a derived grade (compassionate consideration) if you have completed the practice examinations.

resubmissionsIf you have made mistakes in your assessment, your teacher may offer you one resubmission opportunity. This means you have made errors that you are capable of discovering and correcting by yourself. A resubmission allows you to improve your result.

further assessment opportunities for internal assessmentsFor some standards, you will be able to complete a second assessment called a ‘further assessment opportunity’ to improve your results. These standards are indicated in the course outline. You should take this opportunity where it is available.

authenticity Authenticity means students complete and submit work that is their own. When you submit work to Te Kura, you sign an authentication declaration that the work you are submitting is your own work and was done under the required assessment conditions. Your supervisor signs this declaration to confirm this (where applicable).

When submitting work online via the OTLE Dropbox, if it requires authentication, students must follow the instructions provided in OTLE.

6


assessment information

derived grades (compassionate consideration)If for any unexpected reason you are not able to sit your end of year examination or to submit final work towards an external standard (portfolios or projects), you may be eligible for a derived grade. Please refer to the Student Guide to National Certificates and contact your learning advisor as soon as possible to find out more should you feel this is necessary.

appealsYou have the right to query an assessment result if you want further clarification or disagree with the result. If you are still not satisfied, you may appeal. Refer to the Student Guide to National Certificates for more information. You can also appeal any other decisions, procedures or policies about assessments. Contact your teacher or learning advisor if you wish to appeal. More information and a form that students can use to appeal is available on the Te Kura website in the Student toolkit area (www.tekura.school.nz and go to Student toolkit).


history year planner7

Here is a History Year Planner. It gives an idea of how long it will take you to complete work on parts of the HS2000 course. The comments assume that you are enrolled for the full school year, from February at the start of term 1, until the NCEA examination in November and that you will study the Origins of World War I topic HS2002–2004, after you complete HS2001, and then carry on to do the research in booklet HS2005. However, other combinations are possible. If you enrol later in the year, please feel free to contact your History teacher, who will work out an adjusted programme for you to follow.

Term Suggested Plan Time

1 Read HS2000CA Course and assessment guide. Then follow the instructions and work on HS2001. Contact your teacher if you have any questions or can’t work out what to do. Aim to do a lesson per day. Check your answers at the end of each day’s work for activities where answers are provided.

2–3 weeks

Study HS2002. Return the ‘choice sheet’ to your teacher if one has been sent to you.

2–3 weeks

Study HS2003. When doing this booklet, revise relevant lesson material before answering:HS2003Y1. Do this AS2.4 assessment now unless you’ve decided to do it with a later topic. Our recommendation is to do the assessment and gain the five internally assessed credits.

2–3 weeks

2 Study HS2004, the final booklet on the Origins of World War I topic.In lesson 9 you have the choice of writing one of two practice essays. Essay writing is an important skill to develop, so we suggest that you allow a little extra time to prepare for this activity. For example: you could revise and write relevant notes before going on to plan what you’ll write in the essay. Writing the essay itself would therefore follow after that.Get advice from your teacher if you need it.

2–3 weeks

2 Begin your History research in HS2005 on the end of World War I (‘The war is over!’). You do this work in three stages:

For History 2.1Tasks 1–2: Identify aspect(s) of the end of the war that you’re interested in researching, develop focusing questions, write a research plan and list possible sources. We recommend that you ring (or email) your History teacher to get initial comments on your focusing questions before you send them in to be assessed. This is an approach that will save time, as your focusing questions have to be approved by your teacher before you can proceed further with your research.

Tasks 3–5 Selecting, recording, annotating and evaluating your items of evidence. We give less advice here, but this is the biggest part of the work!

For History 2.2Tasks 1–2: Here you examine and explain your History research by presenting the material you have researched as a newspaper front page.

4 (or more) weeks


history year planner

2 At the end of each stage you must wait for your assessed work to be returned by your teacher before proceeding any further. While waiting for work to be returned, begin work on your second History topic.

3 Study the first booklet of work on your second History topic (either HS2006 or HS2013). Ideally, you will have begun work on this last term and indeed, may even have finished the first booklet.

In terms of your choice of topic: your teacher may have suggested which topic to study as your second History topic, or the booklets sent may be the choice you made in your choice sheet in term 1 (which you would have sent to your teacher with your work for HS2002).

Feel free to contact your teacher if you have any questions or if you would like to study a topic other than the booklets you have been sent.

2–3 weeks

Work on booklets two and three of your second History topic. 4–6 weeks

Sit the Te Kura school practice examination (early September). For this examination, revise all work linked to the externally assessed standards that you have completed. Make a revision timetable. The Te Kura examination will show you the format of external standards that you sit in November.

1–2 weeks

4 Study HS2016. 2 weeks

Use HS2016 to revise and make notes on your topics. Contact your teacher if you need advice about what to focus on.

Make a study timetable and begin final revision.

Sit the external examination (November).


my history assessment record (hs2000)8

Standard number

Standard title Exam/Assessment due date

Grade awarded

Credits achieved

AS91229History 2.1

Internal4 credits

Carry out an inquiry of an historical event or place that is of significance to New Zealanders

Term 2

AS91230History 2.2

Internal5 credits

Examine an historical event or place that is of significance to New Zealanders

Term2/early Term 3

AS91231History 2.3

External4 credits

Examine sources of an historical event that is of significance to New Zealanders

November exam*

AS91232History 2.4

Internal5 credits

Interpret different perspectives of people in an historical event that is of significance to New Zealanders

End of Term 1

AS91233History 2.5

External5 credits

Examine causes and consequences of a significant historical event

November exam*

AS91234History 2.6

External5 credits

Examine how a significant historical event affected New Zealand society

November exam*

*NZQA examination results available in January.


Terms are listed alphabetically. In later booklets they appear in bold the first time they are used. Cross-references to other words in the dictionary are given in italics.

absolute, absolutism

Complete, total; as in having and using power.Absolutism is the belief in taking and using absolute power.

Agent Orange A herbicide and defoliant used by the US military during the Vietnam War. It was an effective way of removing forest cover which would deprive Viet Cong guerrillas of cover. Its use often also forced the local population to flee to the US dominated cities, and would therefore separate the guerrillas from their rural support and food supply.

agent provocateur French phrase for an agent sent to cause trouble. For example, to persuade a hidden group to carry out illegal activities and reveal themselves, so they can be caught in the process.

aggression Violent action taken against other people, sometimes without enough cause to justify that action.

agitation Action taken to unsettle people’s beliefs, usually to prepare them for conversion to another set of beliefs.

alliance The joining together of two or more people or groups of people (such as nations) to achieve a common, often military purpose.

ally Member of an alliance.

anarchist A person who believes that governments are evil and that society would be better off without them.

Ancien Regime French phrase for the Old Order in politics.

annex To formally take over the ruling, or sovereignty, of a country or territory.

anthropology Formal study of mankind. Social anthropology studies social systems and cultures. See also archaeology.

arbitration Two sides may settle a dispute by allowing a third party (an arbitrator) to make a decision which binds both sides. International arbitration is designed to avoid war.

archaeology Branch of anthropology that studies the old past of mankind and the Earth, through fossils, buried remains and geological clues.

aristocracy The ‘natural rulers’ of a society, by inherited power or wealth,or in older philosophies, by talent. Aristocrats usually have titles. Many societies now ignore the idea.

army, conscript Army made up of ordinary citizens required to receive basic military training to fight for a particular purpose alongside the better trained regular army.

army, irregular Fighting groups that do not have the officered, centralised command structures of a regular army. Not bound by the usual rules of war, irregulars may be treated as spies.

history reference dictionary9


history reference dictionary

army, regular Army made up of soldiers who enlist (or are drafted) for a relatively long period of time, from two to 20 years. They are given careful and full training and are the main defence or attack force for their country.

artillery Large-calibre heavy guns that are operated by gun crews.

assassination The killing of an important person for political reasons. An ‘assassin’ does the killing.

autarchy The state of being able to provide all the wants and needs of a nation from within that nation, consciously cutting off contact with other nations.

authoritarian Favouring or enforcing strict obedience to authority, as opposed to individual democratic rights and freedoms. An authoritarian government favours this kind of relationship with the population it governs, for example, absolute monarchy, autocracy, dictatorship, one-party state. See also totalitarian government.

autocracy Government system in which there is one ruler with full power to act as they see fit.

autocrat The ruler in a system of autocracy.

belligerent Noun: person or group acting in a warlike or aggressive manner. adjective: aggressive behaviour.

bicultural Acknowledgment that a society has two separate cultures existing together, but not necessarily mixing to form a new, unified culture.

bourgeoisie In Marxist philosophy, the ‘middle class’ which controls enough of the resources of a society to be able to exploit the working classes to make profits for the bourgeoisie.

broker, brokering A broker acts as a go-between in negotiations. These actions are called brokering (for example, ‘a deal’).

bureaucracy An administration system which is run on hierarchical lines requiring approval of decisions through a strict chain of command. A bureaucrat is an officer in this system. (In French, bureau means office, which is where bureaucrats work.)

capital Wealth in the form of money or property owned by a person or business.

capitalism System of producing goods, trading them, taking profit and reinvesting the profit to make more profit. Capital is at the heart of the system. So was exploitation of workers. Capitalist trade was a prime motive for colonialism.

captitalist A wealthy person who uses money to invest in trade and industry for profit in accordance with the principles of capitalism.

Central Powers Countries which fought on the side of Germany during World War I: the German Empire, the Ottoman Empire (Turkey), the Austrian Empire, Bulgaria.



centrist Political beliefs that steer between right-wing and left-wing policies and beliefs.

chauvinism Belief that if your country (or side or gender) did it, then it must be legal, moral, justified, and ‘right’.

civil war A civil war occurs when armed groups within the same nation fight to control the government.

colonialism Belief that a strong country has a right, perhaps a duty, to spread its influence (political, religious, cultural) to other nations or areas. Also the process of putting these beliefs into practice. Many 20th century conflicts have occurred as the colonies threw off their colonial masters. Linked to capitalism.

colonisation The establishment of a colony.

colony A country or area controlled by a stronger nation for reasons of trade, prestige, religion, politics or population pressure. Often taken by force.

commissioner Person given authority to carry out a specific job or mission.

communism Political, social and economic system based on community ownership of key resources, designed to ensure fairness and equality for all within it. Marx and Engels were its 19th century designers. A grand idea which has never quite succeeded.

Concert of Europe A principle in 19th century Europe that the great powers, acting together (in concert), would cooperate and negotiate to avoid open conflict.

conference In politics, a meeting designed to reach agreement on matters of common concern: or a sharing of viewpoints and ideas.

congress A high-level conference of many nations designed to produce a formal binding policy (often in a treaty). The largest Congress ever, was, and remains, the United Nations organisation.

Congress, US The legislature of the United States of America, consisting of an upper house (Senate) and a lower house (House of Representatives).

conservative Tending to want to keep things as they are, although slow change is tolerable.

constitution Formal set of rules by which an organisation or country is operated. England has an ‘unwritten’ constitution made up of laws and custom. The US, by contrast, carefully wrote it all down in detail.

constitutional monarchy

A monarchy whose powers are defined and limited by a written (or unwritten) constitution.

coup (d’état) French for ‘a blow against the state.’ A short sharp attempt to overthrow those in authority and take their power.

covenant An agreement considered to be exceptionally important and binding.



cultural Those things that are part of a culture.

culture Common beliefs, customs and practices adopted by a group as part of their identity. Language, clothes, religious beliefs, social habits, food, laws may all be part of culture.

decolonisation The process of freeing a colony from the control of a colonial power. The coloniser may do this voluntarily, or the colony may stage a revolution. The culture of the colonial power may also be rejected.

decree nisi A form of court order that was used in New Zealand to grant an application for divorce (the dissolution of a marriage). After a period of time the decree would become ‘absolute’.

demilitarised zone A demilitarised zone is an area which cannot be fortified and where no military troops are allowed to be stationed.

democracy Government carried out by the people of a nation, for the benefit of the people. Characterised by a basic belief in regular elections as a means of selecting the rulers.

deploy, deployment

In military terms, to move an army or group into the proper positions to attack or resist attack.

dictator A political leader with unrestricted power to rule a state. Authority not limited by other parts of the government or by an effective parliament. Dictators are often past or present heads of the military and may seize power by a coup d’état.

dictatorship State in which the bureaucracy, legislature and army have come under the control of a dictator.

diplomacy The art of achieving a political goal without going to war. Also the process of negotiating political agreements.

diplomats People who carry out diplomacy. Also refers specifically to the officials who represent their country in the other countries.

disarmament Reduction in arms and armaments, usually as a result of an agreement between countries.

disorder In politics, when you don’t want to admit that there are uprisings, revolts, riots and blood in the streets and if you think you can still control them, you call them ‘disorders’.

district nursing A system of nursing where the nurse visits the patient, usually in their own home. In New Zealand, the first district nurse was Sibylla Maude, who began visiting patients in 1896, in Christchurch. Areas of specialisation developed including: urban district nurses, to nurse the poor who were sick in their homes; ‘backblocks’ district nurses to serve people in remote locations who couldn’t get to a hospital; and in 1911 a system of ‘Native Health Nurses’ was introduced, to help Māori in rural locations.

divine right Belief that a ruler or monarch is guided by God, acts as God’s agent on earth and must therefore be obeyed.



dominion Country in the British Empire which had a degree of self-government, but which still owed allegiance to the British Crown. Examples were New Zealand, Australia and Canada.

duty Something that must be done. In the past, duty was to be carried out even if you died trying. A powerful word in politics.

duty, customs Money collected by a government on goods traded. Originally a form of tax, it can also be used to regulate trade to protect local industry: a ‘tariff’.

dynasty A line of hereditary rulers, for example, the Habsburg dynasty of Austria or the Romanov dynasty in Russia. The right to rule is passed down through the royal family.

Eastern Front The front line of fighting to the east of Germany and Austria-Hungary during World War I. It ran from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Black Sea in the south, a distance of 1600 kilometres. (See also Western Front).

economic depression

A significant downturn in economic activity, causing high unemployment. Experienced by New Zealand during the Long Depression (1880s) and the Great Depression of the 1930s.

economics The study of the relationships between trade, resources, production and manufacturing: in fact, any form of human activity involving people’s needs and wants.

economy The relationships between, and management, of a community’s resources, including labour, production, distribution and sharing of wealth.

elite French for ‘selected’. The top class in any group. May also refer to the best people.

emigration Leaving one’s home to live elsewhere permanently.

empire A multinational state created when one strong nation absorbs other lands and peoples. It imposes the culture, language, religion and values of the imperial nation on its citizens. Few empires managed in practice to achieve complete acceptance and unity. Colonialism is a variety of imperialism.

enfranchisement Extension of the right to vote, often after a long campaign, to a new group of people, such as to New Zealand women in 1893.

entente French for ‘understanding’. An informal agreement between nations, not considered as binding as an alliance.

environment The things which surround us: land, its topography and resources, the people, the climate, water, sea ... and so on.

ethnic, ethnicity Reference to one’s origins, classified by race or ‘blood ties’. Became popular as a replacement for ‘race’ which had become an offensive word in the 1960s. Refers more to a nationality than race.



ethnocentric Viewing the world through a filter provided by the values and practices of one’s own culture: judging all other races or cultures as if your culture is right and superior to others.

execution To carry out an instruction. Also to legally kill.

executive Branch of government with the task of governing by applying the laws passed by legislature. Runs government on a day-to-day basis. A prime minister or president is the chief executive member of an executive.

exploitation Originally, to use resources, one of which is people. Using up or misusing resources turned the word into a criticism rather than a simple description of an activity.

fascism An extreme form of nationalism which used state power and some socialist ideas to unify a people under the leadership of a dictatorial ruler. For example, Fascist Italy, Nazi Germany.

feminism Belief in and support for the full social, political and economic equality of women with men.

feudalism A society in which the relationship between landowners and tenants is not based on cash rents but on a two-way exchange of vows with the tenant offering service and the landowner offering protection as well as the use of the land.

figurehead A leader in name only: lots of prestige, but no power.

force An historical force is something that influences subsequent historical events.

This may be because large numbers of people support the force as a moral principle. (‘An idea becomes an historical force when it grips the masses.’ – Karl Marx). Examples of forces for change are nationalism, socialism, liberalism, communism and feminism. Examples of forces opposing change are conservatism, authoritarianism, racism and fascism. Political movements or political parties may try to put such ideas into practice or to resist them.

An historical force can also exist because an application of state power ensures that something will happen. Examples: militarism, imperialism, war.

Economic change, having strong social and political effects, is another form of historical force (as during the Industrial Revolution in 19th century Europe). The force: industrialisation.

The destruction of state power through war or because of political or social revolution can have major effects on subsequent history. Wars and revolutions are powerful disruptive forces.

franchise A vote, or the right to vote. See suffrage.

free trade International trade without duties or tariffs, or in fact any controls at all. A policy demanding no protection for local industries.



gentry Landowners of the upper classes. The land and the social position are usually inherited by one member of each generation. In many European nations they had the duty of running the rural areas, with mixed results. Upper gentry are aristocrats.

gold standard Measuring the value of a nation’s paper money and credit by comparing its gold reserves with other nations on the gold standard. Most nations abandoned it in the 1920s in favour of floating money standards based on actual trade worth.

good offices Two parties in dispute use a go-between to mediate and broker an agreement. They use the broker’s ‘good offices’, accepting that the broker is neutral in the dispute.

government A system of administering a country, running all organisations, ministries, legal system, legislature. Also the act of governing.

governor Person who has a commission to govern, or to oversee the function of a government, in a colonial or imperial system. Terms and duties vary according to local needs.

great power Term used to refer to major world powers in the 19th and early 20th centuries (for example, Britain, France, Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia). See also superpower.

guerrilla Member of a military unit taking part in irregular fighting, using ‘hit and run’ tactics, against larger regular forces.

heresy, heretic Heresies are beliefs that are not accepted as orthodox, meaning correct according to a particular philosophy, especially religious beliefs. Heretics usually suffer for their beliefs.

hierarchy An organisational system that places its officials in a strict table of ranks, one above the other. Most power is in the hands of the few at the top, least power in the hands of the many at the bottom.

history The study of the actions of societies and people in the past as recorded in written or other permanent evidence.

Ho Chi Minh Trail A network of jungle paths winding from North Vietnam through Laos and Cambodia into South Vietnam. Used as a military route by North Vietnam to supply the Vietcong during the Vietnam War.

home front That part of a wartime population which is not in the military. They work and stay at home while their country is at war.

humanism, humanist

Study of human affairs, concentrating on people and often rejecting religious doctrines as a guide for human behaviour. Humanists emerged during the Enlightenment, challenging ideas like Divine Right.

humanitarian Having an affection for all human beings; wishing to see all people treated well and kindly.

icon, ikon A picture used as a symbol, most often for a religious idea.

ideology, ideal Belief system based on a series of perfect or ‘ideal’ concepts, which may not have much connection with reality. Sometimes used instead of philosophy.



immigration, immigrant

An immigrant moves into a country to take up permanent residence there, having emigrated from their original homeland.

imperial The adjective from empire. Note the change in spelling.

imperialism System of beliefs that support the idea that a strong nation should take over other weaker nations and absorb them into a unified empire. Also the process of carrying out these beliefs. Compare with colonialism.

independence The ability to think and act for yourself, either personally or as a nation. See sovereignty.

indigenous Born in, or native to, a country. (Latin: genus means ‘people’.)

Indochina French Indochina is the area of Southeast Asia (east of Thailand and south of China) that formed part of the French colonial empire from the nineteenth century until 1954. It included the area of modern Laos and Cambodia, and territories now united as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.

industrialisation Process of creating a society where manufacturing industries become important, producing goods for local and overseas trade.

industrialism Belief that industrialisation is a necessary goal for a nation to achieve, for political, social and perhaps moral reasons.

infantry Soldiers or military units that are armed and trained to fight on foot.

institution A permanent structure or organisation; sometimes a familiar object or person. A powerful symbol connecting the present with the past.

internment The act of detaining or imprisoning enemy citizens in wartime. (verb: to intern).

~ism Suffix that makes whatever it’s joined onto into a system or philosophy. Communism, socialism, and so on. (You might enjoy looking up ‘hedonism’ in a dictionary.)

isolationism The United States policy of not participating in ‘entangling’ alliances with countries in Europe.

jingoism Strong patriotic, aggressive and chauvinistic feelings.

judiciary Branch of government responsible for operating the legal system of a country. Usually the judiciary cannot make laws, which is to the legislature.

kaiser German word meaning emperor, the ruler of an empire. Comes from the name of the Roman leader Julius Caesar.



Karitane nurse This is a New Zealand term for a system of specialist nursing (for young babies and their mothers) introduced by Dr Frederic Truby King and the Plunket Society after 1907. Karitane nurses were trained to work in Karitane Hospitals, which operated until the 1970s, or to support needy young children when the mother was in hospital. Note: The Plunket Society also developed a system of registered ‘Plunket nurses’. They were established to visit young mothers, give advice on how to raise the baby and check on the baby’s growth and health.

King Movement The King Movement or Kīngitanga is a movement that arose among some Māori iwi in the 1850s to appoint a Māori king, which it was hoped would stop the loss of Māori land. Princess Te Puea was a granddaughter of the second Māori king, Tāwhiao.

lame duck Any part of a government system that is for some reason unable to operate effectively.

league A partnership between or among nations or persons or groups. Rates somewhere between an entente and an alliance. May be temporary.

legislature Branch of government responsible for making laws (‘legislation’).

legitimacy Judgement on how legal something is: does it conform to the laws of the land? Sometimes refers to the legal right of a ruler to govern a country.

liberal Free and easy; tolerant; open-minded; believer in independence. Politically it refers to people or groups who favour ordered change.

liberalism, Liberal System of beliefs based loosely on liberal ideas, but extending the idea of freedom specifically into business. The 19th century Liberals in England believed in less government and more hard work but not in social equality.

lobby, lobbying The practice of talking to a politician in the lobby of the legislature and persuading them to vote the way you want. A ‘lobby’ also refers to a pressure group.

logistics The art of getting resources in the right quantity to the right place at the right time: especially important in military operations. The means of doing things.

mandate A system by which the government of colonies taken from Germany and the Ottoman Empire after World War I were entrusted to victorious countries by the League of Nations. For example, Western Samoa, a German colony, became a mandate of New Zealand.

mediation Using a ‘go-between’ to carry messages and proposals between disputing parties. An effective mediator will also make suitable proposals to both parties to get an agreement.

miasmic diseases An old theory that many diseases (such as measles, diphtheria and influenza) were spread by noxious vapours in the air.



migration Movement of people (or animals) from one place to another in search of basic needs or betterment of their lives. Usually regular or permanent.

militarism When military thinking becomes central to the aims of a state and the army assumes a dominant position.

minister An administrator at the top level of a government system, having responsibility for a department of government.

monarch ‘Single ruler’: usually inherits the position but may be selected to it. Titles vary, but King or Queen are standard through Europe.

monarchy, constitutional

The constitution provides for a monarch as the head of state. Most are figureheads whose power is ceremonial. Their power is limited by the constitution.

monopolies Grants of exclusive rights to trade in a specific commodity or service. Usually good for the holders of them but not good for consumers.

morganatic A morganatic marriage is a type of marriage between a person of high rank and a spouse of lower rank where the spouse or any children have no claim to titles or other inheritance. For example, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie, assassinated on 28 June 1914, had a morganatic marriage.

movement For historians, a movement is a development where people in large numbers start to express a view about the need for a change.

The ‘movement’ becomes political when parties or pressure groups organise and accept the need for change. Examples of political movements: the emancipation movement, to abolish slavery (early 19th century), the New Zealand suffrage movement (1880s–1890s), the Zemstvo movement in early 20th century Russia, the Viet Minh in Indochina (1940s–1950s), the US civil rights movement (1950s).

multicultural Acknowledgment that a nation has many cultures existing together, but not necessarily mixing to form a new, unified culture.

multinational Many nations acting together for political or military purposes. May also refer to companies from many countries acting together for business purposes.

mutiny Members of an armed force refusing to obey orders. In extreme cases they will rebel and use force.

myth A story told and retold to make a point or illustrate some moral or values; but it’s not an accurate version of the facts. May be the story of the origins of a national group.

nation A large group of people who agree that they share any or all of: culture, ethnicity, race, environment, language, beliefs, customs. They combine to form a unique political unit because of this.

nationalism The belief that a people should be able to rule themselves and have this right recognised by others.



native Person born in a geographic area: usually claiming citizenship of the nation controlling that area.

negotiation Discussion designed to: reach an agreed or compromise settlement to a dispute; to make some exchange of goods or services; to create a contract or policy.

New Order Political and social system that attempts to make the welfare of the individual the focus of the state’s activities. Democracy is the preferred method of achieving this.

nihilist A person who rejects all religious or moral principles, preferring to believe in ‘nothing’.

nobility, nobles Titled members of the aristocracy. Originally the titles came from monarchs as payment for military service or as recognition of high status in the church.

offensive, military A large military attack designed to occupy territory or achieve a broad tactical goal.

Old Order Political and social system that attempted to make the State and the ruling classes the focus of the state’s activities. Autocracy was a preferred method of achieving this.

organ, organisation An administrative structure created to achieve a particular purpose. Examples are: ministries, bureaucracies, committees; the legislature, executive, judiciary.

orthodox, orthodoxy

ortho= straight; dox= doctrine, so ‘ideas that are straight’ or correct. Those who deny this are heretics.

pacifist A person who believes that all war is morally wrong and that there is no justification for using force or violence as a means to any end.

pandemic A disease that is prevalent over the whole of a country or over the whole world.

parliament The legislature in England. It’s Old French for ‘talking house’ or debating chamber, but over time it stopped just debating and took power. In English the word now means any elected legislature.

patriotism, patriot Belief in strong, sometimes unreasonable, loyalty to one’s country. A patriot may also be a chauvinist.

peasant A country worker engaged in small farming, making a subsistence living. Often resistant to change. It’s a bit of an insult in an industrialised age.

people Strictly meaning a group related by a common ancestry or culture. In this sense, closely related to ‘tribe’ or nation.

persecution To carry out harassment or to injure for no reasonable cause.

philosophy System of ideas arranged to form a way of behaving or thinking or both. The suffix ~ism is used to provide a label for a philosophy.



pogrom Violent persecutions carried out on a definable group, often with the permission of a controlling authority: specifically refers to deadly assaults carried out periodically against Jews in Russia and other parts of Europe over many centuries.

police Originally ‘townsmen’ employed to maintain order in cities: later, a crime detection and prosecution organ of government. ‘Secret’ police are used to discover plots against their governments. Their methods are often illegal and brutal.

policy A plan of action; a programme to be carried out.

policy, foreign Policy that deals with relationships with other nations. Also called ‘external policies’.

policy, internal Policy that deals with matters inside the borders of a country. Also called ‘domestic policy’.

political Dealing with matters by debate with the authorities; lobbying to have a point of view adopted; also implies that a matter isn’t as simple as it seemed because of a ‘hidden’ policy or ‘secret agenda’.

politics The art of making policy by negotiation or by using one’s power or influence to gain their support. Some see it as a game: ‘playing politics’.

popular That which is supported by the majority of the population.

population People living in a country.

populist Philosophy that suggests that the people should be given exactly what they want.

Premier Alternative form of Prime Minister.

Prime Minister The first or leading minister in a democratic government.The English formula is ‘first amongst equals’, meaning that the leader is supposed to act democratically inside the Cabinet. Premier is an alternative form.

progressive Holding views that tend to be democratic and liberal, possibly socialist, but still somewhat conservative. Supporting moderate reforms.

proletariat In Marxism, urban workers exploited by the bourgeoisie.

propaganda ‘Propagandising’ is spreading information or beliefs. After World War I, it was discovered that government Ministries of Propaganda and Information had been publishing lies, so the word now means spreading lies or biased information.

protectorate A protectorate is a state which is under the formal control and protection of a more powerful country.

protocol Establishing a set formula. Also another name for a treaty.

putsch German word for coup.



question, the ... An old way of talking about a trouble spot or problem: for example, the Balkan question; the question of the Jews. It implies that there was a solution or answer, usually by armed force. It was sometimes a euphemism for planning violent action.

race A group sharing common ancestry, usually distinguished by some common physical characteristics. The four major groups are Asian, Australoid, Caucasian and Negroid.

racism, racist Belief that there are mental or physical differences between races which can be measured on a scale of best to worst. A racist acts upon those beliefs, none of which have any scientific support. The result is usually prejudice or discrimination against other races and ethnic groups.

radicalism, radical Radical means getting to the ‘root’ or fundamental causes of a problem: going back to first principles. Radicals tend to think they see causes and solutions clearly and want major action quickly.

reactionary Extremely right wing: wants to go back to the good old days of the Old Order. Often reacts strongly against left wing or radical policies.

realpolitik Politics and policies based on ‘real needs’ rather than morals or ideals. Belief that policies of self-interest and power, backed up by force when necessary, are the only realistic option for a great State.

rebellion Action taken against those in control, ranging from passive refusal to obey instructions to violent uprising.

reform, reformer To change something for the better: to reshape something. A reformer carries out a reformation.

reformist Person who believes strongly in the need for reform.

religion System of beliefs centred on a supernatural being who is closely connected with the life of people. Often an important part ofa culture, providing models of behaviour and values as well as explanations of events in the world. Many offer a belief in the after-life.

republic A state governed by a president or similar leader, not by a monarch.

resource Anything that may be used to create something or achieve a purpose: clay, wood, water, thought, muscles, people.

responsible Accepting that you are held accountable for your actions. Responsible government makes and carries out its own decisions, but is accountable to the people for its actions.

revolt A short uprising that has a specific cause and usually no long-term goal; in the right conditions it may spark off a revolution, but it would be an accidental spin-off.

revolution A major change brought about in a short time. Revolutionary change is widespread and often disruptive, giving society little time to adjust to new ideas, technologies and methods.



Revolution, Agricultural

From the mid-18th century, major changes based on scientific experiment and new technology allowed farms to produce more food using much less labour. Peasants lost jobs and drifted to cities as a result. See urbanisation.

Revolution, Industrial

In late 18th century England, improvements in technology and toolmaking created new city industries based in factories, employing workers paid by the hour. This accelerated hugely in the 19th century. See capitalism; urbanisation; industrialisation.

riot A mob acting in a violent manner; usually unplanned and without an aim other than expressing anger and discontent.

rivalry Competition between two or more persons or groups to achieve a particular aim. Sometimes the aim is just to beat your rival. See chauvinism.

salient A bulge in a battle front line that extends into enemy territory.

security To be safe from attack; to be able to defend oneself; to have an expectation that things will go according to a plan.

self-determination The ability to select and create a form of government suitable to yourself without outside interference. See independence; sovereignty.

serf A person who is bound to land owned by a feudal lord.

Slav Label applied to the original tribes which lived in central Russia. Serb is a dialect form of this applied to Slavs living in the Balkan area.

slave Person without rights who is owned and exploited by another. Imported into English based on the word Slav because of the way Russian masters treated their peasants.

socialism, socialist A philosophy promoting equality of all people; state ownership of key resources such as land; and equal rights and opportunities for all. See communism; humanism.

society People gathered together into a definable group that may be connected by ties of culture or some other agreed set of values or aims.

source In history, it’s where information comes from; documents, diaries, newspapers, pictures, cartoons, photographs, speeches, textbooks, and so on. Sources need to be recorded or ‘cited’.

source, primary A source that is closely related to an event or person, created at the time of those events. It is raw material and may need to be analysed or corroborated.

source, secondary A source that has been created from primary sources that have been edited, checked or analysed in some way. Secondary sources are created some time after an event and result from careful review of primary evidence.



sovereign, sovereignty

An absolute form of independence. A sovereign is a ruler who is not controlled by other nations or groups. Sovereignty means the state has its own accepted form of government and cannot legally be interfered with by outsiders.

state The formal, legal framework of an independent nation. Nationis the people; country is the place; state is the organisation that holds them together.

status quo ‘That which exists’: a situation as it is today.

status quo ante ‘That which existed before’: a situation that existed before change occurred.

strategy An overall plan of action: a method of achieving an aim.

suffrage The right to vote. See franchise.

superpower Term used for the US and USSR from 1945 to the early 1990s, when the power of these two countries greatly exceeded the power of any other country in the world. (See also great power.)

symbol An object or idea that stands for or represents something else.A top hat symbolises Big Business; an eagle symbolises strength; a sword symbolises war; a company’s logo is its symbol.

tactics The step-by-step methods of carrying out a strategy.

tariff A tax imposed on goods or services (usually those crossing a border) collected by a government. Can be used to regulate trade patterns. See customs, duty.

technology The application or use of scientific knowledge for practical purposes.

territory A definable piece of land.

tino rangatiratanga Means absolute sovereignty or independence and is used by Māori to claim a right to exercise ‘chieftainship’ over lands and cultural treasures.

totalitarian Totalitarian government is a 20th century invention and became possible in countries where the full machinery of a modern industrialised state (government departments, trade unions, social organisations and forms of communication such as radio, TV and newspapers) are harnessed towards a single ideological end. Democratic dissent is not tolerated and rule is arbitrary (usually by a dictator) for example, Nazi Germany, Stalinist Russia.

total war A war involving all of the country, its people and its resources.

trade Any exchange of goods and services carried out because of need or in order to make profit.

traitor Person who acts against the interests of their native or adopted country. See treason.


treason An act against one’s native or adopted country. Regarded as such a serious crime that even nations that have abolished the death penalty reserve the right to execute traitors.

treaty Formal and binding agreement or contract usually made between nations rather than individuals.

trend The overall direction in which changes are moving.

tsar Ruler and autocrat of Russian Empire. Comes from the name of the Roman leader Julius Caesar. Sometimes spelt Czar in honour of this.

U-boat A German submarine. (From German meaning undersea-boat).

ultimatum A final demand for an instruction to be carried out, to avoid further action. Failure to accept an ultimatum often leads to war.

urbanisation Process of shifting rural populations into cities, mostly because of changing labour requirements. Peasants became proletariat.

weltpolitik Literally ‘world policy’; Germany’s foreign policy between 1897 and 1914 which attempted to gain influence in the world and possessions abroad.

Western Front The front line of fighting to the west of Germany during World War I. It consisted of a series of trenches running 700 kilometres from the Belgian coast across northern France to the Swiss border. (See also Eastern Front.)

western ideas Attitudes that come from Europe and North America. Belief in logic, science and reason that may find expression in socialist or capitalist terms.

western powers In WWI and WWII, the alliance of Great Britain, France and later the USA. Generally, the major nations of Europe in the western areas.

wing, left Political grouping that follows some form of socialist philosophy. Derived from the habit of French socialists sitting to the left of the Speaker’s chair.

wing, right Political grouping that follows some form of conservative philosophy. Derived from the habit of French royalist and conservative politicians sitting to the right of the Speaker’s chair.

World, New The new countries in the Americas, ‘discovered’ by European explorers and developed by colonists from the 16th century onwards.

World, Old Europe, Asia and Africa.

World, Third Impoverished states especially in Africa, and parts of Asia and South America.

xenophobia Unreasoning hatred of any nation or culture that is not your own.


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